ANSVASCE 7-95

Approved June 6,1996

American Society of Civil Engineers

Minimum Design Loads for

Buildings and Other Structures

Revision of ANSVASCE 7-93

Published by American Society of Civil Engineers

1801 Alexander Bell Drive
Reston, Virginia 20191-4400
ABSTRACT
ASCE standard, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures (ASCE
7-95 a revision of ANSVASCE 7-93), gives requirements for dead, live, soil, flood,
wind, snow, rain, ice, and earthquake loads, and their combinations, that are
suitable for inclusion in building codes and other documents. The major revision of
this standard involves the section on wind loads. This section has been greatly
expanded to include the latest information in the field of wind load engineering.
Requirements have been added for flood loads and ice loads. An appendix on
serviceability requirements has also been added. The structural load requirements
provided by this standard are intended for use by architects, structural engineers,
and those engaged in preparing and administering local building codes.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Minimum design loads for buildings and other structures/Arnerican Society of
Civil Engineers
p. cm.
“ASCE 7-95
“Revision of ANSVASCE 7-93.”
“Approved September 1995.”
“Published December 1995.”
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN O-7844-0092-X
1. Structural engineering-United States. 2. Standards, Engineering-United
States. I. American Society of Civil Engineers.
TH851.M56 1996 94-3854
624.1’724~20 CIP
Photocopies. Authorizationto photocopy material for internal or personal use under
circumstances not falling within the fair use provisions of the Copyright Act is grant-
ed by ASCE to libraries and other users registered with the Copyright Clearance
Center (CCC) Transactional Reporting Service, provided that the base fee of $4.00
per article plus $ 5 0 per page copied is paid directly to CCC, 222 Rosewood Drive,
Danvers, MA O1 923. The identification for ASCE Books is O-7844-0143-8/96 $4.00
+ $.50. Requests for special permission or bulk copying should be addressed to
Permissions & Copyright Dept., ASCE.
Copyright @ 1996 by the American Society of Civil Engineers,
All Rights Reserved.
Library of Congress Catalog Card No: 94-3854
ISBN O-7844-0092-X
Manufactured in the United States of America.
 In April 1980, the Board of Direction approved
ASCE Rules for Standards Committees to govern
the writing and maintenance of standards devel-
oped by the Society. All such standards are devel-
oped by a consensus standards process managed
by the Management Group F (MGF), Codes and
Standards. The consensus process includes ballot-
ing by the balanced standards committee made up
of Society members and non-members, balloting
by the membership of ASCE as a whole and ballot-
ing by the public. All standards are updated or reaf-
firmed by the same process at intervals not exceed-
ing five years.
The following standards have been issued:
ANSUASCE 1-82 N-725 Guidelines for Design
and Analysis of Nuclear Safety Related Earth
Structures
ANSUASCE 2-91 Measurement of Oxygen Trans-
fer in Clean Water
ANSUASCE 3-9 1 Standard for the Structural De-
sign of Composite Slabs and ANSUASCE 9-
91 Standard Practice for the Construction and
Inspection of Composite Slabs
ASCE 4-86 Seismic Analysis of Safety-Related
Nuclear Structures
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Struc-
tures (ACI530-95/ASCE5-95/TMS402-95)
and Specifications for Masonry Structures
(ACI530.1-95/ASCE6-95/TMS602-95)
Specifications for Masonry Structures (ACI530-
95/ASCE6-95/TMS602-95)
ANSUASCE 7-93 Minimum Design Loads for
Building and Other Structures
ANSVASCE 8-90 Standard Specification for the
Design of Cold-Formed Stainless Steel Struc-
tural Members
ANSUASCE 9-91 listed with ASCE 3-91
ANSUASCE 10-90 Design of Latticed Steel Trans-
mission Structures
ANSUASCE 11-90 Guideline for Structural Condi-
tion Assessment of Existing Buildings
ANSVASCE 12-91 Guideline for the Design of Ur-
ban Subsurface Drainage
ASCE 13-93 Standard Guidelines for Installation
of Urban Subsurface Drainage
ASCE 14-93 Standard Guidelines for Operation and
Maintenance of Urban Subsurface Drainage
ASCE 15-93 Standard Practice for Direct Design
of Buried Precast Concrete Pipe Using Stand-
ard Installations (SIDD)
ASCE 16-95 Standard for Load and Resistance
Factor Design (LRFD) of Engineered Wood
Construction
...
111
ABSTRACT

ASCE standard, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures (ASCE
7-95 a revision of ANSVASCE 7-93), gives requirements for dead, live, soil, flood,
wind, snow, rain, ice, and earthquake loads, and their combinations, that are
suitable for inclusion in building codes and other documents. The major revision of
this standard involves the section on wind loads. This section has been greatly
expanded to include the latest information in the field of wind load engineering.
Requirements have been added for flood loads and ice loads. An appendix on
serviceability requirements has also been added. The structural load requirements
provided by this standard are intended for use by architects, structurai engineers,
and those engaged in preparing and administering local building codes.,
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Minimum design loads for buildings and other structures/American Society of

Civil Engineers
p. cm.
“ASCE 7 - 9 5
“Revision of ANSVASCE 7-93.”
“Approved September 1995.”
“Published December 1995.”
includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN O-7844-0092-X
1. Structural engineering-United States. 2. Standards, Engineering-United
States. I. American Society of Civil Engineers.
TH851.M56 1996 94-3854
624.1 ’ 7 2 4 ~ 2 0 CIP
Photocopies. Authorization to photocopy material for internal or personal use under
circumstances not falling within the fair use provisions of the Copyright Act is grant-
ed by ASCE to libraries and other users registered with the Copyright Clearance
Center (CCC) Transactional Reporting Service, provided that the base fee of $4.00
per article plus $50 per page copied is paid directly to CCC, 222 Rosewood Drive,
Danvers, MA O1 923. The identification for ASCE Books is 0-7844-0143-8/96 $4.00
+ $.50. Requests for special permission or bulk copying should be addressed to
Permissions & Copyright Dept., ASCE.

Copyright @ 1996 by the American Society of Civil Engineers,

All Rights Reserved.
Library of Congress Catalog Card No: 94-3854
ISBN O-7844-0092-X
Manufactured in the United States of America.
 The material presented in this publication has
been prepared in accordance with recognized engi-
neering principles. This Standard and Commentary
should not be used without first securing compe-
tent advice with respect to their suitability for any
given application. The publication of the material
contained herein is not intended as a representation
or warranty on the part of the American Society of
Civil Engineers, or of any other person named
herein, that this information is suitable for any gen-
eral or particular use or promises freedom from in-
fringement of any patent or patents. Anyone mak-
ing use of this information assumes all liability
from such use.
V
 The American Society of Civil Engineers
(ASCE) acknowledges the work of the Mini-
mum Design Loads on Buildings and Other
Structures Standards Committee of the Manage-
ment Group F, Codes and Standards. This group
comprises individuals from many backgrounds in-
cluding: consulting engineering, research, con-
struction industry, education, government, design
and private practice. This revision of the stand-
ard began in 1989 and incorporates information
as described in the commentary.
This Standard was prepared through the consen-
sus standards process by balloting in compliance
with procedures of ASCE’s Management Group F,
Codes and Standards. Those individuals who serve
on the Standards Committee are:

Kharaiti L. Abrol Arthur S. Koenig Donald R. Strand

Kenneth R. Andreason Uno Kula John G. Tawresey
Demirtas C. Bayar Edward M. Laatsch John C. Theiss
John E. Breen James G. MacGregor Harry B. Thomas
David G. Brinker Ian Mackinlay Wayne Tobiasson
Ray A. Bucklin Harry W. Martin Brian E. Trimble
Howard S. Burton Rush Masih Joseph I?Tyrrell
James R. Cagley George M. Matsumura Thomas R. Tyson
Robert Caldwell Murvan M. Maxwell Joseph W. Vellozzi
Jack E. Cermak William McGuire Richard A. Vognild
Charles W. Chambliss Douglas K. McLeod Frank J. Walter, Jr.
Kevin C.K. Cheung Richard McConnell Marius B. Wechsler
Edward Cohen Kishor C. Mehta Lyle L. Wilson
James S. Cohen Rick Mendlen Joseph A. Wintz, III
Ross B. Corotis Joseph J. Messersmith, Jr. Edwin G. Zacher
Jay H. Crandell Arthur Monsey
Walter P. Moore, Jr., Chair Task Committee on General
Stanley W, Crawley
Arthur J. Mullkoff Provisions
Amitabha Datta
Joe N. Nunnery John E. Breen
Charles A. De Angelis
Michael O’Rourke Donald Dusenberry
Susan Dowty
Clifford Oliver John L. Gross, Chair
Donald Dusenberry
Alan B. Peabody William McGuire
Bruce R. Ellingwood
Dale C. Perry Irwin J. Speyer
Edward R. Estes, Jr.
Clarkson W. Pinkham John G. Tawresey
John W. Foss
Raymond R. Fox Robert D. Prince Task Committee on Load
Theodore Galambos Robert Ratay Coinbinations
Robert A. Garbini Mayasandra K. Ravindra Ross B. Corotis
Satyendra K. Ghosh Lawrence D. Reaveley Bruce R. Ellingwood
Lonrenzo Gonzalez Ramon Riba Theodore Galambos, Chair
David S. Gromala Abraham J. Rokach D. J. L. Kennedy
John L. Gross William D. Rome James G. MacGregor
Charles H. Gutberlet, Jr. Herbert S. Saffir Clarkson W. Pinkham
Robert D. Hanson Andrew Scanlon Andrew Scanlon
Gilliam S. Harris Ashvin A. Shah
James R. Harris William L. Shoemaker Task Committee on Live
Arthur L. Held John H. Showalter, Jr. Loads
Mark B. Hogan Emil Simiu James R. Cagley, Chair
Scott Humphreys Thomas L. Smith Ross B. Corotis
Nicholas Isyumov David C. Soderquist Charles A. DeAngelis
A. Harry Karabinis Irwin J. Speyer Raymond R. Fox
D. J. L. Kennedy Theodore Stathopoulos Gilliam S. Harris
Randy Kissell Frank W. Stockwell Joseph Hartman

vii
MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS

Murvan M. Maxwell Nicholas Isyumov Swany Krishnaswamy

Harry B. Thomas J. Randolph Kissell Donald G. Marshall
Marius B. Wechsler Ian Mackinlay Alan B. Peabody
Joseph A. Wintz Joe N. Nunnery Joe Pohlman
Michael O’Rourke Chuch Ryerson
Task Committee on Wind
Dale C. Perry Ron Thorkildsen
Loads
Wayne Tobiasson, Chair H. B. White
Jack E. Cermak
William D. Wall
Gilliam S. Harris Editorial Task Committee
Ahsan Kareem Task Committee on Howard S. Burton
Richard D. Marshall Earthquake Loads R. Micheal Caldwell
Kishor C. Mehta, Chair Robert D. Hanson Susan Dowty
Dale C. Perry James R. Harris, Chair Scott Humphreys
Herbert S. Saffir Lawrence D. Reaveley Thomas R. Tyson
Thomas L. Smith John C. Theiss Richard A. Vognild, Chair
Theodore Stathopoulos Edwin G. Zacher
Richard A. Vognild Assistance from ASCE
Task Committee on Committee on Metrication
Task Committee on Snow Ice Loads provided by:
and Rain Loads John Ericsen Maria Grazia Bruschi
Charles A. DeAngelis Karen Finstad Christopher M. Stone
Arthur L. Held Ned Guttman
Scott Humphreys Kathy Jones, Chair

...
Vlll
 PAGE

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Basic Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3.1 Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3.2 Serviceability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3.3 Self-straining Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3.4 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 General Structural Integrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.5 Classification of Buildings and Other Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.6 Additions and Alterations to Existing Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.7 LoadTests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 Combinations of Factored Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Symbols and Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 Combining Factored Loads Using Strength Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3.1 Applicability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3.2 Basic Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3.3 Other Load Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.4 Combining Loads Using Allowable Stress Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4.1 Basic combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4.2 Other Load Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4.3 Load Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4.4 Overturning and Sliding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4.5 Counteracting Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.5 Load Combinations for Extraordinary Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3 DeadLoads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2 Weights of Materials and Constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.3 Weights of Fixed Service Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

4 LiveLoads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.2 Uniformly Distributed Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.2.1 Required Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.2.2 Provision for Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.3 Concentrated Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.4 Loads on Handrails, Guardrail Systems, Grab Bar Systems, and
Vehicle Barrier Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.4.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.4.2 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.5 Loads Not Specified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.6 PartialLoading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.7 ImpactLoads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.7.1 Elevators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.7.2 Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.8 Reduction in Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '7

ix
 4.8.1 Permissible Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.8.2 Limitations on Live-Load Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.9 Minimum Roof Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.9.1 Flat, Pitched, and Curved Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.9.2 Special-Purpose Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.10 CraneLoads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.10.1 Maximum Wheel Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.10.2 Vertical Impact Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.10.3 Lateral Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.10.4 Longitudinal Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5 Soil and Hydrostatic Pressure and Flood Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.1 Pressure on Basement Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.2 Uplift on Floors and Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.3 FloodLoads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.3.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.3.2 Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.3.2.1 DesignLoads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.3.2.2 Breakaway Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.3.3 Loads During Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.3.3.1 LoadBasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.3.3.2 Hydrostatic Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.3.3.3 Hydrodynamic Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.3.3.4 ImpactLoads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.3.4 Special Flood Hazard Area-A Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.3.4.1 Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.3.4.2 Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.3.4.3 Nonresidential Flood-resistant Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.3.4.4 Enclosures below Base Flood Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.3.4.5 scour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.3.5 Coastal High Hazard Areas-V Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.3.5.1 Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.3.5.2 Space below Base Flood Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.3.5.3 Erosion and Scour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6 WindLoads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.3 Symbols and Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.4 Calculation of Wind Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.4.1.1 Allowed Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.4.1.2 Minimum Design Wind Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.4.2 Analytical Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.4.2.1 Limitations of Analytical Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.4.2.2 Air-Permeable Cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.4.2.3 Application of Pressures and Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.4.3 . Wind-Tunnel Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.4.3.1 Test Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.4.3.2 Dynamic Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6.5 Velocity Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6.5.1 Procedure for Calculating Velocity Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6.5.2 Selection of Basic Wind Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

X
 6.5.2.1 Special Wind Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6.5.2.2 Estimation of basic wind speeds fi-om regional climatic data . . . . . 17
6.5.2.3 Limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6.5.3 Exposure Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6.5.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6.5.3.2 Exposure category for design of main-force resisting systems . . . . 33
6.5.3.2.1 Buildings and Other Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.5.3.2.2 Low-Rise Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.5.3.3 Exposure category for design of components and cladding . . . . . . 33
6.5.3.3.1 Building with height h less than or
equal to 60 ft (18 m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.5.3.3.2 Buildings with height h greater than
60 ft (1 8 m) and other structures . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.5.4 Shielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.5.5 Wind Speed-up over Hills and Escarpments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.6 Gust Effect Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.6.1 Values of Gust Effect Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.6.2 Flexible Buildings and Other Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.6.3 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.7 Pressure and Force Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.7.2 Roof Overhangs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.7.2.1 Main wind-force resisting system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.7.2.2 Components and Cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.8 Full and Partial Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

7 SnowLoads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7.1 Symbols and Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7.2 Ground Snow Loads,p, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.3 Flat-Roof Snow Loads, p f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.3.1 Exposure Factor, Ce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.3.2 Thermal Factor, ct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.3.3 Importance Factor, I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.3.4 Minimum Allowable Values ofpf for Low-Slope Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.4 Sloped-Roof Snow Loads, p , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.4.1 Warm-Roof Slope Factor, C, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.4.2 Cold-Roof Slope Factor, C, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
7.4.3 Roof Slope Factor for Curved Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
7.4.4 Roof Slope Factor for Multiple Folded Plate, Sawtooth,
and Barrel Vault Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
7.4.5 Ice Dams and Icicles Along Eaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
7.5 PartialLoading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.5.1 Continuous Beam Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.5.2 Other Structural Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.6 Unbalanced Roof Snow Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.6.1 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Hip and Gable Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.6.2 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Curved Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.6.3 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Multiple Folded Plate,
Sawtooth, and Barrel Vault Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.6.4 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Dome Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.7 Drifts on Lower Roofs (Aerodynamic Shade) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.7.1 Regions with Light Snow Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.7.2 Lower Roof of a Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.7.3 Adjacent Structures and Terrain Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

xi
 7.8 Roof Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
7.9 SlidingSnow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
7.1O Rain-on-Snow Surcharge Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
7.1 1 Ponding Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.12 Existing Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
8. RainLoads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
8.1 Symbols and Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
8.2 RoofDrainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
8.3 Design Rain Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
8.4 Ponding Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
8.5 Controlled Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
9. EarthquakeLoads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
9.1 General Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
9.1.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
9.1.2 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
9.1.3 Application of Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
9.1.3.1 New Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
9.1.3.2 Additions to Existing Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
9.1.3.3 Changeofuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
9.1.4 Seismic Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
9.1.41 Seismic Ground Acceleration Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
9.1.4.2 Seismic Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
9.1.4.2.1 Steps for ClassiSrkg a Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
9.1.4.2.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
9.1.4.2.3 Site Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
9.1.4.3 High Hazard Exposure Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
9.1.4.3.1 Category IV Building Protected Access . . . . . . . . 54
9.1.4.3.2 Category IV Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
9.1.4.4 Seismic Performance Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
9.1.4.5 Site Limitation for Seismic Performance Category E . . . . . . . . 55
9.1.5 Alternate Materials and Methods of Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
9.1.6 Quality Assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
9.1.7 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
9.1.8 Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
9.2 Structural Design Criteria, Analysis and Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
9.2.1 This Section has been Intentionally Left Blank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
9.2.2 Structural Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
9.2.2.1 DesignBasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
9.2.2.2 Structural Framing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
9.2.2.2.1 Dual System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
9.2.2.2.2 Combinations of Framing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 62
9.2.2.2.2.1 Combination Framing Factor . . . . . . 62
9.2.2.2.2.2 Combination Framing
Detailing Requirements . . . . . . . . . 62
9.2.2.2.3 Seismic Performance Categories A, B, and C . . . . . 62
9.2.2.2.4 Seismic Performance Category D . . . . . . . . . . . 62
9.2.2.2.4.1 Increased Building Height Limit . . . . 62
9.2.2.2.4.2 Interaction Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
9.2.2.2.4.3 Deformational Compatibility . . . . . . 63
9.2.2.2.4.4 Special Moment Frames . . . . . . . . 64
9.2.2.2.4.5 Seismic Performance Category E . . . 64
9.2.2.3 Building Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

xii
 9.2.2.3.1 Plan Irregularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
9.2.2.3.2 Vertical Irregularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
9.2.2.4 Analysis Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
9.2.2.4.1 Seismic Performance Category A . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
9.2.2.4.2 Seismic Performance Categories B and C . . . . . . . 65
9.2.2.4.3 Seismic Performance Categories D and E . . . . . . . 65
9.2.2.5 Design, Detailing Requirements, and Structural
Component Load Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
9.2.2.5.1 Seismic Performance Category A . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
9.2.2.5.1.1 Load Path Connections . . . . . . . . . 65
9.2.2.5.1.2 Anchorage of Concrete or
Masonry Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
9.2.2.5.1.3 Anchorage of Nonstructural Systems . 66
9.2.2.5.2 Seismic Performance Category B . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
9.2.2.5.2.1 Component Load Effects . . . . . . . . 66
9.2.2.5.2.2 Openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
9.2.2.5.2.3 Direction of Seismic Load . . . . . . . 66
9.2.2.5.2.4 Discontinuities in Vertical System . . . 66
9.2.2.5.2.5 Nonredundant Systems . . . . . . . . . 66
9.2.2.5.2.6 Collector Elements . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.2.2.5.2.7 Diaphragms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.2.2.5.2.8 Bearing Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.2.2.5.2.9 Inverted Pendulum-Type Structures . . 67
9.2.2.5.3 Seismic Performance Category C . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.2.2.5.3.1 Direction of Seismic Load . . . . . . . 67
9.2.2.5.4 Seismic Performance Categories D and E . . . . . . . 67
9.2.2.5.4.1 Direction of Seismic Load . . . . . . . 67
9.2.2.5.4.2 Plan or Vertical Irregularities . . . . . . 67
9.2.2.5.4.3 Vertical Seismic Forces . . . . . . . . . 67
9.2.2.6 Combination of Load Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.2.2.7 Deflection and Drift Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
9.2.3 Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
9.2.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
9.2.3.2 Seismic Base Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
9.2.3.2.1 Calculation of Seismic Response Coefficient . . . . . 69
9.2.3.3 Period Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
9.2.3.4 Vertical Distribution of Seismic Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
9.2.3.5 Horizontal Shear Distribution and Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
9.2.3.5.1 Direct Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
9.2.3.5.2 Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
9.2.3.6 Overturning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
9.2.3.7 Drift Determination and P-Delta Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.2.3.7.1 Story Drift Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.2.3.7.2 P-Delta Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.2.4 Modal Analysis Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.2.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.2.4.2 Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.2.4.3 Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.2.4.4 Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.2.4.5 Modal Base Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.2.4.6 Modal Forces, Deflections, and Drifts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9.2.4.7 Modal Story Shears and Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9.2.4.8 Design Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
...
Xlll
 9.2.4.9 Horizontal Shear Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
9.2.4.1O Foundation Overturning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
9.2.4.11 P-Delta Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
9.2.5 Soil Structure Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
9.2.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
9.2.5.2 Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
9.2.5.2.1 Baseshear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
9.2.5.2.1.1 Effective Building Period . . . . . . . . 74
9.2.5.2.1.2 Effective Damping . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9.2.5.2.2 Vertical Distribution of Seismic Forces . . . . . . . . 76
9.2.5.2.3 Other Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
9.2.5.3 Modal Analysis Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
9.2.5.3.1 Modal Base Shears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
9.2.5.3.2 Other Modal Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9.2.5.3.3 Designvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9.2.6 Provisions for Seismically Isolated Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9.2.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9.2.6.2 Criteria Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9.2.6.2.1 Basis for Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9.2.6.2.2 Stability of the Isolation System . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9.2.6.2.3 Structural Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9.2.6.2.4 Configuration Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9.2.6.2.5 Selection of Lateral Response Procedure . . . . . . . . 77
9.2.6.2.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9.2.6.2.5.2 Equivalent-Lateral-Force Procedure . . 77
9.2.6.2.5.3 Dynamic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
9.2.6.2.5.3.1 Response-Spectrum
Analysis . . . . . . . . . 78
9.2.6.2.5.3.2 Time-History Analysis . . 78
9.2.6.2.5.3.3 Site-Specific
Design Spectra . . . . . . 78
9.2.6.3 Equivalent-Lateral-Force Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
9.2.6.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
9.2.6.3.2 Deformation Characteristics of the Isolation System . 78
9.2.6.3.3 Minimum Lateral Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
9.2.6.3.3.1 Design Displacement . . . . . . . . . . 78
9.2.6.3.3.2 Isolated-Building Period . . . . . . . . 79
9.2.6.3.3.3 Total Design Displacement . . . . . . . 79
9.2.5.3.3.4 Total Maximum Displacement . . . . . 80
9.2.6.3.4 Minimum Lateral Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
9.2.6.3.4.1 Isolation System and Structural
Elements at or below Isolation
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
9.2.6.3.4.2 Structural Elements above Isolation
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
9.2.6.3.4.3 Limits on Ys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
9.2.6.3.5 Vertical Distribution of Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
9.2.6.3.6 Drift Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
9.2.6.4 Dynamic Lateral Response Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
9.2.6.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
9.2.6.4.2 Isolation System and Structural Elements below
the Isolation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
9.2.6.4.3 Structural Elements above the Isolation System . . . . 82

xiv
 9.2.6.4.4 Ground Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
9.2.6.4.4.1 Design Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
9.2.6.4.4.2 Time Histories . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
9.2.6.4.5 Mathematical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.2.6.4.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.2.6.4.5.2 Isolation System . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.2.6.4.5.3 Isolated Building . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.2.6.4.5.3.1 Displacement . . . . . . 83
9.2.6.4.5.3.2 Forces and displacement
in key elements . . . . . 83
9.2.6.4.6 Description of Analysis Procedures . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.2.6.4.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.2.6.4.6.2 Input Earthquake . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.2.6.4.6.3 Response-Spectrum Analysis . . . . . . 83
9.2.6.4.6.4 Time-History Analysis . . -. . . . . . . 84
9.2.6.4.7 Design Lateral Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.2.6.4.7.1 Isolation System and Structural
Elements at or below Isolation
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.2.6.4.7.2 Structural Elements above
Isolation System . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.2.6.4.7.3 Scaling of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.2.6.4.7.4 DriftLimits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.2.6.5 Lateral Load on Elements of Buildings and Nonstructural
Components Supported by Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.2.6.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.2.6.5.2 Forces and Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.2.6.5.2.1 Components at or above the
Isolation Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.2.6.5.2.2 Components Crossing the Isolation
Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.2.6.5.2.3 Components below the Isolation
Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.2.6.6 Detailed System Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.2.6.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.2.6.6.2 Isolation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.2.6.6.2.1 Environmental Conditions . . . . . . . 85
9.2.6.6.2.2 Wind Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.2.6.6.2.3 Fire Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.2.6.6.2.4 Lateral-Restoring Force . . . . . . . . . 85
9.2.6.6.2.5 Displacement Restraint . . . . . . . . . 85
9.2.6.6.2.6 Vertical-Load Stability . . . . . . . . . 85
9.2.6.6.2.7 Overturning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.2.6.6.2.8 Inspection and Replacement . . . . . . 85
9.2.6.6.2.9 Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.2.6.6.3 Structural System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.2.6.6.3.1 Horizontal Distribution of Force . . . . 85
9.2.6.6.3.2 Building Separations . . . . . . . . . . 86
9.2.6.6.3.3 Nonbuilding Structures . . . . . . . . . 86
9.2.6.7 Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
9.2.6.8 Design and Construction Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
9.2.6.8.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
9.2.6.8.2 Isolation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

xv
 9.2.6.9 Required Tests of the Isolation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
9.2.6.9.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
9.2.6.9.2 Prototype Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
9.2.6.9.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
9.2.6.9.2.2 Record. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
9.2.6.9.2.3 Sequence and Cycles . . . . . . . . . . 86
9.2.6.9.2.4 Units Dependent on Loading Rates . . 86
9.2.6.9.2.5 Units Dependent on Bilateral Load . . . 87
9.2.6.9.2.6 Downward-Vertical Load . . . . . . . . 87
9.2.6.9.2.7 Sacrificial-Wind-Restraint Systems . . 87
9.2.6.9.2.8 Testing Similar Units . . . . . . . . . . 87
9.2.6.9.3 Determination of Force-Deflection Characteristics . . 87
9.2.6.9.4 System Adequacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
9.2.6.9.5 Design Properties of the Isolation System . . . . . . . 88
9.2.6.9.5.1 Effective Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9.2.6.9.5.2 Effective Damping . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9.2.7 Nonbuilding Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9.2.7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9.3 Architectural, Mechanical, and Electrical Components and Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 89
9.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
9.3.1.1 References and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
9.3.1.2 Component Force Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
9.3.1.3 Seismic Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
9.3.1.4 Seismic Relative Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
9.3.1.5 Component Importance Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
9.3.2 Architectural Component Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
9.3.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
9.3.2.2 Architectural Component Forces and Displacements . . . . . . . . . 92
9.3.2.3 Architectural Component Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
9.3.2.4 Exterior Wall Panel Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
9.3.2.5 Out-of-Plane Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
9.3.2.6 Suspended Ceilings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
9.3.2.6.1 Seismic Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
9.3.2.6.2 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
9.3.2.6.3 Industry Standard Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
9.3.2.6.4 Unbraced Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
9.3.2.6.5 Braced Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
9.3.2.6.6 Integral Ceiling/Sprinkler Construction . . . . . . . . 95
9.3.2.6.7 Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
9.3.2.7 Access Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
9.3.2.7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
9.3.2.7.2 Special Access Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
9.3.2.8 Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
9.3.2.9 Steel Storage Rack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
9.3.2.9.1 At Grade Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
9.3.2.9.2 Above-Grade Elevations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
9.3.3 Mechanical and Electrical Component Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
9.3.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
9.3.3.2 Mechanical and Electrical Component Forces and
Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
9.3.3.3 Mechanical and Electrical Component Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
9.3.3.4 Mechanical and Electrical Component Attachments . . . . . . . . . 97
9.3.3.5 Component Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

xvi
 9.3.3.6 Component Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
9.3.3.7 Utility and Service Lines at Buildings Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . 98
9.3.3.8 Site-Specific Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
9.3.3.9 StorageTanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
9.3.3.9.1 Above-Ground Storage Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
9.3.3.9.2 At-Grade Storage Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
9.3.3.10 W A C Ductwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
9.3.3.11 Piping Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
9.3.3.1 1.1 Pressure Piping Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
9.3.3.11.2 Fire Protection Sprinkler Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 99
9.3.3.11.3 Other Piping Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
9.3.3.11.4 Supports and Attachments for Other Piping . . . . . . 99
9.3.3.12 Boilers and Pressure Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
9.3.3.12.1 ASME Boilers and Pressure Vessels . . . . . . . . . . 100
9.3.3.12.2 Other Boilers and Pressure Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . 100
9.3.3.12.3 Supports and Attachments for Other Boilers and
Pressure Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
9.3.3.13 Mechanical Equipment Attachments and Supports . . . . . . . . . . 100
9.3.3.13.1 Mechanical Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
9.3.3.13.2 Attachments and Supports for Mechanical
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
9.3.3.14 Electrical Equipment, Attachments and Supports . . . . . . . . . . . 101
9.3.3.14.1 Electrical Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
9.3.3.14.2 Attachments and Supports for Electrical
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
9.3.3.15 Alternate Seismic Qualification Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
9.3.3.16 Elevator Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
9.3.3.16.1 Reference Document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
9.3.3.16.2 Elevators and Hoistway Structural System . . . . . . . 102
9.3.3.16.3 Elevator Machinery and Controller Supports
and Attachments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
9.3.3.16.4 Seismic Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
9.3.3.16.5 Retainer Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
9.4 Foundation Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
9.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
9.4.2 Seismic Performance Category A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
9.4.3 Seismic Performance Category B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
9.4.3.1 Structural Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
9.4.3.2 Soil Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
9.4.4 Seismic Performance Category C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
9.4.4.1 Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
9.4.4.2 Pole-Type Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
9.4.4.3 Foundation Ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
9.4.4.4 Special Pile Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
9.4.5 Foundation Requirements for Seismic Performance Categories D and E . . . . 103
9.4.5.1 Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
9.4.5.2 Foundation Ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
9.4.5.3 Special Pile Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
9.5 Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
9.5.1 Reference Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
9.6 Structural Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
9.6.1 Reference Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
9.7 Reserved for Composite Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

xvii
 9.8 Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
9.8.1 Reference Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
9.9 Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
9.9.1. Reference Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
1O . Ice Loads-Atmospheric Icing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
10.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
10.2 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
10.3 Design for Ice Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
10.3.1 Weight of Ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
10.3.2 Wind on Ice-Covered Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
10.3.3 Partial Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Appendix A . Section 9-Supplemental Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Appendix B . Serviceability Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Commentary to American Society of Civil Engineers Standard ASCE 7-95 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
1. General ............................................... 128
2. Combinations of Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3. DeadLoads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4. LiveLoads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5. Soil and Hydrostatic Pressure and Flood Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6. Wind Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7. SnowLoads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
8. RainLoads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
9. Earthquake Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
1O . Ice Loads-Atmospheric Icing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

List of Tables
TABLE 1-1 Classification of Buildings and Other Structures for Wind, Snow.
and Earthquake Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
TABLE 4-1 Minimum Uniformly Distributed Live Loads. Lo and Minimum Concentrated
LiveLoads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
TABLE 5-1 Design Lateral Soil Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
TABLE 6-1 Design Wind Pressure. p (psf) (N/m2). and Forces. F (lb) (N) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
TABLE 6-2 Importance Factor. I (Wind Loads) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
TABLE 6-3 Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficients. Kj and Kz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
TABLE 6-4 Internal Pressure Coefficients for Buildings. GCpi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
TABLE 6-5 External Pressure Coefficients for Arched Roofs. Cp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
TABLE 6-6 Force Coefficients for Monoslope Roofs over Open Buildings. Cf . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
TABLE 6-7 Force Coefficients for Chimneys. Tanks. and Similar Structures. C! . . . . . . . . . . . 32
TABLE 6-8 Force Coefficients for Solid Signs. Cf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
TABLE 6-9 Force Coefficients for Open Signs and Lattice Frameworks. Cf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
TABLE 6-10 Force Coefficients for Trussed Towers. Cf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
TABLE 7-1 Ground Snow Loads. pg. for Alaskan Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
TABLE 7-2 Exposure Factor. Ce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
TABLE 7-3 Thermal Factor. Ct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
TABLE 7-4 Importance Factor. I (Snow Loads) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

xviii
 BUILDINGS AND OTHER STRUCTURES

TABLE 9.1.4.2 Soil Profile Type Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

TABLE 9.1.4.2.3A Values of Fa as a Function of Site Conditions and
Shaking Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
TABLE 9.1.4.2.3B Values of F, as Function of Site Conditions and
Shaking Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
TABLE 9.1.4.2.4A Seismic Coefficient Ca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
TABLE 9.1.4.2.4B Seismic Coefficient C, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
TABLE 9.1.4.4 Seismic Performance Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
TABLE 9.2.2.2 Structural Systems* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
TABLE 9.2.2.3.1 Plan Structural Irregularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
TABLE 9.2.2.3.2 Vertical Structural Irregularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
TABLE 9.2.2.4.3 Analysis Procedures for Seismic Performance Categories D and E . . . . . . . . . 66
TABLE 9.2.2.7 Allowable Story Drift, Aha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
TABLE 9.2.3.3 Coefficient for Upper Limit on Calculated Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
TABLE 9.2.5.2.1.1 Values of G/Go and vs/vso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
TABLE 9.2.6.3.3.1A Near-Field Site Response Coefficient, N, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
TABLE 9.2.6.3.3.1B Damping Coefficient, BI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
TABLE 9.2.6.3.3.4 Maximum Capable Earthquake Displacement Coefficient, MM . . . . . . . . . . 80
TABLE 9.2.6.4.4.1 Construction of Response Spectra (Free Field, Elastic,
Smoothed, 5% Damping) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
TABLE 9.2.7.5 R Factors for Nonbuilding Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
TABLE 9.3.2.2 Architectural Component Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
TABLE 9.3.3.2 Mechanical and Electrical Components Seismic Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
TABLE 10-1 Mean Recurrence Intervals for Structure Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
TABLE A.9.9.9.1-1B Allowable Working Stress Shear in Pounds per Foot
(at Working Stress) for Seismic Forces for Structural-Use Panel Shear Walls
with Framing of Douglas Fir-Larch or Southern Pine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
TABLE A.9.9.1 O .1- 1A Conventional Construction Braced Wall Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
TABLE A.9.9.10.1-1B Conventional Construction Braced Wall Requirements
inMinimumLengthofWal1 Bracingper 25 LinealFeet ofBraced WallLine . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
TABLE C3-2a Minimum Densities for Design Loads from Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
TABLE C3-2b Minimum Densities for Design Loads from Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
TABLE C4-1 Minimum Uniformly Distributed Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
TABLE C4-2 Typical Live Load Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
TABLE C6-1 Ambient Air Density Values for Various Altitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
TABLE C6-2 Exposure Category Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
TABLE C6-3 Velocity Pressure, q = 0.00256KzvZ (psf) for I = 1.O and Kzt = 1.O
[Velocity Pressure q = 0.613KzvZ(N/m2for I = 1.O and Kzt = 1.O)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
TABLE C6-4 Probability of Exceeding Design Wind Speed During Reference Period . . . . . . . . 154
TABLE C6-5 Conversion Factors for Other Mean Recurrence Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
TABLE C6-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
TABLE C6-7 Values Obtained from Table C6-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
TABLE C6-8 Calculated Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
TABLE C6-9 Response Estimate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
TABLE C7-1 Ground Snow Loads at 204 National Weather Service Locations at Which Load
Measurements are Made . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
TABLE C7-2 Comparison of Some Site-Specific Values and Zoned Values in Fig . 7-1 . . . . . . . . 173
TABLE C7-3 Factors for Converting from Other Annual Probabilities of Being Exceeded
and Other Mean Recurrence Intervals, to That Used in This Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
TABLE C8-1 Flow Rate, Q, in Gallons per Minute of Various Drainage Systems
at Various Hydraulic Heads, d h in inches [2] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
TABLE C8-1 In SI, Flow Rate, Q. in cubic meters per Second of Various Drainage Systems
at Various Hydraulic Heads, dj, in millimeters [2] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

xix
MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS

List of Figures
FIG. 6- 1. Basic Wind Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
FIG . 6.2 . Multipliers for Obtaining Topographic Factor ISzt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
FIG. 6.3 . External Pressure Coefficients, C,. for Loads on Main Wind-Force Resisting Systems
for Enclosed or Partially Enclosed Buildings of All Heights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
FIG . 6.4 . External Pressure Coefficients, GC,f. for Loads on Main Wind-Forced Resisting Systems
for Enclosed or Partially Enclosed Low-Rise Buildings with Mean Roof Height h Less than
or Equal to 60 ft (18 m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
FIG. 6.5A . External Pressure Coefficients, G C . for Loads on Building Components and Cladding
for Enclosed or Partially Enclosed Buildings with Mean Roof Height h Less than or Equal to
60ft(18m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
FIG . 6.5B . Gabled and Hipped Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
FIG. 6.5C . Stepped Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
FIG . 6.6 . External Pressure Coefficients. GC,. for Loads on Building Components and Cladding
for Multispan Gabled Roofs (with Two or More Spans) on Enclosed or Partially Enclosed
Buildings with Mean Roof Height. h. Less than or Equal to 60 ft (18 m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
FIG . 6.7A . Monoslope Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
FIG. 6.7B . Sawtooth Roofs-Two or More Spans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
FIG . 6.8 . External Pressure Coefficients. GC,. for Loads on Building Components and Cladding for
Enclosed or Partially Enclosed Buildings with Mean Roof Height h Greater than 60 ft (18 m) . . . 29
FIG . 6.9 . Wind Pressure Combinations for Full and Partial Loading of Main Wind-Force
Resisting Systems for Buildings with Mean Roof Height h Greater than 60 ft (18 m) . . . . . . . . 30
FIG . 7.1 . Ground Snow Loads. p g for the United States (lb/sq ft) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
FIG. 7.2 . Graphs for Determining Roof Slope Factor C, for Warm and Cold Roofs . . . . . . . . . . 39
FIG . 7.3 . Balanced and Unbalanced Loads for Curved Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
FIG . 7.4 . Partial Loading Diagrams for Continuous Beam Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
FIG . 7.5 . Balanced and Unbalanced Snow Loads for Hip and Gable Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
FIG . 7.6 . Balanced and Unbalanced Snow Loads for a Sawtooth Roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
FIG . 7.7 . Drifts Formed at Windward and Leeward Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
FIG. 7.8 . Configuration of Snow Drifts on Lower Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
FIG . 7.9 . Graph and Equation for Determining Drift Height hd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
FIG . 9.2.5.2.1.2. Foundation Damping Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
FIG. 10-1 Application of Uniform Equivalent Radial Ice Thichesses to a Variety of
Cross-Sectional Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
FIG . C4. Typical Influence Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Fig . C6.1 . Ratio of Probable Maximum Speed Averaged Over t sec to Hourly Mean Speed . . . . . . 155
FIG. C6.1A . Tornadic Gust Wind Speed Corresponding to Annual Probability of 10-5
(Mean Recurrence Interval of 100.O00 Years) (from ANSUANS 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
FIG . C6.2 . Application of Load Cases for Two Windward Corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
FIG . C6.3 . Unsteady Wind Loads on Low Building for Given Wind Direction (after [111) . . . . . . . 162
FIG . C7- 1. Valley in Which Snow will Drift is Created when New Gable Roof is Added
Alongside Existing Gable Roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
FIG . C7.2 . Design Snow Loads for Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
FIG . C7.3 . Design Snow Loads for Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
FIG . C7.4 . Design Snow Loads for Example 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
FIG . C 1O- 1. Glaze Ice Accretion Zones-Contiguous 48 States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

xx
 BUILDINGS A N D OTHER STRUCTURES

Conversion Factors-Inch-Pound Units to SI (Metric) Units

To convert from to Multiply by

pounds-force kilonewtons (kN) 4.448 222 E-O3

pounds-force per linear foot kilonewtons per meter (kN/m) 1.459 390 E-O2
pounds-force per square foot kilonewtons per square meter (kN/m2) 4.788 026 E-O2
pounds per cubic foot kilonewtons per cubic meter (kN/m3) 1.570 875 E-O1

slug kilogram (kg) 1.459 390 E+01

pounds per cubic foot kilograms per cubic meter (kN/m3) 1.601 846 E+Ol

feet meters (m) 3.048 O00 E-O1

inches millimeters (mm) 2.540 O00 E+01
miles kilometers (km) 1.609 344 E+OO

square feet square meters (m2) 9.290 304 E-O2

square inches square millimeters (mm2) 6.451 600 E+02

miles per hour kilometers per hour (km/h) 1.609 344 E+OO
feet per second meters per second ( d s ) 3.048 O00 E-01
feet per second per second meters per second squared (m/s2) 3.048 O00 E-O1
inches per hour millimeters per hour (mm/hj 2.540 020 E+01
gallons per minute cubic meters per second (m /s) 6.309 020 E-O5

“F . h ‘ sq fVBtu kelvin square meter per watt (K . m2NJ) 1.762 280 E-O1
degree Fahrenheit degree Celsius ( O C ) tc =(y- 32)/1.8
Note: This table includes most units used throughout this Standard. For additional conversion factors see ASTM E380-93 “Standard Practice
for Use of the International System of Units (The Modernized Metric System).”

xxi
1. General
*1.1 Scope
This standard provides minimum load require-
ments for the design of buildings and other struc-
tures that are subject to building code require-
ments. Loads and appropriate load combinations,
which have been developed to be used together, are
set forth for strength design and allowable stress
design. For design strengths and allowable stress
limits, design specifications for conventional struc-
tural materials used in buildings and modifications
contained in this standard shall be followed.
1.2 Definitions
The following definitions apply to the provi-
sions of the entire standard.
Allowable stress design: a method of proportion-
ing structural members, such that elastically com-
puted stresses produced in the members by nomi-
nal loads do not exceed specified allowable
stresses (also called working stress design).
Authority having jurisdiction: the organization,
political subdivision, office or individual charged
with the responsibility of administering and enforc-
ing the provisions of this standard.
Buildings: structures, usually enclosed by walls
and a roof, constructed to provide support or shel-
ter for an intended occupancy.
Design strength: the product of the nominal
strength and a resistance factor.
Essential facilities: buildings and other structures
that are intended to remain operational in the event
of extreme environmental loading from wind,
snow, or earthquakes.
Factored load: the product of the nominal load
and a load factor.
Limit state: a condition beyond which a structure
or member becomes unfit for service and is judged
either to be no longer useful for its intended func-
tion (serviceability limit state) or to be unsafe
(strength limit state).
Load effects: forces and deformations produced in
structural members by the applied loads.
Load factor: a factor that accounts for deviations
of the actual load from the nominal load, for uncer-
tainties in the analysis that transforms the load into
a load effect, and for the probability that more than
one extreme load will occur simultaneously.
Loads: forces or other actions that result from the
weight of all building materials, occupants and
their possessions, environmental effects, differen-
tial movement, and restrained dimensional
changes. Permanent loads are those loads in which
variations over time are rare or of small magnitude.
All other loads are variable loads (see also nominal
loads).
Nominal loads: the magnitudes of the loads speci-
fied in Sections 3-9 (dead, live, soil, wind, snow,
rain, flood, and earthquake) of this standard.
Nominal strength: the capacity of a structure or
member to resist the effects of loads, as deter-
mined by computations using specified material
strengths and dimensions and formulas derived
from accepted principles of structural mechanics
or by field tests or laboratory tests of scaled mod-
els, allowing for modeling effects and differences
between laboratory and field conditions.
Occupancy: the purpose for which a building or
other structure, or part thereof, is used or intended
to be used.
Other structures: structures, other than buildings,
for which loads are specified in this standard.
P-delta effect: the second order effect on shears
and moments of frame members induced by axial
loads on a laterally displaced building frame.
Resistance factor: a factor that accounts for devia-
tions of the actual strength from the nominal