Asce 7-05

ASCE STANDARD ASCE/SEI 7-05
Including Supplement No. 1 and Errata
American Society of Civil Engineers
Minimum Design Loads

for Buildings and
Other Structures
This document uses both the International System of Units (SI) and customary units.
Published by the American Society of Civil Engineers

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Minimum design loads for buildings and other structures /

prepared by the Structural Engineering Institute of the
American Society of Civil Engineers.
p. cm.—(ASCE standard)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
“Revision of ASCE/SEI 7-02.”
ISBN 0-7844-0809-2
1. Structural engineering—United States. 2. Standards,
Engineering—United States. I. Structural Engineering
Institute II. Series: American Society of Civil Engineers.
ASCE Standard.
TH851.M56 2005
624.1 72–dc22
2005021021
Any statements expressed in these materials are those of

the individual authors and do not necessarily represent the
views of ASCE, which takes no responsibility for any state-
ment made herein. No reference made in this publication to any
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plies an endorsement, recommendation, or warranty thereof
by ASCE. ASCE makes no representation or warranty of any
kind, whether express or implied, concerning the accuracy,
completeness, suitability, or utility of any information, appa-
ratus, product, or process discussed in this publication, and
assumes no liability therefore. This information should not be
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its suitability for any general or specific application. Anyone
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patents.
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Second printing
STANDARDS
In April 1980, the Board of Direction approved ASCE Rules ASCE 19-96 Structural Applications of Steel Cables for Buildings
for Standards Committees to govern the writing and maintenance ASCE 20-96 Standard Guidelines for the Design and Installation
of standards developed by the Society. All such standards are de- of Pile Foundations
veloped by a consensus standards process managed by the Codes ASCE 21-96 Automated People Mover Standards—Part 1
and Standards Activities Committee. The consensus process in- ASCE 21-98 Automated People Mover Standards—Part 2
cludes balloting by the Balanced Standards Committee, which is ASCE 21-00 Automated People Mover Standards—Part 3
composed of Society members and nonmembers, balloting by the SEI/ASCE 23-97 Specification for Structural Steel Beams with
membership of ASCE as a whole, and balloting by the public. Web Openings
All standards are updated or reaffirmed by the same process at SEI/ASCE 24-98 Flood Resistant Design and Construction
intervals not exceeding 5 years. ASCE 25-97 Earthquake-Actuated Automatic Gas Shut-Off
Devices
The following Standards have been issued:
ASCE 26-97 Standard Practice for Design of Buried Precast Con-
ANSI/ASCE 1-82 N-725 Guideline for Design and Analysis of crete Box Sections
Nuclear Safety Related Earth Structures ASCE 27-00 Standard Practice for Direct Design of Precast Con-
ANSI/ASCE 2-91 Measurement of Oxygen Transfer in Clean crete Pipe for Jacking in Trenchless Construction
Water ASCE 28-00 Standard Practice for Direct Design of Precast
ANSI/ASCE 3-91 Standard for the Structural Design of Com- Concrete Box Sections for Jacking in Trenchless Construction
posite Slabs and ANSI/ASCE 9-91 Standard Practice for the SEI/ASCE/SFPE 29-99 Standard Calculation Methods for Struc-
Construction and Inspection of Composite Slabs tural Fire Protection
ASCE 4-98 Seismic Analysis of Safety-Related Nuclear Struc- SEI/ASCE 30-00 Guideline for Condition Assessment of the
tures Building Envelope
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (ACI 530- SEI/ASCE 31-03 Seismic Evaluation of Existing Buildings
02/ASCE 5-02/TMS 402-02) and Specifications for Masonry SEI/ASCE 32-01 Design and Construction of Frost-Protected
Structures (ACI 530.1-02/ASCE 6-02/TMS 602-02) Shallow Foundations
ASCE/SEI 7-05 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other EWRI/ASCE 33-01 Comprehensive Transboundary International
Structures Water Quality Management Agreement
ANSI/ASCE 8-90 Standard Specification for the Design of Cold- EWRI/ASCE 34-01 Standard Guidelines for Artificial Recharge
Formed Stainless Steel Structural Members of Ground Water
ANSI/ASCE 9-91 listed with ASCE 3-91 EWRI/ASCE 35-01 Guidelines for Quality Assurance of Installed
ASCE 10-97 Design of Latticed Steel Transmission Structures Fine-Pore Aeration Equipment
SEI/ASCE 11-99 Guideline for Structural Condition Assessment CI/ASCE 36-01 Standard Construction Guidelines for Microtun-
of Existing Buildings neling
ANSI/ASCE 12-91 Guideline for the Design of Urban Subsurface SEI/ASCE 37-02 Design Loads on Structures During Construc-
Drainage tion
ASCE 13-93 Standard Guidelines for Installation of Urban Sub- CI/ASCE 38-02 Standard Guideline for the Collection and De-
surface Drainage piction of Existing Subsurface Utility Data
ASCE 14-93 Standard Guidelines for Operation and Maintenance EWRI/ASCE 39-03 Standard Practice for the Design and Opera-
of Urban Subsurface Drainage tion of Hail Suppression Projects
ASCE 15-98 Standard Practice for Direct Design of Buried Pre- ASCE/EWRI 40-03 Regulated Riparian Model Water Code
cast Concrete Pipe Using Standard Installations (SIDD) ASCE/EWRI 42-04 Standard Practice for the Design and Opera-
ASCE 16-95 Standard for Load and Resistance Factor Design tion of Precipitation Enhancement Projects
(LRFD) of Engineered Wood Construction ASCE/SEI 43-05 Seismic Design Criteria for Structures, Systems,
ASCE 17-96 Air-Supported Structures and Components in Nuclear Facilities
ASCE 18-96 Standard Guidelines for In-Process Oxygen Transfer ASCE/EWRI 44-05 Standard Practice for the Design and Opera-
Testing tion of Supercooled Fog Dispersal Projects
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures iii

FOREWORD
The material presented in this standard has been prepared in from infringement of any patent or patents. Anyone making use
accordance with recognized engineering principles. This standard of this information assumes all liability from such use.
should not be used without first securing competent advice with In the margin of Chapters 1 through 10, a bar has been placed to
respect to its suitability for any given application. The publication indicate a substantial technical revision in the standard from the
of the material contained herein is not intended as a representation 2002 edition. Because of the reorganization of the seismic provi-
or warranty on the part of the American Society of Civil Engi- sions, these bars are not used in Chapters 11 through 23. Likewise,
neers, or of any other person named herein, that this information bars are not used to indicate changes in the Commentary.
is suitable for any general or particular use or promises freedom Errata as they are found are posted to www.SEInstitute.org.
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) acknowl- This revision of the standard began in 2003 and incorporates
edges the work of the Minimum Design Loads on Buildings and information as described in the commentary.
Other Structures Standards Committee of the Codes and Stan-
This standard was prepared through the consensus standards
dards Activities Division of the Structural Engineering Institute.
process by balloting in compliance with procedures of ASCE’s
This group comprises individuals from many backgrounds in-
Codes and Standards Activities Committee. Those individuals
cluding; consulting engineering, research, construction industry,
who serve on the Standards Committee are:
education, government, design, and private practice.
Kharaiti L. Abrol, P.E. George M. Matsumura, P.E. Anatol Longinow, Ph.D., P.E.
Iyad M. Alsamsam, P.E. Therese P. McAllister, Ph.D John V. Loscheider, P.E.
Paul Armstrong, P.E. Richard McConnell, Ph.D., P.E. Sanjeev R. Malushte, P.E.
Robert E. Bachman, S.E. Kishor C. Mehta, Ph.D., P.E. Robert T. Ratay, Ph.D., P.E.
Charles C. Baldwin, P.E. Joseph J. Messersmith Jr., P.E. Mayasandra K. Ravindra, Ph.D., P.E.
Demirtas C. Bayar, P.E. Fred Morello James G. (Greg) Soules, P.E.
David G. Brinker Vilas S. Mujumdar, P.E. Jason J. Thompson
Ray A. Bucklin, Ph.D., P.E. Mark Nunn
James R. Cagley, P.E. Joe N. Nunnery, P.E. Task Committee on Strength
Alan Carr George N. Olive
Iyad M. Alsamsam, P.E.
Charles J. Carter Charles Olivier
James S. Cohen, P.E.
Jack E. Cermak, Ph.D., P.E. Michael O’Rourke, Ph.D., P.E.
Donald Dusenberry, P.E.
William L. Coulbourne, P.E. Michael F. Pacey, P.E.
Bruce R. Ellingwood, Ph.D., P.E., Chair
Jay H. Crandell, P.E. Frederick J, Palmer, P.E.
Theodore V. Galambos, Ph.D., P.E.
Majed A. Dabdoub Alan B. Peabody, P.E.
David S. Gromala, P.E.
Bernard J. Deneke, P.E. David B. Peraza, P.E.
Ronald O. Hamburger, P.E.
Bradford K. Douglas, P.E. Clarkson W. Pinkham, P.E.
James R. Harris, Ph.D., P.E.
John F. Duntemann, P.E. Robert T. Ratay, Ph.D., P.E.
Nestor R. Iwankiw, P.E.
Donald Dusenberry, P.E. Mayasandra K. Ravindra, Ph.D., P.E.
John V. Loscheider, P.E.
Bruce R. Ellingwood, Ph.D., P.E., Vice-Chair Lawrence D. Reaveley, P.E.
Sanjeev R. Malushte, Ph.D, P.E.
Edward R. Estes, Jr., P.E. Abraham J. Rokach, P.E.
Joe N. Nunnery, P.E.
Mohammed M. Ettouney, P.E. James A. Rossberg, P.E., Secretary
Clarkson W. Pinkham, P.E.
David A. Fanella, Ph.D., P.E. Herbert S. Saffir, P.E., L.S.
Mayasandra K. Ravindra, Ph.D., P.E.
Lawrence Fischer, P.E. William L. Shoemaker, Ph.D., P.E.
Andrew Scanlon, P.E.
Theodore V. Galambos, Ph.D., P.E. Emil Simiu, Ph.D., P.E.
William L. (Lee) Shoemaker, Ph.D., P.E.
Satyendra K. Ghosh, Ph.D, P.E. Thomas D. Skaggs, P.E.
James G. (Greg) Soules, P.E.
Howard C. Gibbs, P.E. Thomas L. Smith, P.E.
Yi Kwei Wen, Ph.D.
Dennis W. Graber, P.E., L.S. James G. (Greg) Soules, P.E.
Lawrence G. Griffis, P.E. Thomas E. (Eric) Stafford, P.E.
Task Committee on Live Loads
David S. Gromala, P.E. Theodore Stathopoulos, Ph.D., P.E.
Ronald O. Hamburger, P.E. Donald R. Strand, P.E. Richard M. Bennett, Ph.D., P.E.
Robert D. Hanson, Ph.D., P.E. Harry B. Thomas, P.E. John V. Loscheider, P.E
James R. Harris, Ph.D., P.E., Chair Chris Tokas William L. Shoemaker, Ph.D., P.E.
Gilliam S. Harris, P.E. Brian E. Trimble, P.E. John G. Tawresey, P.E.
Scott R. Humphreys, P.E. David P. Tyree, P.E. Harry B. Thomas, P.E.
Nicholas Isyumov, P.E. Thomas R. Tyson, P.E. Thomas R. Tyson, P.E.
Christopher P. Jones, P.E. Yi Kwei Wen, Ph.D. Yi Kwei Wen, Ph.D., Chair
John H. Kampmann Jr., P.E. Peter J. Gore-Willse, P.E.
A. Harry Karabinis, P.E. Lyle L. Wilson Task Committee on Flood Loads
Volkan Kebeli Joseph A. (Tony) Wintz III, P.E. William L. Coulbourne, P.E.
Jon P. Kiland, P.E. Tom C. Xia, P.E. Christopher P. Jones, P.E., Chair
John R. (Randy) Kissell, P.E.
Task Committee on General Structural
Joseph E. Knarich Task Committee on Wind Loads
Requirements
Uno Kula, P.E.
Edward M. Laatsch, P.E. Iyad M. Alsamsam, P.E. Daryl W. Boggs, P.E.
John V. Loscheider, P.E. Nanci Buscemi, P.E. Jack E. Cermak, Ph.D., P.E.
Ian Mackinlay James S. Cohen, P.E. Ronald A. Cook, P.E.
Sanjeev R. Malushte, P.E. John F. Duntemann, P.E. Jay H. Crandell, P.E.
Bonnie E. Manley, P.E. Donald Dusenberry, P.E., Chair Bradford K. Douglas, P.E.
Harry W. Martin, P.E. John L. Gross III, Ph.D., P.E. Charles Everly
Andrew F. Martin, P.E. Ronald O. Hamburger, P.E. Dennis W. Graber, P.E., L.S.
Rusk Masih, Ph.D., P.E. Marcelino Iglesias Lawrence G. Griffis, P.E., Chair
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures vii

Gilliam S. Harris. P.E. William L. (Lee) Shoemaker, Ph.D., P.E. James R. Harris, Ph.D., P.E.
David B. Hattis Gary Schumaker Ronald W. Haupt, P.E.
Peter A. Irwin, Ph.D., P.E. Peter J. Gore-Willse, P.E. Neil M. Hawkins, Ph.D.
Nicholas Isyumov, P.E. John R. Hayes, P.E.
Ahsan Kareem, Ph.D. Task Committee on Atmospheric Icing Claret Heider
Leon Kempner Jr., P.E. Douglas G. Honegger
David G. Brinker, P.E.
Edward M. Laatsch, P.E. John Hooper, P.E.
Clayton L. Clem, P.E.
Marc L. Levitan, Ph.D. Y. Henry Huang, P.E.
Karen Finstad
Scott A. Lockyear Martin W. Johnson, P.E.
Asim K. Haldar
John V. Loscheider, P.E. Dominic J. Kelly, P.E.
Kathy Jones
Kishor C. Mehta, Ph.D., P.E. Joe Knarich
Adam Jones
Joseph J. Messersmith Jr., P.E. Leon Kempner Jr., P.E.
Leon Kempner Jr., P.E.
Rick Perry Ghassem Khosrownia, P.E.
Mohamed A. H. Khedr
Jon A. Peterka, P.E. Jon P. Kiland, P.E.
Settiana G. Krishnasamy, P.E.
Timothy A. Reinhold, P.E. Charles A. Kircher, Ph.D., P.E.
Alain LaRouche
Herbert S. Saffir, P.E., L.S. Vladimir Kochkin
Neal Lott
Jeffrey C. Sciaudone, P.E. Edgar V. Leyendecker
Don Marshall
Donald R. Scott, P.E. Mike Mahoney
Ghyslaine McClure
William L. (Lee) Shoemaker, Ph.D., P.E. Sanjeev R. Malushte, Ph.D., P.E.
Mike Miller
Emil Simiu, Ph.D., P.E. Bonnie E. Manley, P.E.
Robert Morris
Douglas A. Smith, P.E. Harry W. Martin, P.E.
Alan B. Peabody, P.E., Chair
Thomas L. Smith, P.E. Robert R. McCluer, P.E.
William B. Rettig
Thomas E. (Eric) Stafford, P.E. Kit Miyamoto, P.E., S.E.
Chuck Ryerson
Theodore Stathopoulos, Ph.D., P.E. Rudy Mulia, P.E.
Lawrence M. Slavin
Peter J. Vickery, Ph.D. Bernard F. Murphy, P.E.
Ronald M. Thorkildson
Robert J. Wills, P.E. Robert C. Murray, P.E.
John Wahba
Peter J. Gore-Willse, P.E. Philip Myers
Brian White
Robert G. Pekelnicky, S.E.
Task Committee on Snow and Rain Loads Maurice S. Power
Task Committee on Seismic Provisions
Bradford K. Douglas, P.E. Erin Pratt, P.E.
David S. Gromala, P.E. Victor D. Azzi, P.E. Lawrence D. Reaveley, P.E.
David B. Hattis Robert E. Bachman, S.E. James A. Rossberg, P.E.
Nicholas Isyumov, P.E. David R. Bonneville, S.E. Arthur B. Savery, P.E.
John R. (Randy) Kissell, P.E. Alan Carr Daniel Shapiro, P.E.
Scott A. Lockyear Robert N. Chittenden, P.E. John F. Silva, P.E.
Ian Mackinlay Len Cobb, P.E. Jonathan C. Siu, P.E.
Hank Martin Michael Constantinou, Ph.D. James G. (Greg) Soules, P.E.
Joe N. Nunnery, P.E. C. B. Crouse, Ph.D., P.E. Harold O. Sprague, P.E.
Mark Radmaker Bradford K. Douglas, P.E. Bill Staehlin
Michael O’Rourke, Ph.D., P.E., Chair Susan Dowty Jason J. Thompson
Mike Pacey Douglas A. Foutch, Ph.D., P.E. Chris Tokas
Scott Russell Satyendra K. Ghosh, Ph.D., P.E. Miroslav Vejvoda, P.E.
Ronald L. Sack, Ph.D., P.E. John Gillengerten John W. Wallace, Ph.D., P.E.
Edwin R. Schmeckpeper Ronald O. Hamburger, P.E. Andrew S. Whittaker, Ph.D., P.E.
Joe Scholze Robert D. Hanson, Ph.D., P.E. Ben Yousefi, P.E.
viii Acknowledgements
DEDICATION
The members of the Standards Committee, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, and its task committees respect-
fully dedicate this standard in memory of James Merriam Delahay, P.E., who passed away unexpectedly on April 16, 2005 at the age of
46. Through his technical ability, leadership, and good humor, Jim contributed greatly to improving the technical requirements of this
standard, most specifically the wind load provisions. It was primarily through his efforts that the simplified wind load requirements,
Method 1, were introduced into this standard in 1998. Jim contributed substantial time and talent to improve the clarity and usefulness
of the standard, and he worked hard to bring knowledge about the wind load provisions to the profession. His advice, counsel, and warm
smile will be sorely missed.
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures ix

CONTENTS
Page
STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
DEDICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
STANDARD
1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . ....... 1

1.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Basic Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3.1 Strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3.2 Serviceability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3.3 Self-Straining Forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3.4 Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3.5 Counteracting Structural Actions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 General Structural Integrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.5 Classification of Buildings and Other Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.5.1 Nature of Occupancy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.5.2 Toxic, Highly Toxic, and Explosive Substances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.6 Additions and Alterations to Existing Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.7 Load Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.8 Consensus Standards and Other Referenced Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 Combinations of Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... .. 5

2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Symbols and Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3 Combining Factored Loads Using Strength Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3.1 Applicability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3.2 Basic Combinations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3.3 Load Combinations Including Flood Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3.4 Load Combinations Including Atmospheric Ice Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.4 Combining Nominal Loads Using Allowable Stress Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.4.1 Basic Combinations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.4.2 Load Combinations Including Flood Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4.3 Load Combinations Including Atmospheric Ice Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.5 Load Combinations for Extraordinary Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3 Dead Loads, Soil Loads, and Hydrostatic Pressure . . . . . . . . ..... . ...... . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . .. 7
3.1 Dead Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.1.1 Definition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.1.2 Weights of Materials and Constructions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.1.3 Weight of Fixed Service Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2 Soil Loads and Hydrostatic Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2.1 Lateral Pressures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2.2 Uplift on Floors and Foundations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4 Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ..... . ...... . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . . ...... 9

4.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.2 Uniformly Distributed Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.2.1 Required Live Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.2.2 Provision for Partitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.3 Concentrated Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures xi

4.4 Loads on Handrails, Guardrail Systems, Grab Bar Systems, Vehicle Barrier Systems, and
Fixed Ladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.4.1 Loads on Handrails and Guardrail Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.4.2 Loads on Grab Bar Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.4.3 Loads on Vehicle Barrier Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.4.4 Loads on Fixed Ladders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.5 Loads Not Specified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.6 Partial Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.7 Impact Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.7.1 Elevators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.7.2 Machinery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.8 Reduction in Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.8.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.8.2 Heavy Live Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.8.3 Passenger Car Garages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.8.4 Special Occupancies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.8.5 Limitations on One-Way Slabs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.9 Reduction in Roof Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.9.1 Flat, Pitched, and Curved Roofs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.9.2 Special Purpose Roofs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.10 Crane Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.10.1 Maximum Wheel Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.10.2 Vertical Impact Force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.10.3 Lateral Force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.10.4 Longitudinal Force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5 Flood Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ...... . ..... .. 15

5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.3 Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.3.1 Design Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.3.2 Erosion and Scour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.3.3 Loads on Breakaway Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.4 Loads During Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.4.1 Load Basis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.4.2 Hydrostatic Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.4.3 Hydrodynamic Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.4.4 Wave Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.4.4.1 Breaking Wave Loads on Vertical Pilings and Columns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.4.4.2 Breaking Wave Loads on Vertical Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.4.4.3 Breaking Wave Loads on Nonvertical Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.4.4.4 Breaking Wave Loads from Obliquely Incident Waves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.4.5 Impact Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6 Wind Loads . . . ......................................... . . ..... . . ..... . ...... .. 21

6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.1.1 Scope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.1.2 Allowed Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.1.3 Wind Pressures Acting on Opposite Faces of Each Building
Surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.1.4 Minimum Design Wind Loading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.1.4.1 Main Wind-Force Resisting System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.1.4.2 Components and Cladding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.4 Method 1—Simplified Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.4.1 Scope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.4.1.1 Main Wind-Force Resisting Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
xii Contents
6.4.2 Design Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.4.2.1 Main Wind-Force Resisting System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.4.2.1.1 Minimum Pressures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.4.2.2.1 Minimum Pressures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.4.3 Air Permeable Cladding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.5 Method 2—Analytical Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.5.1 Scope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.5.2 Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.5.2.1 Shielding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.5.2.2 Air Permeable Cladding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.5.3 Design Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.5.4 Basic Wind Speed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.5.4.1 Special Wind Regions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.5.4.2 Estimation of Basic Wind Speeds from Regional Climatic Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.5.4.3 Limitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.5.4.4 Wind Directionality Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.5.5 Importance Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.5.6 Exposure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.5.6.1 Wind Directions and Sectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.5.6.2 Surface Roughness Categories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.5.6.3 Exposure Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.5.6.4 Exposure Category for Main Wind-Force Resisting System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.5.6.4.1 Buildings and Other Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.5.6.4.2 Low-Rise Buildings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.5.6.5 Exposure Category for Components and Cladding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.5.6.6 Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.5.7 Topographic Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.5.7.1 Wind Speed-Up over Hills, Ridges, and Escarpments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.5.7.2 Topographic Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.5.8 Gust Effect Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.5.8.1 Rigid Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.5.8.2 Flexible or Dynamically Sensitive Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.5.8.3 Rational Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.5.8.4 Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.5.9 Enclosure Classifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.5.9.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.5.9.2 Openings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.5.9.3 Wind-Borne Debris. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.5.9.4 Multiple Classifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.5.10 Velocity Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.5.11 Pressure and Force Coefficients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.5.11.1 Internal Pressure Coefficient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.5.11.1.1 Reduction Factor for Large Volume Buildings, Ri . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.5.11.2 External Pressure Coefficients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.5.11.2.1 Main Wind-Force Resisting Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.5.11.2.2 Components and Cladding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.5.11.3 Force Coefficients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.5.11.4 Roof Overhangs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.5.11.4.1 Main Wind-Force Resisting System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.5.11.5 Parapets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.5.11.5.1 Main Wind-Force Resisting System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.5.12 Design Wind Loads on Enclosed and Partially Enclosed Buildings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.5.12.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.5.12.1.1 Sign Convention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.5.12.1.2 Critical Load Condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.5.12.1.3 Tributary Areas Greater than 700 ft2 (65 m2 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.5.12.2.1 Rigid Buildings of All Heights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.5.12.2.2 Low-Rise Building. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.5.12.2.3 Flexible Buildings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.5.12.2.4 Parapets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.5.12.3 Design Wind Load Cases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures xiii

6.5.12.4Components and Cladding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.5.12.4.1 Low-Rise Buildings and Buildings with h ≤ 60 ft (18.3 m). . . . . . . 28
6.5.12.4.2 Buildings with h > 60 ft (18.3 m). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.5.12.4.3 Alternative Design Wind Pressures for Components and Cladding
in Buildings with 60 ft (18.3 m) < h < 90 ft (27.4 m). . . . . . . . . . 29
6.5.12.4.4 Parapets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.5.13 Design Wind Loads on Open Buildings with Monoslope, Pitched, or Troughed Roofs. . . . . . . . 29
6.5.13.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.5.13.1.1 Sign Convention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.5.13.1.2 Critical Load Condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.5.13.3 Component and Cladding Elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.5.14 Design Wind Loads on Solid Freestanding Walls and Solid Signs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.5.15 Design Wind Loads on Other Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.5.15.1 Rooftop Structures and Equipment for Buildings with h ≤ 60 ft (18.3 m). . . . . . . 30
6.6 Method 3—Wind Tunnel Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.6.1 Scope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.6.2 Test Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.6.3 Dynamic Response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.6.4 Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.6.4.1 Limitations on Wind Speeds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.6.5 Wind-Borne Debris. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7 Snow Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .. 81

7.2 Ground Snow Loads, pg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.3 Flat Roof Snow Loads, p f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.3.1 Exposure Factor, Ce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.3.2 Thermal Factor, Ct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.3.3 Importance Factor, I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.3.4 Minimum Values of p f for Low-Slope Roofs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.4 Sloped Roof Snow Loads, ps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.4.1 Warm Roof Slope Factor, Cs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.4.2 Cold Roof Slope Factor, Cs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7.4.3 Roof Slope Factor for Curved Roofs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7.4.4 Roof Slope Factor for Multiple Folded Plate, Sawtooth, and Barrel Vault Roofs. . . . . . . . . . . 82
7.4.5 Ice Dams and Icicles Along Eaves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7.5 Partial Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7.5.1 Continuous Beam Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7.5.2 Other Structural Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7.6 Unbalanced Roof Snow Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7.6.1 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Hip and Gable Roofs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7.6.2 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Curved Roofs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7.6.3 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Multiple Folded Plate, Sawtooth, and Barrel Vault Roofs. . . . . . . 82
7.6.4 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Dome Roofs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7.7 Drifts on Lower Roofs (Aerodynamic Shade) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7.7.1 Lower Roof of a Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.7.2 Adjacent Structures and Terrain Features. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.8 Roof Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.9 Sliding Snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.10 Rain-on-Snow Surcharge Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.11 Ponding Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.12 Existing Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
8 Rain Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . ...... . ..... . . .. 95

8.2 Roof Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
8.3 Design Rain Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
8.4 Ponding Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
8.5 Controlled Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
9 Reserved for Future Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
xiv Contents
10 Ice Loads—Atmospheric Icing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . .. 99
10.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
10.1.1 Site-Specific Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
10.1.2 Dynamic Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
10.1.3 Exclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
10.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
10.4 Ice Loads Due to Freezing Rain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
10.4.1 Ice Weight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
10.4.2 Nominal Ice Thickness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
10.4.3 Height Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
10.4.4 Importance Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
10.4.5 Topographic Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
10.4.6 Design Ice Thickness for Freezing Rain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
10.5 Wind on Ice-Covered Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
10.5.1 Wind on Ice-Covered Chimneys, Tanks, and Similar Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
10.5.2 Wind on Ice-Covered Solid Freestanding Walls and Solid Signs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
10.5.3 Wind on Ice-Covered Open Signs and Lattice Frameworks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
10.5.4 Wind on Ice-Covered Trussed Towers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
10.5.5 Wind on Ice-Covered Guys and Cables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
10.6 Partial Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
10.7 Design Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
10.8 Consensus Standards and other Referenced Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
11 Seismic Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

11.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
11.1.1 Purpose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
11.1.2 Scope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
11.1.3 Applicability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
11.1.4 Alternate Materials and Methods of Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
11.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
11.3 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
11.4 Seismic Ground Motion Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
11.4.1 Mapped Acceleration Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
11.4.2 Site Class. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
11.4.3 Site Coefficients and Adjusted Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE) Spectral Response
Acceleration Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
11.4.4 Design Spectral Acceleration Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
11.4.5 Design Response Spectrum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
11.4.6 MCE Response Spectrum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
11.4.7 Site-Specific Ground Motion Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
11.5 Importance Factor and Occupancy Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
11.5.2 Protected Access for Occupancy Category IV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
11.6 Seismic Design Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
11.7 Design Requirements for Seismic Design Category A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
11.7.1 Applicability of Seismic Requirements for Seismic Design Category A Structures. . . . . . . . . 116
11.7.2 Lateral Forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
11.7.3 Load Path Connections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
11.7.4 Connection to Supports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
11.7.5 Anchorage of Concrete or Masonry Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
11.8 Geologic Hazards and Geotechnical Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
11.8.1 Site Limitation for Seismic Design Categories E and F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
11.8.2 Geotechnical Investigation Report for Seismic Design Categories C through F. . . . . . . . . . . . 117
11.8.3 Additional Geotechnical Investigation Report Requirements for Seismic Design Categories D
through F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
12 Seismic Design Requirements for Building Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... .. 119
12.1 Structural Design Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
12.1.1 Basic Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
12.1.2 Member Design, Connection Design, and Deformation Limit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
12.1.3 Continuous Load Path and Interconnection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
12.1.4 Connection to Supports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures xv

12.1.5 Foundation Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
12.1.6 Material Design and Detailing Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
12.2 Structural System Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
12.2.1 Selection and Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
12.2.2 Combinations of Framing Systems in Different Directions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
12.2.3 Combinations of Framing Systems in the Same Direction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
12.2.3.1 R, Cd , and 0 Values for Vertical Combinations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
12.2.3.2 R, Cd , and 0 Values for Horizontal Combinations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
12.2.4 Combination Framing Detailing Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
12.2.5 System Specific Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
12.2.5.1 Dual System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
12.2.5.2 Cantilever Column Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
12.2.5.3 Inverted Pendulum-Type Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
12.2.5.4 Increased Building Height Limit for Steel Braced Frames and Special Reinforced Concrete
Shear Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
12.2.5.5 Special Moment Frames in Structures Assigned to Seismic Design Categories D
through F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
12.2.5.6 Single-Story Steel Ordinary and Intermediate Moment Frames in Structures Assigned to
Seismic Design Category D or E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
12.2.5.7 Other Steel Ordinary and Intermediate Moment Frames in Structures Assigned to Seismic
Design Category D or E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
12.2.5.8 Single-Story Steel Ordinary and Intermediate Moment Frames in Structures Assigned to
Seismic Design Category F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
12.2.5.9 Other Steel Intermediate Moment Frame Limitations in Structures Assigned to Seismic
Design Category F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
12.2.5.10 Shear Wall-Frame Interactive Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
12.3 Diaphragm Flexibility, Configuration Irregularities, and Redundancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
12.3.1 Diaphragm Flexibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
12.3.1.1 Flexible Diaphragm Condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
12.3.1.2 Rigid Diaphragm Condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
12.3.1.3 Calculated Flexible Diaphragm Condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
12.3.2 Irregular and Regular Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
12.3.2.1 Horizontal Irregularity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
12.3.2.2 Vertical Irregularity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
12.3.3 Limitations and Additional Requirements for Systems with Structural Irregularities. . . . . . . . . 124
12.3.3.1 Prohibited Horizontal and Vertical Irregularities for Seismic Design Categories D
through F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
12.3.3.2 Extreme Weak Stories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
12.3.3.3 Elements Supporting Discontinuous Walls or Frames. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
12.3.3.4 Increase in Forces Due to Irregularities for Seismic Design Categories D
through F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
12.3.4 Redundancy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
12.3.4.1 Conditions Where Value of ρ is 1.0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
12.3.4.2 Redundancy Factor, ρ, for Seismic Design Categories D through F. . . . . . . . . . . 126
12.4 Seismic Load Effects and Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
12.4.1 Applicability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
12.4.2 Seismic Load Effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
12.4.2.1 Horizontal Seismic Load Effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
12.4.2.2 Vertical Seismic Load Effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
12.4.2.3 Seismic Load Combinations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
12.4.3 Seismic Load Effect Including Overstrength Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
12.4.3.1 Horizontal Seismic Load Effect with Overstrength Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
12.4.3.2 Load Combinations with Overstrength Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
12.4.3.3 Allowable Stress Increase for Load Combinations with Overstrength. . . . . . . . . . 127
12.4.4 Minimum Upward Force for Horizontal Cantilevers for Seismic Design Categories D through F. . 127
12.5 Direction of Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
12.5.1 Direction of Loading Criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
12.5.2 Seismic Design Category B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
12.5.3 Seismic Design Category C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
12.5.4 Seismic Design Categories D through F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
12.6 Analysis Procedure Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
12.7 Modeling Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
12.7.1 Foundation Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
12.7.2 Effective Seismic Weight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
12.7.3 Structural Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
12.7.4 Interaction Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
xvi Contents
12.8 Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
12.8.1 Seismic Base Shear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
12.8.1.1 Calculation of Seismic Response Coefficient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
12.8.1.2 Soil Structure Interaction Reduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
12.8.1.3 Maximum Ss Value in Determination of Cs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
12.8.2 Period Determination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
12.8.2.1 Approximate Fundamental Period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
12.8.3 Vertical Distribution of Seismic Forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
12.8.4 Horizontal Distribution of Forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
12.8.4.1 Inherent Torsion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
12.8.4.2 Accidental Torsion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
12.8.4.3 Amplification of Accidental Torsional Moment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
12.8.5 Overturning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
12.8.6 Story Drift Determination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
12.8.6.1 Minimum Base Shear for Computing Drift. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
12.8.6.2 Period for Computing Drift. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
12.8.7 P-Delta Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
12.9 Modal Response Spectrum Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
12.9.1 Number of Modes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
12.9.2 Modal Response Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
12.9.3 Combined Response Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
12.9.4 Scaling Design Values of Combined Response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
12.9.5 Horizontal Shear Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
12.9.6 P-Delta Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
12.9.7 Soil Structure Interaction Reduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
12.10 Diaphragms, Chords, and Collectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
12.10.1 Diaphragm Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
12.10.1.1 Diaphragm Design Forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
12.10.2 Collector Elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
12.10.2.1 Collector Elements Requiring Load Combinations with Overstrength Factor
for Seismic Design Categories C through F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
12.11 Structural Walls and Their Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
12.11.1 Design for Out-of-Plane Forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
12.11.2 Anchorage of Concrete or Masonry Structural Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
12.11.2.1 Anchorage of Concrete or Masonry Structural Walls to Flexible Diaphragms. . . . . 133
12.11.2.2 Additional Requirements for Diaphragms in Structures Assigned to Seismic Design
Categories C through F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
12.11.2.2.1 Transfer of Anchorage Forces into Diaphragm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
12.11.2.2.2 Steel Elements of Structural Wall Anchorage System. . . . . . . . . . 133
12.11.2.2.3 Wood Diaphragms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
12.11.2.2.4 Metal Deck Diaphragms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
12.11.2.2.5 Embedded Straps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
12.11.2.2.6 Eccentrically Loaded Anchorage System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
12.11.2.2.7 Walls with Pilasters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
12.12 Drift and Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
12.12.1 Story Drift Limit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
12.12.1.1 Moment Frames in Structures Assigned to Seismic Design Categories D
through F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
12.12.2 Diaphragm Deflection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
12.12.3 Building Separation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
12.12.4 Deformation Compatibility for Seismic Design Categories D through F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
12.13 Foundation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
12.13.1 Design Basis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
12.13.2 Materials of Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
12.13.3 Foundation Load-Deformation Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
12.13.4 Reduction of Foundation Overturning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
12.13.5 Requirements for Structures Assigned to Seismic Design Category C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
12.13.5.1 Pole-Type Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
12.13.5.2 Foundation Ties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
12.13.5.3 Pile Anchorage Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
12.13.6 Requirements for Structures Assigned to Seismic Design Categories D
through F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
12.13.6.1 Pole-Type Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
12.13.6.2 Foundation Ties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
12.13.6.3 General Pile Design Requirement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
12.13.6.4 Batter Piles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures xvii

12.13.6.5 Pile Anchorage Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
12.13.6.6 Splices of Pile Segments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
12.13.6.7 Pile Soil Interaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
12.13.6.8 Pile Group Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
12.14 Simplified Alternative Structural Design Criteria for Simple Bearing Wall or Building Frame Systems . . . . 135
12.14.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
12.14.1.1 Simplified Design Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
12.14.1.2 Reference Documents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
12.14.1.3 Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
12.14.1.4 Notation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
12.14.2 Design Basis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
12.14.3 Seismic Load Effects and Combinations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
12.14.3.1 Seismic Load Effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
12.14.3.1.1 Horizontal Seismic Load Effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
12.14.3.1.2 Vertical Seismic Load Effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
12.14.3.1.3 Seismic Load Combinations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
12.14.3.2 Seismic Load Effect Including a 2.5 Overstrength Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
12.14.3.2.1 Horizontal Seismic Load Effect with a 2.5 Overstrength Factor. . . . . 139
12.14.3.2.2 Load Combinations with Overstrength Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
12.14.3.2.3 Allowable Stress Increase for Load Combinations with
Overstrength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
12.14.4 Seismic Force–Resisting System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
12.14.4.1 Selection and Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
12.14.4.2 Combinations of Framing Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
12.14.4.2.1 Horizontal Combinations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
12.14.4.2.2 Vertical Combinations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
12.14.4.2.3 Combination Framing Detailing Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
12.14.5 Diaphragm Flexibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
12.14.6 Application of Loading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
12.14.7 Design and Detailing Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
12.14.7.1 Connections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
12.14.7.2 Openings or Reentrant Building Corners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
12.14.7.3 Collector Elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
12.14.7.4 Diaphragms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
12.14.7.5 Anchorage of Concrete or Masonry Structural Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
12.14.7.5.1 Transfer of Anchorage Forces into Diaphragms. . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
12.14.7.5.2 Wood Diaphragms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
12.14.7.5.3 Metal Deck Diaphragms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
12.14.7.5.4 Embedded Straps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
12.14.7.6 Bearing Walls and Shear Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
12.14.7.7 Anchorage of Nonstructural Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
12.14.8 Simplified Lateral Force Analysis Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
12.14.8.1 Seismic Base Shear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
12.14.8.2 Vertical Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
12.14.8.3 Horizontal Shear Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
12.14.8.3.1 Flexible Diaphragm Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
12.14.8.3.2 Structures with Diaphragms That Are Not Flexible. . . . . . . . . . . 141
12.14.8.3.2.1 Torsion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
12.14.8.4 Overturning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
12.14.8.5 Drift Limits and Building Separation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
13 Seismic Design Requirements for Nonstructural Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 143

13.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
13.1.1 Scope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
13.1.2 Seismic Design Category. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
13.1.3 Component Importance Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
13.1.4 Exemptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
13.1.5 Applicability of Nonstructural Component Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
13.1.6 Reference Documents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
13.1.7 Reference Documents Using Allowable Stress Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
13.2 General Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
13.2.1 Applicable Requirements for Architectural, Mechanical, and Electrical Components, Supports,
and Attachments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
13.2.2 Special Certification Requirements for Designated Seismic Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
xviii Contents
13.2.3 Consequential Damage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
13.2.4 Flexibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
13.2.5 Testing Alternative for Seismic Capacity Determination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
13.2.6 Experience Data Alternative for Seismic Capacity Determination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
13.2.7 Construction Documents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
13.3 Seismic Demands on Nonstructural Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
13.3.1 Seismic Design Force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
13.3.2 Seismic Relative Displacements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
13.3.2.1 Displacements within Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
13.3.2.2 Displacements between Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
13.4 Nonstructural Component Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
13.4.1 Design Forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
13.4.2 Anchors in Concrete or Masonry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
13.4.3 Installation Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
13.4.4 Multiple Attachments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
13.4.5 Power Actuated Fasteners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
13.4.6 Friction Clips. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
13.5 Architectural Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
13.5.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
13.5.2 Forces and Displacements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
13.5.3 Exterior Nonstructural Wall Elements and Connections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
13.5.4 Glass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
13.5.5 Out-of-Plane Bending. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
13.5.6 Suspended Ceilings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
13.5.6.1 Seismic Forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
13.5.6.2 Industry Standard Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
13.5.6.2.1 Seismic Design Category C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
13.5.6.2.2 Seismic Design Categories D through F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
13.5.6.3 Integral Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
13.5.7 Access Floors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
13.5.7.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
13.5.7.2 Special Access Floors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
13.5.8 Partitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
13.5.8.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
13.5.8.2 Glass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
13.5.9 Glass in Glazed Curtain Walls, Glazed Storefronts, and Glazed Partitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
13.5.9.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
13.5.9.2 Seismic Drift Limits for Glass Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
13.6 Mechanical and Electrical Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
13.6.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
13.6.2 Component Period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
13.6.3 Mechanical Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
13.6.4 Electrical Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
13.6.5 Component Supports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
13.6.5.1 Design Basis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
13.6.5.2 Design for Relative Displacement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
13.6.5.3 Support Attachment to Component. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
13.6.5.4 Material Detailing Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
13.6.5.5 Additional Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
13.6.6 Utility and Service Lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
13.6.7 HVAC Ductwork. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
13.6.8 Piping Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
13.6.8.1 ASME Pressure Piping Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
13.6.8.2 Fire Protection Sprinkler Systems in Seismic Design Category C. . . . . . . . . . . . 151
13.6.8.3 Fire Protection Sprinkler Systems in Seismic Design Categories D through F. . . . . 151
13.6.8.4 Other Piping Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
13.6.9 Boilers and Pressure Vessels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
13.6.10 Elevator and Escalator Design Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
13.6.10.1 Escalators, Elevators, and Hoistway Structural System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
13.6.10.2 Elevator Equipment and Controller Supports and Attachments. . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
13.6.10.3 Seismic Switches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
13.6.10.4 Retainer Plates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
13.6.11 Other Mechanical and Electrical Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures xix

14 Material-Specific Seismic Design and Detailing Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
14.0 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
14.1 Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
14.1.2 Seismic Design Categories B and C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
14.1.3 Seismic Design Categories D through F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
14.1.4 Cold-Formed Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
14.1.4.1 Light-Framed Cold-Formed Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
14.1.5 Prescriptive Framing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
14.1.6 Steel Deck Diaphragms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
14.1.7 Steel Cables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
14.1.8 Additional Detailing Requirements for Steel Piles in Seismic Design Categories D through F. . . . 153
14.2 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
14.2.2 Modifications to ACI 318. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
14.2.2.1 ACI 318, Section 7.10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
14.2.2.2 ACI 318, Section 10.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
14.2.2.3 ACI 318, Section 11.11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
14.2.2.4 Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
14.2.2.5 Scope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
14.2.2.6 Reinforcement in Members Resisting Earthquake-Induced Forces. . . . . . . . . . . 154
14.2.2.7 Anchorages for Unbonded Posttensioning Tendons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
14.2.2.8 Flexural Members of Special Moment Frames. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
14.2.2.9 Wall Piers and Wall Segments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
14.2.2.10 Special Precast Structural Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
14.2.2.11 Foundations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
14.2.2.12 Members Not Designated as Part of the Lateral-Force-Resisting System. . . . . . . . 155
14.2.2.13 Columns Supporting Reactions from Discontinuous Stiff Members. . . . . . . . . . . 155
14.2.2.14 Intermediate Precast Structural Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
14.2.2.15 Detailed Plain Concrete Shear Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
14.2.2.16 Plain Concrete in Structures Assigned to Seismic Design Category C, D, E, or F. . . . 155
14.2.2.17 General Requirements for Anchoring to Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
14.2.2.18 Strength Requirements for Anchors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
14.2.3 Additional Detailing Requirements for Concrete Piles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
14.2.3.1 Concrete Pile Requirements for Seismic Design Category C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
14.2.3.1.1 Anchorage of Piles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
14.2.3.1.2 Reinforcement for Uncased Concrete Piles (SDC C). . . . . . . . . . . 156
14.2.3.1.3 Reinforcement for Metal-Cased Concrete Piles (SDC C). . . . . . . . 156
14.2.3.1.4 Reinforcement for Concrete-Filled Pipe Piles (SDC C). . . . . . . . . 156
14.2.3.1.5 Reinforcement for Precast Nonprestressed Concrete Piles (SDC C). . . 156
14.2.3.1.6 Reinforcement for Precast Prestressed Piles (SDC C). . . . . . . . . . 156
14.2.3.2 Concrete Pile Requirements for Seismic Design Categories D through F. . . . . . . . 157
14.2.3.2.1 Site Class E or F Soil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
14.2.3.2.2 Nonapplicable ACI 318 Sections for Grade Beam and Piles. . . . . . . 157
14.2.3.2.3 Reinforcement for Uncased Concrete Piles (SDC D through F). . . . . 157
14.2.3.2.4 Reinforcement for Metal-Cased Concrete Piles
(SDC D through F). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
14.2.3.2.5 Reinforcement for Precast Concrete Piles (SDC D through F). . . . . . 157
14.2.3.2.6 Reinforcement for Precast Prestressed Piles (SDC D through F). . . . 157
14.3 Composite Steel and Concrete Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
14.3.2 Metal-Cased Concrete Piles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
14.4 Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
14.4.2 R factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
14.4.3 Classification of Shear Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
14.4.4 Anchorage Forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
14.4.5 Modifications to Chapter 1 of ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
14.4.5.1 Separation Joints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
14.4.5.2 Flanged Shear Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
14.4.6.1 Stress Increase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
14.4.6.2 Reinforcement Requirements and Details. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
14.4.6.2.1 Reinforcing Bar Size Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
14.4.6.2.2 Splices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
14.4.6.2.3 Maximum Area of Flexural Tensile Reinforcement. . . . . . . . . . . 159
xx Contents
14.4.7.1 Walls with Factored Axial Stress Greater Than 0.05 f m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
14.4.7.2 Splices in Reinforcement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
14.4.7.3 Coupling Beams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
14.4.7.4 Deep Flexural Members. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
14.4.7.5 Shear Keys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
14.4.7.6 Anchoring to Masonry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
14.4.7.7 Anchor Bolts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
14.4.7.8 Nominal Shear Strength of Headed and Bent-Bar Anchor Bolts. . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
14.4.8 Modifications to Chapter 6 of ACI 530/ASCE 5/ TMS 402. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
14.4.8.1 Corrugated Sheet Metal Anchors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
14.4.9 Modifications to ACI 530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
14.4.9.1 Construction Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
14.5 Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
14.5.2 Framing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
14.5.3 Modifications to AF&PA SDPWS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
14.5.3.1 AF&PA SDPWS, Section 4.3.3.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
15 Seismic Design Requirements for Nonbuilding Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ..... . . .. 161

15.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
15.1.1 Nonbuilding Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
15.1.2 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
15.1.3 Structural Analysis Procedure Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
15.2 Reference Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
15.3 Nonbuilding Structures Supported by Other Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
15.3.1 Less Than 25 percent Combined Weight Condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
15.3.2 Greater Than or Equal to 25 percent Combined Weight Condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
15.3.3 Architectural, Mechanical, and Electrical Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
15.4 Structural Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
15.4.1 Design Basis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
15.4.1.1 Importance Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
15.4.2 Rigid Nonbuilding Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
15.4.3 Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
15.4.4 Fundamental Period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
15.4.5 Drift Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
15.4.6 Materials Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
15.4.7 Deflection Limits and Structure Separation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
15.4.8 Site-Specific Response Spectra. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
15.5 Nonbuilding Structures Similar to Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
15.5.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
15.5.2 Pipe Racks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
15.5.2.1 Design Basis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
15.5.3 Steel Storage Racks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
15.5.3.1 General Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
15.5.3.2 Operating Weight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
15.5.3.3 Vertical Distribution of Seismic Forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
15.5.3.4 Seismic Displacements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
15.5.4 Electrical Power Generating Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
15.5.4.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
15.5.4.2 Design Basis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
15.5.5 Structural Towers for Tanks and Vessels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
15.5.5.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
15.5.6 Piers and Wharves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
15.5.6.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
15.5.6.2 Design Basis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
15.6 General Requirements for Nonbuilding Structures not Similar to Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
15.6.1 Earth-Retaining Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
15.6.2 Stacks and Chimneys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
15.6.3 Amusement Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
15.6.4 Special Hydraulic Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
15.6.4.1 Design Basis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
15.6.5 Secondary Containment Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
15.6.5.1 Freeboard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures xxi

15.6.6 Telecommunication Towers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
15.7 Tanks and Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
15.7.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
15.7.2 Design Basis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
15.7.3 Strength and Ductility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
15.7.4 Flexibility of Piping Attachments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
15.7.5 Anchorage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
15.7.6 Ground-Supported Storage Tanks for Liquids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
15.7.6.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
15.7.6.1.1 Distribution of Hydrodynamic and Inertia Forces. . . . . . . . . . . . 169
15.7.6.1.2 Sloshing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
15.7.6.1.3 Equipment and Attached Piping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
15.7.6.1.4 Internal Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
15.7.6.1.5 Sliding Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
15.7.6.1.6 Local Shear Transfer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
15.7.6.1.7 Pressure Stability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
15.7.6.1.8 Shell Support. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
15.7.6.1.9 Repair, Alteration, or Reconstruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
15.7.7 Water Storage and Water Treatment Tanks and Vessels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
15.7.7.1 Welded Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
15.7.7.2 Bolted Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
15.7.7.3 Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
15.7.8 Petrochemical and Industrial Tanks and Vessels Storing Liquids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
15.7.8.1 Welded Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
15.7.8.2 Bolted Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
15.7.8.3 Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
15.7.9 Ground-Supported Storage Tanks for Granular Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
15.7.9.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
15.7.9.2 Lateral Force Determination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
15.7.9.3 Force Distribution to Shell and Foundation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
15.7.9.3.1 Increased Lateral Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
15.7.9.3.2 Effective Mass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
15.7.9.3.3 Effective Density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
15.7.9.3.4 Lateral Sliding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
15.7.9.3.5 Combined Anchorage Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
15.7.9.4 Welded Steel Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
15.7.9.5 Bolted Steel Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
15.7.9.6 Reinforced Concrete Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
15.7.9.7 Prestressed Concrete Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
15.7.10 Elevated Tanks and Vessels for Liquids and Granular Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
15.7.10.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
15.7.10.2 Effective Mass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
15.7.10.3 P-Delta Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
15.7.10.4 Transfer of Lateral Forces into Support Tower. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
15.7.10.5 Evaluation of Structures Sensitive to Buckling Failure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
15.7.10.6 Welded Steel Water Storage Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
15.7.10.7 Concrete Pedestal (Composite) Tanks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
15.7.10.7.1 Analysis Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
15.7.10.7.2 Structure Period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
15.7.11 Boilers and Pressure Vessels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
15.7.11.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
15.7.11.2 ASME Boilers and Pressure Vessels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
15.7.11.3 Attachments of Internal Equipment and Refractory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
15.7.11.4 Coupling of Vessel and Support Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
15.7.11.5 Effective Mass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
15.7.11.6 Other Boilers and Pressure Vessels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
15.7.11.7 Supports and Attachments for Boilers and Pressure Vessels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
15.7.12 Liquid and Gas Spheres. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
15.7.12.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
15.7.12.2 ASME Spheres. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
15.7.12.3 Attachments of Internal Equipment and Refractory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
15.7.12.4 Effective Mass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
15.7.12.5 Post and Rod Supported. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
15.7.12.6 Skirt Supported. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
15.7.13 Refrigerated Gas Liquid Storage Tanks and Vessels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
15.7.13.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
xxii Contents
15.7.14 Horizontal, Saddle Supported Vessels for Liquid or Vapor Storage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
15.7.14.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
15.7.14.2 Effective Mass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
15.7.14.3 Vessel Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
16 Seismic Response History Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ...... . ..... . . ..... . . ..... .. 175
16.1 Linear Response History Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
16.1.1 Analysis Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
16.1.2 Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
16.1.3 Ground Motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
16.1.3.1 Two-Dimensional Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
16.1.3.2 Three-Dimensional Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
16.1.4 Response Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
16.2 Nonlinear Response History Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
16.2.1 Analysis Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
16.2.2 Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
16.2.3 Ground Motion and Other Loading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
16.2.4 Response Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
16.2.4.1 Member Strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
16.2.4.2 Member Deformation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
16.2.4.3 Story Drift. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
16.2.5 Design Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
17 Seismic Design Requirements for Seismically Isolated Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . ..... . . ..... .. 177
17.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
17.1.1 Variations in Material Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
17.1.2 Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
17.1.3 Notation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
17.2.2 MCE Spectral Response Acceleration Parameters, S M S and S M1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
17.2.3 Configuration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
17.2.4 Isolation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
17.2.4.1 Environmental Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
17.2.4.2 Wind Forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
17.2.4.3 Fire Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
17.2.4.4 Lateral Restoring Force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
17.2.4.5 Displacement Restraint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
17.2.4.6 Vertical-Load Stability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
17.2.4.7 Overturning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
17.2.4.8 Inspection and Replacement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
17.2.4.9 Quality Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
17.2.5 Structural System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
17.2.5.1 Horizontal Distribution of Force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
17.2.5.2 Building Separations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
17.2.5.3 Nonbuilding Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
17.2.6 Elements of Structures and Nonstructural Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
17.2.6.1 Components at or above the Isolation Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
17.2.6.2 Components Crossing the Isolation Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
17.2.6.3 Components below the Isolation Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
17.3 Ground Motion for Isolated Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
17.3.1 Design Spectra. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
17.3.2 Ground Motion Histories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
17.4 Analysis Procedure Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
17.4.1 Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
17.4.2 Dynamic Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
17.4.2.1 Response-Spectrum Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
17.4.2.2 Response History Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
17.5.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
17.5.2 Deformation Characteristics of the Isolation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
17.5.3 Minimum Lateral Displacements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
17.5.3.1 Design Displacement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures xxiii

17.5.3.2 Effective Period at Design Displacement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
17.5.3.3 Maximum Displacement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
17.5.3.4 Effective Period at Maximum Displacement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
17.5.3.5 Total Displacement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
17.5.4 Minimum Lateral Forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
17.5.4.1 Isolation System and Structural Elements below the Isolation System. . . . . . . . . 181
17.5.4.2 Structural Elements above the Isolation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
17.5.4.3 Limits on Vs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
17.5.5 Vertical Distribution of Force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
17.5.6 Drift Limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
17.6 Dynamic Analysis Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
17.6.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
17.6.2 Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
17.6.2.1 Isolation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
17.6.2.2 Isolated Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
17.6.2.2.1 Forces and Displacements in Key Elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
17.6.3 Description of Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
17.6.3.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
17.6.3.2 Input Earthquake. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
17.6.3.3 Response Spectrum Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
17.6.3.4 Response History Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
17.6.4 Minimum Lateral Displacements and Forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
17.6.4.1 Isolation System and Structural Elements below the Isolation System. . . . . . . . . 183
17.6.4.2 Structural Elements above the Isolation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
17.6.4.3 Scaling of Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
17.6.4.4 Drift Limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
17.7 Design Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
17.8 Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
17.8.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
17.8.2 Prototype Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
17.8.2.1 Record. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
17.8.2.2 Sequence and Cycles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
17.8.2.3 Units Dependent on Loading Rates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
17.8.2.4 Units Dependent on Bilateral Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
17.8.2.5 Maximum and Minimum Vertical Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
17.8.2.6 Sacrificial Wind-Restraint Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
17.8.2.7 Testing Similar Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
17.8.3 Determination of Force-Deflection Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
17.8.4 Test Specimen Adequacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
17.8.5 Design Properties of the Isolation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
17.8.5.1 Maximum and Minimum Effective Stiffness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
17.8.5.2 Effective Damping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
18 Seismic Design Requirements for Structures with Damping Systems . . . . ...... . ..... . . ..... . . ..... .. 187
18.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
18.1.1 Scope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
18.1.2 Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
18.1.3 Notation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
18.2.1 Seismic Design Category A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
18.2.2 System Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
18.2.2.1 Seismic Force–Resisting System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
18.2.2.2 Damping System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
18.2.3 Ground Motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
18.2.3.1 Design Spectra. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
18.2.3.2 Ground Motion Histories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
18.2.4 Procedure Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
18.2.4.1 Nonlinear Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
18.2.4.2 Response Spectrum Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
18.2.4.3 Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
18.2.5 Damping System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
18.2.5.1 Device Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
18.2.5.2 Multiaxis Movement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
xxiv Contents
18.2.5.3 Inspection and Periodic Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
18.2.5.4 Quality Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
18.3 Nonlinear Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
18.3.1 Nonlinear Response History Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
18.3.1.1 Damping Device Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
18.3.1.2 Response Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
18.3.2 Nonlinear Static Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
18.4 Response Spectrum Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
18.4.1 Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
18.4.2.2 Modal Base Shear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
18.4.2.3 Modal Participation Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
18.4.2.4 Fundamental Mode Seismic Response Coefficient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
18.4.2.5 Effective Fundamental Mode Period Determination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
18.4.2.6 Higher Mode Seismic Response Coefficient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
18.4.2.7 Design Lateral Force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
18.4.3 Damping System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
18.4.3.1 Design Earthquake Floor Deflection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
18.4.3.2 Design Earthquake Roof Displacement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
18.4.3.3 Design Earthquake Story Drift. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
18.4.3.4 Design Earthquake Story Velocity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
18.4.3.5 Maximum Earthquake Response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
18.5.1 Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
18.5.2.2 Fundamental Mode Base Shear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
18.5.2.3 Fundamental Mode Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
18.5.2.4 Fundamental Mode Seismic Response Coefficient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
18.5.2.5 Effective Fundamental Mode Period Determination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
18.5.2.6 Residual Mode Base Shear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
18.5.2.7 Residual Mode Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
18.5.2.8 Residual Mode Seismic Response Coefficient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
18.5.2.9 Design Lateral Force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
18.5.3 Damping System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
18.5.3.1 Design Earthquake Floor Deflection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
18.5.3.2 Design Earthquake Roof Displacement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
18.5.3.3 Design Earthquake Story Drift. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
18.5.3.4 Design Earthquake Story Velocity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
18.5.3.5 Maximum Earthquake Response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
18.6 Damped Response Modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
18.6.1 Damping Coefficient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
18.6.2 Effective Damping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
18.6.2.1 Inherent Damping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
18.6.2.2 Hysteretic Damping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
18.6.2.2.1 Hysteresis Loop Adjustment Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
18.6.2.3 Viscous Damping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
18.6.3 Effective Ductility Demand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
18.6.4 Maximum Effective Ductility Demand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
18.7 Seismic Load Conditions and Acceptance Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
18.7.1 Nonlinear Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
18.7.1.2 Damping Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
18.7.1.3 Combination of Load Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
18.7.1.4 Acceptance Criteria for the Response Parameters of Interest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
18.7.2 Response Spectrum and Equivalent Lateral Force Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
18.7.2.2 Damping System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
18.7.2.3 Combination of Load Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
18.7.2.4 Modal Damping System Design Forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
18.7.2.5 Seismic Load Conditions and Combination of Modal Responses. . . . . . . . . . . . 197
18.7.2.6 Inelastic Response Limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
18.8 Design Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures xxv

18.9 Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
18.9.1 Prototype Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
18.9.1.1 Data Recording. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
18.9.1.2 Sequence and Cycles of Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
18.9.1.3 Testing Similar Devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
18.9.1.4 Determination of Force-Velocity-Displacement Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
18.9.1.5 Device Adequacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
18.9.1.5.1 Displacement-Dependent Damping Devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
18.9.1.5.2 Velocity-Dependent Damping Devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
18.9.2 Production Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
19 Soil Structure Interaction for Seismic Design . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . ...... . ..... . . .. 201
19.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
19.2.1 Base Shear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
19.2.1.1 Effective Building Period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
19.2.1.2 Effective Damping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
19.2.2 Vertical Distribution of Seismic Forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
19.2.3 Other Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
19.3 Modal Analysis Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
19.3.1 Modal Base Shears. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
19.3.2 Other Modal Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
19.3.3 Design Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
20 Site Classification Procedure for Seismic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 205

20.1 Site Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
20.2 Site Response Analysis for Site Class F Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
20.3 Site Class Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
20.3.1 Site Class F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
20.3.2 Soft Clay Site Class E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
20.3.3 Site Classes C, D, and E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
20.3.4 Shear Wave Velocity for Site Class B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
20.3.5 Shear Wave Velocity for Site Class A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
20.4 Definitions of Site Class Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
20.4.1 v̄ s , Average Shear Wave Velocity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
20.4.2 N̄ , Average Field Standard Penetration Resistance and N̄ch , Average Standard Penetration
Resistance for Cohesionless Soil Layers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
20.4.3 s̄u , Average Undrained Shear Strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
21 Site-Specific Ground Motion Procedures for Seismic Design . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ..... . ...... . ..... .. 207
21.1 Site Response Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
21.1.1 Base Ground Motions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
21.1.2 Site Condition Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
21.1.3 Site Response Analysis and Computed Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
21.2 Ground Motion Hazard Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
21.2.1 Probabilistic MCE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
21.2.2 Deterministic MCE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
21.2.3 Site-Specific MCE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
21.3 Design Response Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
21.4 Design Acceleration Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
22 Seismic Ground Motion and Long-Period Transition Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
23 Seismic Design Reference Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

23.1 Consensus Standards and Other Reference Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Appendix 11A Quality Assurance Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

11A.1 Quality Assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
11A.1.1 Scope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
xxvi Contents
11A.1.2 Quality Assurance Plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
11A.1.2.1 Details of Quality Assurance Plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
11A.1.2.2 Contractor Responsibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
11A.1.3 Special Inspection and Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
11A.1.3.1 Foundations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
11A.1.3.2 Reinforcing Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
11A.1.3.2.1 Periodic Special Inspection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
11A.1.3.2.2 Continuous Special Inspection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
11A.1.3.3 Structural Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
11A.1.3.4 Prestressed Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
11A.1.3.5 Structural Masonry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
11A.1.3.6 Structural Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
11A.1.3.7 Structural Wood. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
11A.1.3.7.2 Periodic Special Inspection for Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
11A.1.3.7.3 Periodic Special Inspection for Wood Sheathing. . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
11A.1.3.8 Cold-Formed Steel Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
11A.1.3.8.1 Periodic Special Inspection for Welding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
11A.1.3.8.2 Periodic Special Inspection for Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
11A.1.3.9 Architectural Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
11A.1.3.10 Mechanical and Electrical Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
11A.1.3.11 Seismic Isolation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
11A.2 Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
11A.2.1 Reinforcing and Prestressing Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
11A.2.1.1 Certified Mill Test Reports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
11A.2.1.2 ASTM A615 Reinforcing Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
11A.2.1.3 Welding of ASTM A615 Reinforcing Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
11A.2.2 Structural Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
11A.2.3 Structural Masonry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
11A.2.4 Structural Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
11A.2.5 Base Metal Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
11A.2.6 Seismic-Isolated Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
11A.2.7 Mechanical and Electrical Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
11A.3 Structural Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
11A.4 Reporting and Compliance Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Appendix 11B Existing Building Provisions . . . . . . . . ...... . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . .. 243
11B.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
11B.2 Structurally Independent Additions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
11B.3 Structurally Dependent Additions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
11B.4 Alterations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
11B.5 Change of Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Appendix C Serviceability Considerations . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ...... . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... .. 245
C.1 Deflection, Vibration, and Drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
C.1.1 Vertical Deflections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
C.1.2 Drift of Walls and Frames. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
C.1.3 Vibrations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
C.2 Design for Long-Term Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
C.3 Camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
C.4 Expansion and Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
C.5 Durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
COMMENTARY
C1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ..... . ...... . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . ....... 249
C1.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
C1.3 Basic Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
C1.3.1 Strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures xxvii

C1.3.2 Serviceability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
C1.3.3 Self-Straining Forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
C1.4 General Structural Integrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
C1.5 Classification of Buildings and Other Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
C1.5.1 Nature of Occupancy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
C1.5.2 Toxic, Highly Toxic, and Explosive Substances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
C1.7 Load Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
C2 Combinations of Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... .. 255

C2.2 Symbols and Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
C2.3 Combining Factored Loads Using Strength Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
C2.3.1 Applicability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
C2.3.2 Basic Combinations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
C2.3.3 Load Combinations Including Flood Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
C2.3.4 Load Combinations Including Atmospheric Ice Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
C2.4 Combining Loads Using Allowable Stress Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
C2.4.1 Basic Combinations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
C2.4.2 Load Combinations Including Flood Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
C2.4.3 Load Combinations Including Atmospheric Ice Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
C2.5 Load Combinations for Extraordinary Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
C3 Dead Loads, Soil Loads, and Hydrostatic Pressure . . . . . . . . ..... . ...... . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . .. 261
C3.1.2 Weights of Materials and Constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
C3.2 Soil Loads and Hydrostatic Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
C3.2.1 Lateral Pressures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
C3.2.2 Uplift on Floors and Foundations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
C4 Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ...... 269

C4.2 Uniformly Distributed Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
C4.2.1 Required Live Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
C4.2.2 Provision for Partitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
C4.3 Concentrated Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
C4.4 Loads on Handrails, Guardrail Systems, Grab Bar Systems, Vehicle Barrier Systems, and
Fixed Ladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
C4.4.1 Loads on Handrails and Guardrail Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
C4.4.2 Loads on Grab Bar Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
C4.4.3 Loads on Vehicle Barrier Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
C4.4.4 Loads on Fixed Ladders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
C4.6 Partial Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
C4.7 Impact Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
C4.8 Reduction in Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
C4.8.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
C4.8.2 Heavy Live Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
C4.8.3 Passenger Car Garages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
C4.8.5 Limitations on One-Way Slabs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
C4.9 Reduction in Roof Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
C4.9.1 Flat, Pitched, and Curved Roofs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
C4.9.2 Special Purpose Roofs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
C4.10 Crane Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
C5 Flood Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . ...... . ..... .. 275

C5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
C5.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
C5.3 Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
C5.3.1 Design Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
C5.3.2 Erosion and Scour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
C5.3.3 Loads on Breakaway Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
xxviii Contents
C5.4.1 Load Basis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
C5.4.2 Hydrostatic Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
C5.4.3 Hydrodynamic Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
C5.4.4 Wave Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
C5.4.4.2 Breaking Wave Loads on Vertical Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
C5.4.5 Impact Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
C6 Wind Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... .. 281

C6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
C6.1.4.1 Minimum Design Wind Loading on MWFRS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
C6.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
C6.4 Method 1—Simplified Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
C6.5 Method 2—Analytical Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
C6.5.1 Scope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
C6.5.2 Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
C6.5.2.1 Shielding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
C6.5.2.2 Air-Permeable Cladding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
C6.5.4 Basic Wind Speed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
C6.5.4.1 Special Wind Regions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
C6.5.4.2 Estimation of Basic Wind Speeds from Regional Climatic Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
C6.5.4.3 Limitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
C6.5.4.4 Wind Directionality Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
C6.5.5 Importance Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
C6.5.6 Exposure Categories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
C6.5.6.6 Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
C6.5.7 Topographic Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
C6.5.8 Gust Effect Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
C6.5.9 Enclosure Classifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
C6.5.10 Velocity Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
C6.5.11 Pressure and Force Coefficients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
C6.5.11.1 Internal Pressure Coefficients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
C6.5.11.5 Parapets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
C6.5.12 Design Wind Loads on Enclosed and Partially Enclosed Buildings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
C6.5.12.3 Design Wind Load Cases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
C6.5.13 Design Wind Loads on Open Buildings with Monoslope, Pitched, or Troughed Roofs. . . . . . . . 302
C6.6 Method 3—Wind-Tunnel Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
C7 Snow Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .. 323

C7.0 Snow Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
C7.2 Ground Snow Loads, pg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
C7.3 Flat-Roof Snow Loads, p f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
C7.3.1 Exposure Factor, Ce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
C7.3.2 Thermal Factor, Ct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
C7.3.3 Importance Factor, I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
C7.3.4 Minimum Values of p f for Low Slope Roofs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
C7.4 Sloped-Roof Snow Loads, ps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
C7.4.3 Roof Slope Factor for Curved Roofs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
C7.4.4 Roof Slope Factor for Multiple Folded Plate, Sawtooth, and Barrel Vault Roofs. . . . . . . . . . . 327
C7.4.5 Ice Dams and Icicles Along Eaves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
C7.5 Unloaded Portions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
C7.6 Unbalanced Roof Snow Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
C7.6.1 Unbalanced Snow Loads on Hip and Gable Roofs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
C7.6.2 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Curved Roofs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
C7.6.3 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Multiple Folded Plate, Sawtooth, and Barrel Vault Roofs. . . . . . . 327
C7.6.4 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Dome Roofs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
C7.7 Drifts on Lower Roofs (Aerodynamic Shade) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
C7.8 Roof Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
C7.9 Sliding Snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
C7.10 Rain-on-Snow Surcharge Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
C7.11 Ponding Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures xxix

C7.12 Existing Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
C7.13 Other Roofs and Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
C8 Rain Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . ...... . ..... . . .. 337
C8.2 Roof Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
C8.3 Design Rain Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
C8.4 Ponding Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
C8.5 Controlled Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
C10 Ice Loads—Atmospheric Icing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . .. 343
C10.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
C10.1.1 Site-Specific Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
C10.1.2 Dynamic Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
C10.1.3 Exclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
C10.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
C10.4 Ice Loads Due to Freezing Rain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
C10.4.1 Ice Weight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
C10.4.2 Nominal Ice Thickness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
C10.4.4 Importance Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
C10.4.6 Design Ice Thickness for Freezing Rain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
C10.5 Wind on Ice-Covered Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
C10.5.5 Wind on Ice-Covered Guys and Cables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
C10.6 Partial Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
C11 Seismic Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

C11 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
C11.1.1 Purpose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
C11.7 Design Requirements for Seismic Design Category A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
C11.8.2 Geotechnical Investigation Report for Seismic Design Categories C through F. . . . . . . . . . . . 353
C11.8.3 Additional Geotechnical Investigation Report Requirements for Seismic Design Categories D
through F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
C12 Seismic Design Requirements for Building Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 369

C12.3.3.3 Elements Supporting Discontinuous Walls or Frames. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
C12.3.4 Redundancy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
C12.4.3 Seismic Load Effect Including Overstrength Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
C12.8.4.1 Inherent Torsion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
C12.11.2.1 Anchorage of Concrete or Masonry Structural Walls to Flexible Diaphragms . . . . . 369
C13 Seismic Design Requirements for Nonstructural Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ..... . .. 371
C13.0 Seismic Design Requirements for Nonstructural Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
C13.3.2 Seismic Relative Displacements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
C13.5.9 Glass in Glazed Curtain Walls, Glazed Storefronts, and Glazed Partitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
C13.6 Mechanical and Electrical Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
C14 Material-Specific Seismic Design and Detailing Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

C14.2 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
C14.2.3.1.2 Reinforcement for Uncased Concrete Piles (SDC C). . . . . . . . . . . 373
C14.2.3.1.5 Reinforcement for Precast Nonprestressed Concrete Piles (SDC C). . . 373
C14.2.3.1.6 Reinforcement for Precast Prestressed Piles (SDC C). . . . . . . . . . 373
C14.2.3.2.3 Reinforcement for Uncased Concrete Piles (SDC D through F) . . . . 373
C14.2.3.2.5 Reinforcement for Precast Concrete Piles (SDC D through F) . . . . . 373
C14.2.3.2.6 Reinforcement for Precast Prestressed Piles (SDC D through F) . . . . 373
C14.4 Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
xxx Contents
C15 Seismic Design Requirements for Nonbuilding Structures . . . . . . . . ...... . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . . .. 375
C15.0 Seismic Design Requirements for Nonbuilding Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
C15.1.3 Structural Analysis Procedure Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
C15.2 Reference Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
C15.4.4 Fundamental Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
C15.6.5 Secondary Containment Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
C15.6.6 Telecommunication Towers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
C15.7 Tanks and Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
C15.7.2 Design Basis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
C15.7.6 Ground-Supported Storage Tanks for Liquids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
C15.7.6.1.4 Internal Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
C15.7.8.2 Bolted Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
C19 Soil Structure Interaction for Seismic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
C22 Seismic Ground Motion and Long Period Transition Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Errata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-1
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures xxxi

P1: JsY
ASCE003-01.tex ASCE003/SIE-v1.cls September 28, 2005 18:27
Chapter 1
GENERAL
1.1 SCOPE NOMINAL LOADS: The magnitudes of the loads specified

in this standard for dead, live, soil, wind, snow, rain, flood, and
This standard provides minimum load requirements for the design
earthquake.
of buildings and other structures that are subject to building code
requirements. Loads and appropriate load combinations, which NOMINAL STRENGTH: The capacity of a structure or mem-
have been developed to be used together, are set forth for strength ber to resist the effects of loads, as determined by computations
design and allowable stress design. For design strengths and al- using specified material strengths and dimensions and formulas
lowable stress limits, design specifications for conventional struc- derived from accepted principles of structural mechanics or by
tural materials used in buildings and modifications contained in field tests or laboratory tests of scaled models, allowing for mod-
this standard shall be followed. eling effects and differences between laboratory and field condi-
tions.
1.2 DEFINITIONS OCCUPANCY: The purpose for which a building or other
structure, or part thereof, is used or intended to be used.
The following definitions apply to the provisions of the entire
standard. OTHER STRUCTURES: Structures, other than buildings, for
which loads are specified in this standard.
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN: A method of proportion-
ing structural members such that elastically computed stresses P-DELTA EFFECT: The second order effect on shears and
produced in the members by nominal loads do not exceed speci- moments of frame members induced by axial loads on a laterally
fied allowable stresses (also called “working stress design”). displaced building frame.
AUTHORITY HAVING JURISDICTION: The organiza- PHYSICAL HAZARD: Chemicals or substances in a liquid,
tion, political subdivision, office, or individual charged with the solid, or gaseous form that are classified by the authority hav-
responsibility of administering and enforcing the provisions of ing jurisdiction as combustible, flammable, explosive, oxidizer,
this standard. pyrophoric, unstable (reactive), or water reactive.
BUILDINGS: Structures, usually enclosed by walls and a RESISTANCE FACTOR: A factor that accounts for devia-
roof, constructed to provide support or shelter for an intended tions of the actual strength from the nominal strength and the
occupancy. manner and consequences of failure (also called “strength reduc-
tion factor”).
DESIGN STRENGTH: The product of the nominal strength
and a resistance factor. STRENGTH DESIGN: A method of proportioning structural
members such that the computed forces produced in the members
ESSENTIAL FACILITIES: Buildings and other structures by the factored loads do not exceed the member design strength
that are intended to remain operational in the event of extreme (also called “load and resistance factor design”).
environmental loading from wind, snow, or earthquakes.
TEMPORARY FACILITIES: Buildings or other structures
FACTORED LOAD: The product of the nominal load and a that are to be in service for a limited time and have a limited
load factor. exposure period for environmental loadings.
HIGHLY TOXIC SUBSTANCE: As defined in 29 CFR TOXIC SUBSTANCE: As defined in 29 CFR 1910.1200
1910.1200 Appendix A with Amendments as of February 1, 2000. Appendix A with Amendments as of February 1, 2000.
LIMIT STATE: A condition beyond which a structure or mem-
ber becomes unfit for service and is judged either to be no longer 1.3 BASIC REQUIREMENTS
useful for its intended function (serviceability limit state) or to be
1.3.1 Strength. Buildings and other structures, and all parts
unsafe (strength limit state).
thereof, shall be designed and constructed to support safely the
LOAD EFFECTS: Forces and deformations produced in factored loads in load combinations defined in this document with-
structural members by the applied loads. out exceeding the appropriate strength limit states for the materi-
als of construction. Alternatively, buildings and other structures,
LOAD FACTOR: A factor that accounts for deviations of the
and all parts thereof, shall be designed and constructed to sup-
actual load from the nominal load, for uncertainties in the analysis
port safely the nominal loads in load combinations defined in this
that transforms the load into a load effect, and for the probability
document without exceeding the appropriate specified allowable
that more than one extreme load will occur simultaneously.
stresses for the materials of construction.
LOADS: Forces or other actions that result from the weight of
all building materials, occupants and their possessions, environ- 1.3.2 Serviceability. Structural systems, and members thereof,
mental effects, differential movement, and restrained dimensional shall be designed to have adequate stiffness to limit deflections,
changes. Permanent loads are those loads in which variations over lateral drift, vibration, or any other deformations that adversely
time are rare or of small magnitude. All other loads are variable affect the intended use and performance of buildings and other
loads (see also “nominal loads”). structures.
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures 1

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1.3.3 Self-Straining Forces. Provision shall be made for antici- Category II structures if it can be demonstrated to the satisfaction
pated self-straining forces arising from differential settlements of the authority having jurisdiction by a hazard assessment as part
of foundations and from restrained dimensional changes due to of an overall Risk Management Plan (RMP) that a release of the
temperature, moisture, shrinkage, creep, and similar effects. toxic, highly toxic, or explosive substances does not pose a threat
to the public.
1.3.4 Analysis. Load effects on individual structural members
shall be determined by methods of structural analysis that take into To qualify for this reduced classification, the owner or operator
account equilibrium, general stability, geometric compatibility, of the buildings or other structures containing the toxic, highly
and both short- and long-term material properties. Members that toxic, or explosive substances shall have an RMP that incorporates
tend to accumulate residual deformations under repeated service three elements as a minimum: a hazard assessment, a prevention
loads shall have included in their analysis the added eccentricities program, and an emergency response plan.
expected to occur during their service life.
As a minimum, the hazard assessment shall include the prepa-
1.3.5 Counteracting Structural Actions. All structural mem- ration and reporting of worst-case release scenarios for each
bers and systems, and all components and cladding in a building or structure under consideration, showing the potential effect on
other structure, shall be designed to resist forces due to earthquake the public for each. As a minimum, the worst-case event shall
and wind, with consideration of overturning, sliding, and uplift, include the complete failure (instantaneous release of entire con-
and continuous load paths shall be provided for transmitting these tents) of a vessel, piping system, or other storage structure. A
forces to the foundation. Where sliding is used to isolate the ele- worst-case event includes (but is not limited to) a release dur-
ments, the effects of friction between sliding elements shall be in- ing the design wind or design seismic event. In this assessment,
cluded as a force. Where all or a portion of the resistance to these the evaluation of the effectiveness of subsequent measures for
forces is provided by dead load, the dead load shall be taken as the accident mitigation shall be based on the assumption that the
minimum dead load likely to be in place during the event causing complete failure of the primary storage structure has occurred.
the considered forces. Consideration shall be given to the effects The offsite impact must be defined in terms of population within
of vertical and horizontal deflections resulting from such forces. the potentially affected area. To qualify for the reduced clas-
sification, the hazard assessment shall demonstrate that a re-
lease of the hazardous material from a worst-case event does not
1.4 GENERAL STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY
pose a threat to the public outside the property boundary of the
Buildings and other structures shall be designed to sustain local facility.
damage with the structural system as a whole remaining stable As a minimum, the prevention program shall consist of the
and not being damaged to an extent disproportionate to the origi- comprehensive elements of process safety management, which is
nal local damage. This shall be achieved through an arrangement based upon accident prevention through the application of man-
of the structural elements that provides stability to the entire struc- agement controls in the key areas of design, construction, op-
tural system by transferring loads from any locally damaged re- eration, and maintenance. Secondary containment of the toxic,
gion to adjacent regions capable of resisting those loads without highly toxic, or explosive substances (including, but not limited
collapse. This shall be accomplished by providing sufficient con- to, double wall tank, dike of sufficient size to contain a spill, or
tinuity, redundancy, or energy-dissipating capacity (ductility), or other means to contain a release of the toxic, highly toxic, or ex-
a combination thereof, in the members of the structure. plosive substances within the property boundary of the facility
and prevent release of harmful quantities of contaminants to the
1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF BUILDINGS air, soil, ground water, or surface water) are permitted to be used to
AND OTHER STRUCTURES mitigate the risk of release. When secondary containment is pro-
vided, it shall be designed for all environmental loads and is not
1.5.1 Nature of Occupancy. Buildings and other structures shall eligible for this reduced classification. In hurricane-prone regions,
be classified, based on the nature of occupancy, according to mandatory practices and procedures that effectively diminish the
Table 1-1 for the purposes of applying flood, wind, snow, earth- effects of wind on critical structural elements or that alternatively
quake, and ice provisions. The occupancy categories range from protect against harmful releases during and after hurricanes may
I to IV, where Occupancy Category I represents buildings and be used to mitigate the risk of release.
other structures with a low hazard to human life in the event of
failure and Occupancy Category IV represents essential facilities. As a minimum, the emergency response plan shall address pub-
Each building or other structure shall be assigned to the highest lic notification, emergency medical treatment for accidental ex-
applicable occupancy category or categories. Assignment of the posure to humans, and procedures for emergency response to
same structure to multiple occupancy categories based on use and releases that have consequences beyond the property boundary of
the type of load condition being evaluated (e.g., wind or seismic) the facility. The emergency response plan shall address the po-
shall be permissible. tential that resources for response could be compromised by the
event that has caused the emergency.
When buildings or other structures have multiple uses (occu-
pancies), the relationship between the uses of various parts of the
building or other structure and the independence of the structural
systems for those various parts shall be examined. The classifi- 1.6 ADDITIONS AND ALTERATIONS
cation for each independent structural system of a multiple-use TO EXISTING STRUCTURES
building or other structure shall be that of the highest usage group
When an existing building or other structure is enlarged or other-
in any part of the building or other structure that is dependent on
wise altered, structural members affected shall be strengthened
that basic structural system.
if necessary so that the factored loads defined in this document
1.5.2 Toxic, Highly Toxic, and Explosive Substances. Build- will be supported without exceeding the specified design strength
ings and other structures containing toxic, highly toxic, or for the materials of construction. When using allowable stress
explosive substances are permitted to be classified as Occupancy design, strengthening is required when the stresses due to nominal
2 ASCE 7-05
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loads exceed the specified allowable stresses for the materials of OSHA
construction. Occupational Safety and Health
Administration
1.7 LOAD TESTS 200 Constitution Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20210
A load test of any construction shall be conducted when required
by the authority having jurisdiction whenever there is reason to 29 CFR 1910.1200 Appendix A with Amendments
question its safety for the intended occupancy or use. as of February 1, 2000.
Section 1.2
OSHA Standards for General Industry, 29 CFR
1.8 CONSENSUS STANDARDS AND OTHER
(Code of Federal Regulations) Part 1910.1200
REFERENCED DOCUMENTS
Appendix A, United States Department of Labor,
This section lists the consensus standards and other documents Occupational Safety and Health Administration,
which are adopted by reference within this chapter: Washington DC, 2005.
TABLE 1-1 OCCUPANCY CATEGORY OF BUILDINGS AND OTHER STRUCTURES FOR FLOOD, WIND, SNOW, EARTHQUAKE,
AND ICE LOADS
Nature of Occupancy Occupancy
Category
Buildings and other structures that represent a low hazard to human life in the event of failure, including, but not limited to: I
• Agricultural facilities
• Certain temporary facilities
• Minor storage facilities
All buildings and other structures except those listed in Occupancy Categories I, III, and IV II
Buildings and other structures that represent a substantial hazard to human life in the event of failure, including, but not limited to: III
• Buildings and other structures where more than 300 people congregate in one area
• Buildings and other structures with daycare facilities with a capacity greater than 150
• Buildings and other structures with elementary school or secondary school facilities with a capacity greater than 250
• Buildings and other structures with a capacity greater than 500 for colleges or adult education facilities
• Health care facilities with a capacity of 50 or more resident patients, but not having surgery or emergency treatment facilities
• Jails and detention facilities
Buildings and other structures, not included in Occupancy Category IV, with potential to cause a substantial economic impact and/or mass
disruption of day-to-day civilian life in the event of failure, including, but not limited to:
• Power generating stationsa
• Water treatment facilities
• Sewage treatment facilities
• Telecommunication centers
Buildings and other structures not included in Occupancy Category IV (including, but not limited to, facilities that manufacture, process,
handle, store, use, or dispose of such substances as hazardous fuels, hazardous chemicals, hazardous waste, or explosives) containing
sufficient quantities of toxic or explosive substances to be dangerous to the public if released.
Buildings and other structures containing toxic or explosive substances shall be eligible for classification as Occupancy Category II
structures if it can be demonstrated to the satisfaction of the authority having jurisdiction by a hazard assessment as described in
Section 1.5.2 that a release of the toxic or explosive substances does not pose a threat to the public.
Buildings and other structures designated as essential facilities, including, but not limited to: IV
• Hospitals and other health care facilities having surgery or emergency treatment facilities
• Fire, rescue, ambulance, and police stations and emergency vehicle garages
• Designated earthquake, hurricane, or other emergency shelters
• Designated emergency preparedness, communication, and operation centers and other facilities required for emergency response
• Power generating stations and other public utility facilities required in an emergency
• Ancillary structures (including, but not limited to, communication towers, fuel storage tanks, cooling towers, electrical substation
structures, fire water storage tanks or other structures housing or supporting water, or other fire-suppression material or equipment)
required for operation of Occupancy Category IV structures during an emergency
• Aviation control towers, air traffic control centers, and emergency aircraft hangars
• Water storage facilities and pump structures required to maintain water pressure for fire suppression
• Buildings and other structures having critical national defense functions
Buildings and other structures (including, but not limited to, facilities that manufacture, process, handle, store, use, or dispose of such
substances as hazardous fuels, hazardous chemicals, or hazardous waste) containing highly toxic substances where the quantity of the
material exceeds a threshold quantity established by the authority having jurisdiction.
Buildings and other structures containing highly toxic substances shall be eligible for classification as Occupancy Category II structures if
it can be demonstrated to the satisfaction of the authority having jurisdiction by a hazard assessment as described in Section 1.5.2 that a
release of the highly toxic substances does not pose a threat to the public. This reduced classification shall not be permitted if the buildings
or other structures also function as essential facilities.
a Cogeneration power plants that do not supply power on the national grid shall be designated Occupancy Category II.

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4
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ASCE003-02.tex ASCE003/SIE-v1.cls October 10, 2005 17:15
Chapter 2
COMBINATIONS OF LOADS
2.1 GENERAL Where lateral earth pressure provides resistance to structural actions
from other forces, it shall not be included in H but shall be included in
Buildings and other structures shall be designed using the provi- the design resistance.
sions of either Section 2.3 or 2.4. Either Section 2.3 or 2.4 shall
3. In combinations (2), (4), and (5), the companion load S shall be taken
be used exclusively for proportioning elements of a particular as either the flat roof snow load ( p f ) or the sloped roof snow load ( ps ).
construction material throughout the structure.
Each relevant strength limit state shall be investigated. Effects
of one or more loads not acting shall be investigated. The most
2.2 SYMBOLS AND NOTATION unfavorable effects from both wind and earthquake loads shall be
D = dead load investigated, where appropriate, but they need not be considered
Di = weight of ice to act simultaneously. Refer to Section 12.4 for specific definition
E = earthquake load of the earthquake load effect E.1
F = load due to fluids with well-defined pressures and 2.3.3 Load Combinations Including Flood Load. When a
maximum heights structure is located in a flood zone (Section 5.3.1), the follow-
Fa = flood load ing load combinations shall be considered:
H = load due to lateral earth pressure, ground water pressure, 1. In V-Zones or Coastal A-Zones, 1.6W in combinations (4)
or pressure of bulk materials and (6) shall be replaced by 1.6W + 2.0Fa .
L = live load 2. In noncoastal A-Zones, 1.6W in combinations (4) and (6)
L r = roof live load shall be replaced by 0.8W + 1.0Fa .
R = rain load
2.3.4 Load Combinations Including Atmospheric Ice Loads.
S = snow load When a structure is subjected to atmospheric ice and wind-on-ice
T = self-straining force loads, the following load combinations shall be considered:
W = wind load 1. 0.5(L r or S or R) in combination (2) shall be replaced by
Wi = wind-on-ice determined in accordance with Chapter 10 0.2Di + 0.5S.
2. 1.6W + 0.5(L r or S or R) in combination (4) shall be re-
2.3 COMBINING FACTORED LOADS placed by Di + Wi + 0.5S.
USING STRENGTH DESIGN
3. 1.6W in combination (6) shall be replaced by Di + Wi .
2.3.1 Applicability. The load combinations and load factors
given in Section 2.3.2 shall be used only in those cases in which
they are specifically authorized by the applicable material design 2.4 COMBINING NOMINAL LOADS USING
standard. ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN
2.3.2 Basic Combinations. Structures, components, and foun- 2.4.1 Basic Combinations. Loads listed herein shall be consid-
dations shall be designed so that their design strength equals ered to act in the following combinations; whichever produces the
or exceeds the effects of the factored loads in the following most unfavorable effect in the building, foundation, or structural
combinations: member being considered. Effects of one or more loads not acting
1. 1.4(D + F) shall be considered.
2. 1.2(D + F + T ) + 1.6(L + H ) + 0.5(L r or S or R) 1. D + F
3. 1.2D + 1.6(L r or S or R) + (L or 0.8W ) 2. D + H + F + L + T
4. 1.2D + 1.6W + L + 0.5(L r or S or R) 3. D + H + F + (L r or S or R)
5. 1.2D + 1.0E + L + 0.2S 4. D + H + F + 0.75(L + T ) + 0.75(L r or S or R)
6. 0.9D + 1.6W + 1.6H 5. D + H + F + (W or 0.7E)
7. 0.9D + 1.0E + 1.6H 6. D + H + F + 0.75(W or 0.7E) + 0.75L

+ 0.75(L r or S or R)
EXCEPTIONS:
1. The load factor on L in combinations (3), (4), and (5) is permitted to 7. 0.6D + W + H
equal 0.5 for all occupancies in which L o in Table 4-1 is less than or
equal to 100 psf, with the exception of garages or areas occupied as
8. 0.6D + 0.7E + H
places of public assembly.
2. The load factor on H shall be set equal to zero in combinations (6) and 1 The same E from Section 12.4 is used for both Sections 2.3.2 and 2.4.1.
(7) if the structural action due to H counteracts that due to W or E. Refer to the Chapter 11 Commentary for the Seismic Provisions.

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EXCEPTION: In combinations (4) and (6), the companion load S shall 2. In non-coastal A-Zones, 0.75Fa shall be added to combina-
be taken as either the flat roof snow load ( p f ) or the sloped roof snow tions (5), (6), and (7), and E shall be set equal to zero in (5)
load ( ps ). and (6).
The most unfavorable effects from both wind and earthquake
loads shall be considered, where appropriate, but they need not 2.4.3 Load Combinations Including Atmospheric Ice Loads.
be assumed to act simultaneously. Refer to Section 12.4 for the When a structure is subjected to atmospheric ice and wind-on-ice
specific definition of the earthquake load effect E.2 loads, the following load combinations shall be considered:
Increases in allowable stress shall not be used with the loads or 1. 0.7Di shall be added to combination (2).
load combinations given in this standard unless it can be demon- 2. (L r or S or R) in combination (3) shall be replaced by
strated that such an increase is justified by structural behavior 0.7Di + 0.7Wi + S.
caused by rate or duration of load.
3. W in combination (7) shall be replaced by 0.7Di + 0.7Wi .
2.4.2 Load Combinations Including Flood Load. When a
structure is located in a flood zone, the following load combi-
nations shall be considered: 2.5 LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR
1. In V-Zones or Coastal A-Zones (Section 5.3.1), 1.5Fa shall EXTRAORDINARY EVENTS
be added to other loads in combinations (5), (6), and (7), Where required by the applicable code, standard, or the author-
and E shall be set equal to zero in (5) and (6). ity having jurisdiction, strength and stability shall be checked to
ensure that structures are capable of withstanding the effects of
2 The same E from Section 12.4 is used for both Sections 2.3.2 and 2.4.1. extraordinary (i.e., low-probability) events, such as fires, explo-
Refer to the Chapter 11 Commentary for the Seismic Provisions. sions, and vehicular impact.
6 ASCE 7-05
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Chapter 3
DEAD LOADS, SOIL LOADS, AND HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
3.1 DEAD LOADS soil loads are not given in a soil investigation report approved by
the authority having jurisdiction, then the soil loads specified in
3.1.1 Definition. Dead loads consist of the weight of all ma-
Table 3-1 shall be used as the minimum design lateral loads. Due
terials of construction incorporated into the building including,
allowance shall be made for possible surcharge from fixed or mov-
but not limited to, walls, floors, roofs, ceilings, stairways, built-
ing loads. When a portion or the whole of the adjacent soil is below
in partitions, finishes, cladding, and other similarly incorporated
a free-water surface, computations shall be based upon the weight
architectural and structural items, and fixed service equipment
of the soil diminished by buoyancy, plus full hydrostatic pressure.
including the weight of cranes.
The lateral pressure shall be increased if soils with expansion
3.1.2 Weights of Materials and Constructions. In determining
potential are present at the site as determined by a geotechnical
dead loads for purposes of design, the actual weights of materi-
investigation.
als and constructions shall be used provided that in the absence
of definite information, values approved by the authority having 3.2.2 Uplift on Floors and Foundations. In the design of base-
jurisdiction shall be used. ment floors and similar approximately horizontal elements below
3.1.3 Weight of Fixed Service Equipment. In determining dead grade, the upward pressure of water, where applicable, shall be
loads for purposes of design, the weight of fixed service equip- taken as the full hydrostatic pressure applied over the entire area.
ment, such as plumbing stacks and risers, electrical feeders, The hydrostatic load shall be measured from the underside of the
and heating, ventilating, and air conditioning systems shall be construction. Any other upward loads shall be included in the
included. design.
Where expansive soils are present under foundations or slabs-
on-ground, the foundations, slabs, and other components shall
3.2 SOIL LOADS AND HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
be designed to tolerate the movement or resist the upward loads
3.2.1 Lateral Pressures. In the design of structures below grade, caused by the expansive soils, or the expansive soil shall be re-
provision shall be made for the lateral pressure of adjacent soil. If moved or stabilized around and beneath the structure.
TABLE 3-1 DESIGN LATERAL SOIL LOAD

Description of Backfill Material Unified Soil Design Lateral Soil Loada
Classification psf per foot of depth
(kN/m2 per meter of depth)
Well-graded, clean gravels; gravel-sand mixes GW 35 (5.50)c
Poorly graded clean gravels; gravel-sand mixes GP 35 (5.50)c
Silty gravels, poorly graded gravel-sand mixes GM 35 (5.50)c
Clayey gravels, poorly graded gravel-and-clay mixes GC 45 (7.07)c
Well-graded, clean sands; gravelly-sand mixes SW 35 (5.50)c
Poorly graded clean sands; sand-gravel mixes SP 35 (5.50)c
Silty sands, poorly graded sand-silt mixes SM 45 (7.07)c
Sand–silt clay mix with plastic fines SM-SC 85 (13.35)d
Clayey sands, poorly graded sand-clay mixes SC 85 (13.35)d
Inorganic silts and clayey silts ML 85 (13.35)d
Mixture of inorganic silt and clay ML-CL 85 (13.35)d
Inorganic clays of low to medium plasticity CL 100 (15.71)
Organic silts and silt-clays, low plasticity OL b
Inorganic clayey silts, elastic silts MH b
Inorganic clays of high plasticity CH b
Organic clays and silty clays OH b

a Design lateral soil loads are given for moist conditions for the specified soils at their optimum densities. Actual
field conditions shall govern. Submerged or saturated soil pressures shall include the weight of the buoyant soil
plus the hydrostatic loads.
b Unsuitable as backfill material.
c For relatively rigid walls, as when braced by floors, the design lateral soil load shall be increased for sand and
gravel type soils to 60 psf (9.43 kN/m2 ) per foot (meter) of depth. Basement walls extending not more than
8 ft (2.44 m) below grade and supporting light floor systems are not considered as being relatively rigid walls.
d For relatively rigid walls, as when braced by floors, the design lateral load shall be increased for silt and clay
type soils to 100 psf (15.71 kN/m2 ) per foot (meter) of depth. Basement walls extending not more than 8 ft
(2.44 m) below grade and supporting light floor systems are not considered as being relatively rigid walls.

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8
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Chapter 4
LIVE LOADS
4.1 DEFINITIONS Section 4.2 or the concentrated load, in pounds or kilonewtons

(kN), given in Table 4-1, whichever produces the greater load
BALCONY (EXTERIOR): An exterior floor projecting from
effects. Unless otherwise specified, the indicated concentration
and supported by a structure without additional independent sup-
shall be assumed to be uniformly distributed over an area 2.5 ft
ports.
(762 mm) square [6.25 ft2 (0.58 m2 )] and shall be located so as
DECK: An exterior floor supported on at least two opposing to produce the maximum load effects in the structural members.
sides by an adjacent structure and/or posts, piers, or other inde-
pendent supports.
4.4 LOADS ON HANDRAILS, GUARDRAIL
FIXED LADDER: A ladder that is permanently attached to a SYSTEMS, GRAB BAR SYSTEMS, VEHICLE
structure, building, or equipment. BARRIER SYSTEMS, AND FIXED LADDERS
GRAB BAR SYSTEM: A bar provided to support body weight 4.4.1 Loads on Handrails and Guardrail Systems. All
in locations such as toilets, showers, and tub enclosures. handrail assemblies and guardrail systems shall be designed to
GUARDRAIL SYSTEM: A system of building components resist a single concentrated load of 200 lb (0.89 kN) applied in
near open sides of an elevated surface for the purpose of minimiz- any direction at any point along the top and to transfer this load
ing the possibility of a fall from the elevated surface by people, through the supports to the structure.
equipment, or material. Further, all handrail assemblies and guardrail systems shall be
HANDRAIL: A rail grasped by hand for guidance and sup- designed to resist a load of 50 lb/ft (pound-force per linear foot)
port. A handrail assembly includes the handrail, supporting at- (0.73 kN/m) applied in any direction at the top and to transfer
tachments, and structures. this load through the supports to the structure. This load need
not be assumed to act concurrently with the load specified in the
LIVE LOAD: A load produced by the use and occupancy of preceding paragraph, and this load need not be considered for the
the building or other structure that does not include construction following occupancies:
or environmental loads, such as wind load, snow load, rain load,
earthquake load, flood load, or dead load. 1. One- and two-family dwellings.
ROOF LIVE LOAD: A load on a roof produced (1) during 2. Factory, industrial, and storage occupancies, in areas that
maintenance by workers, equipment, and materials and (2) during are not accessible to the public and that serve an occupant
the life of the structure by movable objects, such as planters or load not greater than 50.
other similar small decorative appurtenances that are not occu- Intermediate rails (all those except the handrail), balusters, and
pancy related. panel fillers shall be designed to withstand a horizontally applied
VEHICLE BARRIER SYSTEM: A system of building com- normal load of 50 lb (0.22 kN) on an area not to exceed 1 ft square
ponents near open sides of a garage floor or ramp, or building (305 mm square) including openings and space between rails.
walls that act as restraints for vehicles. Reactions due to this loading are not required to be superimposed
with those of either preceding paragraph.
4.2 UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOADS 4.4.2 Loads on Grab Bar Systems. Grab bar systems shall be
designed to resist a single concentrated load of 250 lb (1.11 kN)
4.2.1 Required Live Loads. The live loads used in the design applied in any direction at any point.
of buildings and other structures shall be the maximum loads
expected by the intended use or occupancy, but shall in no case be 4.4.3 Loads on Vehicle Barrier Systems. Vehicle barrier sys-
less than the minimum uniformly distributed unit loads required tems for passenger cars shall be designed to resist a single load of
by Table 4-1. 6,000 lb (26.70 kN) applied horizontally in any direction to the
barrier system, and shall have anchorages or attachments capable
4.2.2 Provision for Partitions. In office buildings or other build-
of transferring this load to the structure. For design of the system,
ings where partitions will be erected or rearranged, provision for
the load shall be assumed to act at a minimum height of 1 ft 6 in.
partition weight shall be made, whether or not partitions are shown
(460 mm) above the floor or ramp surface on an area not to exceed
on the plans. Partition load shall not be less than 15 psf.
1 foot square (305 mm square), and is not required to be assumed
EXCEPTION: A partition live load is not required where the minimum to act concurrently with any handrail or guardrail loadings speci-
specified live load exceeds 80 psf (3.83 kN/m2 ).
fied in Section 4.4.1. Garages accommodating trucks and buses
shall be designed in accordance with an approved method, which
4.3 CONCENTRATED LOADS contains provision for traffic railings.
Floors, roofs, and other similar surfaces shall be designed to 4.4.4 Loads on Fixed Ladders. The minimum design live load
support safely the uniformly distributed live loads prescribed in on fixed ladders with rungs shall be a single concentrated load

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of 300 lb (1.33 kN), and shall be applied at any point to produce where
the maximum load effect on the element being considered. The
L = reduced design live load per ft2 (m2 ) of area supported by
number and position of additional concentrated live load units
the member
shall be a minimum of 1 unit of 300 lb (1.33 kN) for every 10 ft
Lo = unreduced design live load per ft2 (m2 ) of area supported
(3,048 mm) of ladder height.
by the member (see Table 4-1)
Where rails of fixed ladders extend above a floor or platform at KLL = live load element factor (see Table 4-2)
the top of the ladder, each side rail extension shall be designed to AT = tributary area in ft2 (m2 )
resist a concentrated live load of 100 lb (0.445 kN) in any direction
L shall not be less than 0.50L o for members supporting one
at any height up to the top of the side rail extension. Ship ladders
floor and L shall not be less than 0.40L o for members supporting
with treads instead of rungs shall have minimum design loads as
two or more floors.
stairs, defined in Table 4-1.
4.8.2 Heavy Live Loads. Live loads that exceed 100 lb/ft2
(4.79 kN/m2 ) shall not be reduced.
4.5 LOADS NOT SPECIFIED EXCEPTION: Live loads for members supporting two or more floors
For occupancies or uses not designated in Sections 4.2 or 4.3, may be reduced by 20 percent.
the live load shall be determined in accordance with a method 4.8.3 Passenger Car Garages. The live loads shall not be re-
approved by the authority having jurisdiction. duced in passenger car garages.
EXCEPTION: Live loads for members supporting two or more floors
may be reduced by 20 percent.
4.6 PARTIAL LOADING
4.8.4 Special Occupancies. Live loads of 100 lb/ft2 (4.79 kN/
The full intensity of the appropriately reduced live load applied m2 ) or less shall not be reduced in public assembly occupancies.
only to a portion of a structure or member shall be accounted for
if it produces a more unfavorable effect than the same intensity 4.8.5 Limitations on One-Way Slabs. The tributary area, A T ,
applied over the full structure or member. Roof live loads are to for one-way slabs shall not exceed an area defined by the slab
be distributed as specified in Table 4-1. span times a width normal to the span of 1.5 times the slab span.
4.9 REDUCTION IN ROOF LIVE LOADS

4.7 IMPACT LOADS
The minimum uniformly distributed roof live loads, L o in
The live loads specified in Sections 4.2.1 and 4.4.2 shall be as- Table 4-1, are permitted to be reduced according to the following
sumed to include adequate allowance for ordinary impact condi- provisions.
tions. Provision shall be made in the structural design for uses
and loads that involve unusual vibration and impact forces. 4.9.1 Flat, Pitched, and Curved Roofs. Ordinary flat, pitched,
and curved roofs are permitted to be designed for a reduced roof
4.7.1 Elevators. All elevator loads shall be increased by 100 live load, as specified in Eq. 4-2 or other controlling combina-
percent for impact and the structural supports shall be designed tions of loads, as discussed in Chapter 2, whichever produces
within the limits of deflection prescribed by ANSI A17.2 and the greater load. In structures such as greenhouses, where special
ANSI/ASME A17.1. scaffolding is used as a work surface for workmen and materials
during maintenance and repair operations, a lower roof load than
4.7.2 Machinery. For the purpose of design, the weight of ma- specified in Eq. 4-2 shall not be used unless approved by the au-
chinery and moving loads shall be increased as follows to allow for thority having jurisdiction. On such structures, the minimum roof
impact: (1) elevator machinery, 100 percent; (2) light machinery, live load shall be 12 psf (0.58 kN/m2 ).
shaft- or motor-driven, 20 percent; (3) reciprocating machinery L r = L o R1 R2 where 12 ≤ L r ≤ 20 (4-2)
or power-driven units, 50 percent; and (4) hangers for floors or
balconies, 33 percent. All percentages shall be increased where In SI:
specified by the manufacturer. L r = L o R1 R2 where 0.58 ≤ L r ≤ 0.96
where
4.8 REDUCTION IN LIVE LOADS L r = reduced roof live load per ft2 (m2 ) of horizontal projection
Except for roof uniform live loads, all other minimum uniformly in pounds per ft2 (kN/m2 )
distributed live loads, L o in Table 4-1, may be reduced according The reduction factors R1 and R2 shall be determined as follows:
to the following provisions.
4.8.1 General. Subject to the limitations of Sections 4.8.2 1 for At ≤ 200 ft2
through 4.8.5, members for which a value of K L L A T is 400 ft2
(37.16 m2 ) or more are permitted to be designed for a reduced R1 = 1.2 − 0.001At for 200 ft2 < At < 600 ft2
live load in accordance with the following formula: 0.6 for At ≥ 600 ft2

15
L = L o 0.25 + √ (4-1) In SI:
K L L AT
In SI: 1 for At ≤ 18.58 m2

4.57 R1 = 1.2 − 0.011At for 18.58 m2 < At < 55.74 m2
L = L o 0.25 + √
K L L AT 0.6 for At ≥ 55.74 m2
10 ASCE 7-05
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where At = tributary area in ft2 (m2 ) supported by any structural 4.10.3 Lateral Force. The lateral force on crane runway beams
member and with electrically powered trolleys shall be calculated as 20 percent
of the sum of the rated capacity of the crane and the weight of the
1 for F ≤ 4
hoist and trolley. The lateral force shall be assumed to act horizon-
R2 = 1.2 − 0.05F for 4 < F < 12 tally at the traction surface of a runway beam, in either direction
perpendicular to the beam, and shall be distributed with due re-
0.6 for F ≥ 12 gard to the lateral stiffness of the runway beam and supporting
where, for a pitched roof, F = number of inches of rise per foot structure.
(in SI: F = 0.12 × slope, with slope expressed in percentage
4.10.4 Longitudinal Force. The longitudinal force on crane run-
points) and, for an arch or dome, F = rise-to-span ratio multiplied
way beams, except for bridge cranes with hand-geared bridges,
by 32.
shall be calculated as 10 percent of the maximum wheel loads of
4.9.2 Special Purpose Roofs. Roofs that have an occupancy the crane. The longitudinal force shall be assumed to act horizon-
function, such as roof gardens, assembly purposes, or other tally at the traction surface of a runway beam in either direction
special purposes are permitted to have their uniformly dis- parallel to the beam.
tributed live load reduced in accordance with the requirements of
Section 4.8.
4.10 CRANE LOADS
This section lists the consensus standards and other documents
The crane live load shall be the rated capacity of the crane. De- which are adopted by reference within this chapter:
sign loads for the runway beams, including connections and sup-
ANSI
port brackets, of moving bridge cranes and monorail cranes shall
American National Standards Institute
include the maximum wheel loads of the crane and the vertical im-
25 West 43rd Street, 4th Floor
pact, lateral, and longitudinal forces induced by the moving crane.
New York, NY 10036
4.10.1 Maximum Wheel Load. The maximum wheel loads ANSI A17.2
shall be the wheel loads produced by the weight of the bridge, Section 4.7.1
as applicable, plus the sum of the rated capacity and the weight of American National Standard Practice for the
the trolley with the trolley positioned on its runway at the location Inspection of Elevators, Escalators, and Moving
where the resulting load effect is maximum. Walks (Inspectors’ Manual), 1988.
4.10.2 Vertical Impact Force. The maximum wheel loads of the ASME
crane shall be increased by the percentages shown in the following American Society of Mechanical
text to determine the induced vertical impact or vibration force: Engineers
Monorail cranes (powered) 25 Three Park Avenue
Cab-operated or remotely operated bridge cranes 25 New York, NY 10016-5900
(powered) ANSI/ASME A17.1
Pendant-operated bridge cranes (powered) 10 Section 4.7.1
Bridge cranes or monorail cranes with hand-geared 0 American National Standard Safety Code for
bridge, trolley, and hoist Elevators and Escalators, 1993.

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TABLE 4-1 MINIMUM UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LIVE LOADS, Lo , AND MINIMUM CONCENTRATED LIVE LOADS
Occupancy or Use Uniform Conc.
psf (kN/m2 ) lb (kN)
Apartments (see Residential)

Access floor systems
Office use 50 (2.4) 2,000 (8.9)
Computer use 100 (4.79) 2,000 (8.9)
Armories and drill rooms 150 (7.18)
Assembly areas and theaters
Fixed seats (fastened to floor) 60 (2.87)
Lobbies 100 (4.79)
Movable seats 100 (4.79)
Platforms (assembly) 100 (4.79)
Stage floors 150 (7.18)
Balconies (exterior) 100 (4.79)
On one- and two-family residences only, and not exceeding 100 ft2 (9.3 m2 ) 60 (2.87)
Bowling alleys, poolrooms, and similar recreational areas 75 (3.59)
Catwalks for maintenance access 40 (1.92) 300 (1.33)
Corridors
First floor 100 (4.79)
Other floors, same as occupancy served except as indicated
Dance halls and ballrooms 100 (4.79)
Decks (patio and roof)
Same as area served, or for the type of occupancy accommodated
Dining rooms and restaurants 100 (4.79)
Dwellings (see Residential)
Elevator machine room grating (on area of 4 in.2 [2,580 mm2 ]) 300 (1.33)
Finish light floor plate construction 200 (0.89)
(on area of 1 in.2 [645 mm2 ])
Fire escapes 100 (4.79)
On single-family dwellings only 40 (1.92)
Fixed ladders See Section 4.4
Garages (passenger vehicles only) 40 (1.92)a,b
Trucks and buses
Grandstands (see Stadiums and arenas, Bleachers)
Gymnasiums—main floors and balconies 100 (4.79)
Handrails, guardrails, and grab bars See Section 4.4
Hospitals
Operating rooms, laboratories 60 (2.87) 1,000 (4.45)
Patient rooms 40 (1.92) 1,000 (4.45)
Corridors above first floor 80 (3.83) 1,000 (4.45)
Hotels (see Residential)
Libraries
Reading rooms 60 (2.87) 1,000 (4.45)
Stack rooms 150 (7.18)c 1,000 (4.45)
Manufacturing
Light 125 (6.00) 2,000 (8.90)
Heavy 250 (11.97) 3,000 (13.40)
Marquees 75 (3.59)
Office Buildings
File and computer rooms shall be designed for heavier loads
based on anticipated occupancy
Lobbies and first-floor corridors 100 (4.79) 2,000 (8.90)
Offices 50 (2.40) 2,000 (8.90)
Penal Institutions
Cell blocks 40 (1.92)
Corridors 100 (4.79)
Residential
Dwellings (one- and two-family)
Uninhabitable attics without storage 10 (0.48)
Uninhabitable attics with storage 20 (0.96)
Habitable attics and sleeping areas 30 (1.44)
All other areas except stairs and balconies 40 (1.92)
Hotels and multifamily houses
Private rooms and corridors serving them 40 (1.92)
Public rooms and corridors serving them 100 (4.79)
Reviewing stands, grandstands, and bleachers 100 (4.79)d
12 ASCE 7-05
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TABLE 4-1 MINIMUM UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LIVE LOADS, Lo , AND MINIMUM CONCENTRATED LIVE LOADS (continued)
Occupancy or Use Uniform Conc.
psf (kN/m2 ) lb (kN)
Roofs
Ordinary flat, pitched, and curved roofs 20 (0.96)h
Roofs used for promenade purposes 60 (2.87)
Roofs used for roof gardens or assembly purposes 100 (4.79)
Roofs used for other special purposes i i
Awnings and canopies
Fabric construction supported by a lightweight rigid skeleton structure 5 (0.24) nonreduceable
All other construction 20 (0.96)
Primary roof members, exposed to a work floor
Single panel point of lower chord of roof trusses or any point along primary 2,000 (8.9)
structural members supporting roofs over manufacturing, storage warehouses,
and repair garages
All other occupancies 300 (1.33)
All roof surfaces subject to maintenance workers 300 (1.33)
Schools
Classrooms 40 (1.92) 1,000 (4.45)
First-floor corridors 100 (4.79) 1,000 (4.45)
Scuttles, skylight ribs, and accessible ceilings 200 (0.89 )
Sidewalks, vehicular driveways, and yards subject to trucking 250 (11.97)e 8,000 (35.60) f
Stadiums and arenas
Bleachers 100 (4.79)d
Fixed seats (fastened to floor) 60 (2.87)d
Stairs and exit ways 100 (4.79) g
One- and two-family residences only 40 (1.92)
Storage areas above ceilings 20 (0.96)
Storage warehouses (shall be designed for heavier loads if required for anticipated storage)
Light 125 (6.00)
Heavy 250 (11.97)
Stores
Retail
First floor 100 (4.79) 1,000 (4.45)
Upper floors 75 (3.59) 1,000 (4.45)
Wholesale, all floors 125 (6.00) 1,000 (4.45)
Vehicle barriers See Section 4.4
Walkways and elevated platforms (other than exit ways) 60 (2.87)
Yards and terraces, pedestrian 100 (4.79)
a Floors in garages or portions of a building used for the storage of motor vehicles shall be designed for the uniformly distributed live loads of Table 4-1 or the
following concentrated load: (1) for garages restricted to passenger vehicles accommodating not more than nine passengers, 3,000 lb (13.35 kN) acting on an
area of 4.5 in. by 4.5 in. (114 mm by 114 mm) footprint of a jack; and (2) for mechanical parking structures without slab or deck that are used for storing
passenger car only, 2,250 lb (10 kN) per wheel.
b Garages accommodating trucks and buses shall be designed in accordance with an approved method, which contains provisions for truck and bus loadings.
c The loading applies to stack room floors that support nonmobile, double-faced library book stacks subject to the following limitations: (1) The nominal book
stack unit height shall not exceed 90 in. (2290 mm); (2) the nominal shelf depth shall not exceed 12 in. (305 mm) for each face; and (3) parallel rows of
double-faced book stacks shall be separated by aisles not less than 36 in. (914 mm) wide.
d In addition to the vertical live loads, the design shall include horizontal swaying forces applied to each row of the seats as follows: 24 lb per linear ft of seat
applied in a direction parallel to each row of seats and 10 lb per linear ft of seat applied in a direction perpendicular to each row of seats. The parallel and
perpendicular horizontal swaying forces need not be applied simultaneously.
e Other uniform loads in accordance with an approved method, which contains provisions for truck loadings, shall also be considered where appropriate.
f The concentrated wheel load shall be applied on an area of 4.5 in. by 4.5 in. (114 mm by 114 mm) footprint of a jack.
g Minimum concentrated load on stair treads (on area of 4 in.2 [2,580 mm2 ]) is 300 lb (1.33 kN).
h Where uniform roof live loads are reduced to less than 20 lb/ft2 (0.96 kN/m2 ) in accordance with Section 4.9.1 and are applied to the design of structural
members arranged so as to create continuity, the reduced roof live load shall be applied to adjacent spans or to alternate spans, whichever produces the greatest
unfavorable effect.
i Roofs used for other special purposes shall be designed for appropriate loads as approved by the authority having jurisdiction.
TABLE 4-2 LIVE LOAD ELEMENT FACTOR, K LL

Element K LLa
Interior columns 4
Exterior columns without cantilever slabs 4
Edge columns with cantilever slabs 3
Corner columns with cantilever slabs 2
Edge beams without cantilever slabs 2
Interior beams 2
All other members not identified 1
including:
Edge beams with cantilever slabs
Cantilever beams
One-way slabs
Two-way slabs
Members without provisions for continuous
shear transfer normal to their span
a In lieu of the preceding values, K
L L is permitted to be calculated.

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14
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Chapter 5
FLOOD LOADS
5.1 GENERAL Mitigation Administration has delineated both special flood haz-
ard areas and the risk premium zones applicable to the community.
The provisions of this section apply to buildings and other struc-
tures located in areas prone to flooding as defined on a flood SPECIAL FLOOD HAZARD AREA (AREA OF SPE-
hazard map. CIAL FLOOD HAZARD): The land in the floodplain subject to
a 1 percent or greater chance of flooding in any given year. These
5.2 DEFINITIONS areas are delineated on a community’s FIRM as A-Zones (A, AE,
A1-30, A99, AR, AO, or AH) or V-Zones (V, VE, VO, or V1-30).
The following definitions apply to the provisions of this chapter:
APPROVED: Acceptable to the authority having jurisdiction. 5.3 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
BASE FLOOD: The flood having a 1 percent chance of being 5.3.1 Design Loads. Structural systems of buildings or other
equaled or exceeded in any given year. structures shall be designed, constructed, connected, and an-
BASE FLOOD ELEVATION (BFE): The elevation of flood- chored to resist flotation, collapse, and permanent lateral displace-
ing, including wave height, having a 1 percent chance of being ment due to action of flood loads associated with the design flood
equaled or exceeded in any given year. (see Section 5.3.3) and other loads in accordance with the load
combinations of Chapter 2.
BREAKAWAY WALL: Any type of wall subject to flooding
that is not required to provide structural support to a building or 5.3.2 Erosion and Scour. The effects of erosion and scour shall
other structure, and that is designed and constructed such that, be included in the calculation of loads on buildings and other
under base flood or lesser flood conditions, it will collapse in structures in flood hazard areas.
such a way that: (1) it allows the free passage of floodwaters,
and (2) it does not damage the structure or supporting foundation 5.3.3 Loads on Breakaway Walls. Walls and partitions required
system. by ASCE/SEI 24, to break away, including their connections to
the structure, shall be designed for the largest of the following
COASTAL A-ZONE: An area within a special flood hazard
loads acting perpendicular to the plane of the wall:
area, landward of a V-Zone or landward of an open coast without
mapped V-Zones. To be classified as a Coastal A-Zone, the prin- 1. The wind load specified in Chapter 6.
cipal source of flooding must be astronomical tides, storm surges, 2. The earthquake load specified in Chapter 9.
seiches, or tsunamis, not riverine flooding, and the potential for
breaking wave heights greater than or equal to 1.5 ft (0.46 m) 3. 10 psf (0.48 kN/m2 ).
must exist during the base flood. The loading at which breakaway walls are intended to collapse
COASTAL HIGH HAZARD AREA (V-ZONE): An area shall not exceed 20 psf (0.96 kN/m2 ) unless the design meets the
within a Special Flood Hazard Area, extending from offshore following conditions:
to the inland limit of a primary frontal dune along an open 1. Breakaway wall collapse is designed to result from a flood
coast, and any other area that is subject to high-velocity wave load less than that which occurs during the base flood.
action from storms or seismic sources. This area is designated
on Flood Insurance Rate Maps (FIRMs) as V, VE, VO, or 2. The supporting foundation and the elevated portion of the
V1-30. building shall be designed against collapse, permanent lat-
eral displacement, and other structural damage due to the
DESIGN FLOOD: The greater of the following two flood effects of flood loads in combination with other loads as
events: (1) the Base Flood, affecting those areas identified as specified in Chapter 2.
Special Flood Hazard Areas on the community’s FIRM; or
(2) the flood corresponding to the area designated as a Flood
Hazard Area on a community’s Flood Hazard Map or otherwise 5.4 LOADS DURING FLOODING
legally designated.
5.4.1 Load Basis. In flood hazard areas, the structural design
DESIGN FLOOD ELEVATION (DFE): The elevation of the shall be based on the design flood.
design flood, including wave height, relative to the datum speci-
fied on a community’s flood hazard map. 5.4.2 Hydrostatic Loads. Hydrostatic loads caused by a depth
of water to the level of the DFE shall be applied over all surfaces
FLOOD HAZARD AREA: The area subject to flooding dur-
involved, both above and below ground level, except that for sur-
ing the design flood.
faces exposed to free water, the design depth shall be increased
FLOOD HAZARD MAP: The map delineating Flood Hazard by 1 ft (0.30 m).
Areas adopted by the authority having jurisdiction.
Reduced uplift and lateral loads on surfaces of enclosed spaces
FLOOD INSURANCE RATE MAP (FIRM): An official below the DFE shall apply only if provision is made for entry and
map of a community on which the Federal Insurance and exit of floodwater.

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5.4.3 Hydrodynamic Loads. Dynamic effects of moving water 5.4.4.1 Breaking Wave Loads on Vertical Pilings and
shall be determined by a detailed analysis utilizing basic concepts Columns. The net force resulting from a breaking wave acting
of fluid mechanics. on a rigid vertical pile or column shall be assumed to act at the
EXCEPTION: Where water velocities do not exceed 10 ft/s (3.05 m/s), still water elevation and shall be calculated by the following:
dynamic effects of moving water shall be permitted to be converted into
equivalent hydrostatic loads by increasing the DFE for design purposes
FD = 0.5γw C D D Hb2 (5-4)
by an equivalent surcharge depth, dh , on the headwater side and above the where
ground level only, equal to
FD = net wave force, in lb (kN)
aV 2 γw = unit weight of water, in lb per cubic ft (kN/m3 ), = 62.4 pcf
dh = (5-1)
2g (9.80 kN/m3 ) for fresh water and 64.0 pcf (10.05 kN/m3 )
for salt water
where C D = coefficient of drag for breaking waves, = 1.75 for round
V = average velocity of water in ft/s (m/s) piles or columns, and = 2.25 for square piles or columns
g = acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 ft/s (9.81 m/s2 ) D = pile or column diameter, in ft (m) for circular sections, or
a = coefficient of drag or shape factor (not less than 1.25) for a square pile or column, 1.4 times the width of the pile
or column in ft (m)
The equivalent surcharge depth shall be added to the DFE de- Hb = breaking wave height, in ft (m)
sign depth and the resultant hydrostatic pressures applied to, and
uniformly distributed across, the vertical projected area of the 5.4.4.2 Breaking Wave Loads on Vertical Walls. Maximum
building or structure that is perpendicular to the flow. Surfaces pressures and net forces resulting from a normally incident break-
parallel to the flow or surfaces wetted by the tail water shall be ing wave (depth-limited in size, with Hb = 0.78ds ) acting on a
subject to the hydrostatic pressures for depths to the DFE only. rigid vertical wall shall be calculated by the following:
Pmax = C p γw ds + 1.2γw ds (5-5)
5.4.4 Wave Loads. Wave loads shall be determined by one of the
following three methods: (1) by using the analytical procedures and
outlined in this section, (2) by more advanced numerical mod- Ft = 1.1C p γw ds2 + 2.4γw ds2 (5-6)
eling procedures, or (3) by laboratory test procedures (physical
modeling). where
Wave loads are those loads that result from water waves propa- Pmax = maximum combined dynamic (C p γw ds ) and static
gating over the water surface and striking a building or other (1.2γw ds ) wave pressures, also referred to as shock pres-
structure. Design and construction of buildings and other struc- sures in lb/ft2 (kN/m2 )
tures subject to wave loads shall account for the following loads: Ft = net breaking wave force per unit length of structure, also
waves breaking on any portion of the building or structure; up- referred to as shock, impulse, or wave impact force in
lift forces caused by shoaling waves beneath a building or struc- lb/ft (kN/m), acting near the still water elevation
ture, or portion thereof; wave runup striking any portion of the C p = dynamic pressure coefficient (1.6 < C p < 3.5) (see
building or structure; wave-induced drag and inertia forces; and Table 5-1)
wave-induced scour at the base of a building or structure, or its γw = unit weight of water, in lb per cubic ft (kN/m3 ), = 62.4 pcf
foundation. Wave loads shall be included for both V-Zones and (9.80 kN/m3 ) for fresh water and 64.0 pcf (10.05 kN/m3 )
A-Zones. In V-Zones, waves are 3 ft (0.91 m) high, or higher; in for salt water
coastal floodplains landward of the V-Zone, waves are less than ds = still water depth in ft (m) at base of building or other
3 ft high (0.91 m). structure where the wave breaks
Nonbreaking and broken wave loads shall be calculated using This procedure assumes the vertical wall causes a reflected or
the procedures described in Sections 5.4.2 and 5.4.3 that show standing wave against the waterward side of the wall with the
how to calculate hydrostatic and hydrodynamic loads. crest of the wave at a height of 1.2ds above the still water level.
Thus, the dynamic static and total pressure distributions against
Breaking wave loads shall be calculated using the procedures
the wall are as shown in Fig. 5-1.
described in Sections 5.4.4.1 through 5.4.4.4. Breaking wave
heights used in the procedures described in Sections 5.4.4.1 This procedure also assumes the space behind the vertical wall
through 5.4.4.4 shall be calculated for V-Zones and Coastal A- is dry, with no fluid balancing the static component of the wave
Zones using Eqs. 5-2 and 5-3. force on the outside of the wall. If free water exists behind the
wall, a portion of the hydrostatic component of the wave pressure
Hb = 0.78ds (5-2) and force disappears (see Fig. 5-2) and the net force shall be
computed by Eq. 5-7 (the maximum combined wave pressure is
where
still computed with Eq. 5-5).
Hb = breaking wave height in ft (m) Ft = 1.1C p γw ds2 + 1.9γw ds2 (5-7)
ds = local still water depth in ft (m)
where
The local still water depth shall be calculated using Eq. 5-3,
unless more advanced procedures or laboratory tests permitted by Ft = net breaking wave force per unit length of structure, also
this section are used. referred to as shock, impulse, or wave impact force in lb/ft
(kN/m), acting near the still water elevation
ds = 0.65(BFE − G) (5-3) C p = dynamic pressure coefficient (1.6 < C p < 3.5) (see
Table 5-1)
where
γw = unit weight of water, in lb per cubic ft (kN/m3 ), = 62.4 pcf
BFE = BFE in ft (m) (9.80 kN/m3 ) for fresh water and 64.0 pcf (10.05 kN/m3 )
G = ground elevation in ft (m) for salt water
16 ASCE 7-05
P1: JsY
ds = still water depth in ft (m) at base of building or other struc- Ft = net breaking wave force (normally incident waves) acting
ture where the wave breaks on a vertical surface in lb/ft (kN/m)
5.4.4.3 Breaking Wave Loads on Nonvertical Walls. Break- α = horizontal angle between the direction of wave approach and
ing wave forces given by Eqs. 5-6 and 5-7 shall be modified in the vertical surface
instances where the walls or surfaces upon which the breaking 5.4.5 Impact Loads. Impact loads are those that result from
waves act are nonvertical. The horizontal component of breaking debris, ice, and any object transported by floodwaters striking
wave force shall be given by against buildings and structures, or parts thereof. Impact loads
Fnv = Ft sin2 α (5-8) shall be determined using a rational approach as concentrated
loads acting horizontally at the most critical location at or below
where the DFE.
Fnv = horizontal component of breaking wave force in lb/ft
(kN/m)
Ft = net breaking wave force acting on a vertical surface in
lb/ft (kN/m)
α = vertical angle between nonvertical surface and the hori-
zontal This section lists the consensus standards and other documents
which are adopted by reference within this chapter:
5.4.4.4 Breaking Wave Loads from Obliquely Incident Waves.
Breaking wave forces given by Eqs. 5-6 and 5-7 shall be modified ASCE/SEI
in instances where waves are obliquely incident. Breaking wave American Society of Civil Engineers
forces from non-normally incident waves shall be given by Structural Engineering Institute
1801 Alexander Bell Drive
Foi = Ft sin2 α (5-9) Reston, VA 20191-4400
where ASCE/SEI 24
Foi = horizontal component of obliquely incident breaking wave Section 5.3.3
force in lb/ft (kN/m) Flood Resistant Design and Construction, 1998
TABLE 5-1 VALUE OF DYNAMIC PRESSURE COEFFICIENT, C p

Building Category Cp
I 1.6
II 2.8
III 3.2
IV 3.5

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Vertical Wall
Crest of reflected wave
Dynamic pressure
1.2 d s Crest of incident wave
0.55 ds
Stillwater level
ds Hydrostatic pressure
Ground elevation
FIGURE 5-1 NORMALLY INCIDENT BREAKING WAVE PRESSURES AGAINST A VERTICAL WALL (space behind vertical
wall is dry)
18 ASCE 7-05
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Vertical Wall
Crest of reflected wave
Dynamic pressure
1.2 d s Crest of incident wave
0.55 d s
Stillwater level
ds
Net hydrostatic pressure
Ground elevation
FIGURE 5-2 NORMALLY INCIDENT BREAKING WAVE PRESSURES AGAINST A VERTICAL WALL (still water
level equal on both sides of wall)

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20
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Chapter 6
WIND LOADS
6.1 GENERAL BUILDING AND OTHER STRUCTURE, FLEXIBLE:

Slender buildings and other structures that have a fundamental
6.1.1 Scope. Buildings and other structures, including the Main
natural frequency less than 1 Hz.
Wind-Force Resisting System (MWFRS) and all components and
cladding thereof, shall be designed and constructed to resist wind BUILDING, LOW-RISE: Enclosed or partially enclosed
loads as specified herein. buildings that comply with the following conditions:
1. Mean roof height h less than or equal to 60 ft (18 m).
6.1.2 Allowed Procedures. The design wind loads for buildings
and other structures, including the MWFRS and component and 2. Mean roof height h does not exceed least horizontal dimen-
cladding elements thereof, shall be determined using one of the sion.
following procedures: (1) Method 1—Simplified Procedure as BUILDING, OPEN: A building having each wall at least
specified in Section 6.4 for buildings meeting the requirements 80 percent open. This condition is expressed for each wall by
specified therein; (2) Method 2—Analytical Procedure as speci- the equation Ao ≥ 0.8A g where
fied in Section 6.5 for buildings meeting the requirements speci-
fied therein; (3) Method 3—Wind Tunnel Procedure as specified Ao = total area of openings in a wall that receives positive
in Section 6.6. external pressure, in ft2 (m2 )
A g = the gross area of that wall in which Ao is identified, in
6.1.3 Wind Pressures Acting on Opposite Faces of Each ft2 (m2 )
Building Surface. In the calculation of design wind loads for
the MWFRS and for components and cladding for buildings, the BUILDING, PARTIALLY ENCLOSED: A building that
algebraic sum of the pressures acting on opposite faces of each complies with both of the following conditions:
building surface shall be taken into account. 1. The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive
external pressure exceeds the sum of the areas of openings
6.1.4 Minimum Design Wind Loading. The design wind load, in the balance of the building envelope (walls and roof ) by
determined by any one of the procedures specified in Sec- more than 10 percent.
tion 6.1.2, shall be not less than specified in this section.
2. The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive
external pressure exceeds 4 ft2 (0.37 m2 ) or 1 percent of the
6.1.4.1 Main Wind-Force Resisting System. The wind load to
area of that wall, whichever is smaller, and the percentage
be used in the design of the MWFRS for an enclosed or partially
of openings in the balance of the building envelope does not
enclosed building or other structure shall not be less than 10 lb/ft2
exceed 20 percent.
(0.48 kN/m2 ) multiplied by the area of the building or structure
projected onto a vertical plane normal to the assumed wind direc- These conditions are expressed by the following equations:
tion. The design wind force for open buildings and other struc- 1. Ao > 1.10Aoi
tures shall be not less than 10 lb/ft2 (0.48 kN/m2 ) multiplied by the
area A f . 2. Ao > 4 sq ft (0.37 m2 ) or >0.01A g , whichever is smaller,
and Aoi /A gi ≤ 0.20
6.1.4.2 Components and Cladding. The design wind pressure where
for components and cladding of buildings shall not be less than Ao , A g are as defined for Open Building
a net pressure of 10 lb/ft2 (0.48 kN/m2 ) acting in either direction Aoi = the sum of the areas of openings in the building en-
normal to the surface. velope (walls and roof) not including Ao , in ft2 (m2 )
A gi = the sum of the gross surface areas of the building en-
velope (walls and roof) not including A g , in ft2 (m2 )
6.2 DEFINITIONS
BUILDING OR OTHER STRUCTURE, REGULAR-
The following definitions apply only to the provisions of SHAPED: A building or other structure having no unusual geo-
Chapter 6: metrical irregularity in spatial form.
APPROVED: Acceptable to the authority having jurisdiction. BUILDING OR OTHER STRUCTURES, RIGID: A build-
BASIC WIND SPEED, V: Three-second gust speed at 33 ft ing or other structure whose fundamental frequency is greater
(10 m) above the ground in Exposure C (see Section 6.5.6.3) as than or equal to 1 Hz.
determined in accordance with Section 6.5.4. BUILDING, SIMPLE DIAPHRAGM: A building in which
BUILDING, ENCLOSED: A building that does not comply both windward and leeward wind loads are transmitted through
with the requirements for open or partially enclosed buildings. floor and roof diaphragms to the same vertical MWFRS (e.g., no
structural separations).
BUILDING ENVELOPE: Cladding, roofing, exterior walls,
glazing, door assemblies, window assemblies, skylight assem- COMPONENTS AND CLADDING: Elements of the build-
blies, and other components enclosing the building. ing envelope that do not qualify as part of the MWFRS.

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DESIGN FORCE, F: Equivalent static force to be used in RECOGNIZED LITERATURE: Published research findings
the determination of wind loads for open buildings and other and technical papers that are approved.
structures. RIDGE: With respect to topographic effects in Section 6.5.7
DESIGN PRESSURE, p: Equivalent static pressure to be used an elongated crest of a hill characterized by strong relief in two
in the determination of wind loads for buildings. directions (see Fig. 6-4).
EAVE HEIGHT, h: The distance from the ground surface WIND-BORNE DEBRIS REGIONS: Areas within hurricane
adjacent to the building to the roof eave line at a particular wall. prone regions located:
If the height of the eave varies along the wall, the average height 1. Within 1 mile of the coastal mean high water line where the
shall be used. basic wind speed is equal to or greater than 110 mi/h and in
EFFECTIVE WIND AREA, A: The area used to determine Hawaii, or
GC p . For component and cladding elements, the effective wind 2. In areas where the basic wind speed is equal to or greater
area in Figs. 6-11 through 6-17 and Fig. 6-19 is the span length than 120 mi/h.
multiplied by an effective width that need not be less than one-
third the span length. For cladding fasteners, the effective wind 6.3 SYMBOLS AND NOTATION
area shall not be greater than the area that is tributary to an indi-
vidual fastener. The following symbols and notation apply only to the provisions
of Chapter 6:
ESCARPMENT: Also known as scarp, with respect to topo-
A = effective wind area, in ft2 (m2 )
graphic effects in Section 6.5.7, a cliff or steep slope generally
separating two levels or gently sloping areas (see Fig. 6-4). A f = area of open buildings and other structures either nor-
mal to the wind direction or projected on a plane nor-
FREE ROOF: Roof with a configuration generally conform- mal to the wind direction, in ft2 (m2 )
ing to those shown in Figs. 6-18A through 6-18D (monoslope,
A g = the gross area of that wall in which Ao is identified,
pitched, or troughed) in an open building with no enclosing walls
in ft2 (m2 )
underneath the roof surface.
A gi = the sum of the gross surface areas of the build-
GLAZING: Glass or transparent or translucent plastic sheet ing envelope (walls and roof) not including A g , in
used in windows, doors, skylights, or curtain walls.
ft2 (m2 )
GLAZING, IMPACT RESISTANT: Glazing that has been Ao = total area of openings in a wall that receives positive
shown by testing in accordance with ASTM E1886 and ASTM external pressure, in ft2 (m2 )
E1996 or other approved test methods to withstand the impact of
Aoi = the sum of the areas of openings in the building enve-
wind-borne missiles likely to be generated in wind-borne debris
lope (walls and roof) not including Ao , in ft2 (m2 )
regions during design winds.
Aog = total area of openings in the building envelope in
HILL: With respect to topographic effects in Section 6.5.7, ft2 (m2 )
a land surface characterized by strong relief in any horizontal
As = gross area of the solid freestanding wall or solid sign,
direction (see Fig. 6-4).
in ft2 (m2 )
HURRICANE PRONE REGIONS: Areas vulnerable to hur- a = width of pressure coefficient zone, in ft (m)
ricanes; in the United States and its territories defined as
B = horizontal dimension of building measured normal to
1. The U.S. Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico coasts where wind direction, in ft (m)
the basic wind speed is greater than 90 mi/h, and
b = mean hourly wind speed factor in Eq. 6-14 from
2. Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Guam, Virgin Islands, and American Table 6-2
Samoa.
b̂ = 3-s gust speed factor from Table 6-2
IMPACT RESISTANT COVERING: A covering designed C f = force coefficient to be used in determination of wind
to protect glazing, which has been shown by testing in accor- loads for other structures
dance with ASTM E1886 and ASTM E1996 or other approved
test methods to withstand the impact of wind-borne debris mis- C N = net pressure coefficient to be used in determination of
siles likely to be generated in wind-borne debris regions during wind loads for open buildings
design winds. C p = external pressure coefficient to be used in determina-
tion of wind loads for buildings
IMPORTANCE FACTOR, I: A factor that accounts for the
degree of hazard to human life and damage to property. c = turbulence intensity factor in Eq. 6-5 from Table
6-2
MAIN WIND-FORCE RESISTING SYSTEM (MWFRS): D = diameter of a circular structure or member, in ft (m)
An assemblage of structural elements assigned to provide sup-
port and stability for the overall structure. The system generally D = depth of protruding elements such as ribs and spoilers,
receives wind loading from more than one surface. in ft (m)
F = design wind force for other structures, in lb (N)
MEAN ROOF HEIGHT, h: The average of the roof eave
height and the height to the highest point on the roof surface, G = gust effect factor
except that, for roof angles of less than or equal to 10◦ , the mean G f = gust effect factor for MWFRSs of flexible buildings
roof height shall be the roof heave height. and other structures
OPENINGS: Apertures or holes in the building envelope that GC pn = combined net pressure coefficient for a parapet
allow air to flow through the building envelope and that are GC p = product of external pressure coefficient and gust-
designed as “open” during design winds as defined by these effect factor to be used in determination of wind loads
provisions. for buildings
22 ASCE 7-05
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GC p f = product of the equivalent external pressure coef- q = velocity pressure, in lb/ft2 (N/m2 )
ficient and gust-effect factor to be used in deter- qh = velocity pressure evaluated at height z = h, in
mination of wind loads for MWFRS of low-rise lb/ft2 (N/m2 )
buildings
qi = velocity pressure for internal pressure determi-
GC pi = product of internal pressure coefficient and gust- nation, in lb/ft2 (N/m2 )
effect factor to be used in determination of wind
loads for buildings q p = velocity pressure at top of parapet, in lb/ft2
(N/m2 )
gQ = peak factor for background response in Eqs. 6-4
and 6-8 qz = velocity pressure evaluated at height z above
ground, in lb/ft2 (N/m2 )
gR = peak factor for resonant response in Eq. 6-8
R = resonant response factor from Eq. 6-10
gv = peak factor for wind response in Eqs. 6-4 and
6-8 R B , Rh , R L = values from Eq. 6-13
H = height of hill or escarpment in Fig. 6-4, in ft (m) Ri = reduction factor from Eq. 6-16
h = mean roof height of a building or height of other Rn = value from Eq. 6-11
structure, except that eave height shall be used s = vertical dimension of the solid freestanding wall
for roof angle θ of less than or equal to 10◦ , in or solid sign from Fig. 6-20, in ft (m)
ft (m) r = rise-to-span ratio for arched roofs
h e = roof eave height at a particular wall, or the aver- V = basic wind speed obtained from Fig. 6-1, in mi/h
age height if the eave varies along the wall (m/s). The basic wind speed corresponds to a
I = importance factor 3-s gust speed at 33 ft (10 m) above ground in
Iz̄ = intensity of turbulence from Eq. 6-5 exposure Category C
K 1 , K 2 , K 3 = multipliers in Fig. 6-4 to obtain K zt Vi = unpartitioned internal volume ft3 (m3 )
K d = wind directionality factor in Table 6-4 V̄z̄ = mean hourly wind speed at height z̄, ft/s (m/s)
K h = velocity pressure exposure coefficient evaluated W = width of building in Figs. 6-12 and 6-14A and
at height z = h B and width of span in Figs. 6-13 and 6-15,
K z = velocity pressure exposure coefficient evaluated in ft (m)
at height z X = distance to center of pressure from windward
K zt = topographic factor as defined in Section 6.5.7 edge in Fig. 6-18, in ft (m)
L = horizontal dimension of a building measured x = distance upwind or downwind of crest in
parallel to the wind direction, in ft (m) Fig. 6-4, in ft (m)
L h = distance upwind of crest of hill or escarpment z = height above ground level, in ft (m)
in Fig. 6-4 to where the difference in ground z̄ = equivalent height of structure, in ft (m)
elevation is half the height of hill or escarpment, z g = nominal height of the atmospheric boundary
in ft (m) layer used in this standard. Values appear in
L z̄ = integral length scale of turbulence, in ft (m) Table 6-2
L r = horizontal dimension of return corner for a solid z min = exposure constant from Table 6-2
freestanding wall or solid sign from Fig. 6-20, α = 3-s gust-speed power law exponent from Table
in ft (m) 6-2
= integral length scale factor from Table 6-2, ft (m) α̂ = reciprocal of α from Table 6-2
N1 = reduced frequency from Eq. 6-12 ᾱ = mean hourly wind-speed power law exponent
n 1 = building natural frequency, Hz in Eq. 6-14 from Table 6-2
p = design pressure to be used in determination of β = damping ratio, percent critical for buildings or
wind loads for buildings, in lb/ft2 (N/m2 ) other structures
p L = wind pressure acting on leeward face in Fig. 6-9, ∈ = ratio of solid area to gross area for solid free-
in lb/ft2 (N/m2 ) standing wall, solid sign, open sign, face of a
trussed tower, or lattice structure
pnet = net design wind pressure from Eq. 6-2, in lb/ft2
(N/m2 ) λ = adjustment factor for building height and expo-
sure from Figs. 6-2 and 6-3
pnet30 = net design wind pressure for Exposure B at h =
30 ft and I = 1.0 from Fig. 6-3, in lb/ft2 (N/m2 ) ∈¯ = integral length scale power law exponent in
Eq. 6-7 from Table 6-2
p p = combined net pressure on a parapet from
Eq. 6-20, in lb/ft2 (N/m2 ) η = value used in Eq. 6-13 (see Section 6.5.8.2)
ps = net design wind pressure from Eq. 6-1, in lb/ft2 θ = angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in de-
(N/m2 ) grees
ps30 = simplified design wind pressure for Exposure B v = height-to-width ratio for solid sign
at h = 30 ft and I = 1.0 from Fig. 6-2, in lb/ft2
(N/m2 )
pW = wind pressure acting on windward face in 6.4 METHOD 1—SIMPLIFIED PROCEDURE
Fig. 6-9, in lb/ft2 (N/m2 ) 6.4.1 Scope. A building whose design wind loads are determined
Q = background response factor from Eq. 6-6 in accordance with this section shall meet all the conditions of

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6.4.1.1 or 6.4.1.2. If a building qualifies only under 6.4.1.2 for of building surfaces as shown in Fig. 6-2. For the horizontal pres-
design of its components and cladding, then its MWFRS shall be sures (zones A, B, C, D), ps is the combination of the windward
designed by Method 2 or Method 3. and leeward net pressures. ps shall be determined by the following
equation:
6.4.1.1 Main Wind-Force Resisting Systems. For the design of
MWFRSs the building must meet all of the following conditions: ps = λK zt I p S30 (6-1)
1. The building is a simple diaphragm building as defined in where
Section 6.2. λ = adjustment factor for building height and exposure
2. The building is a low-rise building as defined in Section 6.2. from Fig. 6-2
3. The building is enclosed as defined in Section 6.2 and con- K zt = topographic factor as defined in Section 6.5.7 evaluated
forms to the wind-borne debris provisions of Section 6.5.9.3. at mean roof height, h
I = importance factor as defined in Section 6.2
4. The building is a regular-shaped building or structure as
defined in Section 6.2. p S30 = simplified design wind pressure for Exposure B, at
h = 30 ft, and for I = 1.0, from Fig. 6-2
5. The building is not classified as a flexible building as defined
in Section 6.2. 6.4.2.1.1 Minimum Pressures. The load effects of the design
wind pressures from Section 6.4.2.1 shall not be less than the
6. The building does not have response characteristics making minimum load case from Section 6.1.4.1 assuming the pressures,
it subject to across wind loading, vortex shedding, instability ps , for zones A, B, C, and D all equal to +10 psf, while assuming
due to galloping or flutter; and does not have a site location zones E, F, G, and H all equal to 0 psf.
for which channeling effects or buffeting in the wake of
upwind obstructions warrant special consideration. 6.4.2.2 Components and Cladding. Net design wind pressures,
pnet , for the components and cladding of buildings designed using
7. The building has an approximately symmetrical cross- Method 1 represent the net pressures (sum of internal and external)
section in each direction with either a flat roof or a gable or to be applied normal to each building surface as shown in Fig. 6-3.
hip roof with θ ≤ 45◦ . pnet shall be determined by the following equation:
8. The building is exempted from torsional load cases as in- pnet = λK zt I pnet30 (6-2)
dicated in Note 5 of Fig. 6-10, or the torsional load cases
defined in Note 5 do not control the design of any of the where
MWFRSs of the building. λ = adjustment factor for building height and exposure from
6.4.1.2 Components and Cladding. For the design of compo- Fig. 6-3
nents and cladding the building must meet all the following K zt = topographic factor as defined in Section 6.5.7 evaluated
conditions: at mean roof height, h
I = importance factor as defined in Section 6.2
1. The mean roof height h must be less than or equal to 60 ft pnet30 = net design wind pressure for exposure B, at h = 30 ft,
(h ≤ 60 ft). and for I = 1.0, from Fig. 6-3
2. The building is enclosed as defined in Section 6.2 and con- 6.4.2.2.1 Minimum Pressures. The positive design wind
forms to the wind-borne debris provisions of Section 6.5.9.3. pressures, pnet , from Section 6.4.2.2 shall not be less than
3. The building is a regular-shaped building or structure as +10 psf, and the negative design wind pressures, pnet , from
defined in Section 6.2. Section 6.4.2.2 shall not be less than −10 psf.
4. The building does not have response characteristics making 6.4.3 Air Permeable Cladding. Design wind loads determined
it subject to across wind loading, vortex shedding, instability from Fig. 6.3 shall be used for all air permeable cladding unless
due to galloping or flutter; and does not have a site location approved test data or the recognized literature demonstrate lower
for which channeling effects or buffeting in the wake of loads for the type of air permeable cladding being considered.
upwind obstructions warrant special consideration.
5. The building has either a flat roof, a gable roof with θ ≤ 45◦ , 6.5 METHOD 2—ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE
or a hip roof with θ ≤ 27◦ . 6.5.1 Scope. A building or other structure whose design wind
6.4.2 Design Procedure. loads are determined in accordance with this section shall meet
all of the following conditions:
1. The basic wind speed V shall be determined in accordance
with Section 6.5.4. The wind shall be assumed to come from 1. The building or other structure is a regular-shaped building
any horizontal direction. or structure as defined in Section 6.2.
2. An importance factor I shall be determined in accordance 2. The building or other structure does not have response char-
with Section 6.5.5. acteristics making it subject to across wind loading, vortex
shedding, instability due to galloping or flutter; or does not
3. An exposure category shall be determined in accordance
have a site location for which channeling effects or buf-
with Section 6.5.6.
feting in the wake of upwind obstructions warrant special
4. A height and exposure adjustment coefficient, λ, shall be consideration.
determined from Fig. 6-2.
6.5.2 Limitations. The provisions of Section 6.5 take into con-
6.4.2.1 Main Wind-Force Resisting System. Simplified design sideration the load magnification effect caused by gusts in reso-
wind pressures, ps , for the MWFRSs of low-rise simple dia- nance with along-wind vibrations of flexible buildings or other
phragm buildings represent the net pressures (sum of internal and structures. Buildings or other structures not meeting the require-
external) to be applied to the horizontal and vertical projections ments of Section 6.5.1, or having unusual shapes or response
24 ASCE 7-05
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characteristics, shall be designed using recognized literature the anemometer have been taken into account. Reduction in basic
documenting such wind load effects or shall use the wind tunnel wind speed below that of Fig. 6-1 shall be permitted.
procedure specified in Section 6.6.
In hurricane-prone regions, wind speeds derived from simula-
6.5.2.1 Shielding. There shall be no reductions in velocity pres- tion techniques shall only be used in lieu of the basic wind speeds
sure due to apparent shielding afforded by buildings and other given in Fig. 6-1 when (1) approved simulation and extreme value
structures or terrain features. statistical analysis procedures are used (the use of regional wind
speed data obtained from anemometers is not permitted to define
6.5.2.2 Air Permeable Cladding. Design wind loads deter- the hurricane wind-speed risk along the Gulf and Atlantic coasts,
mined from Section 6.5 shall be used for air permeable cladding the Caribbean, or Hawaii) and (2) the design wind speeds result-
unless approved test data or recognized literature demonstrate ing from the study shall not be less √ than the resulting 500-year
lower loads for the type of air permeable cladding being return period wind speed divided by 1.5.
considered.
In areas outside hurricane-prone regions, when the basic wind
6.5.3 Design Procedure. speed is estimated from regional climatic data, the basic wind
speed shall be not less than the wind speed associated with an
1. The basic wind speed V and wind directionality factor Kd
annual probability of 0.02 (50-year mean recurrence interval),
shall be determined in accordance with Section 6.5.4.
and the estimate shall be adjusted for equivalence to a 3-s gust
2. An importance factor I shall be determined in accordance wind speed at 33 ft (10 m) above ground in exposure Category
with Section 6.5.5. C. The data analysis shall be performed in accordance with this
chapter.
3. An exposure category or exposure categories and velocity
pressure exposure coefficient Kz or K h , as applicable, shall 6.5.4.3 Limitation. Tornadoes have not been considered in de-
be determined for each wind direction in accordance with veloping the basic wind-speed distributions.
Section 6.5.6.
6.5.4.4 Wind Directionality Factor. The wind directionality
4. A topographic factor K zt shall be determined in accor- factor, K d , shall be determined from Table 6-4. This factor shall
dance with Section 6.5.7. only be applied when used in conjunction with load combinations
5. A gust effect factor G or G f , as applicable, shall be deter- specified in Sections 2.3 and 2.4.
mined in accordance with Section 6.5.8. 6.5.5 Importance Factor. An importance factor, I, for the build-
6. An enclosure classification shall be determined in accor- ing or other structure shall be determined from Table 6-1 based
dance with Section 6.5.9. on building and structure categories listed in Table 1-1.
7. Internal pressure coefficient GC pi shall be determined in 6.5.6 Exposure. For each wind direction considered, the upwind
accordance with Section 6.5.11.1. exposure category shall be based on ground surface roughness
that is determined from natural topography, vegetation, and con-
8. External pressure coefficients C p or GC p f , or force coeffi- structed facilities.
cients C f , as applicable, shall be determined in accordance
with Section 6.5.11.2 or 6.5.11.3, respectively. 6.5.6.1 Wind Directions and Sectors. For each selected wind
direction at which the wind loads are to be evaluated, the expo-
9. Velocity pressure qz or qh , as applicable, shall be deter- sure of the building or structure shall be determined for the two
mined in accordance with Section 6.5.10. upwind sectors extending 45◦ either side of the selected wind di-
10. Design wind load p or F shall be determined in accor- rection. The exposures in these two sectors shall be determined
dance with Sections 6.5.12, 6.5.13, 6.5.14, and 6.5.15, as in accordance with Sections 6.5.6.2 and 6.5.6.3 and the exposure
applicable. resulting in the highest wind loads shall be used to represent the
winds from that direction.
6.5.4 Basic Wind Speed. The basic wind speed, V , used in
6.5.6.2 Surface Roughness Categories. A ground surface
the determination of design wind loads on buildings and other
roughness within each 45◦ sector shall be determined for a dis-
structures shall be as given in Fig. 6-1 except as provided in
tance upwind of the site as defined in Section 6.5.6.3 from the
Sections 6.5.4.1 and 6.5.4.2. The wind shall be assumed to come
categories defined in the following text, for the purpose of assign-
from any horizontal direction.
ing an exposure category as defined in Section 6.5.6.3.
6.5.4.1 Special Wind Regions. The basic wind speed shall be in- Surface Roughness B: Urban and suburban areas, wooded ar-
creased where records or experience indicate that the wind speeds eas, or other terrain with numerous closely spaced obstructions
are higher than those reflected in Fig. 6-1. Mountainous terrain, having the size of single-family dwellings or larger.
gorges, and special regions shown in Fig. 6-1 shall be examined for
unusual wind conditions. The authority having jurisdiction shall, Surface Roughness C: Open terrain with scattered obstructions
if necessary, adjust the values given in Fig. 6-1 to account for having heights generally less than 30 ft (9.1 m). This category
higher local wind speeds. Such adjustment shall be based on me- includes flat open country, grasslands, and all water surfaces in
teorological information and an estimate of the basic wind speed hurricane prone regions.
obtained in accordance with the provisions of Section 6.5.4.2. Surface Roughness D: Flat, unobstructed areas and water sur-
faces outside hurricane prone regions. This category includes
6.5.4.2 Estimation of Basic Wind Speeds from Regional
smooth mud flats, salt flats, and unbroken ice.
Climatic Data. In areas outside hurricane-prone regions, re-
gional climatic data shall only be used in lieu of the basic 6.5.6.3 Exposure Categories
wind speeds given in Fig. 6-1 when (1) approved extreme-value Exposure B: Exposure B shall apply where the ground surface
statistical-analysis procedures have been employed in reducing roughness condition, as defined by Surface Roughness B, prevails
the data; and (2) the length of record, sampling error, averaging in the upwind direction for a distance of at least 2,600 ft (792 m)
time, anemometer height, data quality, and terrain exposure of or 20 times the height of the building, whichever is greater.

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EXCEPTION: For buildings whose mean roof height is less than or 4. H /L h ≥ 0.2.
equal to 30 ft, the upwind distance may be reduced to 1,500 ft (457 m).
5. H is greater than or equal to 15 ft (4.5 m) for Exposures C
Exposure C: Exposure C shall apply for all cases where Expo- and D and 60 ft (18 m) for Exposure B.
sures B or D do not apply.
6.5.7.2 Topographic Factor. The wind speed-up effect shall be
Exposure D: Exposure D shall apply where the ground surface included in the calculation of design wind loads by using the
roughness, as defined by Surface Roughness D, prevails in the factor K zt :
upwind direction for a distance greater than 5,000 ft (1,524 m)
or 20 times the building height, whichever is greater. Exposure K zt = (1 + K 1 K 2 K 3 )2 (6-3)
Dshall extend into downwind areas of Surface Roughness B or
where K 1 , K 2 , and K 3 are given in Fig. 6-4.
C for a distance of 600 ft (200 m) or 20 times the height of the
building, whichever is greater. If site conditions and locations of structures do not meet all the
conditions specified in Section 6.5.7.1 then K zt = 1.0.
For a site located in the transition zone between exposure cate-
gories, the category resulting in the largest wind forces shall be 6.5.8 Gust Effect Factor.
used.
6.5.8.1 Rigid Structures. For rigid structures as defined in Sec-
EXCEPTION: An intermediate exposure between the preceding cate-
tion 6.2, the gust-effect factor shall be taken as 0.85 or calculated
gories is permitted in a transition zone provided that it is determined by a
rational analysis method defined in the recognized literature. by the formula:

(1 + 1.7g Q Iz̄ Q)
6.5.6.4 Exposure Category for Main Wind-Force Resisting G = 0.925 (6-4)
System. 1 + 1.7gv Iz̄
1/6
6.5.6.4.1 Buildings and Other Structures. For each wind 33
direction considered, wind loads for the design of the MWFRS de- Iz̄ = c (6-5)
z̄
termined from Fig. 6-6 shall be based on the exposure categories 1/6
defined in Section 6.5.6.3. 10
In SI: Iz̄ = c
6.5.6.4.2 Low-Rise Buildings. Wind loads for the design of z̄
the MWFRSs for low-rise buildings shall be determined using a where Iz̄ = the intensity of turbulence at height z̄ where z̄ =
velocity pressure qh based on the exposure resulting in the high- the equivalent height of the structure defined as 0.6h, but not
est wind loads for any wind direction at the site where external less than z min for all building heights h. z min and c are listed for
pressure coefficients GC p f given in Fig. 6-10 are used. each exposure in Table 6-2; g Q and gv shall be taken as 3.4. The
background response Q is given by
6.5.6.5 Exposure Category for Components and Cladding.
Components and cladding design pressures for all buildings and 1
other structures shall be based on the exposure resulting in the Q= (6-6)
B + h 0.63
highest wind loads for any direction at the site. 1 + 0.63
L z̄
6.5.6.6 Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient. Based on the
exposure category determined in Section 6.5.6.3, a velocity pres- where B, h are defined in Section 6.3; and L z̄ = the integral length
sure exposure coefficient K z or K h , as applicable, shall be de- scale of turbulence at the equivalent height given by
termined from Table 6-3. For a site located in a transition zone ∈¯
z̄
between exposure categories, that is, near to a change in ground L z̄ = (6-7)
surface roughness, intermediate values of K z or K h , between 33
those shown in Table 6-3, are permitted, provided that they are de- ∈¯
z̄
termined by a rational analysis method defined in the recognized In SI: L z̄ =
literature. 10
in which and ∈¯ are constants listed in Table 6-2.
6.5.7 Topographic Effects.
6.5.8.2 Flexible or Dynamically Sensitive Structures. For flex-
6.5.7.1 Wind Speed-Up over Hills, Ridges, and Escarpments. ible or dynamically sensitive structures as defined in Section 6.2,
Wind speed-up effects at isolated hills, ridges, and escarpments the gust-effect factor shall be calculated by
constituting abrupt changes in the general topography, located
 
in any exposure category, shall be included in the design when 1 + 1.7Iz̄ g 2Q Q 2 + g 2R R 2
buildings and other site conditions and locations of structures G f = 0.925   (6-8)
meet all of the following conditions: 1 + 1.7gv Iz̄
1. The hill, ridge, or escarpment is isolated and unobstructed
g Q and gv shall be taken as 3.4 and g R is given by
upwind by other similar topographic features of comparable
height for 100 times the height of the topographic feature 0.577
(100H ) or 2 mi (3.22 km), whichever is less. This distance g R = 2 ln (3,600n 1 ) + √ (6-9)
2 ln (3,600n 1 )
shall be measured horizontally from the point at which the
height H of the hill, ridge, or escarpment is determined. R, the resonant response factor, is given by

2. The hill, ridge, or escarpment protrudes above the height of 1
upwind terrain features within a 2-mi (3.22 km) radius in R= Rn Rh R B (0.53 + 0.47R L ) (6-10)
β
any quadrant by a factor of two or more.
3. The structure is located as shown in Fig. 6-4 in the upper 7.47N1
Rn = (6-11)
one-half of a hill or ridge or near the crest of an escarpment. (1 + 10.3N1 )5/3
26 ASCE 7-05
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n 1 L z̄ 6.5.10 Velocity Pressure. Velocity pressure, qz , evaluated at

N1 = (6-12) height z shall be calculated by the following equation:
V̄z̄
qz = 0.00256K z K zt K d V 2 I (lb/ft2 ) (6-15)
1 1
R = − 2 (1 − e−2η ) for η > 0 (6-13a) [In SI: qz = 0.613K z K zt K d V I (N/m ); V in m/s]
2 2
η 2η
where K d is the wind directionality factor defined in Section
R = 1 for η = 0 (6-13b) 6.5.4.4, K z is the velocity pressure exposure coefficient defined
where the subscript in Eq. 6-13 shall be taken as h, B, and L, in Section 6.5.6.6, K zt is the topographic factor defined in Section
respectively, where h, B, and L are defined in Section 6.3. 6.5.7.2, and qh is the velocity pressure calculated using Eq. 6-15
at mean roof height h.
n1 = building natural frequency
The numerical coefficient 0.00256 (0.613 in SI) shall be used
R = Rh setting η = 4.6n 1 h/V̄z̄ except where sufficient climatic data are available to justify the
R = R B setting η = 4.6n 1 E B/V̄z̄ selection of a different value of this factor for a design application.
R = R L setting η = 15.4n 1 L/V̄z̄ 6.5.11 Pressure and Force Coefficients.
β = damping ratio, percent of critical
6.5.11.1 Internal Pressure Coefficient. Internal pressure coeffi-
V̄z̄ = mean hourly wind speed (ft/s) at height z̄ determined cients, GC pi , shall be determined from Fig. 6-5 based on building
from Eq. 6-14. enclosure classifications determined from Section 6.5.9.
ᾱ 6.5.11.1.1 Reduction Factor for Large Volume Buildings,
z̄ 88
V̄z̄ = b̄ V (6-14) Ri . For a partially enclosed building containing a single, unparti-
33 60
tioned large volume, the internal pressure coefficient, GC pi , shall
ᾱ be multiplied by the following reduction factor, Ri :
z̄
In SI: V̄z̄ = b̄ V Ri = 1.0 or
10  
where b̄ and ᾱ are constants listed in Table 6-2 and V is the basic  
wind speed in mi/h.  1 
Ri = 0.5 
1 +
 ≤ 1.0
 (6-16)
6.5.8.3 Rational Analysis. In lieu of the procedure defined in  Vi 
1+
Sections 6.5.8.1 and 6.5.8.2, determination of the gust-effect fac- 22,800Aog
tor by any rational analysis defined in the recognized literature is
permitted. where
Aog = total area of openings in the building envelope (walls and
6.5.8.4 Limitations. Where combined gust-effect factors and roof, in ft2 )
pressure coefficients (GC p , GC pi , and GC p f ) are given in fig-
Vi = unpartitioned internal volume, in ft3
ures and tables, the gust-effect factor shall not be determined
separately. 6.5.11.2 External Pressure Coefficients.
6.5.9 Enclosure Classifications. 6.5.11.2.1 Main Wind-Force Resisting Systems. External
pressure coefficients for MWFRSs C p are given in Figs. 6-6,
6.5.9.1 General. For the purpose of determining internal pres- 6-7, and 6-8. Combined gust effect factor and external pressure
sure coefficients, all buildings shall be classified as enclosed, par- coefficients, GC p f , are given in Fig. 6-10 for low-rise buildings.
tially enclosed, or open as defined in Section 6.2. The pressure coefficient values and gust effect factor in Fig. 6-10
shall not be separated.
6.5.9.2 Openings. A determination shall be made of the amount
of openings in the building envelope to determine the enclosure 6.5.11.2.2 Components and Cladding. Combined gust-
classification as defined in Section 6.5.9.1. effect factor and external pressure coefficients for components and
cladding GC p are given in Figs. 6-11 through 6-17. The pressure
6.5.9.3 Wind-Borne Debris. Glazing in buildings located in coefficient values and gust-effect factor shall not be separated.
wind-borne debris regions shall be protected with an impact-
6.5.11.3 Force Coefficients. Force coefficients C f are given in
resistant covering or be impact-resistant glazing according to
Figs. 6-20 through 6-23.
the requirements specified in ASTM E1886 and ASTM E1996
or other approved test methods and performance criteria. The 6.5.11.4 Roof Overhangs.
levels of impact resistance shall be a function of Missile Levels
6.5.11.4.1 Main Wind-Force Resisting System. Roof over-
and Wind Zones specified in ASTM E1886 and ASTM E1996.
hangs shall be designed for a positive pressure on the bottom
EXCEPTIONS: surface of windward roof overhangs corresponding to C p = 0.8
1. Glazing in Category II, III, or IV buildings located over 60 ft (18.3 m) in combination with the pressures determined from using Figs. 6-6
above the ground and over 30 ft (9.2 m) above aggregate surface roofs and 6-10.
located within 1,500 ft (458 m) of the building shall be permitted to be
unprotected. 6.5.11.4.2 Components and Cladding. For all buildings, roof
2. Glazing in Category I buildings shall be permitted to be unprotected. overhangs shall be designed for pressures determined from pres-
sure coefficients given in Figs. 6-11B,C,D.
6.5.9.4 Multiple Classifications. If a building by definition
6.5.11.5 Parapets.
complies with both the “open” and “partially enclosed” defini-
tions, it shall be classified as an “open” building. A building that 6.5.11.5.1 Main Wind-Force Resisting System. The pres-
does not comply with either the “open” or “partially enclosed” sure coefficients for the effect of parapets on the MWFRS loads
definitions shall be classified as an “enclosed” building. are given in Section 6.5.12.2.4

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6.5.11.5.2 Components and Cladding. The pressure coeffi- 6.5.12.2.3 Flexible Buildings. Design wind pressures for the
cients for the design of parapet component and cladding elements MWFRS of flexible buildings shall be determined from the fol-
are taken from the wall and roof pressure coefficients as specified lowing equation:
in Section 6.5.12.4.4.
p = qG f C p − qi (GC pi ) (lb/ft2 ) (N/m2 ) (6-19)
6.5.12 Design Wind Loads on Enclosed and Partially
Enclosed Buildings. where q, qi , C p , and (GC pi ) are as defined in Section 6.5.12.2.1
and G f = gust effect factor is defined as in Section 6.5.8.2.
6.5.12.1 General.
6.5.12.2.4 Parapets. The design wind pressure for the effect
6.5.12.1.1 Sign Convention. Positive pressure acts toward the of parapets on MWFRSs of rigid, low-rise, or flexible buildings
surface and negative pressure acts away from the surface. with flat, gable, or hip roofs shall be determined by the following
equation:
6.5.12.1.2 Critical Load Condition. Values of external and
internal pressures shall be combined algebraically to determine p p = q p GC pn (lb/ft2 ) (6-20)
the most critical load.
where
2 2
6.5.12.1.3 Tributary Areas Greater than 700 ft (65 m ). p p = combined net pressure on the parapet due to the combi-
Component and cladding elements with tributary areas greater nation of the net pressures from the front and back para-
than 700 ft2 (65 m2 ) shall be permitted to be designed using the pet surfaces. Plus (and minus) signs signify net pressure
provisions for MWFRSs. acting toward (and away from) the front (exterior) side
of the parapet
6.5.12.2 Main Wind-Force Resisting Systems. q p = velocity pressure evaluated at the top of the parapet
6.5.12.2.1 Rigid Buildings of All Heights. Design wind pres- GC pn = combined net pressure coefficient
sures for the MWFRS of buildings of all heights shall be deter- = +1.5 for windward parapet
mined by the following equation: = −1.0 for leeward parapet
6.5.12.3 Design Wind Load Cases. The MWFRS of buildings
p = qGC p − qi (GC pi ) (lb/ft2 ) (N/m2 ) (6-17)
of all heights, whose wind loads have been determined under the
where provisions of Sections 6.5.12.2.1 and 6.5.12.2.3, shall be designed
for the wind load cases as defined in Fig. 6-9. The eccentricity e
q = qz for windward walls evaluated at height z above the for rigid structures shall be measured from the geometric center
ground of the building face and shall be considered for each principal
q = qh for leeward walls, side walls, and roofs, evaluated axis (e X , eY ). The eccentricity e for flexible structures shall be
at height h determined from the following equation and shall be considered
qi = qh for windward walls, side walls, leeward walls, and for each principal axis (e X , eY ):
roofs of enclosed buildings and for negative internal
pressure evaluation in partially enclosed buildings e Q + 1.7I Z̄ (g Q Qe Q )2 + (g R Re R )2
qi = qz for positive internal pressure evaluation in partially e= (6-21)
1 + 1.7I Z̄ (g Q Q)2 + (g R R)2
enclosed buildings where height z is defined as the level
of the highest opening in the building that could affect where
the positive internal pressure. For buildings sited in
wind-borne debris regions, glazing that is not impact e Q = eccentricity e as determined for rigid structures in Fig. 6-9
resistant or protected with an impact resistant cover- e R = distance between the elastic shear center and center of mass
ing, shall be treated as an opening in accordance with of each floor
Section 6.5.9.3. For positive internal pressure evalua- I Z̄ , g Q , Q, g R , R shall be as defined in Section 6.5.8
tion, qi may conservatively be evaluated at height h The sign of the eccentricity e shall be plus or minus, whichever
(qi = qh ) causes the more severe load effect.
G = gust effect factor from Section 6.5.8 EXCEPTION: One-story buildings with h less than or equal to 30 ft,
C p = external pressure coefficient from Fig. 6-6 or 6-8 buildings two stories or less framed with light-frame construction, and
(GC pi ) = internal pressure coefficient from Fig. 6-5 buildings two stories or less designed with flexible diaphragms need only
be designed for Load Case 1 and Load Case 3 in Fig. 6-9.
q and qi shall be evaluated using exposure defined in Section
6.5.6.3. Pressure shall be applied simultaneously on windward 6.5.12.4 Components and Cladding.
and leeward walls and on roof surfaces as defined in Figs. 6-6 and
6-8. 6.5.12.4.1 Low-Rise Buildings and Buildings with h ≤
60 ft (18.3 m). Design wind pressures on component and cladding
6.5.12.2.2 Low-Rise Building. Alternatively, design wind elements of low-rise buildings and buildings with h ≤ 60 ft
pressures for the MWFRS of low-rise buildings shall be deter- (18.3 m) shall be determined from the following equation:
mined by the following equation:
p = qh [(GC p ) − (GC pi )] (lb/ft2 ) (N/m2 ) (6-22)
p = qh [(GC p f ) − (GC pi )] (lb/ft2 ) (N/m2 ) (6-18)
where
where
qh = velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height h using
qh = velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height h using exposure defined in Section 6.5.6.3
exposure defined in Section 6.5.6.3 (GC p ) = external pressure coefficients given in Figs. 6-11
(GC p f ) = external pressure coefficient from Fig. 6-10 through 6-16
(GC pi ) = internal pressure coefficient from Fig. 6-5 (GC pi ) = internal pressure coefficient given in Fig. 6-5
28 ASCE 7-05
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6.5.12.4.2 Buildings with h > 60 ft (18.3 m). Design wind 6.5.13.1.1 Sign Convention. Plus and minus signs signify
pressures on components and cladding for all buildings with h > pressure acting toward and away from the top surface of the roof,
60 ft (18.3 m) shall be determined from the following equation: respectively.
p = q(GC p ) − qi (GC pi ) (lb/ft2 ) (N/m2 ) (6-23) 6.5.13.1.2 Critical Load Condition. Net pressure coeffi-
where cients C N include contributions from top and bottom surfaces.
All load cases shown for each roof angle shall be investigated.
q = qz for windward walls calculated at height z above the
ground 6.5.13.2 Main Wind-Force Resisting Systems. The net design
q = qh for leeward walls, side walls, and roofs, evaluated pressure for the MWFRSs of monoslope, pitched, or troughed
at height h roofs shall be determined by the following equation:
qi = qh for windward walls, side walls, leeward walls, and p = qh GC N (6-25)
roofs of enclosed buildings and for negative internal
pressure evaluation in partially enclosed buildings where
qi = qz for positive internal pressure evaluation in partially qh = velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height h using the
enclosed buildings where height z is defined as the level exposure as defined in Section 6.5.6.3 that results in the
of the highest opening in the building that could affect highest wind loads for any wind direction at the site
the positive internal pressure. For buildings sited in G = gust effect factor from Section 6.5.8
wind-borne debris regions, glazing that is not impact C N = net pressure coefficient determined from Figs. 6-18A
resistant or protected with an impact-resistant cover- through 6-18D
ing, shall be treated as an opening in accordance with
Section 6.5.9.3. For positive internal pressure evalua- For free roofs with an angle of plane of roof from horizontal
tion, qi may conservatively be evaluated at height h θ less than or equal to 5◦ and containing fascia panels, the fascia
(qi = qh ) panel shall be considered an inverted parapet. The contribution
(GC p ) = external pressure coefficient from Fig. 6-17 of loads on the fascia to the MWFRS loads shall be determined
(GC pi ) = internal pressure coefficient given in Fig. 6-5. using Section 6.5.12.2.4 with q p equal to qh .
q and qi shall be evaluated using exposure defined in Section 6.5.13.3 Component and Cladding Elements. The net design
6.5.6.3. wind pressure for component and cladding elements of mono-
slope, pitched, and troughed roofs shall be determined by the
6.5.12.4.3 Alternative Design Wind Pressures for Compo- following equation:
nents and Cladding in Buildings with 60 ft (18.3 m) < h <
90 ft (27.4 m). Alternative to the requirements of Section p = qh GC N (6-26)
6.5.12.4.2, the design of components and cladding for buildings where
with a mean roof height greater than 60 ft (18.3 m) and less than
90 ft (27.4 m) values from Figs. 6-11 through 6-17 shall be used qh = velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height h using the
only if the height to width ratio is one or less (except as permitted exposure as defined in Section 6.5.6.3 that results in the
by Note 6 of Fig. 6-17) and Eq. 6-22 is used. highest wind loads for any wind direction at the site
G = gust-effect factor from Section 6.5.8
6.5.12.4.4 Parapets. The design wind pressure on the compo- C N = net pressure coefficient determined from Figs. 6-19A
nents and cladding elements of parapets shall be designed by the through 6-19C
following equation:
6.5.14 Design Wind Loads on Solid Freestanding Walls and
p = q p (GC p − GC pi ) (6-24)
Solid Signs. The design wind force for solid freestanding walls
where and solid signs shall be determined by the following formula:
q p = velocity pressure evaluated at the top of the parapet F = qh GC f As (lb) (N) (6-27)
GC p = external pressure coefficient from Figs. 6-11 through
6-17 where
GC pi = internal pressure coefficient from Fig. 6-5, based on the qh = the velocity pressure evaluated at height h (defined in
porosity of the parapet envelope Fig. 6-20) using exposure defined in Section 6.5.6.4.1
Two load cases shall be considered. Load Case A shall consist G = gust-effect factor from Section 6.5.8
of applying the applicable positive wall pressure from Fig. 6-11A C f = net force coefficient from Fig. 6-20
or Fig. 6-17 to the front surface of the parapet while applying the As = the gross area of the solid freestanding wall or solid sign,
applicable negative edge or corner zone roof pressure from Figs. in ft2 (m2 )
6-11 through 6-17 to the back surface. Load Case B shall consist 6.5.15 Design Wind Loads on Other Structures. The design
of applying the applicable positive wall pressure from Fig. 6-11A wind force for other structures shall be determined by the follow-
or Fig. 6-17 to the back of the parapet surface, and applying the ing equation:
applicable negative wall pressure from Fig. 6-11A or Fig. 6-17
to the front surface. Edge and corner zones shall be arranged F = q Z GC f A f (lb) (N) (6-28)
as shown in Figs. 6-11 through 6-17. GC p shall be determined where
for appropriate roof angle and effective wind area from Figs. 6-11
through 6-17. If internal pressure is present, both load cases should qz = velocity pressure evaluated at height z of the centroid of
be evaluated under positive and negative internal pressure. area A f using exposure defined in Section 6.5.6.3
G = gust-effect factor from Section 6.5.8
6.5.13 Design Wind Loads on Open Buildings with C f = force coefficients from Figs. 6-21 through 6-23
Monoslope, Pitched, or Troughed Roofs. A f = projected area normal to the wind except where C f is spec-
6.5.13.1 General. ified for the actual surface area, ft2 (m2 )

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6.5.15.1 Rooftop Structures and Equipment for Buildings 7. Response characteristics of the wind tunnel instrumentation
with h ≤ 60 ft (18.3 m). The force on rooftop structures and are consistent with the required measurements.
equipment with A f less than (0.1Bh) located on buildings with
h ≤ 60 ft (18.3 m) shall be determined from Eq. 6-28, increased 6.6.3 Dynamic Response. Tests for the purpose of determining
by a factor of 1.9. The factor shall be permitted to be reduced the dynamic response of a building or other structure shall be in
linearly from 1.9 to 1.0 as the value of A f is increased from accordance with Section 6.6.2. The structural model and associ-
(0.1Bh) to (Bh). ated analysis shall account for mass distribution, stiffness, and
damping.
6.6 METHOD 3—WIND TUNNEL PROCEDURE 6.6.4 Limitations.
6.6.1 Scope. Wind tunnel tests shall be used where required by 6.6.4.1 Limitations on Wind Speeds. Variation of basic wind
Section 6.5.2. Wind tunnel testing shall be permitted in lieu of speeds with direction shall not be permitted unless the analysis
Methods 1 and 2 for any building or structure. for wind speeds conforms to the requirements of Section 6.5.4.2.
6.6.2 Test Conditions. Wind tunnel tests, or similar tests em- 6.6.5 Wind-Borne Debris. Glazing in buildings in wind-borne
ploying fluids other than air, used for the determination of design debris regions shall be protected in accordance with Section
wind loads for any building or other structure, shall be conducted 6.5.9.3.
in accordance with this section. Tests for the determination of
mean and fluctuating forces and pressures shall meet all of the
following conditions: 6.7 CONSENSUS STANDARDS AND OTHER
1. The natural atmospheric boundary layer has been modeled REFERENCED DOCUMENTS
to account for the variation of wind speed with height. This section lists the consensus standards and other documents
2. The relevant macro- (integral) length and micro-length which are adopted by reference within this chapter:
scales of the longitudinal component of atmospheric tur- ASTM
bulence are modeled to approximately the same scale as ASTM International
that used to model the building or structure. 100 Barr Harbor Drive
3. The modeled building or other structure and surrounding West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959
structures and topography are geometrically similar to their
full-scale counterparts, except that, for low-rise buildings ASTM E1886
meeting the requirements of Section 6.5.1, tests shall be Section 6.5.9.3
permitted for the modeled building in a single exposure site Standard Test Method for Performance of Exterior
as defined in Section 6.5.6.3. Windows, Curtain Walls, Doors and Storm
Shutters Impacted by Missile(s) and Exposed to
4. The projected area of the modeled building or other structure Cyclic Pressure Differentials, 2002.
and surroundings is less than 8 percent of the test section
cross-sectional area unless correction is made for blockage. ASTM E1996
Section 6.5.9.3
5. The longitudinal pressure gradient in the wind tunnel test
Standard Specification for Performance of Exterior
section is accounted for.
Windows, Curtain Walls, Doors and Storm
6. Reynolds number effects on pressures and forces are mini- Shutters Impacted by Windborne Debris in
mized. Hurricanes, 2003.
30 ASCE 7-05
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FIGURE 6-1 BASIC WIND SPEED
32 ASCE 7-05
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90(40)
100(45)
110(49)
120(54)
90(40)
130(58)
140(63)
130(58)
140(63) 140(63)
140(63) 150(67)
150(67)
Special Wind Region
90(40)
100(45) 130(58)
Location V mph (m/s)
110(49)120(54) Hawaii 105 (47)
Puerto Rico 145 (65)
Guam 170 (76)
Virgin Islands 145 (65)
American Samoa 125 (56)
Notes:
1. Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in miles per hour (m/s)
at 33 ft (10 m) above ground for Exposure C category.
2. Linear interpolation between wind contours is permitted.
3. Islands and coastal areas outside the last contour shall use the last wind speed
contour of the coastal area.
4. Mountainous terrain, gorges, ocean promontories, and special wind regions
shall be examined for unusual wind conditions.
FIGURE 6-1 continued

BASIC WIND SPEED

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FIGURE 6-1A BASIC WIND SPEED—WESTERN GULF OF MEXICO HURRICANE COASTLINE
34 ASCE 7-05
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FIGURE 6-1B—BASIC WIND SPEED—EASTERN GULF OF MEXICO AND SOUTHEASTERN US HURRICANE COASTLINE

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36
ASCE003-06.tex
90(40) ASCE003/SIE-v1.cls
100(45)
110(49)
120(54)
Special Wind Region
90(40) Notes:
1. Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind
speeds in miles per hour (m/s) at 33 ft (10 m)
above ground for Exposure C category.
2. Linear Interpolation between wind contours is
permitted.
3. Islands and coastal areas outside the last
contour shall use the last wind speed contour
of the coastal area.
4. Mountainous terrain, gorges, ocean
promontories, and special wind regions shall
be examined for unusual wind conditions.
ASCE 7-05
FIGURE 6-1C BASIC WIND SPEED—MID AND NORTHERN ATLANTIC HURRICANE COASTLINE
October 10, 2005
17:22
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Main Wind Force Resisting System – Method 1 h ≤ 60 ft.

Figure 6-2 Design Wind Pressures
Enclosed Buildings
Walls & Roofs
Notes:
1. Pressures shown are applied to the horizontal and vertical projections, for exposure B, at h=30 ft (9.1m), I=1.0, and Kzt = 1.0. Adjust to
other conditions using Equation 6-1.
2. The load patterns shown shall be applied to each corner of the building in turn as the reference corner. (See Figure 6-10)
3. For the design of the longitudinal MWFRS use θ = 0°, and locate the zone E/F, G/H boundary at the mid-length of the building.
4. Load cases 1 and 2 must be checked for 25° < θ ≤ 45°. Load case 2 at 25° is provided only for interpolation between 25° to 30°.
5. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the projected surfaces, respectively.
6. For roof slopes other than those shown, linear interpolation is permitted.
7. The total horizontal load shall not be less than that determined by assuming pS = 0 in zones B & D.
8. The zone pressures represent the following:
Horizontal pressure zones – Sum of the windward and leeward net (sum of internal and external) pressures on vertical projection of:
A - End zone of wall C - Interior zone of wall
B - End zone of roof D - Interior zone of roof
Vertical pressure zones – Net (sum of internal and external) pressures on horizontal projection of:
E - End zone of windward roof G - Interior zone of windward roof
F - End zone of leeward roof H - Interior zone of leeward roof
9. Where zone E or G falls on a roof overhang on the windward side of the building, use EOH and GOH for the pressure on the horizontal
projection of the overhang. Overhangs on the leeward and side edges shall have the basic zone pressure applied.
10. Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4% of least horizontal dimension
or 3 ft (0.9 m).
h: Mean roof height, in feet (meters), except that eave height shall be used for roof angles <10°.
θ: Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.

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Figure 6-2 (cont’d) Design Wind Pressures
Enclosed Buildings
Walls & Roofs
Simplified Design Wind Pressure, ps30 (psf) (Exposure B at h = 30 ft., Kzt = 1.0, with I = 1.0)
Zones
Load Case
Basic Wind Roof

Horizontal Pressures Vertical Pressures Overhangs
Speed Angle
A B C D E F G H EOH GOH
(mph) (degrees)
0 to 5° 1 11.5 -5.9 7.6 -3.5 -13.8 -7.8 -9.6 -6.1 -19.3 -15.1
10° 1 12.9 -5.4 8.6 -3.1 -13.8 -8.4 -9.6 -6.5 -19.3 -15.1
15° 1 14.4 -4.8 9.6 -2.7 -13.8 -9.0 -9.6 -6.9 -19.3 -15.1
20° 1 15.9 -4.2 10.6 -2.3 -13.8 -9.6 -9.6 -7.3 -19.3 -15.1
85
25° 1 14.4 2.3 10.4 2.4 -6.4 -8.7 -4.6 -7.0 -11.9 -10.1
2 ------- ------- ------- ------- -2.4 -4.7 -0.7 -3.0 ------- -------
30 to 45 1 12.9 8.8 10.2 7.0 1.0 -7.8 0.3 -6.7 -4.5 -5.2
2 12.9 8.8 10.2 7.0 5.0 -3.9 4.3 -2.8 -4.5 -5.2
0 to 5° 1 12.8 -6.7 8.5 -4.0 -15.4 -8.8 -10.7 -6.8 -21.6 -16.9
10° 1 14.5 -6.0 9.6 -3.5 -15.4 -9.4 -10.7 -7.2 -21.6 -16.9
15° 1 16.1 -5.4 10.7 -3.0 -15.4 -10.1 -10.7 -7.7 -21.6 -16.9
20° 1 17.8 -4.7 11.9 -2.6 -15.4 -10.7 -10.7 -8.1 -21.6 -16.9
90
25° 1 16.1 2.6 11.7 2.7 -7.2 -9.8 -5.2 -7.8 -13.3 -11.4
2 ------- ------- ------- ------- -2.7 -5.3 -0.7 -3.4 ------- -------
30 to 45 1 14.4 9.9 11.5 7.9 1.1 -8.8 0.4 -7.5 -5.1 -5.8
2 14.4 9.9 11.5 7.9 5.6 -4.3 4.8 -3.1 -5.1 -5.8
0 to 5° 1 15.9 -8.2 10.5 -4.9 -19.1 -10.8 -13.3 -8.4 -26.7 -20.9
10° 1 17.9 -7.4 11.9 -4.3 -19.1 -11.6 -13.3 -8.9 -26.7 -20.9
15° 1 19.9 -6.6 13.3 -3.8 -19.1 -12.4 -13.3 -9.5 -26.7 -20.9
20° 1 22.0 -5.8 14.6 -3.2 -19.1 -13.3 -13.3 -10.1 -26.7 -20.9
100 25° 1 19.9 3.2 14.4 3.3 -8.8 -12.0 -6.4 -9.7 -16.5 -14.0
2 ------- ------- ------- ------- -3.4 -6.6 -0.9 -4.2 ------- -------
30 to 45 1 17.8 12.2 14.2 9.8 1.4 -10.8 0.5 -9.3 -6.3 -7.2
2 17.8 12.2 14.2 9.8 6.9 -5.3 5.9 -3.8 -6.3 -7.2
0 to 5° 1 17.5 -9.0 11.6 -5.4 -21.1 -11.9 -14.7 -9.3 -29.4 -23.0
10° 1 19.7 -8.2 13.1 -4.7 -21.1 -12.8 -14.7 -9.8 -29.4 -23.0
15° 1 21.9 -7.3 14.7 -4.2 -21.1 -13.7 -14.7 -10.5 -29.4 -23.0
20° 1 24.3 -8.4 16.1 -3.5 -21.1 -14.7 -14.7 -11.1 -29.4 -23.0
105 25° 1 21.9 3.5 15.9 3.5 -9.7 -13.2 -7.1 -10.7 -18.2 -15.4
2 ----- ----- ----- ----- -3.7 -7.3 -1.0 -4.6 ----- -----
30 to 45 1 19.6 13.5 15.7 10.8 1.5 -11.9 0.6 -10.3 -6.9 -7.9
2 19.6 13.5 15.7 10.8 7.6 -5.8 6.5 -4.2 -6.9 -7.9
0 to 5° 1 19.2 -10.0 12.7 -5.9 -23.1 -13.1 -16.0 -10.1 -32.3 -25.3
10° 1 21.6 -9.0 14.4 -5.2 -23.1 -14.1 -16.0 -10.8 -32.3 -25.3
15° 1 24.1 -8.0 16.0 -4.6 -23.1 -15.1 -16.0 -11.5 -32.3 -25.3
20° 1 26.6 -7.0 17.7 -3.9 -23.1 -16.0 -16.0 -12.2 -32.3 -25.3
110 25° 1 24.1 3.9 17.4 4.0 -10.7 -14.6 -7.7 -11.7 -19.9 -17.0
2 ------- ------- ------- ------- -4.1 -7.9 -1.1 -5.1 ------- -------
30 to 45 1 21.6 14.8 17.2 11.8 1.7 -13.1 0.6 -11.3 -7.6 -8.7
2 21.6 14.8 17.2 11.8 8.3 -6.5 7.2 -4.6 -7.6 -8.7
0 to 5° 1 22.8 -11.9 15.1 -7.0 -27.4 -15.6 -19.1 -12.1 -38.4 -30.1
10° 1 25.8 -10.7 17.1 -6.2 -27.4 -16.8 -19.1 -12.9 -38.4 -30.1
15° 1 28.7 -9.5 19.1 -5.4 -27.4 -17.9 -19.1 -13.7 -38.4 -30.1
20° 1 31.6 -8.3 21.1 -4.6 -27.4 -19.1 -19.1 -14.5 -38.4 -30.1
120 25° 1 28.6 4.6 20.7 4.7 -12.7 -17.3 -9.2 -13.9 -23.7 -20.2
2 ------- ------- ------- ------- -4.8 -9.4 -1.3 -6.0 ------- -------
30 to 45 1 25.7 17.6 20.4 14.0 2.0 -15.6 0.7 -13.4 -9.0 -10.3
2 25.7 17.6 20.4 14.0 9.9 -7.7 8.6 -5.5 -9.0 -10.3
Unit Conversions---1.0 ft = 0.3048 m; 1.0 psf = 0.0479 kN/m 2
38 ASCE 7-05
P1: JsY

Enclosed Buildings
Walls & Roofs
Simplified Design Wind Pressure, ps30 (psf) (Exposure B at h = 30 ft., Kzt = 1.0, with I = 1.0)
Zones
Load Case
Basic Wind Roof

Horizontal Pressures Vertical Pressures Overhangs
Speed Angle
(mph) (degrees) A B C D E F G H EOH GOH
0 to 5° 1 24.7 -12.9 16.4 -7.6 -29.7 -16.9 -20.7 -13.1 -41.7 -32.7
10° 1 28.0 -11.6 18.6 -6.7 -29.7 -18.2 -20.7 -14.0 -41.7 -32.7
15° 1 31.1 -10.3 20.7 -5.9 -29.7 -19.4 -20.7 -14.9 -41.7 -32.7
20° 1 34.3 -9.0 22.9 -5.0 -29.7 -20.7 -20.7 -15.7 -41.7 -32.7
125 25° 1 31.0 5.0 22.5 5.1 -13.8 -18.8 -10.0 -15.1 -25.7 -21.9
2 ----- ----- ----- ----- -5.2 -10.2 -1.4 -6.5 ----- -----
30 to 45 1 27.9 19.1 22.1 15.2 2.2 -16.9 0.8 -14.5 -9.8 -11.2
2 27.9 19.1 22.1 15.2 10.7 -8.4 9.3 -6.0 -9.8 -11.2
0 to 5° 1 26.8 -13.9 17.8 -8.2 -32.2 -18.3 -22.4 -14.2 -45.1 -35.3
10° 1 30.2 -12.5 20.1 -7.3 -32.2 -19.7 -22.4 -15.1 -45.1 -35.3
15° 1 33.7 -11.2 22.4 -6.4 -32.2 -21.0 -22.4 -16.1 -45.1 -35.3
20° 1 37.1 -9.8 24.7 -5.4 -32.2 -22.4 -22.4 -17.0 -45.1 -35.3
130 25° 1 33.6 5.4 24.3 5.5 -14.9 -20.4 -10.8 -16.4 -27.8 -23.7
2 ------- ------- ------- ------- -5.7 -11.1 -1.5 -7.1 ------- -------
30 to 45 1 30.1 20.6 24.0 16.5 2.3 -18.3 0.8 -15.7 -10.6 -12.1
2 30.1 20.6 24.0 16.5 11.6 -9.0 10.0 -6.4 -10.6 -12.1
0 to 5° 1 31.1 -16.1 20.6 -9.6 -37.3 -21.2 -26.0 -16.4 -52.3 -40.9
10° 1 35.1 -14.5 23.3 -8.5 -37.3 -22.8 -26.0 -17.5 -52.3 -40.9
15° 1 39.0 -12.9 26.0 -7.4 -37.3 -24.4 -26.0 -18.6 -52.3 -40.9
20° 1 43.0 -11.4 28.7 -6.3 -37.3 -26.0 -26.0 -19.7 -52.3 -40.9
140
25° 1 39.0 6.3 28.2 6.4 -17.3 -23.6 -12.5 -19.0 -32.3 -27.5
24 ------- ------- ------- ------- -6.6 -12.8 -1.8 -8.2 ------- -------
30 to 45 1 35.0 23.9 27.8 19.1 2.7 -21.2 0.9 -18.2 -12.3 -14.0
24 35.0 23.9 27.8 19.1 13.4 -10.5 11.7 -7.5 -12.3 -14.0
0 to 5° 1 33.4 -17.3 22.1 -10.3 -40.0 -22.7 -27.9 -17.6 -56.1 -43.9
10° 1 37.7 -15.6 25.0 -9.1 -40.0 -24.5 -27.9 -18.8 -56.1 -43.9
15° 1 41.8 -13.8 27.9 -7.9 -40.0 -26.2 -27.9 -20.0 -56.1 -43.9
20° 1 46.1 -12.2 30.8 -6.8 -40.0 -27.9 -27.9 -21.1 -56.1 -43.9
145
25° 1 41.8 6.8 30.3 6.9 -18.6 -25.3 -13.4 -20.4 -34.6 -29.5
24 ----- ----- ----- ----- -7.1 -13.7 -1.9 -8.8 ----- -----
30 to 45 1 37.5 25.6 29.8 20.5 2.9 -22.7 1.0 -19.5 -13.2 -15.0
24 35.7 25.6 29.8 20.5 14.4 -11.3 12.6 -8.0 -13.2 -15.0
0 to 5° 1 35.7 -18.5 23.7 -11.0 -42.9 -24.4 -29.8 -18.9 -60.0 -47.0
10° 1 40.2 -16.7 26.8 -9.7 -42.9 -26.2 -29.8 -20.1 -60.0 -47.0
15° 1 44.8 -14.9 29.8 -8.5 -42.9 -28.0 -29.8 -21.4 -60.0 -47.0
20° 1 49.4 -13.0 32.9 -7.2 -42.9 -29.8 -29.8 -22.6 -60.0 -47.0
150 25° 1 44.8 7.2 32.4 7.4 -19.9 -27.1 -14.4 -21.8 -37.0 -31.6
24 ------- ------- ------- ------- -7.5 -14.7 -2.1 -9.4 ------- -------
30 to 45 1 40.1 27.4 31.9 22.0 3.1 -24.4 1.0 -20.9 -14.1 -16.1
24 40.1 27.4 31.9 22.0 15.4 -12.0 13.4 -8.6 -14.1 -16.1
0 to 5° 1 45.8 -23.8 30.4 -14.1 -55.1 -31.3 -38.3 -24.2 -77.1 -60.4
10° 1 51.7 -21.4 34.4 -12.5 -55.1 -33.6 -38.3 -25.8 -77.1 -60.4
15° 1 57.6 -19.1 38.3 -10.9 -55.1 -36.0 -38.3 -27.5 -77.1 -60.4
170 20° 1 63.4 -16.7 42.3 -9.3 -55.1 -38.3 -38.3 -29.1 -77.1 -60.4
25° 1 57.5 9.3 41.6 9.5 -25.6 -34.8 -18.5 -28.0 -47.6 -40.5
24 ------- ------- ------- ------- -9.7 -18.9 -2.6 -12.1 ------- -------
30 to 45 1 51.5 35.2 41.0 28.2 4.0 -31.3 1.3 -26.9 -18.1 -20.7
24 51.5 35.2 41.0 28.2 19.8 -15.4 17.2 -11.0 -18.1 -20.7
Unit Conversions---1.0 ft = 0.3048 m; 1.0 psf = 0.0479 kN/m 2

P1: JsY

Enclosed Buildings
Walls & Roofs
Adjustment Factor
for Building Height and Exposure, λ
Mean roof Exposure
height (ft) B C D
15 1.00 1.21 1.47
20 1.00 1.29 1.55
25 1.00 1.35 1.61
30 1.00 1.40 1.66
35 1.05 1.45 1.70
40 1.09 1.49 1.74
45 1.12 1.53 1.78
50 1.16 1.56 1.81
55 1.19 1.59 1.84
60 1.22 1.62 1.87
40 ASCE 7-05
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Components and Cladding – Method 1 h ≤ 60 ft.

Figure 6-3 Design Wind Pressures
Walls & Roofs
Enclosed Buildings
h h
a a
a a
a a
a a a a
Flat Roof Hip Roof (7°< θ ≤ 27°)
h h
a a
a a
a a a a
Gable Roof (θ ≤ 7°) Gable Roof (7°< θ ≤ 45°)
Interior Zones End Zones Corner Zones

Roofs - Zone 1/Walls - Zone 4 Roofs - Zone 2/Walls - Zone 5 Roofs - Zone 3
Notes:
1. Pressures shown are applied normal to the surface, for exposure B, at h = 30 ft (9.1m), I = 1.0, and Kzt = 1.0. Adjust to other
conditions using Equation 6-2.
2. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
3. For hip roofs with θ ≤ 25°, Zone 3 shall be treated as Zone 2.
4. For effective wind areas between those given, value may be interpolated, otherwise use the value associated with the lower
effective wind area.
5. Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4% of least horizontal
dimension or 3 ft (0.9 m).
h: Mean roof height, in feet (meters), except that eave height shall be used for roof angles <10°.

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42 ASCE 7-05
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Figure 6-3 (cont’d) Net Design Wind Pressures
Enclosed Buildings
Walls & Roofs
Net Design Wind Pressure, pnet30 (psf) (Exposure B at h = 30 ft. with I = 1.0 and Kzt = 1.0)
Effective
IP Zone wind area
Basic Wind Speed V (mph)
#REF! (sf) 125 130 140 145 150 170
1 10 11.4 -28.1 12.4 -30.4 14.3 -35.3 15.4 -37.8 16.5 -40.5 21.1 -52.0
1 20 10.7 -27.4 11.6 -29.6 13.4 -34.4 14.4 -36.9 15.4 -39.4 19.8 -50.7
1 50 9.8 -26.4 10.6 -28.6 12.3 -33.2 13.1 -35.6 14.1 -38.1 18.1 -48.9
Roof 0 to 7 degrees
1 100 9.1 -25.7 9.8 -27.8 11.4 -32.3 12.2 -34.6 13.0 -37.0 16.7 -47.6
2 10 11.4 -47.2 12.4 -51.0 14.3 -59.2 15.4 -63.5 16.5 -67.9 21.1 -87.2
2 20 10.7 -42.1 11.6 -45.6 13.4 -52.9 14.4 -56.7 15.4 -60.7 19.8 -78.0
2 50 9.8 -35.5 10.6 -38.4 12.3 -44.5 13.1 -47.8 14.1 -51.1 18.1 -65.7
2 100 9.1 -30.5 9.8 -33.0 11.4 -38.2 12.2 -41.0 13.0 -43.9 16.7 -56.4
3 10 11.4 -71.0 12.4 -76.8 14.3 -89.0 15.4 -95.5 16.5 -102.2 21.1 -131.3
3 20 10.7 -58.5 11.6 -63.6 13.4 -73.8 14.4 -79.1 15.4 -84.7 19.8 -108.7
3 50 9.8 -42.7 10.6 -46.2 12.3 -53.5 13.1 -57.4 14.1 -61.5 18.1 -78.9
3 100 9.1 -30.5 9.8 -33.0 11.4 -38.2 12.2 -41.0 13.0 -43.9 16.7 -56.4
1 10 16.2 -25.7 17.5 -27.8 20.3 -32.3 21.8 -34.6 23.3 -37.0 30.0 -47.6
1 20 14.8 -25.0 16.0 -27.0 18.5 -31.4 19.9 -33.7 21.3 -36.0 27.3 -46.3
1 50 12.9 -24.1 13.9 -26.0 16.1 -30.2 17.3 -32.4 18.5 -34.6 23.8 -44.5
Roof > 7 to 27 degrees
1 100 11.4 -23.2 12.4 -25.2 14.3 -29.3 15.4 -31.4 16.5 -33.6 21.1 -43.2
2 10 16.2 -44.8 17.5 -48.4 20.3 -56.2 21.8 -60.3 23.3 -64.5 30.0 -82.8
2 20 14.8 -41.2 16.0 -44.6 18.5 -51.7 19.9 -55.4 21.3 -59.3 27.3 -76.2
2 50 12.9 -36.5 13.9 -39.4 16.1 -45.7 17.3 -49.1 18.5 -52.5 23.8 -67.4
2 100 11.4 -32.9 12.4 -35.6 14.3 -41.2 15.4 -44.2 16.5 -47.3 21.1 -60.8
3 10 16.2 -66.2 17.5 -71.6 20.3 -83.1 21.8 -89.1 23.3 -95.4 30.0 -122.5
3 20 14.8 -61.9 16.0 -67.0 18.5 -77.7 19.9 -83.3 21.3 -89.2 27.3 -114.5
3 50 12.9 -56.2 13.9 -60.8 16.1 -70.5 17.3 -75.7 18.5 -81.0 23.8 -104.0
3 100 11.4 -51.9 12.4 -56.2 14.3 -65.1 15.4 -69.9 16.5 -74.8 21.1 -96.0
1 10 25.7 -28.1 27.8 -30.4 32.3 -35.3 34.6 -37.8 37.0 -40.5 47.6 -52.0
1 20 25.0 -26.7 27.0 -28.9 31.4 -33.5 33.7 -35.9 36.0 -38.4 46.3 -49.3
1 50 24.1 -24.8 26.0 -26.8 30.2 -31.1 32.4 -33.3 34.6 -35.7 44.5 -45.8
1 100 23.3 -23.3 25.2 -25.2 29.3 -29.3 31.4 -31.4 33.6 -33.6 43.2 -43.2
2 10 25.7 -32.9 27.8 -35.6 32.3 -41.2 34.6 -44.2 37.0 -47.3 47.6 -60.8
2 20 25.0 -31.4 27.0 -34.0 31.4 -39.4 33.7 -42.3 36.0 -45.3 46.3 -58.1
2 50 24.1 -29.5 26.0 -32.0 30.2 -37.1 32.4 -39.8 34.6 -42.5 44.5 -54.6
2 100 23.2 -28.1 25.2 -30.4 29.3 -35.3 31.4 -37.8 33.6 -40.5 43.2 -52.0
3 10 25.7 -32.9 27.8 -35.6 32.3 -41.2 34.6 -44.2 37.0 -47.3 47.6 -60.8
3 20 25.0 -31.4 27.0 -34.0 31.4 -39.4 33.7 -42.3 36.0 -45.3 46.3 -58.1
3 50 24.1 -29.5 26.0 -32.0 30.2 -37.1 32.4 -39.8 34.6 -42.5 44.5 -54.6
3 100 23.3 -28.1 25.2 -30.4 29.3 -35.3 31.4 -37.8 33.6 -40.5 43.2 -52.0
4 10 28.1 -30.5 30.4 -33.0 35.3 -38.2 37.8 -41.0 40.5 -43.9 52.0 -56.4
4 20 26.8 -29.2 29.0 -31.6 33.7 -36.7 36.1 -39.3 38.7 -42.1 49.6 -54.1
4 50 25.2 -27.5 27.2 -29.8 31.6 -34.6 33.9 -37.1 36.2 -39.7 46.6 -51.0
4 100 23.9 -26.3 25.9 -28.4 30.0 -33.0 32.2 -35.4 34.4 -37.8 44.2 -48.6
4 500 21.0 -23.3 22.7 -25.2 26.3 -29.3 28.2 -31.4 30.2 -33.6 38.8 -43.2
Wall
5 10 28.1 -37.6 30.4 -40.7 35.3 -47.2 37.8 -50.6 40.5 -54.2 52.0 -69.6
5 20 26.8 -35.1 29.0 -38.0 33.7 -44.0 36.1 -47.2 38.7 -50.5 49.6 -64.9
5 50 25.2 -31.8 27.2 -34.3 31.6 -39.8 33.9 -42.7 36.2 -45.7 46.6 -58.7
5 100 23.9 -29.2 25.9 -31.6 30.0 -36.7 32.2 -39.3 34.4 -42.1 44.2 -54.1
5 500 21.0 -23.2 22.7 -25.2 26.3 -29.3 28.2 -31.1 30.2 -33.6 38.8 -43.2
Unit Conversions – 1.0 ft = 0.3048 m; 1.0 psf = 0.0479 kN/m2

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Figure 6-3 (cont’d) Net Design Wind Pressures
Enclosed Buildings
Walls & Roofs
Roof Overhang Net Design Wind Pressure , pnet30 (psf)
(Exposure B at h = 30 ft. with I = 1.0)
Effective Basic Wind Speed V (mph)
Wind Area
Zone (sf) 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 170

2 10 -21.0 -25.9 -31.4 -37.3 -43.8 -50.8 -58.3 -74.9
2 20 -20.6 -25.5 -30.8 -36.7 -43.0 -49.9 -57.3 -73.6
2 50 -20.1 -24.9 -30.1 -35.8 -42.0 -48.7 -55.9 -71.8
Roof 0 to 7 degrees
2 100 -19.8 -24.4 -29.5 -35.1 -41.2 -47.8 -54.9 -70.5

3 10 -34.6 -42.7 -51.6 -61.5 -72.1 -83.7 -96.0 -123.4
3 20 -27.1 -33.5 -40.5 -48.3 -56.6 -65.7 -75.4 -96.8
3 50 -17.3 -21.4 -25.9 -30.8 -36.1 -41.9 -48.1 -61.8
3 100 -10.0 -12.2 -14.8 -17.6 -20.6 -23.9 -27.4 -35.2
2 10 -27.2 -33.5 -40.6 -48.3 -56.7 -65.7 -75.5 -96.9
2 20 -27.2 -33.5 -40.6 -48.3 -56.7 -65.7 -75.5 -96.9
2 50 -27.2 -33.5 -40.6 -48.3 -56.7 -65.7 -75.5 -96.9

2 100 -27.2 -33.5 -40.6 -48.3 -56.7 -65.7 -75.5 -96.9
3 10 -45.7 -56.4 -68.3 -81.2 -95.3 -110.6 -126.9 -163.0
3 20 -41.2 -50.9 -61.6 -73.3 -86.0 -99.8 -114.5 -147.1
3 50 -35.3 -43.6 -52.8 -62.8 -73.7 -85.5 -98.1 -126.1
3 100 -30.9 -38.1 -46.1 -54.9 -64.4 -74.7 -85.8 -110.1
2 10 -24.7 -30.5 -36.9 -43.9 -51.5 -59.8 -68.6 -88.1
2 20 -24.0 -29.6 -35.8 -42.6 -50.0 -58.0 -66.5 -85.5
2 50 -23.0 -28.4 -34.3 -40.8 -47.9 -55.6 -63.8 -82.0

2 100 -22.2 -27.4 -33.2 -39.5 -46.4 -53.8 -61.7 -79.3
3 10 -24.7 -30.5 -36.9 -43.9 -51.5 -59.8 -68.6 -88.1
3 20 -24.0 -29.6 -35.8 -42.6 -50.0 -58.0 -66.5 -85.5
3 50 -23.0 -28.4 -34.3 -40.8 -47.9 -55.6 -63.8 -82.0
3 100 -22.2 -27.4 -33.2 -39.5 -46.4 -53.8 -61.7 -79.3
Adjustment Factor
for Building Height and Exposure, λ
Mean roof Exposure

height (ft) B C D
15 1.00 1.21 1.47
20 1.00 1.29 1.55
25 1.00 1.35 1.61
30 1.00 1.40 1.66
35 1.05 1.45 1.70
40 1.09 1.49 1.74
45 1.12 1.53 1.78
50 1.16 1.56 1.81
55 1.19 1.59 1.84
60 1.22 1.62 1.87
Unit Conversions – 1.0 ft = 0.3048 m; 1.0 sf = 0.0929 m2; 1.0 psf = 0.0479 kN/m
44 ASCE 7-05
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Figure 6-10 External Pressure Coefficients, GCpf
Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings Low-rise Walls & Roofs
Basic Load Cases

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Figure 6-10 (cont’d) External Pressure Coefficients, GCpf
Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings Low-rise Walls & Roofs
Roof
Angle θ Building Surface
(degrees)
1 2 3 4 5 6 1E 2E 3E 4E
0-5 0.40 -0.69 -0.37 -0.29 -0.45 -0.45 0.61 -1.07 -0.53 -0.43
20 0.53 -0.69 -0.48 -0.43 -0.45 -0.45 0.80 -1.07 -0.69 -0.64
30-45 0.56 0.21 -0.43 -0.37 -0.45 -0.45 0.69 0.27 -0.53 -0.48
90 0.56 0.56 -0.37 -0.37 -0.45 -0.45 0.69 0.69 -0.48 -0.48
Notes:
1. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
2. For values of θ other than those shown, linear interpolation is permitted.
3. The building must be designed for all wind directions using the 8 loading patterns shown. The load
patterns are applied to each building corner in turn as the Reference Corner.
4. Combinations of external and internal pressures (see Figure 6-5) shall be evaluated as required to
obtain the most severe loadings.
5. For the torsional load cases shown below, the pressures in zones designated with a “T” (1T, 2T, 3T,
4T) shall be 25% of the full design wind pressures (zones 1, 2, 3, 4).
Exception: One story buildings with h less than or equal to 30 ft (9.1m), buildings two stories
or less framed with light frame construction, and buildings two stories or less designed with
flexible diaphragms need not be designed for the torsional load cases.
Torsional loading shall apply to all eight basic load patterns using the figures below applied at each
reference corner.
6. Except for moment-resisting frames, the total horizontal shear shall not be less than that determined
by neglecting wind forces on roof surfaces.
7. For the design of the MWFRS providing lateral resistance in a direction parallel to a ridge line or
for flat roofs, use θ = 0° and locate the zone 2/3 boundary at the mid-length of the building.
8. The roof pressure coefficient GCpf, when negative in Zone 2 or 2E, shall be applied in Zone 2/2E
for a distance from the edge of roof equal to 0.5 times the horizontal dimension of the building
parallel to the direction of the MWFRS being designed or 2.5 times the eave height, he, at the
windward wall, whichever is less; the remainder of Zone 2/2E extending to the ridge line shall use
the pressure coefficient GCpf for Zone 3/3E.
9. Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either
4% of least horizontal dimension or 3 ft (0.9 m).
h: Mean roof height, in feet (meters), except that eave height shall be used for θ ≤ 10°.
Transverse Direction Longitudinal Direction

Torsional Load Cases
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Main Wind Force Resisting System 0.25 ≤ h/L ≤ 1.0

Figure 6-18B Net Pressure Coefficient, CN Pitched Free Roofs
Open Buildings θ ≤ 45°, γ = 0°, 180°
Wind Direction, g = 0o, 180o

Roof Load
Clear Wind Flow Obstructed Wind Flow
Angle, θ Case
CNW CNL CNW CNL
A 1.1 -0.3 -1.6 -1
7.5o
B 0.2 -1.2 -0.9 -1.7
A 1.1 -0.4 -1.2 -1
15o
B 0.1 -1.1 -0.6 -1.6
A 1.1 0.1 -1.2 -1.2
22.5o
B -0.1 -0.8 -0.8 -1.7
A 1.3 0.3 -0.7 -0.7
30o
B -0.1 -0.9 -0.2 -1.1
A 1.3 0.6 -0.6 -0.6
37.5o
B -0.2 -0.6 -0.3 -0.9
A 1.1 0.9 -0.5 -0.5
45o
B -0.3 -0.5 -0.3 -0.7
Notes:
1. CNW and CNL denote net pressures (contributions from top and bottom surfaces) for windward and leeward half of
roof surfaces, respectively.
2. Clear wind flow denotes relatively unobstructed wind flow with blockage less than or equal to 50%. Obstructed
wind flow denotes objects below roof inhibiting wind flow (>50% blockage).
3. For values of θ between 7.5° and 45°, linear interpolation is permitted. For values of θ less than 7.5°, use
monoslope roof load coefficients.
4. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting towards and away from the top roof surface, respectively.
5. All load cases shown for each roof angle shall be investigated.
6. Notation:
L : horizontal dimension of roof, measured in the along wind direction, ft. (m)
h : mean roof height, ft. (m)
γ : direction of wind, degrees
θ : angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees

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Figure 6-18C Net Pressure Coefficient, CN Troughed Free Roofs
Open Buildings θ ≤ 45°, γ = 0°, 180°
Roof Load Wind Direction, γ = 0°, 180°

Angle Case Clear Wind Flow Obstructed Wind Flow
θ CNW CNL C NW C NL
7.5° A -1.1 0.3 -1.6 -0.5
B -0.2 1.2 -0.9 -0.8
15° A -1.1 0.4 -1.2 -0.5
B 0.1 1.1 -0.6 -0.8
22.5° A -1.1 -0.1 -1.2 -0.6
B -0.1 0.8 -0.8 -0.8
30° A -1.3 -0.3 -1.4 -0.4
B -0.1 0.9 -0.2 -0.5
37.5° A -1.3 -0.6 -1.4 -0.3
B 0.2 0.6 -0.3 -0.4
45° A -1.1 -0.9 -1.2 -0.3
B 0.3 0.5 -0.3 -0.4
Notes:
1. CNW and CNL denote net pressures (contributions from top and bottom surfaces) for windward and leeward half of roof
surfaces, respectively.
2. Clear wind flow denotes relatively unobstructed wind flow with blockage less than or equal to 50%. Obstructed wind flow
denotes objects below roof inhibiting wind flow (>50% blockage).
3. For values of θ between 7.5° and 45°, linear interpolation is permitted. For values of θ less than 7.5°, use monoslope roof
load coefficients.
6. Notation:
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Figure 6-18D Net Pressure Coefficient, CN Troughed Free Roofs
Open Buildings θ ≤ 45°, λ = 0°, 180°
Horizontal Obstructed Wind

Roof Clear Wind Flow
Distance from Load Case Flow
Angle θ
Windward Edge CN CN
All Shapes A -0.8 -1.2

<h
o
θ < 45 B 0.8 0.5

> h, < 2h
o
θ < 45 B 0.5 0.5

> 2h
o
θ < 45 B 0.3 0.3
Notes:
1. CN denotes net pressures (contributions from top and bottom surfaces).
2. Clear wind flow denotes relatively unobstructed wind flow with blockage less than or equal to 50%. Obstructed wind
flow denotes objects below roof inhibiting wind flow (>50% blockage).
5. For monoslope roofs with theta less than 5 degrees, Cn values shown apply also for cases where gamma = 0 degrees and
0.05 less than or equal to h/L less than or equal to 0.25. See Figure 6-18A for other h/L values.
6. Notation:

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Other Structures -- Method 2 All Heights

Figure 6-20 Force Coefficients, Cf Solid Freestanding Walls
& Solid Signs
B s
s s Balance
F
SOLID SIGN OR
FREESTANDING WALL
s
h
CASE A WIND F F
F
WIND F
CASE C
GROUND SURFACE
F
ELEVATION VIEW Balance s s s
0.2B
WIND
RANGE
s/2 CASE B
s F F F WIND
h s/2 F 0.05h F
h/2
s=h
F
h/2 F
WIND
0.2B
GROUND SURFACE RANGE
s/h < 1 s/h = 1
CROSS-SECTION VIEW PLAN VIEWS

Cf, CASE A & CASE B
Clearance Aspect Ratio, B/s
Ratio , s/h ≤ 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 4 5 10 20 30 ≥ 45
1 1.80 1.70 1.65 1.55 1.45 1.40 1.35 1.35 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.30
0.9 1.85 1.75 1.70 1.60 1.55 1.50 1.45 1.45 1.40 1.40 1.40 1.40
0.7 1.90 1.85 1.75 1.70 1.65 1.60 1.60 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55
0.5 1.95 1.85 1.80 1.75 1.75 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.75
0.3 1.95 1.90 1.85 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.85 1.85 1.85
0.2 1.95 1.90 1.85 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.85 1.90 1.90 1.95
≤ 0.16 1.95 1.90 1.85 1.85 1.80 1.80 1.85 1.85 1.85 1.90 1.90 1.95
Cf , CASE C
Region Region
(horizontal Aspect Ratio, B/s (horizontal Aspect Ratio, B/s
distance from distance from
windward edge) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 windward edge) 13 ≥ 45
0 to s 2.25 2.60 2.90 3.10* 3.30* 3.40* 3.55* 3.65* 3.75* 0 to s 4.00* 4.30*
s to 2s 1.50 1.70 1.90 2.00 2.15 2.25 2.30 2.35 2.45 s to 2s 2.60 2.55
2s to 3s 1.15 1.30 1.45 1.55 1.65 1.70 1.75 1.85 2s to 3s 2.00 1.95
3s to 10s 1.10 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.00 0.95 3s to 4s 1.50 1.85
4s to 5s 1.35 1.85
*Values shall be multiplied Lr / s PLAN VIEW OF WALL OR SIGN
Reduction Factor Lr
by the following reduction WITH A RETURN CORNER 5s to 10s 0.90 1.10
0.3 0.90
factor when a return >10s 0.55 0.55
1.0 0.75
corner is present: B
≥2 0.60 WIND
Notes:
1. The term "signs" in notes below also applies to "freestanding walls".
2. Signs with openings comprising less than 30% of the gross area are classified as solid signs. Force coefficients for solid signs with openings
1.5
shall be permitted to be multiplied by the reduction factor (1 - (1 - ε) ).
3. To allow for both normal and oblique wind directions, the following cases shall be considered:
For s/h < 1:
CASE A: resultant force acts normal to the face of the sign through the geometric center.
CASE B: resultant force acts normal to the face of the sign at a distance from the geometric center
toward the windward edge equal to 0.2 times the average width of the sign.
For B/s ≥ 2, CASE C must also be considered:
CASE C: resultant forces act normal to the face of the sign through the geometric centers of each region.
For s/h = 1:
The same cases as above except that the vertical locations of the resultant forces occur at a distance above
the geometric center equal to 0.05 times the average height of the sign.
4. For CASE C where s/h > 0.8, force coefficients shall be multiplied by the reduction factor (1.8 - s/h).
5. Linear interpolation is permitted for values of s/h, B/s and L r/s other than shown.
6. Notation:
B: horizontal dimension of sign, in feet (meters);
h: height of the sign, in feet (meters);
s: vertical dimension of the sign, in feet (meters);
ε: ratio of solid area to gross area;
Lr: horizontal dimension of return corner, in feet (meters)

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Importance Factor, I (Wind Loads)

Table 6-1
Non-Hurricane Prone Regions Hurricane Prone Regions

Category and Hurricane Prone Regions with V > 100 mph
with V = 85-100 mph
and Alaska
I 0.87 0.77
II 1.00 1.00
III 1.15 1.15
IV 1.15 1.15
Note:
1. The building and structure classification categories are listed in Table 1-1.

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Terrain Exposure Constants

Table 6-2
Exposure α zg (ft) ∧ ∧ α b c l (ft) ∈ zmin (ft)*

a b
B 7.0 1200 1/7 0.84 1/4.0 0.45 0.30 320 1/3.0 30
C 9.5 900 1/9.5 1.00 1/6.5 0.65 0.20 500 1/5.0 15
D 11.5 700 1/11.5 1.07 1/9.0 0.80 0.15 650 1/8.0 7
*zmin = minimum height used to ensure that the equivalent height z is greater of 0.6h or zmin.
For buildings with h ≤ zmin, z shall be taken as zmin.
In metric
Exposure α zg (m) ∧ ∧ α b c l (m) ∈ zmin (m)*

a b
B 7.0 365.76 1/7 0.84 1/4.0 0.45 0.30 97.54 1/3.0 9.14
C 9.5 274.32 1/9.5 1.00 1/6.5 0.65 0.20 152.4 1/5.0 4.57
D 11.5 213.36 1/11.5 1.07 1/9.0 0.80 0.15 198.12 1/8.0 2.13
*zmin = minimum height used to ensure that the equivalent height z is greater of 0.6h or zmin.
For buildings with h ≤ zmin, z shall be taken as zmin.
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Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficients, Kh and Kz

Table 6-3
Exposure (Note 1)
Height above
ground level, z
B C D
ft (m) Case 1 Case 2 Cases 1 & 2 Cases 1 & 2
0-15 (0-4.6) 0.70 0.57 0.85 1.03
20 (6.1) 0.70 0.62 0.90 1.08
25 (7.6) 0.70 0.66 0.94 1.12
30 (9.1) 0.70 0.70 0.98 1.16
40 (12.2) 0.76 0.76 1.04 1.22
50 (15.2) 0.81 0.81 1.09 1.27
60 (18) 0.85 0.85 1.13 1.31
70 (21.3) 0.89 0.89 1.17 1.34
80 (24.4) 0.93 0.93 1.21 1.38
90 (27.4) 0.96 0.96 1.24 1.40
100 (30.5) 0.99 0.99 1.26 1.43
120 (36.6) 1.04 1.04 1.31 1.48
140 (42.7) 1.09 1.09 1.36 1.52
160 (48.8) 1.13 1.13 1.39 1.55
180 (54.9) 1.17 1.17 1.43 1.58
200 (61.0) 1.20 1.20 1.46 1.61
250 (76.2) 1.28 1.28 1.53 1.68
300 (91.4) 1.35 1.35 1.59 1.73
350 (106.7) 1.41 1.41 1.64 1.78
400 (121.9) 1.47 1.47 1.69 1.82
450 (137.2) 1.52 1.52 1.73 1.86
500 (152.4) 1.56 1.56 1.77 1.89
Notes:
1. Case 1: a. All components and cladding.
b. Main wind force resisting system in low-rise buildings designed using Figure 6-10.
Case 2: a. All main wind force resisting systems in buildings except those in low-rise buildings
designed using Figure 6-10.
b. All main wind force resisting systems in other structures.
2. The velocity pressure exposure coefficient Kz may be determined from the following formula:
For 15 ft. ≤ z ≤ zg For z < 15 ft.
2/α
Kz = 2.01 (z/zg) Kz = 2.01 (15/zg)2/α
Note: z shall not be taken less than 30 feet for Case 1 in exposure B.
3. α and zg are tabulated in Table 6-2.
4. Linear interpolation for intermediate values of height z is acceptable.
5. Exposure categories are defined in 6.5.6.

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Wind Directionality Factor, K d

Table 6-4
Structure Type Directionality Factor Kd*
Buildings
Main Wind Force Resisting System 0.85
Components and Cladding 0.85
Arched Roofs 0.85
Chimneys, Tanks, and Similar Structures

Square
Hexagonal 0.90
Round 0.95
0.95
Solid Signs 0.85
Open Signs and Lattice Framework 0.85
Trussed Towers
Triangular, square, rectangular 0.85
All other cross sections 0.95
*Directionality Factor Kd has been calibrated with combinations of loads

specified in Section 2. This factor shall only be applied when used in
conjunction with load combinations specified in 2.3 and 2.4.
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Chapter 7
SNOW LOADS
7.1 SYMBOLS AND NOTATION but not less than the following minimum values for low slope
Ce = exposure factor as determined from Table 7-2 roofs as defined in Section 7.3.4:
Cs = slope factor as determined from Fig. 7-2 where pg is 20 lb/ft2 (0.96 kN/m2 ) or less,
Ct = thermal factor as determined from Table 7-3
h b = height of balanced snow load determined by dividing p f = (I ) pg (Importance factor times pg )
ps by γ , in ft (m) where pg exceeds 20 lb/ft2 (0.96 kN/m2 ),
h c = clear height from top of balanced snow load to (1) clos-
est point on adjacent upper roof, (2) top of parapet, or p f = 20(I ) (20 lb/ft2 times Importance factor)
(3) top of a projection on the roof, in ft (m) 7.3.1 Exposure Factor, Ce . The value for Ce shall be determined
h d = height of snow drift, in ft (m) from Table 7-2.
h o = height of obstruction above the surface of the roof, in
ft (m) 7.3.2 Thermal Factor, Ct . The value for Ct shall be determined
I = importance factor as determined from Table 7-4 from Table 7-3.
lu = length of the roof upwind of the drift, in ft (m) 7.3.3 Importance Factor, I. The value for I shall be determined
L = roof length parallel to the ridge line, in ft (m) from Table 7-4.
pd = maximum intensity of drift surcharge load, in lb/ft2
(kN/m2 ) 7.3.4 Minimum Values of p f for Low-Slope Roofs. Minimum
p f = snow load on flat roofs (“flat” = roof slope ≤ 5◦ ), in values of p f shall apply to monoslope roofs with slopes less than
lb/ft2 (kN/m2 ) 15◦ , hip and gable roofs with slopes less than the larger of 2.38◦
pg = ground snow load as determined from Fig. 7-1 and (1/2 on 12) and (70/W) + 0.5 with W in ft (in SI: 21.3/W + 0.5,
Table 7-1; or a site-specific analysis, in lb/ft2 (kN/m2 ) with W in m), and curved roofs where the vertical angle from the
ps = sloped roof snow load, in lb/ft2 (kN/m2 ) eaves to the crown is less than 10◦ .
s = separation distance between buildings, in ft (m)
S = roof slope run for a rise of one 7.4 SLOPED ROOF SNOW LOADS, ps
θ = roof slope on the leeward side, in degrees
w = width of snow drift, in ft (m) Snow loads acting on a sloping surface shall be assumed to act
W = horizontal distance from eave to ridge, in ft (m) on the horizontal projection of that surface. The sloped roof snow
γ = snow density, in lb/ft3 (kN/m3 ) as determined from load, ps , shall be obtained by multiplying the flat roof snow load,
Eq. 7-3 p f , by the roof slope factor, Cs :
ps = C s p f (7-2)
7.2 GROUND SNOW LOADS, pg Values of Cs for warm roofs, cold roofs, curved roofs, and mul-
tiple roofs are determined from Sections 7.4.1 through 7.4.4. The
Ground snow loads, pg , to be used in the determination of de- thermal factor, Ct , from Table 7-3 determines if a roof is “cold”
sign snow loads for roofs shall be as set forth in Fig. 7-1 for the or “warm.” “Slippery surface” values shall be used only where
contiguous United States and Table 7-1 for Alaska. Site-specific the roof’s surface is unobstructed and sufficient space is available
case studies shall be made to determine ground snow loads in below the eaves to accept all the sliding snow. A roof shall be con-
areas designated CS in Fig. 7-1. Ground snow loads for sites at sidered unobstructed if no objects exist on it that prevent snow on
elevations above the limits indicated in Fig. 7-1 and for all sites it from sliding. Slippery surfaces shall include metal, slate, glass,
within the CS areas shall be approved by the authority having and bituminous, rubber, and plastic membranes with a smooth sur-
jurisdiction. Ground snow load determination for such sites shall face. Membranes with an imbedded aggregate or mineral granule
be based on an extreme value statistical analysis of data avail- surface shall not be considered smooth. Asphalt shingles, wood
able in the vicinity of the site using a value with a 2 percent shingles, and shakes shall not be considered slippery.
annual probability of being exceeded (50-year mean recurrence
interval). 7.4.1 Warm Roof Slope Factor, Cs . For warm roofs (Ct ≤ 1.0
as determined from Table 7-3) with an unobstructed slippery sur-
Snow loads are zero for Hawaii, except in mountainous regions face that will allow snow to slide off the eaves, the roof slope
as determined by the authority having jurisdiction. factor Cs shall be determined using the dashed line in Fig. 7-2a,
provided that for nonventilated warm roofs, their thermal resis-
tance (R-value) equals or exceeds 30 ft2 h ◦ F/Btu (5.3 ◦ C m2 /W)
7.3 FLAT ROOF SNOW LOADS, p f and for warm ventilated roofs, their R-value equals or exceeds
The snow load, p f , on a roof with a slope equal to or less than 5◦ 20 ft2 h ◦ F/Btu (3.5 ◦ C m2 /W). Exterior air shall be able to circu-
(1 in./ft = 4.76◦ ) shall be calculated in lb/ft2 (kN/m2 ) using late freely under a ventilated roof from its eaves to its ridge. For
the following formula: warm roofs that do not meet the aforementioned conditions, the
solid line in Fig. 7-2a shall be used to determine the roof slope
p f = 0.7 Ce Ct I pg (7-1) factor Cs .

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7.4.2 Cold Roof Slope Factor, Cs . Cold roofs are those with 7.6 UNBALANCED ROOF SNOW LOADS
a Ct > 1.0 as determined from Table 7-3. For cold roofs with
Ct = 1.1 and an unobstructed slippery surface that will allow Balanced and unbalanced loads shall be analyzed separately.
snow to slide off the eaves, the roof slope factor Cs shall be Winds from all directions shall be accounted for when estab-
determined using the dashed line in Fig. 7-2b. For all other cold lishing unbalanced loads.
roofs with Ct = 1.1, the solid line in Fig. 7-2b shall be used to 7.6.1 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Hip and Gable Roofs. For
determine the roof slope factor Cs . For cold roofs with Ct = 1.2 hip and gable roofs with a slope exceeding 70◦ or with a slope less
and an unobstructed slippery surface that will allow snow to slide than the larger of 70/W + 0.5 with W in ft (in SI: 21.3/W + 0.5,
off the eaves, the roof slope factor Cs shall be determined using the with W in m) and 2.38◦ (1/2 on 12) unbalanced snow loads are
dashed line on Fig. 7-2c. For all other cold roofs with Ct = 1.2, not required to be applied. Roofs with an eave to ridge distance,
the solid line in Fig. 7-2c shall be used to determine the roof slope W, of 20 ft (6.1 m) or less, having simply supported prismatic
factor Cs . members spanning from ridge to eave shall be designed to resist
7.4.3 Roof Slope Factor for Curved Roofs. Portions of curved an unbalanced uniform snow load on the leeward side equal to
roofs having a slope exceeding 70◦ shall be considered free of I pg . For these roofs the windward side shall be unloaded. For
snow load (i.e., Cs = 0). Balanced loads shall be determined from all other gable roofs, the unbalanced load shall consist of 0.3 ps
the balanced load diagrams in Fig. 7-3 with Cs determined from on the windward side, ps on the √ leeward side plus a rectangular
the appropriate curve in Fig. 7-2. surcharge √ with magnitude h d γ / S and horizontal extent from
the ridge 8 Sh d /3 where h d is the drift height from Fig. 7-9 with
7.4.4 Roof Slope Factor for Multiple Folded Plate, Sawtooth, u equal to the eave to ridge distance for the windward portion
and Barrel Vault Roofs. Multiple folded plate, sawtooth, or bar- of the roof, W . Balanced and unbalanced loading diagrams are
rel vault roofs shall have a Cs = 1.0, with no reduction in snow presented in Fig. 7-5.
load because of slope (i.e., ps = p f ).
7.6.2 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Curved Roofs. Portions of
7.4.5 Ice Dams and Icicles Along Eaves. Two types of warm curved roofs having a slope exceeding 70◦ shall be considered
roofs that drain water over their eaves shall be capable of sus- free of snow load. If the slope of a straight line from the eaves (or
taining a uniformly distributed load of 2 p f on all overhanging the 70◦ point, if present) to the crown is less than 10◦ or greater
portions: those that are unventilated and have an R-value less than 60◦ , unbalanced snow loads shall not be taken into account.
than 30 ft2 h ◦ F/Btu (5.3 ◦ C m2 /W) and those that are ventilated
and have an R-value less than 20 ft2 h ◦ F/Btu (3.5 ◦ C m2 /W). No Unbalanced loads shall be determined according to the loading
other loads except dead loads shall be present on the roof when diagrams in Fig. 7-3. In all cases the windward side shall be
this uniformly distributed load is applied. considered free of snow. If the ground or another roof abuts a Case
II or Case III (see Fig. 7-3) curved roof at or within 3 ft (0.91 m)
of its eaves, the snow load shall not be decreased between the
7.5 PARTIAL LOADING 30◦ point and the eaves, but shall remain constant at the 30◦ point
The effect of having selected spans loaded with the balanced snow value. This distribution is shown as a dashed line in Fig. 7-3.
load and remaining spans loaded with half the balanced snow load 7.6.3 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Multiple Folded Plate,
shall be investigated as follows: Sawtooth, and Barrel Vault Roofs. Unbalanced loads shall be
7.5.1 Continuous Beam Systems. Continuous beam systems applied to folded plate, sawtooth, and barrel-vaulted multiple
shall be investigated for the effects of the three loadings shown in roofs with a slope exceeding 3/8 in./ft (1.79◦ ). According to Sec-
Fig. 7-4: tion 7.4.4, Cs = 1.0 for such roofs, and the balanced snow load
equals p f . The unbalanced snow load shall increase from one-
half the balanced load at the ridge or crown (i.e., 0.5 p f ) to two
Case 1: Full balanced snow load on either exterior span and times the balanced load given in Section 7.4.4 divided by Ce at the
half the balanced snow load on all other spans. valley (i.e., 2 p f /Ce ). Balanced and unbalanced loading diagrams
for a sawtooth roof are presented in Fig. 7-6. However, the snow
Case 2: Half the balanced snow load on either exterior span surface above the valley shall not be at an elevation higher than
and full balanced snow load on all other spans. the snow above the ridge. Snow depths shall be determined by
Case 3: All possible combinations of full balanced snow load dividing the snow load by the density of that snow from Eq. 7-3,
on any two adjacent spans and half the balanced snow load which is in Section 7.7.1.
on all other spans. For this case there will be (n−1) possible
combinations where n equals the number of spans in the 7.6.4 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Dome Roofs. Unbalanced
continuous beam system. snow loads shall be applied to domes and similar rounded struc-
tures. Snow loads, determined in the same manner as for curved
roofs in Section 7.6.2, shall be applied to the downwind 90◦ sector
If a cantilever is present in any of the above cases, it shall be in plan view. At both edges of this sector, the load shall decrease
considered to be a span. linearly to zero over sectors of 22.5◦ each. There shall be no snow
load on the remaining 225◦ upwind sector.
Partial load provisions need not be applied to structural mem-
bers that span perpendicular to the ridgeline in gable roofs with
slopes greater than the larger of 2.38◦ (1/2 on 12) and 70/W + 0.5 7.7 DRIFTS ON LOWER ROOFS
with W in ft (in SI: 21.3/W + 0.5, with W in m). (AERODYNAMIC SHADE)
7.5.2 Other Structural Systems. Areas sustaining only half the Roofs shall be designed to sustain localized loads from snowdrifts
balanced snow load shall be chosen so as to produce the greatest that form in the wind shadow of (1) higher portions of the same
effects on members being analyzed. structure and (2) adjacent structures and terrain features.
82 ASCE 7-05
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7.7.1 Lower Roof of a Structure. Snow that forms drifts comes is less than 15 ft (4.6 m) long, a drift load is not required to be
from a higher roof or, with the wind from the opposite direc- applied to that side.
tion, from the roof on which the drift is located. These two kinds
of drifts (“leeward” and “windward” respectively) are shown
7.9 SLIDING SNOW
in Fig. 7-7. The geometry of the surcharge load due to snow
drifting shall be approximated by a triangle as shown in Fig. The load caused by snow sliding off a sloped roof onto a lower roof
7-8. Drift loads shall be superimposed on the balanced snow shall be determined for slippery upper roofs with slopes greater
load. If h c /h b is less than 0.2, drift loads are not required to be than 1/4 on 12, and for other (i.e., nonslippery) upper roofs with
applied. slopes greater than 2 on 12. The total sliding load per unit length
of eave shall be 0.4 p f W, where W is the horizontal distance from
For leeward drifts, the drift height h d shall be determined di-
the eave to ridge for the sloped upper roof. The sliding load shall
rectly from Fig. 7-9 using the length of the upper roof. For wind-
be distributed uniformly on the lower roof over a distance of
ward drifts, the drift height shall be determined by substituting the
15 ft from the upper roof eave. If the width of the lower roof
length of the lower roof for lu in Fig. 7-9 and using three-quarters
is less than 15 ft, the sliding load shall be reduced proportion-
of h d as determined from Fig. 7-9 as the drift height. The larger
ally.
of these two heights shall be used in design. If this height is equal
to or less than h c , the drift width, w, shall equal 4h d and the drift The sliding snow load shall not be further reduced unless a
height shall equal h d . If this height exceeds h c , the drift width, w, portion of the snow on the upper roof is blocked from sliding onto
shall equal 4h 2d /h c and the drift height shall equal h c . However, the lower roof by snow already on the lower roof or is expected
the drift width, w, shall not be greater than 8h c . If the drift width, to slide clear of the lower roof.
w, exceeds the width of the lower roof, the drift shall be truncated
Sliding loads shall be superimposed on the balanced snow load.
at the far edge of the roof, not reduced to zero there. The maxi-
mum intensity of the drift surcharge load, pd , equals h d γ where
snow density, γ , is defined in Eq. 7-3: 7.10 RAIN-ON-SNOW SURCHARGE LOAD
For locations where pg is 20 lb/ft2 (0.96 kN/m2 ) or less, but not
γ = 0.13 pg + 14 but not more than 30 pcf (7-3)
zero, all roofs with slopes (in degrees) less than W/50 with W in ft
(in SI: W/15.2 with W in m) shall have a 5 lb/ft2 (0.24 kN/m2 ) rain-
(in SI: γ = 0.426 pg + 2.2, but not more than 4.7 kN/m3 ) on-snow surcharge. This rain-on-snow augmented design load
This density shall also be used to determine h b by dividing ps applies only to the balanced load case and need not be used in
by γ (in SI: also multiply by 102 to get the depth in m). combination with drift, sliding, unbalanced, or partial loads.
7.7.2 Adjacent Structures and Terrain Features. The require-
ments in Section 7.7.1 shall also be used to determine drift loads 7.11 PONDING INSTABILITY
caused by a higher structure or terrain feature within 20 ft (6.1 m) Roofs shall be designed to preclude ponding instability. For roofs
of a roof. The separation distance, s, between the roof and adja- with a slope less than 1/4 in./ft (1.19◦ ), roof deflections caused
cent structure or terrain feature shall reduce applied drift loads on by full snow loads shall be investigated when determining the
the lower roof by the factor (20-s)/20 where s is in ft ([6.1-s]/6.1 likelihood of ponding instability from rain-on-snow or from snow
where s is in m). meltwater (see Section 8.4).
7.8 ROOF PROJECTIONS 7.12 EXISTING ROOFS

The method in Section 7.7.1 shall be used to calculate drift loads Existing roofs shall be evaluated for increased snow loads caused
on all sides of roof projections and at parapet walls. The height of by additions or alterations. Owners or agents for owners of an
such drifts shall be taken as three-quarters the drift height from existing lower roof shall be advised of the potential for increased
Fig. 7-9 (i.e., 0.75h d ) with lu equal to the length of the roof upwind snow loads where a higher roof is constructed within 20 ft (6.1 m).
of the projection or parapet wall. If the side of a roof projection See footnote to Table 7-2 and Section 7.7.2.

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FIGURE 7-1 GROUND SNOW LOADS, pg, FOR THE UNITED STATES (LB/FT2 )
84 ASCE 7-05
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FIGURE 7-1 (continued) GROUND SNOW LOADS, pg, FOR THE UNITED STATES (LB/FT2 )

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86
ASCE003-07.tex
ASCE003/SIE-v1.cls
FIGURE 7-2 GRAPHS FOR DETERMINING ROOF SLOPE FACTOR CS, FOR WARM AND COLD ROOFS (SEE TABLE 7-3 FOR Ct DEFINITIONS)
ASCE 7-05
October 10, 2005
17:35
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FIGURE 7-3 BALANCED AND UNBALANCED LOADS FOR CURVED ROOFS

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FIGURE 7-4 PARTIAL LOADING DIAGRAMS FOR CONTINUOUS BEAMS
88 ASCE 7-05
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1
S
Balanced ps
Unbalanced
W < 20 ft with I * pg
roof rafter system
8
hd S
3
hdγ S
0.3 ps
Unbalanced ps
Other
Note: Unbalanced loads need not be considered for θ > 70° or for θ <
larger of 2.38° and 70/W + 0.5.
FIGURE 7-5 BALANCED AND UNBALANCED SNOW LOADS FOR HIP AND GABLE ROOFS

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Balanced pf
Load 0
2 pf/Ce∗
Unbalanced
Load
0
0.5 p f
* May be somewhat less; see Section 7.6.3
FIGURE 7-6 BALANCED AND UNBALANCED SNOW LOADS FOR A SAWTOOTH ROOF
FIGURE 7-7 DRIFTS FORMED AT WINDWARD AND LEEWARD STEPS
90 ASCE 7-05
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FIGURE 7-8 CONFIGURATION OF SNOW DRIFTS ON LOWER ROOFS
10
If lu > 600 ft, use equation

lu = 600 ft
8
400
200
hd , Drift Height (ft)
100
4
50
25
2
If lu < 25 ft, use lu = 25 ft
3 4
hd = 0.43 lu pg + 10 − 1.5
0 20 40 60 80 100
2
pg, Ground Snow Load (lb/ft )
To convert lb/ft2 to kN/m2, multiply by 0.0479.
To convert ft to m, multiply by 0.3048.
FIGURE 7-9 GRAPH AND EQUATION FOR DETERMINING DRIFT HEIGHT, hd

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TABLE 7-1 GROUND SNOW LOADS, pg, FOR ALASKAN LOCATIONS

pg pg pg
Location lb/ft2 (kN/m2 ) Location lb/ft2 (kN/m2 ) Location lb/ft2 (kN/m2 )
Adak 30 (1.4) Galena 60 (2.9) Petersburg 150 (7.2)
Anchorage 50 (2.4) Gulkana 70 (3.4) St Paul 40 (1.9)
Angoon 70 (3.4) Homer 40 (1.9) Seward 50 (2.4)
Barrow 25 (1.2) Juneau 60 (2.9) Shemya 25 (1.2)
Barter 35 (1.7) Kenai 70 (3.4) Sitka 50 (2.4)
Bethel 40 (1.9) Kodiak 30 (1.4) Talkeetna 120 (5.8)
Big Delta 50 (2.4) Kotzebue 60 (2.9) Unalakleet 50 (2.4)
Cold Bay 25 (1.2) McGrath 70 (3.4) Valdez 160 (7.7)
Cordova 100 (4.8) Nenana 80 (3.8) Whittier 300 (14.4)
Fairbanks 60 (2.9) Nome 70 (3.4) Wrangell 60 (2.9)
Fort Yukon 60 (2.9) Palmer 50 (2.4) Yakutat 150 (7.2)
TABLE 7-2 EXPOSURE FACTOR, Ce

Terrain Category Fully Exposure of Roofa Sheltered
Exposed Partially Exposed
B (see Section 6.5.6) 0.9 1.0 1.2
C (see Section 6.5.6) 0.9 1.0 1.1
D (see Section 6.5.6) 0.8 0.9 1.0
Above the treeline in windswept mountainous areas. 0.7 0.8 N/A
In Alaska, in areas where trees do not exist within a 0.7 0.8 N/A
2-mile (3 km) radius of the site.
The terrain category and roof exposure condition chosen shall be representative of the anticipated conditions during
the life of the structure. An exposure factor shall be determined for each roof of a structure.
a Definitions: Partially Exposed: All roofs except as indicated in the following text. Fully Exposed: Roofs exposed on
all sides with no shelterb afforded by terrain, higher structures, or trees. Roofs that contain several large pieces of
mechanical equipment, parapets that extend above the height of the balanced snow load (h b ), or other obstructions
are not in this category. Sheltered: Roofs located tight in among conifers that qualify as obstructions.
b Obstructions within a distance of 10h provide “shelter,” where h is the height of the obstruction above the roof
o o
level. If the only obstructions are a few deciduous trees that are leafless in winter, the “fully exposed” category shall
be used. Note that these are heights above the roof. Heights used to establish the terrain category in Section 6.5.3
are heights above the ground.
92 ASCE 7-05
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TABLE 7-3 THERMAL FACTOR, Ct

Thermal Conditiona Ct
All structures except as indicated below: 1.0
Structures kept just above freezing and others with cold, ventilated roofs in 1.1
which the thermal resistance (R-value) between the ventilated space and the
◦
heated space exceeds 25 F× h× ft /Btu (4.4 K × m /W).
2 2
Unheated structures and structures intentionally kept 1.2

below freezing.
Continuously heated greenhousesb with a roof having a thermal resistance 0.85
(R-value) less than 2.0 ◦ F× h× ft2 /Btu (0.4 K × m2 /W)
a These conditions shall be representative of the anticipated conditions during winters for the life
of the structure.
b Greenhouses with a constantly maintained interior temperature of 50 ◦ F (10 ◦ C) or more at any
point 3 ft above the floor level during winters and having either a maintenance attendant on duty
at all times or a temperature alarm system to provide warning in the event of a heating failure.
TABLE 7-4 IMPORTANCE FACTOR, I (SNOW

LOADS)
Categorya I
I 0.8
II 1.0
III 1.1
IV 1.2
a See Section 1.5 and Table 1-1.

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94
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Chapter 8
RAIN LOADS
8.1 SYMBOLS AND NOTATION If the secondary drainage systems contain drain lines, such lines
R = rain load on the undeflected roof, in lb/ft2 (kN/m2 ). and their point of discharge shall be separate from the primary
When the phrase “undeflected roof” is used, deflections drain lines.
from loads (including dead loads) shall not be consid-
ered when determining the amount of rain on the roof. 8.4 PONDING INSTABILITY
ds = depth of water on the undeflected roof up to the inlet of “Ponding” refers to the retention of water due solely to the deflec-
the secondary drainage system when the primary drain- tion of relatively flat roofs. Roofs with a slope less than 1/4 in./ft
age system is blocked (i.e., the static head), in in. (mm). (1.19◦ ) shall be investigated by structural analysis to assure that
dh = additional depth of water on the undeflected roof above they possess adequate stiffness to preclude progressive deflection
the inlet of the secondary drainage system at its design (i.e., instability) as rain falls on them or meltwater is created from
flow (i.e., the hydraulic head), in in. (mm). snow on them. The larger of the snow load or the rain load shall
be used in this analysis. The primary drainage system within an
8.2 ROOF DRAINAGE area subjected to ponding shall be considered to be blocked in
this analysis.
Roof drainage systems shall be designed in accordance with the
provisions of the code having jurisdiction. The flow capacity of
secondary (overflow) drains or scuppers shall not be less than that 8.5 CONTROLLED DRAINAGE
of the primary drains or scuppers.
Roofs equipped with hardware to control the rate of drainage
shall be equipped with a secondary drainage system at a higher
8.3 DESIGN RAIN LOADS elevation that limits accumulation of water on the roof above
Each portion of a roof shall be designed to sustain the load of all that elevation. Such roofs shall be designed to sustain the load of
rainwater that will accumulate on it if the primary drainage system all rainwater that will accumulate on them to the elevation of the
for that portion is blocked plus the uniform load caused by water secondary drainage system plus the uniform load caused by water
that rises above the inlet of the secondary drainage system at its that rises above the inlet of the secondary drainage system at its
design flow. design flow (determined from Section 8.3).
R = 5.2(ds + dh ) (8-1) Such roofs shall also be checked for ponding instability (deter-
In SI: R = 0.0098(ds + dh ) mined from Section 8.4).

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96
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Chapter 9
RESERVED FOR FUTURE PROVISIONS
In preparing the seismic provisions contained within this stan- these two primary goals led to the decision to create 13 separate
dard, the Seismic Task Committee of ASCE 7 established a Scope sections and to relocate provisions into their most logical new
and Format Subcommittee to review the layout and presenta- sections.
tion of the seismic provisions and to make recommendations to
The provisions for buildings and nonbuilding structures are
improve the clarity and use of the standard. As a result of the
now distinctly separate as are the provisions for nonstructural
efforts of this subcommittee, the seismic provisions of ASCE
components. Less commonly used provisions, such as those for
7-05 are presented in Chapters 11 through 23 and Appendices
seismically isolated structures, have also been located in their own
11A and 11B, as opposed to prior editions wherein the seis-
distinct chapter. We hope that the users of ASCE 7-05 will find the
mic provisions were presented in a single section (previously
reformatted seismic provisions to be a significant improvement
Section 9).
in organization and presentation over prior editions and will be
Of foremost concern in the reformat effort was the organization able to more quickly locate applicable provisions. Table C11-1,
of the seismic provisions in a logical sequence for the general located in Commentary Chapter C11, has been provided to assist
structural design community and the clarification of the various users in locating provisions between the 2002 and 2005 editions
headings to more accurately reflect their content. Accomplishing of the standard.

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98
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Chapter 10
ICE LOADS—ATMOSPHERIC ICING
10.1 GENERAL COMPONENTS AND APPURTENANCES: Nonstructural

elements that may be exposed to atmospheric icing. Examples are
Atmospheric ice loads due to freezing rain, snow, and in-cloud
ladders, handrails, antennas, waveguides, Radio Frequency (RF)
icing shall be considered in the design of ice-sensitive structures.
transmission lines, pipes, electrical conduits, and cable trays.
In areas where records or experience indicate that snow or in-
cloud icing produces larger loads than freezing rain, site-specific FREEZING RAIN: Rain or drizzle that falls into a layer of
studies shall be used. Structural loads due to hoarfrost are not a subfreezing air at the earth’s surface and freezes on contact with
design consideration. Roof snow loads are covered in Chapter 7. the ground or an object to form glaze ice.
10.1.1 Site-Specific Studies. Mountainous terrain and gorges GLAZE: Clear high-density ice.
shall be examined for unusual icing conditions. Site-specific stud- HOARFROST: An accumulation of ice crystals formed by
ies shall be used to determine the 50-year mean recurrence interval direct deposition of water vapor from the air onto an object.
ice thickness and concurrent wind speed in
ICE-SENSITIVE STRUCTURES: Structures for which the
1. Alaska. effect of an atmospheric icing load governs the design of part
2. Areas where records or experience indicate that snow or or all of the structure. This includes, but is not limited to, lat-
in-cloud icing produces larger loads than freezing rain. tice structures, guyed masts, overhead lines, light suspension and
cable-stayed bridges, aerial cable systems (e.g., for ski lifts and
3. Special icing regions shown in Figs. 10-2, 10-4, and 10-5. logging operations), amusement rides, open catwalks and plat-
4. Mountainous terrain and gorges where examination indi- forms, flagpoles, and signs.
cates unusual icing conditions exist. IN-CLOUD ICING: Occurs when supercooled cloud or fog
Site-specific studies shall be subject to review and approval by droplets carried by the wind freeze on impact with objects. In-
the authority having jurisdiction. cloud icing usually forms rime, but may also form glaze.
In lieu of using the mapped values, it shall be permitted to RIME: White or opaque ice with entrapped air.
determine the ice thickness and the concurrent wind speed for a SNOW: Snow that adheres to objects by some combination of
structure from local meteorological data based on a 50-year mean capillary forces, freezing, and sintering.
recurrence interval provided that
1. The quality of the data for wind and type and amount of 10.3 SYMBOLS AND NOTATION
precipitation has been taken into account. As = surface area of one side of a flat plate or the projected
2. A robust ice accretion algorithm has been used to estimate area of complex shapes
uniform ice thicknesses and concurrent wind speeds from Ai = cross-sectional area of ice
these data. D = diameter of a circular structure or member as defined in
3. Extreme-value statistical analysis procedures acceptable to Chapter 6, in ft (m)
the authority having jurisdiction have been employed in an- Dc = diameter of the cylinder circumscribing an object
alyzing the ice thickness and concurrent wind speed data. f z = factor to account for the increase in ice thickness with
4. The length of record and sampling error have been taken height
into account. Ii = importance factor and multiplier on ice thickness based
on the structure category as defined in Chapter 1
10.1.2 Dynamic Loads. Dynamic loads, such as those result-
ing from galloping, ice shedding, and aeolian vibrations, that Iw = importance factor and multiplier on the concurrent wind
are caused or enhanced by an ice accretion on a flexible struc- pressure based on the structure category as defined in
tural member, component, or appurtenance are not covered in this Chapter 1
section. Kzt = topographic factor as defined in Chapter 6
qz = velocity pressure evaluated at height z above ground, in
10.1.3 Exclusions. Electric transmission systems, communica- lb/ft2 (N/m2 ) as defined in Chapter 6
tions towers and masts, and other structures for which national
standards exist are excluded from the requirements of this section. r = radius of the maximum cross-section of a dome or radius
Applicable standards and guidelines include the NESC, ASCE of a sphere
Manual 74, and ANSI/EIA/TIA-222. t = nominal ice thickness due to freezing rain at a height
of 33 ft (10 m) from Figs. 10-2 through 10-6 in inches
(mm)
10.2 DEFINITIONS td = design ice thickness in in. (mm) from Eq. 10-5
The following definitions apply only to the provisions of this Vc = concurrent wind speed mph (m/s) from Figs. 10-2
chapter. through 10-6

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Vi = volume of ice ice thickness, not the ice weight because the ice weight is not a
z = height above ground in ft (m) linear function of thickness.
∈ = solidity ratio as defined in Chapter 6 10.4.5 Topographic Factor. Both the ice thickness and concur-
rent wind speed for structures on hills, ridges, and escarpments
10.4 ICE LOADS DUE TO FREEZING RAIN are higher than those on level terrain because of wind speed-up
effects. The topographic factor for the concurrent wind pressure is
10.4.1 Ice Weight. The ice load shall be determined using the Kzt and the topographic factor for ice thickness is (Kzt )0.35 , where
weight of glaze ice formed on all exposed surfaces of struc- Kzt is obtained from Eq. 6-3.
tural members, guys, components, appurtenances, and cable sys-
tems. On structural shapes, prismatic members, and other similar 10.4.6 Design Ice Thickness for Freezing Rain. The design ice
shapes, the cross-sectional area of ice shall be determined by thickness td shall be calculated from Eq. 10-5.
Ai = πtd (Dc + td ) (10-1)
td = 2.0t Ii f z (Kzt )0.35 (10-5)
Dc is shown for a variety of cross-sectional shapes in Fig. 10-1.
On flat plates and large three-dimensional objects such as
domes and spheres, the volume of ice shall be determined by 10.5 WIND ON ICE-COVERED STRUCTURES
Vi = π td As (10-2) Ice accreted on structural members, components, and appurte-
nances increases the projected area of the structure exposed to
For a flat plate As shall be the area of one side of the plate, for
wind. The projected area shall be increased by adding td to all
domes and spheres As shall be determined by
free edges of the projected area.Wind loads on this increased pro-
As = πr 2 (10-3) jected area shall be used in the design of ice-sensitive structures.
Figs. 10-2 to 10-6 include 3-s gust wind speeds at 33 ft (10 m)
It is acceptable to multiply Vi by 0.8 for vertical plates and 0.6 above grade that are concurrent with the ice loads due to freezing
for horizontal plates. rain. Wind loads shall be calculated in accordance with Chapter 6
The ice density shall be not less than 56 pcf (900 kg/m3 ). as modified by Sections 10.5.1 through 10.5.5.
10.4.2 Nominal Ice Thickness. Figs. 10-2 through 10-6 show 10.5.1 Wind on Ice-Covered Chimneys, Tanks, and Similar
the equivalent uniform radial thicknesses t of ice due to freezing Structures. Force coefficients C f for structures with square,
rain at a height of 33 ft (10 m) over the contiguous 48 states and hexagonal, and octagonal cross-sections shall be as given in
Alaska for a 50-year mean recurrence interval. Also shown are Fig. 6-21. Force coefficients C f for structures with round cross-
concurrent 3-s gust wind speeds. Thicknesses for Hawaii, and for sections√shall be as given in Fig. 6-21 for round cross-sections
ice accretions due to other sources in all regions, shall be obtained with D qz ≤ 2.5 for all ice thicknesses, wind speeds, and struc-
from local meteorological studies. ture diameters.
10.4.3 Height Factor. The height factor f z used to increase the
radial thickness of ice for height above ground z shall be deter- 10.5.2 Wind on Ice-Covered Solid Freestanding Walls and
mined by Solid Signs. Force coefficients C f shall be as given in Fig. 6-20
z 0.10 based on the dimensions of the wall or sign including ice.
fz = for 0 ft < z ≤ 900 ft (10-4)
33 10.5.3 Wind on Ice-Covered Open Signs and Lattice Frame-
f z = 1.4 for z > 900 ft works. The solidity ratio ∈ shall be based on the projected area
including ice. The force coefficient C f for the projected area of
In SI: flat members shall be as given in Fig. 6-22. The force coefficient
z 0.10 C f for rounded members and for the additional projected area
fz = for 0 m < z ≤ 275 m due to ice on both flat and rounded members
10 √ shall be as given
in Fig. 6-22 for rounded members with D qz ≤ 2.5 for all ice
f z = 1.4 for z > 275 m
thicknesses, wind speeds, and member diameters.
10.4.4 Importance Factors. Importance factors to be applied
to the radial ice thickness and wind pressure according to the 10.5.4 Wind on Ice-Covered Trussed Towers. The solidity ra-
structure classifications (as defined in Table 1-1) are listed in tio ∈ shall be based on the projected area including ice. The force
Table 10-1. The importance factor multiplier Ii must be on the coefficients C f shall be as given in Fig. 6-23. It is acceptable
to reduce the force coefficients C f for the additional projected
area due to ice on both round and flat members by the factor for
TABLE 10-1 IMPORTANCE FACTOR I i AND I w rounded members in Note 3 of Fig. 6-23.
Structure I i (Multiplier on I w (Multiplier on Concurrent
Category Ice Thickness) Wind Pressure) 10.5.5 Wind on Ice-Covered Guys and Cables. The force co-
efficient C f (as defined in Chapter 6) for ice-covered guys and
I 0.80 1.0 cables shall be 1.2.
II 1.00 1.0
10.6 PARTIAL LOADING
III 1.25 1.0
The effects of a partial ice load shall be considered when this
IV 1.25 1.0 condition is critical for the type of structure under consideration.
It is permitted to consider this to be a static load.
100 ASCE 7-05

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10.7 DESIGN PROCEDURE 10.8 CONSENSUS STANDARDS AND OTHER

1. The nominal ice thickness, t, and the concurrent wind speed,
Vc , for the site shall be determined from Figs. 10-2 to 10-6 ASCE
or a site specific study. American Society of Civil Engineers
2. The topographic factor for the site, Kzt , shall be determined 1801 Alexander Bell Drive
in accordance with Section 10.4.5. Reston, VA 20191
3. The importance factor, Ii , shall be determined in accordance ASCE Manual 74
with Section 10.4.4. Section 10.1.3
4. The height factor, f z , shall be determined in accordance with Guidelines for Electrical Transmission Line
Section 10.4.3 for each design segment of the structure. Structural Loading, 1991.
5. The design ice thickness, td , shall be determined in accor- ANSI
dance with Section 10.4.6, Eq. 10-5. American National Standards Institute
6. The weight of ice shall be calculated for the design ice thick- 25 West 43rd Street, 4th Floor
ness, td , in accordance with Section 10.4.1. New York, NY 10036
7. The velocity pressure qz for wind speed Vc shall be deter- ANSI/EIA/TIA-222

mined in accordance with Section 6.5.10 using Iw for the Section 10.1.3
importance factor I . Structural Standards for Steel Antenna Towers and
8. The wind force coefficients C f shall be determined in ac- Antenna Supporting Structures, 1996.
cordance with Section 10.5. IEEE
9. The gust effect factor shall be determined in accordance 445 Hoes Lane,
with Section 6.5.8. Piscataway, New Jersey
08854-1331 USA
10. The design wind force shall be determined in accordance
with Section 6.5.14 or 6.5.1.15. NESC
11. The iced structure shall be analyzed for the load combina- Section 10.1.3
tions in either Section 2.3 or 2.4. National Electrical Safety Code, 2001.

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FIGURE 10-1 CHARACTERISTIC DIMENSION “Dc ” FOR CALCULATING THE ICE AREA FOR A VARIETY OF
CROSS-SECTIONAL SHAPES
102 ASCE 7-05

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FIGURE 10-2 50-YEAR MEAN RECURRENCE INTERVAL UNIFORM ICE THICKNESSES DUE TO FREEZING RAIN
WITH CONCURRENT 3-SECOND GUST SPEEDS: CONTIGUOUS 48 STATES.
104 ASCE 7-05

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FIGURE 10-2 (continued) 50-YEAR MEAN RECURRENCE INTERVAL UNIFORM ICE THICKNESSES DUE TO FREEZING RAIN
WITH CONCURRENT 3-SECOND GUST SPEEDS: CONTIGUOUS 48 STATES.

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FIGURE 10-3 LAKE SUPERIOR DETAIL
106 ASCE 7-05

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FIGURE 10-4 FRASER VALLEY DETAIL
FIGURE 10-5 COLUMBIA RIVER GORGE DETAIL

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ASCE003-10.tex
108
ASCE003/SIE-v1.cls
FIGURE 10-6 50-YEAR MEAN RECURRENCE INTERVAL UNIFORM ICE THICKNESSES DUE TO FREEZING RAIN WITH
CONCURRENT 3-SECOND GUST SPEEDS: ALASKA
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October 10, 2005
17:50
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Chapter 11
SEISMIC DESIGN CRITERIA
11.1 GENERAL 11.1.4 Alternate Materials and Methods of Construction.

Alternate materials and methods of construction to those pre-
11.1.1 Purpose. Chapter 11 presents criteria for the design and
scribed in the seismic requirements of this standard shall not be
construction of buildings and other structures subject to earth-
used unless approved by the authority having jurisdiction. Sub-
quake ground motions. The specified earthquake loads are based
stantiating evidence shall be submitted demonstrating that the
upon post-elastic energy dissipation in the structure, and because
proposed alternate, for the purpose intended, will be at least equal
of this fact, the requirements for design, detailing, and construc-
in strength, durability, and seismic resistance.
tion shall be satisfied even for structures and members for which
load combinations that do not contain earthquake loads indicate
11.2 DEFINITIONS
larger demands than combinations that include earthquake loads.
Minimum requirements for quality assurance for seismic force- The following definitions apply only to the seismic requirements
resisting systems are set forth in Appendix 11A. of this standard.
ACTIVE FAULT: A fault determined to be active by the
11.1.2 Scope. Every structure, and portion thereof, including
authority having jurisdiction from properly substantiated data
nonstructural components, shall be designed and constructed to
(e.g., most recent mapping of active faults by the United States
resist the effects of earthquake motions as prescribed by the seis-
Geological Survey).
mic requirements of this standard. Certain nonbuilding structures,
as described in Chapter 15, are also within the scope and shall be ADDITION: An increase in building area, aggregate floor area,
designed and constructed in accordance with the requirements height, or number of stories of a structure.
of Chapter 15. Requirements concerning alterations, additions, ALTERATION: Any construction or renovation to an existing
and change of use are set forth in Appendix 11B. Existing struc- structure other than an addition.
tures and alterations to existing structures need only comply with
the seismic requirements of this standard where required by Ap- APPENDAGE: An architectural component such as a canopy,
pendix 11B. The following structures are exempt from the seismic marquee, ornamental balcony, or statuary.
requirements of this standard: APPROVAL: The written acceptance by the authority having
1. Detached one- and two-family dwellings that are located jurisdiction of documentation that establishes the qualification of
where the mapped, short period, spectral response accelera- a material, system, component, procedure, or person to fulfill the
tion parameter, SS , is less than 0.4 or where the Seismic De- requirements of this standard for the intended use.
sign Category determined in accordance with Section 11.6 ATTACHMENTS: Means by which components and their
is A, B, or C. supports are secured or connected to the seismic force-resisting
2. Detached one- and two-family wood-frame dwellings not system of the structure. Such attachments include anchor bolts,
included in Exception 1 with not more than two stories, welded connections, and mechanical fasteners.
satisfying the limitations of and constructed in accordance BASE: The level at which the horizontal seismic ground mo-
with the IRC. tions are considered to be imparted to the structure.
3. Agricultural storage structures that are intended only for BASEMENT: A basement is any story below the lowest story
incidental human occupancy. above grade.
4. Structures that require special consideration of their re- BASE SHEAR: Total design lateral force or shear at the base.
sponse characteristics and environment that are not ad-
dressed in Chapter 15 and for which other regulations pro- BOUNDARY ELEMENTS: Diaphragm and shear wall
vide seismic criteria, such as vehicular bridges, electri- boundary members to which the diaphragm transfers forces.
cal transmission towers, hydraulic structures, buried utility Boundary members include chords and drag struts at diaphragm
lines and their appurtenances, and nuclear reactors. and shear wall perimeters, interior openings, discontinuities, and
reentrant corners.
11.1.3 Applicability. Structures and their nonstructural compo- BOUNDARY MEMBERS: Portions along wall and di-
nents shall be designed and constructed in accordance with the aphragm edges strengthened by longitudinal and transverse re-
requirement of the following sections based on the type of struc- inforcement. Boundary members include chords and drag struts
ture or component: at diaphragm and shear wall perimeters, interior openings, dis-
continuities, and reentrant corners.
a. Buildings: Chapter 12
b. Nonbuilding Structures: Chapter 15 BUILDING: Any structure whose intended use includes shel-
ter of human occupants.
c. Nonstructural Components: Chapter 13
CANTILEVERED COLUMN SYSTEM: A seismic force-
d. Seismically Isolated Structures: Chapter 17
resisting system in which lateral forces are resisted entirely by
e. Structures with Damping Systems: Chapter 18 columns acting as cantilevers from the base.

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CHARACTERISTIC EARTHQUAKE: An earthquake as- DESIGN EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTION: The earth-
sessed for an active fault having a magnitude equal to the best quake ground motions that are two-thirds of the corresponding
estimate of the maximum magnitude capable of occurring on the MCE ground motions.
fault, but not less than the largest magnitude that has occurred
DIAPHRAGM: Roof, floor, or other membrane or bracing
historically on the fault.
system acting to transfer the lateral forces to the vertical resisting
COMPONENT: A part or element of an architectural, electri- elements.
cal, mechanical, or structural system.
DIAPHRAGM BOUNDARY: A location where shear is trans-
ferred into or out of the diaphragm element. Transfer is either to
Component, Equipment: A mechanical or electrical compo-
a boundary element or to another force-resisting element.
nent or element that is part of a mechanical and/or electrical
system within or without a building system. DIAPHRAGM CHORD: A diaphragm boundary element per-
pendicular to the applied load that is assumed to take axial stresses
Component, Flexible: Component, including its attachments,
due to the diaphragm moment.
having a fundamental period greater than 0.06 s.
DRAG STRUT (COLLECTOR, TIE, DIAPHRAGM
Component, Rigid: Component, including its attachments,
STRUT): A diaphragm or shear wall boundary element paral-
having a fundamental period less than or equal to 0.06 s.
lel to the applied load that collects and transfers diaphragm shear
forces to the vertical force-resisting elements or distributes forces
COMPONENT SUPPORT: Those structural members or as- within the diaphragm or shear wall.
semblies of members, including braces, frames, struts, and at-
tachments that transmit all loads and forces between systems, ENCLOSURE: An interior space surrounded by walls.
components, or elements and the structure. EQUIPMENT SUPPORT: Those structural members or as-
CONCRETE, PLAIN: Concrete that is either unreinforced or semblies of members or manufactured elements, including braces,
contains less reinforcement than the minimum amount specified frames, legs, lugs, snuggers, hangers, or saddles that transmit
in ACI 318 for reinforced concrete gravity loads and operating loads between the equipment and the
structure.
CONCRETE, REINFORCED: Concrete reinforced with no
less reinforcement than the minimum amount required by ACI 318 FLEXIBLE EQUIPMENT CONNECTIONS: Those con-
prestressed or nonprestressed, and designed on the assumption nections between equipment components that permit rotational
that the two materials act together in resisting forces. and/or translational movement without degradation of perfor-
mance. Examples include universal joints, bellows expansion
CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS: The written, graphic, joints, and flexible metal hose.
electronic, and pictorial documents describing the design, loca-
tions, and physical characteristics of the project required to verify FRAME:
compliance with this standard.
Braced Frame: An essentially vertical truss, or its equivalent,
COUPLING BEAM: A beam that is used to connect adjacent of the concentric or eccentric type that is provided in a build-
concrete wall elements to make them act together as a unit to resist ing frame system or dual system to resist seismic forces.
lateral loads.
Concentrically Braced Frame (CBF): A braced frame in
DEFORMABILITY: The ratio of the ultimate deformation to which the members are subjected primarily to axial forces.
the limit deformation. CBFs are categorized as ordinary concentrically braced
High-Deformability Element: An element whose deformabil- frames (OCBF) or special concentrically braced frames
ity is not less than 3.5 where subjected to four fully reversed (SCBF).
cycles at the limit deformation. Eccentrically Braced Frame (EBF): A diagonally braced
Limited-Deformability Element: An element that is neither frame in which at least one end of each brace frames into
a low-deformability or a high-deformability element. a beam a short distance from a beam-column or from
another diagonal brace.
Low-Deformability Element: An element whose deformabil- Moment Frame: A frame in which members and joints resist
ity is 1.5 or less. lateral forces by flexure as well as along the axis of the
members. Moment frames are categorized as intermediate
DEFORMATION: moment frames (IMF), ordinary moment frames (OMF), and
Limit Deformation: Two times the initial deformation that special moment frames (SMF).
occurs at a load equal to 40 percent of the maximum strength. Structural System:
Ultimate Deformation: The deformation at which failure oc- Building Frame System: A structural system with an essen-
curs and that shall be deemed to occur if the sustainable load tially complete space frame providing support for vertical
reduces to 80 percent or less of the maximum strength. loads. Seismic force resistance is provided by shear walls
or braced frames.
DESIGNATED SEISMIC SYSTEMS: The seismic force- Dual System: A structural system with an essentially
resisting system and those architectural, electrical, and mechani- complete space frame providing support for vertical
cal systems or their components that require design in accordance loads. Seismic force resistance is provided by moment-
with Chapter 13 and for which the component importance factor, resisting frames and shear walls or braced frames as pre-
I p , is greater than 1.0. scribed in Section 12.2.5.1.
DESIGN EARTHQUAKE: The earthquake effects that are Shear Wall-Frame Interactive System: A structural sys-
two-thirds of the corresponding Maximum Considered Earth- tem that uses combinations of ordinary reinforced concrete
quake (MCE) effects. shear walls and ordinary reinforced concrete moment frames
110 ASCE 7-05

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designed to resist lateral forces in proportion to their rigidi- MAXIMUM CONSIDERED EARTHQUAKE (MCE)
ties considering interaction between shear walls and frames GROUND MOTION: The most severe earthquake effects con-
on all levels. sidered by this standard as defined in Section 11.4.
Space Frame System: A 3-D structural system composed of MECHANICALLY ANCHORED TANKS OR VESSELS:
interconnected members, other than bearing walls, that is Tanks or vessels provided with mechanical anchors to resist over-
capable of supporting vertical loads and, where designed for turning moments.
such an application, is capable of providing resistance to
seismic forces. NONBUILDING STRUCTURE: A structure, other than a
building, constructed of a type included in Chapter 15 and within
the limits of Section 15.1.1.
GLAZED CURTAIN WALL: A nonbearing wall that extends NONBUILDING STRUCTURE SIMILAR TO A BUILD-
beyond the edges of building floor slabs, and includes a glazing ING: A nonbuilding structure that is designed and constructed
material installed in the curtain wall framing. in a manner similar to buildings, will respond to strong ground
GLAZED STOREFRONT: A nonbearing wall that is in- motion in a fashion similar to buildings, and have basic lateral
stalled between floor slabs, typically including entrances, and and vertical seismic-force-resisting-system conforming to one of
includes a glazing material installed in the storefront framing. the types indicated in Tables 12.2-1 or 15.4-1.
GRADE PLANE: A reference plane representing the aver- ORTHOGONAL: To be in two horizontal directions, at 90◦
age of finished ground level adjoining the structure at all exterior to each other.
walls. Where the finished ground level slopes away from the ex-
terior walls, the reference plane shall be established by the lowest OWNER: Any person, agent, firm, or corporation having a
points within the area between the buildings and the lot line or, legal or equitable interest in the property.
where the lot line is more than 6 ft (1,829 mm) from the struc- PARTITION: A nonstructural interior wall that spans hori-
ture, between the structure and a point 6 ft (1,829 mm) from the zontally or vertically from support to support. The supports may
structure. be the basic building frame, subsidiary structural members, or
HAZARDOUS CONTENTS: A material that is highly toxic other portions of the partition system.
or potentially explosive and in sufficient quantity to pose a sig- P-DELTA EFFECT: The secondary effect on shears and mo-
nificant life-safety threat to the general public if an uncontrolled ments of structural members due to the action of the vertical loads
release were to occur. induced by horizontal displacement of the structure resulting from
IMPORTANCE FACTOR: A factor assigned to each struc- various loading conditions.
ture according to its Occupancy Category as prescribed in Sec- PILE: Deep foundation components including piers, caissons,
tion 11.5.1. and piles.
INSPECTION, SPECIAL: The observation of the work by PILE CAP: Foundation elements to which piles are connected
a special inspector to determine compliance with the approved including grade beams and mats.
construction documents and these standards in accordance with
the quality assurance plan. REGISTERED DESIGN PROFESSIONAL: An architect or
engineer, registered or licensed to practice professional architec-
Continuous Special Inspection: The full-time observation of ture or engineering, as defined by the statutory requirements of
the work by a special inspector who is present in the area the professional registrations laws of the state in which the project
where work is being performed. is to be constructed.
Periodic Special Inspection: The part-time or intermittent ob- SEISMIC DESIGN CATEGORY: A classification assigned
servation of the work by a special inspector who is present to a structure based on its Occupancy Category and the severity
in the area where work has been or is being performed. of the design earthquake ground motion at the site as defined in
Section 11.4.
INSPECTOR, SPECIAL (who shall be identified as the SEISMIC FORCE-RESISTING SYSTEM: That part of the
owner’s inspector): A person approved by the authority having structural system that has been considered in the design to provide
jurisdiction to perform special inspection. the required resistance to the seismic forces prescribed herein.
INVERTED PENDULUM-TYPE STRUCTURES: Struc- SEISMIC FORCES: The assumed forces prescribed herein,
tures in which more than 50 percent of the structure’s mass is related to the response of the structure to earthquake motions, to
concentrated at the top of a slender, cantilevered structure and in be used in the design of the structure and its components.
which stability of the mass at the top of the structure relies on
rotational restraint to the top of the cantilevered element. SELF-ANCHORED TANKS OR VESSELS: Tanks or ves-
sels that are stable under design overturning moment without the
JOINT: The geometric volume common to intersecting mem- need for mechanical anchors to resist uplift.
bers.
SHEAR PANEL: A floor, roof, or wall component sheathed
LIGHT-FRAME CONSTRUCTION: A method of construc- to act as a shear wall or diaphragm.
tion where the structural assemblies (e.g., walls, floors, ceilings,
and roofs) are primarily formed by a system of repetitive wood SITE CLASS: A classification assigned to a site based on the
or cold-formed steel framing members or subassemblies of these types of soils present and their engineering properties as defined
members (e.g., trusses). in Chapter 20.
LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT RATIO: Area of STORAGE RACKS: Include industrial pallet racks, moveable
longitudinal reinforcement divided by the cross-sectional area of shelf racks, and stacker racks made of cold-formed or hot-rolled
the concrete. structural members. Does not include other types of racks such as

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drive-in and drive-through racks, cantilever racks, portable racks, 2. Any concrete or masonry wall that supports more than
or racks made of materials other than steel. 200 lb/linear ft (2,919 N/m) of vertical load in addition to
its own weight.
STORY: The portion of a structure between the tops of two
successive finished floor surfaces and, for the topmost story, Light-Framed Wall: A wall with wood or steel studs.
from the top of the floor finish to the top of the roof structural
Light-Framed Wood Shear Wall: A wall constructed with
element.
wood studs and sheathed with material rated for shear
STORY ABOVE GRADE: Any story having its finished floor resistance.
surface entirely above grade, except that a story shall be consid-
Nonbearing Wall: Any wall that is not a bearing wall.
ered as a story above grade where the finished floor surface of the
story immediately above is more than 6 ft (1,829 mm) above the Nonstructural Wall: All walls other than bearing walls or
grade plane, more than 6 ft (1,829 mm) above the finished ground shear walls.
level for more than 40 percent of the total structure perimeter, or Shear Wall (Vertical Diaphragm): A wall, bearing or non-
more than 12 ft (3,658 mm) above the finished ground level at bearing, designed to resist lateral forces acting in the plane of
any point. the wall (sometimes referred to as a “vertical diaphragm”).
STORY DRIFT: The horizontal deflection at the top of the Structural Wall: Walls that meet the definition for bearing
story relative to the bottom of the story as determined in Sec- walls or shear walls.
tion 12.8.6.
STORY DRIFT RATIO: The story drift, as determined in WALL SYSTEM, BEARING: A structural system with bear-
Section 12.8.6, divided by the story height. ing walls providing support for all or major portions of the ver-
STORY SHEAR: The summation of design lateral seismic tical loads. Shear walls or braced frames provide seismic force
forces at levels above the story under consideration. resistance.
STRENGTH: WOOD STRUCTURAL PANEL: A wood-based panel prod-

uct that meets the requirements of DOC PS1 or DOC PS2
and is bonded with a waterproof adhesive. Included under this
Design Strength: Nominal strength multiplied by a strength designation are plywood, oriented strand board, and composite
reduction factor, ϕ. panels.
Nominal Strength: Strength of a member or cross-section cal-
culated in accordance with the requirements and assump-
tions of the strength design methods of this standard (or 11.3 NOTATION
the reference documents) before application of any strength-
The unit dimensions used with the items covered by the sym-
reduction factors.
bols shall be consistent throughout except where specifically
Required Strength: Strength of a member, cross-section, or noted. Notation presented in this section applies only to the seis-
connection required to resist factored loads or related inter- mic requirements in this standard as indicated.
nal moments and forces in such combinations as stipulated
Ach = cross-sectional area (in.2 or mm2 ) of a structural member
by this standard.
measured out-to-out of transverse reinforcement
A0 = area of the load-carrying foundation (ft2 or m2 )
STRUCTURAL OBSERVATIONS: The visual observations
to determine that the seismic force-resisting system is constructed Ash = total cross-sectional area of hoop reinforcement (in.2
in general conformance with the construction documents. or mm2 ), including supplementary cross-ties, having a
spacing of sh and crossing a section with a core dimen-
STRUCTURE: That which is built or constructed and limited sion of h c
to buildings and nonbuilding structures as defined herein. Avd = required area of leg (in.2 or mm2 ) of diagonal rein-
SUBDIAPHRAGM: A portion of a diaphragm used to transfer forcement
wall anchorage forces to diaphragm cross ties. A x = torsional amplification factor (Section 12.8.4.3)
SUPPORTS: Those structural members, assemblies of mem- ai = the acceleration at level i obtained from a modal analysis
bers, or manufactured elements, including braces, frames, legs, (Section 13.3.1)
lugs, snubbers, hangers, saddles, or struts, which transmit loads a p = the amplification factor related to the response of a sys-
between the nonstructural components and the structure. tem or component as affected by the type of seismic
TESTING AGENCY: A company or corporation that provides attachment, determined in Section 13.3.1
testing and/or inspection services. b p = the width of the rectangular glass panel
VENEERS: Facings or ornamentation of brick, concrete, Cd = deflection amplification factor as given in Tables 12.2-1,
stone, tile, or similar materials attached to a backing. 15.4-1, or 15.4-2
Cs = seismic response coefficient determined in Section
WALL: A component that has a slope of 60◦ or greater with 12.8.1.1 and 19.3.1 (dimensionless)
the horizontal plane used to enclose or divide space.
C T = building period coefficient in Section 12.8.2.1
Bearing Wall: Any wall meeting either of the following clas- Cvx = vertical distribution factor as determined in Sec-
sifications: tion 12.8.3
1. Any metal or wood stud wall that supports more than 100 c = distance from the neutral axis of a flexural member to
lb/linear ft (1,459 N/m) of vertical load in addition to its the fiber of maximum compressive strain (in. or mm)
own weight. D = the effect of dead load
112 ASCE 7-05

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Dclear = relative horizontal (drift) displacement, measured hp = the height of the rectangular glass panel
over the height of the glass panel under consider- h sx = the story height below Level x = (h x − h x−1 )
ation, which causes initial glass-to-frame contact.
For rectangular glass panels within a rectangular I = the importance factor in Section 11.5.1
wall frame, Dclear is set forth in Section 13.5.9.1 I0 = the static moment of inertia of the load-carrying
D p = relative seismic displacement that a component foundation; see Section 19.2.1.1 (in.4 or mm4 )
must be designed to accommodate as defined in I p = the component importance factor as prescribed in
Section 13.3.2 Section 13.3.1
Ds = the total depth of stratum in Eq. 19.2-12 (ft or m) i = the building level referred to by the subscript i;
dC = The total thickness of cohesive soil layers in the i = 1 designates the first level above the base
top 100 ft (30 m); see Section 20.4.3 (ft or m) K p = the stiffness of the component or attachment, Sec-
di = The thickness of any soil or rock layer i (between tion 13.6.2
0 and 100 ft [30 m]); see Section 20.4.1 (ft or K y = the lateral stiffness of the foundation as defined in
m) Section 19.2.1.1 (lb/in. or N/m)
d S = The total thickness of cohesionless soil layers in K θ = the rocking stiffness of the foundation as defined
the top 100 ft (30 m); see Section 20.4.2 (ft or m) in Section 19.2.1.1 (ft-lb/degree or N-m/rad)
E = effect of horizontal and vertical earthquake- KL/r = the lateral slenderness ratio of a compression
induced forces (Section 12.4) member measured in terms of its effective length,
Fa = short-period site coefficient (at 0.2 s-period); see KL, and the least radius of gyration of the member
Section 11.4.3 cross section, r
Fi , Fn , Fx = portion of the seismic base shear, V , induced at k = distribution exponent given in Section 12.8.3
Level i, n, or x, respectively, as determined in k̄ = stiffness of the building as determined in Section
Section 12.8.3 19.2.1.1 (lb/ft or N/m)
F p = the seismic force acting on a component of a struc- L = overall length of the building (ft or m) at the base
ture as determined in Section 13.3.1 in the direction being analyzed
Fv = long-period site coefficient (at 1.0 s-period); see L 0 = overall length of the side of the foundation in the
Section 11.4.3 direction being analyzed, Section 19.2.1.2 (ft or
f c = specified compressive strength of concrete used m)
in design M0 , M01 = the overturning moment at the foundation-soil
f s = ultimate tensile strength (psi or MPa) of the interface as determined in Sections 19.2.3 and
bolt, stud, or insert leg wires. For A307 bolts or 19.3.2 (ft-lb or N-m)
A108 studs, it is permitted to be assumed to be Mt = torsional moment resulting from eccentricity be-
60,000 psi (415 MPa). tween the locations of center of mass and the cen-
f y = specified yield strength of reinforcement (psi or ter of rigidity (Section 12.8.4.1)
MPa) Mta = accidental torsional moment as determined in Sec-
f yh = specified yield strength of the special lateral rein- tion 12.8.4.2
forcement (psi or kPa) m = a subscript denoting the mode of vibration under
G = γ vs2 /g consideration; that is, m = 1 for the fundamental
mode
= the average shear modulus for the soils beneath
the foundation at large strain levels (psf or Pa) N = standard penetration resistance, ASTM 1586
G 0 = γ vs0 2
/g N = number of stories (Section 12.8.2.1)
= the average shear modulus for the soils beneath N̄ = Average field standard penetration resistance for
the foundation at small strain levels (psf or Pa) the top 100 ft (30 m); see Sections 20.3.3 and
20.4.2
g = acceleration due to gravity
N̄ch = average standard penetration resistance for cohe-
H = thickness of soil
sionless soil layers for the top 100 ft (30 m); see
h = height of a shear wall measured as the maximum Sections 20.3.3 and 20.4.2
clear height from top of foundation to bottom of
diaphragm framing above, or the maximum clear Ni = Standard penetration resistance of any soil or rock
height from top of diaphragm to bottom of di- layer i (between 0 and 100 ft [30 m]); see Section
aphragm framing above 20.4.2
h = average roof height of structure with respect to the n = designation for the level that is uppermost in the
base; see Chapter 13 main portion of the building
Px = total unfactored vertical design load at and above
h̄ = effective height of the building as determined in
Level x, for use in Section 12.8.7
Section 19.2.1.1 or 19.3.1 (ft or m)
h c = core dimension of a component measured to the PI = plasticity index, ASTM D4318
outside of the special lateral reinforcement (in. or Q E = effect of horizontal seismic (earthquake-induced)
mm) forces
h i , h n , h x = the height above the base to Level i, n, or x, re- R = response modification coefficient as given in
spectively Tables 12.2-1, 12.14-1, 15.4-1, or 15.4-2

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R p = component response modification factor as de- Ṽ1 = portion of the reduced base shear, Ṽ , contributed
fined in Section 13.3.1 by the fundamental mode, Section 19.3 (kip
r = a characteristic length of the foundation as defined or kN)
in Section 19.2.1.2. V = reduction in V as determined in Section 19.3.1
ra = characteristic foundation length as defined by (kip or kN)
Eq. 19.2-7 (ft or m) V1 = reduction in V1 as determined in Section 19.3.1
rm = characteristic foundation length as defined by (kip or kN)
Eq. 19.2-8 (ft or m) vs = shear wave velocity at small shear strains (equal
SS = mapped MCE, 5 percent damped, spectral re- to 10−3 percent strain or less); see Section 20.4.1
sponse acceleration parameter at short periods as (ft/s or m/s)
defined in Section 11.4.1 v̄s = average shear wave velocity at small shear strains
S1 = mapped MCE, 5 percent damped, spectral rein top 100 ft (30 m); see Sections 20.3.3 and
sponse acceleration parameter at a period of 1 s 20.4.1
as defined in Section 11.4.1 vsi = the shear wave velocity of any soil or rock layer
Sa M = the site-specific MCE spectral response accelera- i (between 0 and 100 ft [30 m]); see Section
tion at any period 20.4.1
S DS = design, 5 percent damped, spectral response ac- vso = average shear wave velocity for the soils be-
celeration parameter at short periods as defined in neath the foundation at small strain levels, Sec-
Section 11.4.4 tion 19.2.1.1 (ft/s or m/s)
S D1 = design, 5 percent damped, spectral response ac- W = effective seismic weight of the building as
celeration parameter at a period of 1 s as defined defined in Section 12.7.2. For calculation of
in Section 11.4.4 seismic-isolated building period, W is the total
S M S = the MCE, 5 percent damped, spectral response effective seismic weight of the building as de-
acceleration at short periods adjusted for site class fined in Sections 19.2 and 19.3 (kip or kN)
effects as defined in Section 11.4.3 W̄ = effective seismic weight of the building as de-
S M1 = the MCE, 5 percent damped, spectral response fined in Sections 19.2 and 19.3 (kip or kN)
acceleration at a period of 1 s adjusted for site Wc = gravity load of a component of the building
class effects as defined in Section 11.4.3
W p = component operating weight (lb or N)
su = undrained shear strength; see Section 20.4.3
w = moisture content (in percent), ASTM D2216
s̄u = average undrained shear strength in top 100 ft (30
m); see Sections 20.3.3 and 20.4.3, ASTM D2166 wi , wn , wx = portion of W that is located at or assigned to
or ASTM D2850 Level i, n, or x, respectively
sui = undrained shear strength of any cohesive soil x = level under consideration, 1 designates the first
layer i (between 0 and 100 ft [30 m]); see Sec- level above the base
tion 20.4.3 z = height in structure of point of attachment of
sh = spacing of special lateral reinforcement (in. or component with respect to the base; see Section
mm) 13.3.1
T = the fundamental period of the building β = ratio of shear demand to shear capacity for the
T̃ , T̃1 = the effective fundamental period (s) of the build- story between Level x and x − 1
ing as determined in Sections 19.2.1.1 and β̄ = fraction of critical damping for the cou-
19.3.1 pled structure-foundation system, determined in
Ta = approximate fundamental period of the building Section 19.2.1
as determined in Section 12.8.2 β0 = foundation damping factor as specified in Sec-
TL = long-period transition period as defined in Section tion 19.2.1.2
11.4.5 γ = average unit weight of soil (lb/ft3 or N/m3 )
T p = fundamental period of the component and its at- = design story drift as determined in Section
tachment, Section 13.6.2 12.8.6
T0 = 0.2S D1 /S DS fallout = the relative seismic displacement (drift) at which
TS = S D1 /S DS glass fallout from the curtain wall, storefront, or
T4 = net tension in steel cable due to dead load, pre- partition occurs
stress, live load, and seismic load (Section 14.1.7) a = allowable story drift as specified in Sec-
V = total design lateral force or shear at the base tion 12.12.1
Vt = design value of the seismic base shear as deter- δmax = maximum displacement at Level x, considering
mined in Section 12.9.4 torsion, Section 12.8.4.3
Vx = seismic design shear in story x as determined in δavg = the average of the displacements at the ex-
Section 12.8.4 or 12.9.4 treme points of the structure at Level x, Section
Ṽ = reduced base shear accounting for the effects of 12.8.4.3
soil structure interaction as determined in Section δx = deflection of Level x at the center of the mass at
19.3.1 and above Level x, Eq. 12.8-15
114 ASCE 7-05

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δxe = deflection of Level x at the center of the mass TABLE 11.4-2 SITE COEFFICIENT, Fv
at and above Level x determined by an elastic Mapped Maximum Considered Earthquake Spectral
Response Acceleration Parameter at 1-s Period
analysis, Section 12.8-6 Site Class S1 ≤ 0.1 S1 = 0.2 S1 = 0.3 S1 = 0.4 S1 ≥ 0.5
δxm = modal deflection of Level x at the center of the A 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
mass at and above Level x as determined by B 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Section 19.3.2 C 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3
δ̃x , δ̃x1 = deflection of Level x at the center of the mass D 2.4 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.5
at and above Level x, Eqs. 19.2-13 and 19.3-3 E 3.5 3.2 2.8 2.4 2.4
(in. or mm)
F See Section 11.4.7
θ = stability coefficient for P-delta effects as deter- NOTE: Use straight-line interpolation for intermediate values of S1 .
mined in Section 12.8.7
ρ = a redundancy factor based on the extent of struc-
tural redundancy present in a building as defined of Section 12.14 is used, the value of Fa shall be determined in
in Section 12.3.4 accordance with Section 12.14.8.1, and the values for Fv , S M S ,
ρs = spiral reinforcement ratio for precast, prestressed and S M1 need not be determined.
piles in Sections 14.2.7.1.6 and 14.2.7.2.6
λ = time effect factor 11.4.4 Design Spectral Acceleration Parameters. Design
0 = overstrength factor as defined in Tables 12.2-1, earthquake spectral response acceleration parameter at short pe-
5.4-1, and 15.3-1 riod, S DS , and at 1 s period, S D1 , shall be determined from Eqs.
11.4-3 and 11.4-4, respectively. Where the alternate simplified
11.4 SEISMIC GROUND MOTION VALUES design procedure of Section 12.14 is used, the value of S DS shall
be determined in accordance with Section 12.14.8.1, and the value
11.4.1 Mapped Acceleration Parameters. The parameters SS for S D1 need not be determined.
and S1 shall be determined from the 0.2 and 1.0 s spectral response
accelerations shown on Figs. 22-1 through 22-14, respectively. 2
Where S1 , is less than or equal to 0.04 and SS is less than or equal S DS = SM S (11.4-3)
3
to 0.15, the structure is permitted to be assigned to Seismic Design
Category A and is only required to comply with Section 11.7.
2
11.4.2 Site Class. Based on the site soil properties, the site shall S D1 = S M1 (11.4-4)
3
be classified as Site Class A, B, C, D, E, or F in accordance with
Chapter 20. Where the soil properties are not known in sufficient
detail to determine the site class, Site Class D shall be used unless 11.4.5 Design Response Spectrum. Where a design response
the authority having jurisdiction or geotechnical data determines spectrum is required by this standard and site-specific ground
Site Class E or F soils are present at the site. motion procedures are not used, the design response spectrum
curve shall be developed as indicated in Fig. 11.4-1 and as follows:
11.4.3 Site Coefficients and Adjusted Maximum Considered
Earthquake (MCE) Spectral Response Acceleration Param- 1. For periods less than T0 , the design spectral response accel-
eters. The MCE spectral response acceleration for short periods eration, Sa , shall be taken as given by Eq. 11.4-5:
(S M S ) and at 1 s (S M1 ), adjusted for Site Class effects, shall be
determined by Eqs. 11.4-1 and 11.4-2, respectively. T
Sa = S DS 0.4 + 0.6 (11.4-5)
T0
S M S = Fa Ss (11.4-1)
S M1 = Fv S1 (11.4-2) 2. For periods greater than or equal to T0 and less than or equal
where to TS , the design spectral response acceleration, Sa , shall be
taken equal to S DS .
SS = the mapped MCE spectral response acceleration at short
periods as determined in accordance with Section 11.4.1,
and
S1 = the mapped MCE spectral response acceleration at a period
SDS
of 1 s as determined in accordance with Section 11.4.1
where site coefficients Fa and Fv are defined in Tables 11.4-1
Spectral Response Acceleration,Sa (g)
SD1
and 11.4-2, respectively. Where the simplified design procedure Sa =
T
TABLE 11.4-1 SITE COEFFICIENT, Fa

Mapped Maximum Considered Earthquake Spectral SD1 SD1⋅TL
Response Acceleration Parameter at Short Period Sa =
T2
Site Class SS ≤ 0.25 SS = 0.5 SS = 0.75 SS = 1.0 SS ≥ 1.25
A 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
B 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
C 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.0
D 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.1 1.0 0
0 1.01
T0 TS TL
E 2.5 1.7 1.2 0.9 0.9 Period, T (sec)
F See Section 11.4.7
NOTE: Use straight-line interpolation for intermediate values of SS . FIGURE 11.4-1 DESIGN RESPONSE SPECTRUM

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3. For periods greater than TS , and less than or equal to TL , the TABLE 11.6-1 SEISMIC DESIGN CATEGORY BASED ON SHORT
design spectral response acceleration, Sa , shall be taken as PERIOD RESPONSE ACCELERATION PARAMETER
Occupancy Category
given by Eq. 11.4-6: Value of SDS I or II III IV
S D1 S DS < 0.167 A A A
Sa = (11.4-6) 0.167 ≤ S DS < 0.33 B B C
T
0.33 ≤ S DS < 0.50 C C D
4. For periods greater than TL , Sa shall be taken as given by 0.50 ≤ S DS D D D
Eq. 11.4-7:
S D1 TL 11.6 SEISMIC DESIGN CATEGORY
Sa = (11.4-7)
T2 Structures shall be assigned a Seismic Design Category in accor-
where dance with Section 11.6.1.1.
S DS = the design spectral response acceleration parameter at Occupancy Category I, II, or III structures located where the
short periods mapped spectral response acceleration parameter at 1-s period,
S D1 = the design spectral response acceleration parameter at S1 , is greater than or equal to 0.75 shall be assigned to Seismic
1-s period Design Category E. Occupancy Category IV structures located
T = the fundamental period of the structure, s where the mapped spectral response acceleration parameter at 1-
s period, S1 , is greater than or equal to 0.75 shall be assigned
S D1 to Seismic Design Category F. All other structures shall be as-
T0 = 0.2
S DS signed to a Seismic Design Category based on their Occupancy
S D1 Category and the design spectral response acceleration parame-
TS = and ters, S DS and S D1 , determined in accordance with Section 11.4.4.
S DS
Each building and structure shall be assigned to the more se-
TL = long-period transition period (s) shown in Fig. 22-15 (Con- vere Seismic Design Category in accordance with Table 11.6-1 or
terminous United States), Fig. 22-16 (Region 1), Fig. 22-17 11.6-2, irrespective of the fundamental period of vibration of the
(Alaska), Fig. 22-18 (Hawaii), Fig. 22-19 (Puerto Rico, structure, T .
Culebra, Vieques, St. Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix),
Where S1 is less than 0.75, the Seismic Design Category is
and Fig. 22-20 (Guam and Tutuila).
permitted to be determined from Table 11.6-1 alone where all of
11.4.6 MCE Response Spectrum. Where a MCE response the following apply:
spectrum is required, it shall be determined by multiplying the 1. In each of the two orthogonal directions, the approximate
design response spectrum by 1.5. fundamental period of the structure, Ta , determined in ac-
cordance with Section 12.8.2.1 is less than 0.8Ts , where Ts
11.4.7 Site-Specific Ground Motion Procedures. The site-
is determined in accordance with Section 11.4.5.
specific ground motion procedures set forth in Chapter 21 are
permitted to be used to determine ground motions for any struc- 2. In each of two orthogonal directions, the fundamental period
ture. A site response analysis shall be performed in accordance of the structure used to calculate the story drift is less than
with Section 21.1 for structures on Site Class F sites, unless the Ts.
exception to Section 20.3.1 is applicable. For seismically isolated 3. Eq. 12.8-2 is used to determine the seismic response coef-
structures and for structures with damping systems on sites with ficient Cs .
S1 greater than or equal to 0.6, a ground motion hazard analysis
shall be performed in accordance with Section 21.2. 4. The diaphragms are rigid as defined in Section 12.3.1 or
for diaphragms that are flexible, the distance between verti-
cal elements of the seismic force-resisting system does not
11.5 IMPORTANCE FACTOR AND OCCUPANCY exceed 40 ft.
CATEGORY
Where the alternate simplified design procedure of Section 12.14
11.5.1 Importance Factor. An importance factor, I , shall be as- is used, the Seismic Design Category is permitted to be determined
signed to each structure in accordance with Table 11.5-1 based from Table 11.6-1 alone, using the value of S DS determined in
on the Occupancy Category from Table 1-1. Section 12.14.8.1.
11.5.2 Protected Access for Occupancy Category IV. Where
operational access to an Occupancy Category IV structure is re- 11.7 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SEISMIC
quired through an adjacent structure, the adjacent structure shall DESIGN CATEGORY A
conform to the requirements for Occupancy Category IV struc- 11.7.1 Applicability of Seismic Requirements for Seismic De-
tures. Where operational access is less than 10 ft from an interior sign Category A Structures. Structures assigned to Seismic De-
lot line or another structure on the same lot, protection from po- sign Category A need only comply with the requirements of
tential falling debris from adjacent structures shall be provided
by the owner of the Occupancy Category IV structure. TABLE 11.6-2 SEISMIC DESIGN CATEGORY BASED ON 1-S
PERIOD RESPONSE ACCELERATION PARAMETER
OCCUPANCY CATEGORY
TABLE 11.5-1 IMPORTANCE FACTORS Value of SD1 I or II III IV
Occupancy Category I S D1 < 0.067 A A A
I or II 1.0 0.067 ≤ S D1 < 0.133 B B C
III 1.25 0.133 ≤ S D1 < 0.20 C C D
IV 1.5 0.20 ≤ S D1 D D D
116 ASCE 7-05

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Section 11.7. The effects on the structure and its components be located where there is a known potential for an active fault to
due to the forces prescribed in this section shall be taken as E cause rupture of the ground surface at the structure.
and combined with the effects of other loads in accordance with
11.8.2 Geotechnical Investigation Report for Seismic Design
the load combinations of Section 2.3 or 2.4. For structures with
Categories C through F. A geotechnical investigation report
damping systems, see Section 18.2.1.
shall be provided for a structure assigned to Seismic Design Cat-
11.7.2 Lateral Forces. Each structure shall be analyzed for the egory C, D, E, or F in accordance with this section. An inves-
effects of static lateral forces applied independently in each of two tigation shall be conducted and a report shall be submitted that
orthogonal directions. In each direction, the static lateral forces at shall include an evaluation of the following potential geologic and
all levels shall be applied simultaneously. For purposes of analy- seismic hazards:
sis, the force at each level shall be determined using Eq. 11.7-1
a. Slope instability.
as follows:
b. Liquefaction.
Fx = 0.01wx (11.7-1)
c. Differential settlement.
where d. Surface displacement due to faulting or lateral spreading.
Fx = the design lateral force applied at story x, and The report shall contain recommendations for appropriate foun-
wx = the portion of the total dead load of the structure, D, located dation designs or other measures to mitigate the effects of the
or assigned to Level x previously mentioned hazards. Where deemed appropriate by the
11.7.3 Load Path Connections. All parts of the structure be- authority having jurisdiction, a site-specific geotechnical report is
tween separation joints shall be interconnected to form a continu- not required where prior evaluations of nearby sites with similar
ous path to the lateral force-resisting system, and the connections soil conditions provide sufficient direction relative to the proposed
shall be capable of transmitting the lateral forces induced by the construction.
parts being connected. Any smaller portion of the structure shall 11.8.3 Additional Geotechnical Investigation Report Re-
be tied to the remainder of the structure with elements having quirements for Seismic Design Categories D through F. The
design strength of not less than 5 percent of the portion’s weight. geotechnical investigation report for a structure assigned to Seis-
This connection force does not apply to the overall design of the mic Design Category D, E, or F shall include:
lateral force-resisting system. Connection design forces need not
exceed the maximum forces that the structural system can deliver 1. The determination of lateral pressures on basement and re-
to the connection. taining walls due to earthquake motions.
11.7.4 Connection to Supports. A positive connection for re- 2. The potential for liquefaction and soil strength loss eval-
sisting a horizontal force acting parallel to the member shall be uated for site peak ground accelerations, magnitudes, and
provided for each beam, girder, or truss either directly to its sup- source characteristics consistent with the design earthquake
porting elements, or to slabs designed to act as diaphragms. Where ground motions. Peak ground acceleration is permitted to
the connection is through a diaphragm, then the member’s sup- be determined based on a site-specific study taking into ac-
porting element must also be connected to the diaphragm. The count soil amplification effects or, in the absence of such a
connection shall have a minimum design strength of 5 percent of study, peak ground accelerations shall be assumed equal to
the dead plus live load reaction. SS /2.5.
11.7.5 Anchorage of Concrete or Masonry Walls. Concrete 3. Assessment of potential consequences of liquefaction and
and masonry walls shall be anchored to the roof and all floors soil strength loss, including estimation of differential set-
and members that provide lateral support for the wall or that tlement, lateral movement, lateral loads on foundations,
are supported by the wall. The anchorage shall provide a di- reduction in foundation soil-bearing capacity, increases in
rect connection between the walls and the roof or floor construc- lateral pressures on retaining walls, and flotation of buried
tion. The connections shall be capable of resisting the horizontal structures.
forces specified in Section 11.7.3, but not less than a minimum 4. Discussion of mitigation measures such as, but not limited
strength level horizontal force of 280 lb/ linear ft (4.09 kN/m) to, ground stabilization, selection of appropriate foundation
of wall substituted for E in the load combinations of Section 2.3 type and depths, selection of appropriate structural systems
or 2.4. to accommodate anticipated displacements and forces, or
any combination of these measures and how they shall be
11.8 GEOLOGIC HAZARDS AND considered in the design of the structure.
GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION
11.8.1 Site Limitation for Seismic Design Categories E and F.
A structure assigned to Seismic Design Category E or F shall not

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118
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Chapter 12
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BUILDING STRUCTURES
12.1 STRUCTURAL DESIGN BASIS supporting elements, or to slabs designed to act as diaphragms.
Where the connection is through a diaphragm, then the member’s
12.1.1 Basic Requirements. The seismic analysis and design
supporting element must also be connected to the diaphragm. The
procedures to be used in the design of building structures and their
connection shall have a minimum design strength of 5 percent of
components shall be as prescribed in this section. The building
the dead plus live load reaction.
structure shall include complete lateral and vertical force-resisting
systems capable of providing adequate strength, stiffness, and en- 12.1.5 Foundation Design. The foundation shall be designed to
ergy dissipation capacity to withstand the design ground motions resist the forces developed and accommodate the movements im-
within the prescribed limits of deformation and strength demand. parted to the structure by the design ground motions. The dynamic
The design ground motions shall be assumed to occur along any nature of the forces, the expected ground motion, the design ba-
horizontal direction of a building structure. The adequacy of the sis for strength and energy dissipation capacity of the structure,
structural systems shall be demonstrated through the construction and the dynamic properties of the soil shall be included in the
of a mathematical model and evaluation of this model for the ef- determination of the foundation design criteria. The design and
fects of design ground motions. The design seismic forces, and construction of foundations shall comply with Section 12.13.
their distribution over the height of the building structure, shall be
established in accordance with one of the applicable procedures 12.1.6 Material Design and Detailing Requirements. Struc-
indicated in Section 12.6 and the corresponding internal forces tural elements including foundation elements shall conform to the
and deformations in the members of the structure shall be deter- material design and detailing requirements set forth in Chapter 14.
mined. An approved alternative procedure shall not be used to
establish the seismic forces and their distribution unless the cor- 12.2 STRUCTURAL SYSTEM SELECTION
responding internal forces and deformations in the members are
determined using a model consistent with the procedure adopted. 12.2.1 Selection and Limitations. The basic lateral and vertical
EXCEPTION: As an alternative, the simplified design procedures of seismic force–resisting system shall conform to one of the types
Section 12.14 is permitted to be used in lieu of the requirements of Sections indicated in Table 12.2-1 or a combination of systems as permitted
12.1 through 12.12, subject to all of the limitations contained in Section in Sections 12.2.2, 12.2.3, and 12.2.4. Each type is subdivided by
12.14. the types of vertical elements used to resist lateral seismic forces.
The structural system used shall be in accordance with the seismic
12.1.2 Member Design, Connection Design, and Deforma- design category and height limitations indicated in Table 12.2-1.
tion Limit. Individual members, including those not part of the The appropriate response modification coefficient, R, system
seismic force–resisting system, shall be provided with adequate overstrength factor, 0 , and the deflection amplification factor,
strength to resist the shears, axial forces, and moments determined Cd , indicated in Table 12.2-1 shall be used in determining the
in accordance with this standard, and connections shall develop base shear, element design forces, and design story drift.
the strength of the connected members or the forces indicated in
Section 12.1.1. The deformation of the structure shall not exceed The selected seismic force-resisting system shall be designed
the prescribed limits where the structure is subjected to the design and detailed in accordance with the specific requirements for the
seismic forces. system per the applicable reference document and the additional
requirements set forth in Chapter 14.
12.1.3 Continuous Load Path and Interconnection. A contin-
Seismic force–resisting systems that are not contained in
uous load path, or paths, with adequate strength and stiffness shall
Table 12.2-1 are permitted if analytical and test data are submitted
be provided to transfer all forces from the point of application to
that establish the dynamic characteristics and demonstrate the lat-
the final point of resistance. All parts of the structure between sep-
eral force resistance and energy dissipation capacity to be equiva-
aration joints shall be interconnected to form a continuous path to
lent to the structural systems listed in Table 12.2-1 for equivalent
the seismic force–resisting system, and the connections shall be
response modification coefficient, R, system overstrength coeffi-
capable of transmitting the seismic force (F p ) induced by the parts
cient, 0 , and deflection amplification factor, Cd , values.
being connected. Any smaller portion of the structure shall be tied
to the remainder of the structure with elements having a design 12.2.2 Combinations of Framing Systems in Different Direc-
strength capable of transmitting a seismic force of 0.133 times tions. Different seismic force–resisting systems are permitted to
the short period design spectral response acceleration parame- be used to resist seismic forces along each of the two orthog-
ter, S DS , times the weight of the smaller portion or 5 percent of onal axes of the structure. Where different systems are used,
the portion’s weight, whichever is greater. This connection force the respective R, Cd , and 0 coefficients shall apply to each
does not apply to the overall design of the seismic force–resisting system, including the limitations on system use contained in
system. Connection design forces need not exceed the maximum Table 12.2-1.
forces that the structural system can deliver to the connection.
12.2.3 Combinations of Framing Systems in the Same Direc-
12.1.4 Connection to Supports. A positive connection for re- tion. Where different seismic force–resisting systems are used
sisting a horizontal force acting parallel to the member shall in combination to resist seismic forces in the same direction of
be provided for each beam, girder, or truss either directly to its structural response, other than those combinations considered as

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TABLE 12.2-1 DESIGN COEFFICIENTS AND FACTORS FOR SEISMIC FORCE–RESISTING SYSTEMS
Structural System Limitations
and Building Height (ft) Limitc
Seismic Force–Resisting System ASCE 7 Section where Response System Deflection
Detailing Requirements Modification Overstrength Amplification
Seismic Design Category
are Specified Coefficient, Ra Factor, Ω0 g Factor, Cd b
B C Dd Ed Fe
A. BEARING WALL SYSTEMS

1. Special reinforced concrete shear walls 14.2 and 14.2.3.6 5 21/2 5 NL NL 160 160 100
2. Ordinary reinforced concrete shear 14.2 and 14.2.3.4 4 21/2 4 NL NL NP NP NP
walls
3. Detailed plain concrete shear walls 14.2 and 14.2.3.2 2 21/2 2 NL NP NP NP NP
4. Ordinary plain concrete shear walls 14.2 and 14.2.3.1 11/2 21/2 11/2 NL NP NP NP NP
5. Intermediate precast shear walls 14.2 and 14.2.3.5 4 21/2 4 NL NL 40k 40k 40k
6. Ordinary precast shear walls 14.2 and 14.2.3.3 3 21/2 3 NL NP NP NP NP
7. Special reinforced masonry shear walls 14.4 and 14.4.3 5 21/2 31/2 NL NL 160 160 100
8. Intermediate reinforced masonry shear 14.4 and 14.4.3 31/2 21/2 21/4 NL NL NP NP NP
walls
9. Ordinary reinforced masonry shear 14.4 2 21/2 13/4 NL 160 NP NP NP
walls
10. Detailed plain masonry shear walls 14.4 2 21/2 13/4 NL NP NP NP NP
11. Ordinary plain masonry shear walls 14.4 11/2 21/2 11/4 NL NP NP NP NP
12. Prestressed masonry shear walls 14.4 11/2 21/2 13/4 NL NP NP NP NP
13. Light-framed walls sheathed with 14.1, 14.1.4.2, 61/2 3 4 NL NL 65 65 65
wood structural panels rated for shear and 14.5
resistance or steel sheets
14. Light-framed walls with shear panels 14.1, 14.1.4.2, 2 21/2 2 NL NL 35 NP NP
of all other materials and 14.5
15. Light-framed wall systems using flat 14.1, 14.1.4.2, 4 2 31/2 NL NL 65 65 65
strap bracing and 14.5
B. BUILDING FRAME SYSTEMS
1. Steel eccentrically braced frames, 14.1 8 2 4 NL NL 160 160 100
moment resisting connections at
columns away from links
2. Steel eccentrically braced frames, 14.1 7 2 4 NL NL 160 160 100
non-moment-resisting, connections at
3. Special steel concentrically braced 14.1 6 2 5 NL NL 160 160 100
frames
4. Ordinary steel concentrically braced 14.1 31/4 2 31/4 NL NL 35 j 35 j NP j
frames
5. Special reinforced concrete shear walls 14.2 and 14.2.3.6 6 21/2 5 NL NL 160 160 100
6. Ordinary reinforced concrete shear 14.2 and 14.2.3.4 5 21/2 41/2 NL NL NP NP NP
walls
7. Detailed plain concrete shear walls 14.2 and 14.2.3.2 2 21/2 2 NL NP NP NP NP
8. Ordinary plain concrete shear walls 14.2 and 14.2.3.1 11/2 21/2 11/2 NL NP NP NP NP
9. Intermediate precast shear walls 14.2 and 14.2.3.5 5 21/2 41/2 NL NL 40k 40k 40k
10. Ordinary precast shear walls 14.2 and 14.2.3.3 4 21/2 4 NL NP NP NP NP
11. Composite steel and concrete 14.3 8 2 4 NL NL 160 160 100
eccentrically braced frames
12. Composite steel and concrete 14.3 5 2 41/2 NL NL 160 160 100
concentrically braced frames
13. Ordinary composite steel and concrete 14.3 3 2 3 NL NL NP NP NP
braced frames
14. Composite steel plate shear walls 14.3 61/2 21/2 51/2 NL NL 160 160 100
15. Special composite reinforced concrete 14.3 6 21/2 5 NL NL 160 160 100
shear walls with steel elements
16. Ordinary composite reinforced 14.3 5 21/2 41/2 NL NL NP NP NP
concrete shear walls with steel
elements
17. Special reinforced masonry shear walls 14.4 51/2 21/2 4 NL NL 160 160 100
18. Intermediate reinforced masonry shear 14.4 4 21/2 4 NL NL NP NP NP
walls
19. Ordinary reinforced masonry shear 14.4 2 21/2 2 NL 160 NP NP NP
walls
20. Detailed plain masonry shear walls 14.4 2 21/2 2 NL NP NP NP NP
21. Ordinary plain masonry shear walls 14.4 11/2 21/2 11/4 NL NP NP NP NP
120 ASCE 7-05

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TABLE 12.2-1 DESIGN COEFFICIENTS AND FACTORS FOR SEISMIC FORCE–RESISTING SYSTEMS (continued)
Seismic Force–Resisting System ASCE 7 Section where Response System Deflection
B C Dd Ed Fe
22. Prestressed masonry shear walls 14.4 11/2 21/2 13/4 NL NP NP NP NP

23. Light-framed walls sheathed with 14.1, 14.1.4.2, 7 21/2 41/2 NL NL 65 65 65
wood structural panels rated for shear and 14.5
resistance or steel sheets
24. Light-framed walls with shear panels 14.1, 14.1.4.2, 21/2 21/2 21/2 NL NL 35 NP NP
of all other materials and 14.5
25. Buckling-restrained braced frames, 14.1 7 2 51/2 NL NL 160 160 100
non-moment-resisting beam-column
connections
26. Buckling-restrained braced frames, 14.1 8 21/2 5 NL NL 160 160 100
moment-resisting beam-column
connections
27. Special steel plate shear wall 14.1 7 2 6 NL NL 160 160 100
C. MOMENT-RESISTING FRAME
SYSTEMS
1. Special steel moment frames 14.1 and 12.2.5.5 8 3 51/2 NL NL NL NL NL
2. Special steel truss moment frames 14.1 7 3 51/2 NL NL 160 100 NP
3. Intermediate steel moment frames 12.2.5.6, 12.2.5.7, 4.5 3 4 NL NL 35h,i NPh NPi
12.2.5.8, 12.2.5.9,
and 14.1
4. Ordinary steel moment frames 12.2.5.6, 12.2.5.7, 3.5 3 3 NL NL NPh NPh NPi
12.2.5.8, and 14.1
5. Special reinforced concrete moment 12.2.5.5 and 14.2 8 3 51/2 NL NL NL NL NL
frames
6. Intermediate reinforced concrete 14.2 5 3 41/2 NL NL NP NP NP
moment frames
7. Ordinary reinforced concrete moment 14.2 3 3 21/2 NL NP NP NP NP
frames
8. Special composite steel and concrete 12.2.5.5 and 14.3 8 3 51/2 NL NL NL NL NL
moment frames
9. Intermediate composite moment 14.3 5 3 41/2 NL NL NP NP NP
frames
10. Composite partially restrained moment 14.3 6 3 51/2 160 160 100 NP NP
frames
11. Ordinary composite moment frames 14.3 3 3 21/2 NL NP NP NP NP
D. DUAL SYSTEMS WITH SPECIAL 12.2.5.1
MOMENT FRAMES CAPABLE OF
RESISTING AT LEAST 25% OF
PRESCRIBED SEISMIC FORCES
1. Steel eccentrically braced frames 14.1 8 21/2 4 NL NL NL NL NL
2. Special steel concentrically braced 14.1 7 21/2 51/2 NL NL NL NL NL
frames
3. Special reinforced concrete shear walls 14.2 7 21/2 51/2 NL NL NL NL NL
4. Ordinary reinforced concrete shear 14.2 6 21/2 5 NL NL NP NP NP
walls
5. Composite steel and concrete 14.3 8 21/2 4 NL NL NL NL NL
eccentrically braced frames
6. Composite steel and concrete 14.3 6 21/2 5 NL NL NL NL NL
7. Composite steel plate shear walls 14.3 71/2 21/2 6 NL NL NL NL NL
8. Special composite reinforced concrete 14.3 7 21/2 6 NL NL NL NL NL
shear walls with steel elements
9. Ordinary composite reinforced 14.3 6 21/2 5 NL NL NP NP NP
elements
10. Special reinforced masonry shear walls 14.4 51/2 3 5 NL NL NL NL NL
11. Intermediate reinforced masonry shear 14.4 4 3 31/2 NL NL NP NP NP
walls
12. Buckling-restrained braced frame 14.1 8 21/2 5 NL NL NL NL NL
13. Special steel plate shear walls 14.1 8 21/2 61/2 NL NL NL NL NL

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TABLE 12.2-1 DESIGN COEFFICIENTS AND FACTORS FOR SEISMIC FORCE–RESISTING SYSTEMS (continued)
Seismic Force-Resisting System ASCE 7 Section where Response System Deflection
B C Dd Ed Fe
E. DUAL SYSTEMS WITH 12.2.5.1

INTERMEDIATE MOMENT FRAMES
CAPABLE OF RESISTING AT LEAST
25% OF PRESCRIBED SEISMIC
FORCES
1. Special steel concentrically braced 14.1 6 21/2 5 NL NL 35 NP NPh,k
frames f
2. Special reinforced concrete shear walls 14.2 61/2 21/2 5 NL NL 160 100 100
3. Ordinary reinforced masonry shear 14.4 3 3 21/2 NL 160 NP NP NP
walls
4. Intermediate reinforced masonry shear 14.4 31/2 3 3 NL NL NP NP NP
walls
5. Composite steel and concrete 14.3 51/2 21/2 41/2 NL NL 160 100 NP
6. Ordinary composite braced frames 14.3 31/2 21/2 3 NL NL NP NP NP
7. Ordinary composite reinforced 14.3 5 3 41/2 NL NL NP NP NP
elements
8. Ordinary reinforced concrete shear 14.2 51/2 21/2 41/2 NL NL NP NP NP
walls
F. SHEAR WALL-FRAME 12.2.5.10 and 14.2 41/2 21/2 4 NL NP NP NP NP
INTERACTIVE SYSTEM WITH
ORDINARY REINFORCED
CONCRETE MOMENT FRAMES AND
ORDINARY REINFORCED
CONCRETE SHEAR WALLS
G. CANTILEVERED COLUMN 12.2.5.2
SYSTEMS DETAILED TO CONFORM
TO THE REQUIREMENTS FOR:
1. Special steel moment frames 12.2.5.5 and 14.1 21/2 11/4 21/2 35 35 35 35 35
2. Intermediate steel moment frames 14.1 11/2 11/4 11/2 35 35 35h NPh,i NPh,i
3. Ordinary steel moment frames 14.1 11/4 11/4 11/4 35 35 NP NPh,i NPh,i
4. Special reinforced concrete moment 12.2.5.5 and 14.2 21/2 11/4 21/2 35 35 35 35 35
frames
5. Intermediate concrete moment frames 14.2 11/2 11/4 11/2 35 35 NP NP NP
6. Ordinary concrete moment frames 14.2 1 11/4 1 35 NP NP NP NP
7. Timber frames 14.5 11/2 11/2 11/2 35 35 35 NP NP
H. STEEL SYSTEMS NOT 14.1 3 3 3 NL NL NP NP NP
SPECIFICALLY DETAILED FOR
SEISMIC RESISTANCE, EXCLUDING
CANTILEVER COLUMN SYSTEMS
a Response modification coefficient, R, for use throughout the standard. Note R reduces forces to a strength level, not an allowable stress level.
b Reflection amplification factor, C , for use in Sections 12.8.6, 12.8.7, and 12.9.2
d
c NL = Not Limited and NP = Not Permitted. For metric units use 30.5 m for 100 ft and use 48.8 m for 160 ft. Heights are measured from the base of the structure
as defined in Section 11.2.
d See Section 12.2.5.4 for a description of building systems limited to buildings with a height of 240 ft (73.2 m) or less.
e See Section 12.2.5.4 for building systems limited to buildings with a height of 160 ft (48.8 m) or less.
f Ordinary moment frame is permitted to be used in lieu of intermediate moment frame for Seismic Design Categories B or C.
g The tabulated value of the overstrength factor, , is permitted to be reduced by subtracting one-half for structures with flexible diaphragms, but shall not be
0
taken as less than 2.0 for any structure.
h See Sections 12.2.5.6 and 12.2.5.7 for limitations for steel OMFs and IMFs in structures assigned to Seismic Design Category D or E.
i See Sections 12.2.5.8 and 12.2.5.9 for limitations for steel OMFs and IMFs in structures assigned to Seismic Design Category F.
j Steel ordinary concentrically braced frames are permitted in single-story buildings up to a height of 60 ft (18.3 m) where the dead load of the roof does not
exceed 20 psf (0.96 kN/m2 ) and in penthouse structures.

k Increase in height to 45 ft (13.7 m) is permitted for single story storage warehouse facilities.
dual systems, the more stringent system limitation contained in deflection amplification factor, Cd , and the system over strength
Table 12.2-1 shall apply and the design shall comply with the factor, 0 , used for the design at any story shall not be less than
requirements of this section. the largest value of this factor that is used in the same direction
at any story above that story.
12.2.3.1 R, Cd , and Ω0 Values for Vertical Combinations. The
value of the response modification coefficient, R, used for design EXCEPTIONS:
at any story shall not exceed the lowest value of R that is used 1. Rooftop structures not exceeding two stories in height and 10 percent
in the same direction at any story above that story. Likewise, the of the total structure weight.
122 ASCE 7-05

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2. Other supported structural systems with a weight equal to or less Foundation and other elements used to provide overturning
than 10 percent of the weight of the structure. resistance at the base of cantilever column elements shall have
3. Detached one- and two-family dwellings of light-frame construc- the strength to resist the load combinations with over strength
tion. factor of Section 12.4.3.2.
A two-stage equivalent lateral force procedure is permitted to 12.2.5.3 Inverted Pendulum-Type Structures. Regardless of
be used for structures having a flexible upper portion above a rigid the structural system selected, inverted pendulums as defined in
lower portion, provided that the design of the structure complies Section 11.2, shall comply with this section. Supporting columns
with the following: or piers of inverted pendulum-type structures shall be designed
a. The stiffness of the lower portion must be at least 10 times for the bending moment calculated at the base determined us-
the stiffness of the upper portion. ing the procedures given in Section 12.8 and varying uniformly
to a moment at the top equal to one-half the calculated bending
b. The period of the entire structure shall not be greater than
moment at the base.
1.1 times the period of the upper portion considered as a
separate structure fixed at the base. 12.2.5.4 Increased Building Height Limit for Steel Braced
c. The flexible upper portion shall be designed as a separate Frames and Special Reinforced Concrete Shear Walls. The
structure using the appropriate values of R and ρ. height limits in Table 12.2-1 are permitted to be increased from
160 ft (50 m) to 240 ft (75 m) for structures assigned to Seismic
d. The rigid lower portion shall be designed as a separate struc-
Design Categories D or E and from 100 ft (30 m) to 160 ft (50 m)
ture using the appropriate values of R and ρ. The reactions
for structures assigned to Seismic Design Category F that have
from the upper portion shall be those determined from the
steel braced frames or special reinforced concrete cast-in-place
analysis of the upper portion amplified by the ratio of the
shear walls and that meet both of the following requirements:
R/ρ of the upper portion over R/ρ of the lower portion. This
ratio shall not be less than 1.0. 1. The structure shall not have an extreme torsional irregularity
as defined in Table 12.2-1 (horizontal structural irregularity
12.2.3.2 R, Cd , and Ω0 Values for Horizontal Combinations. Type 1b).
Where a combination of different structural systems is utilized to
resist lateral forces in the same direction, the value of R used for 2. The braced frames or shear walls in any one plane shall
design in that direction shall not be greater than the least value resist no more than 60 percent of the total seismic forces in
of R for any of the systems utilized in that direction. Resisting each direction, neglecting accidental torsional effects.
elements are permitted to be designed using the least value of R for
12.2.5.5 Special Moment Frames in Structures Assigned to
the different structural systems found in each independent line of
Seismic Design Categories D through F. For structures assigned
resistance if the following three conditions are met: (1) Occupancy
to Seismic Design Categories D, E, or F, a special moment frame
Category I or II building, (2) two stories or less in height, and (3)
that is used but not required by Table 12.1-1 shall not be discontin-
use of light-frame construction or flexible diaphragms. The value
ued and supported by a more rigid system with a lower response
of R used for design of diaphragms in such structures shall not be
modification coefficient, R, unless the requirements of Sections
greater than the least value for any of the systems utilized in that
12.3.3.2 and 12.3.3.4 are met. Where a special moment frame is
same direction.
required by Table 12.1-1, the frame shall be continuous to the
The deflection amplification factor, Cd , and the system over foundation.
strength factor, 0 , in the direction under consideration at any
story shall not be less than the largest value of this factor for the 12.2.5.6 Single-Story Steel Ordinary and Intermediate
R factor used in the same direction being considered. Moment Frames in Structures Assigned to Seismic Design
Category D or E. Single-story steel ordinary moment frames
12.2.4 Combination Framing Detailing Requirements. Struc- and intermediate moment frames in structures assigned to Seis-
tural components common to different framing systems used to mic Design Category D or E are permitted up to a height of 65 ft
resist seismic motions in any direction shall be designed using (20 m) where the dead load supported by and tributary to the roof
the detailing requirements of Chapter 12 required by the highest does not exceed 20 psf (0.96 kN/m2 ). In addition, the dead loads
response modification coefficient, R, of the connected framing tributary to the moment frame, of the exterior wall more than
systems. 35 ft above the base shall not exceed 20 psf (0.96 kN/m2 ).
12.2.5 System Specific Requirements. The structural framing 12.2.5.7 Other Steel Ordinary and Intermediate Moment
system shall also comply with the following system specific re- Frames in Structures Assigned to Seismic Design Category
quirements of this section. D or E. Steel ordinary moment frames in structures assigned to
12.2.5.1 Dual System. For a dual system, the moment frames Seismic Design Category D or E not meeting the limitations set
shall be capable of resisting at least 25 percent of the design forth in Section 12.2.5.6 are permitted within light-frame con-
seismic forces. The total seismic force resistance is to be provided struction up to a height of 35 ft (10.6 m) where neither the roof
by the combination of the moment frames and the shear walls or nor the floor dead load supported by and tributary to the moment
braced frames in proportion to their rigidities. frames exceeds 35 psf (1.68 kN/m2 ). In addition, the dead load of
the exterior walls tributary to the moment frame shall not exceed
12.2.5.2 Cantilever Column Systems. Cantilever column sys- 20 psf (0.96 kN/m2 ). Steel intermediate moment frames in struc-
tems are permitted as indicated in Table 12.2-1 and as follows. tures assigned to Seismic Design Category D or E not meeting the
The axial load on individual cantilever column elements calcu- limitations set forth in Section 12.2.5.6 are permitted as follows:
lated in accordance with the load combinations of Section 2.3
1. In Seismic Design Category D, intermediate moment frames
shall not exceed 15 percent of the design strength of the column
are permitted to a height of 35 ft (10.6 m).
to resist axial loads alone, or for allowable stress design, the axial
load stress on individual cantilever column elements, calculated 2. In Seismic Design Category E, intermediate moment frames
in accordance with the load combinations of Section 2.4 shall not are permitted to a height of 35 ft (10.6 m) provided neither
exceed 15 percent of the permissible axial stress. the roof nor the floor dead load supported by and tributary

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De
MAXIMUM DIAPHRAGM
SEISMIC LOADING
DEFLECTION (MDD)
AVERAGE DRIFT OF VERTICAL ELEMENT

S (ADVE)
Note: Diaphragm is flexible if MDD > 2(ADVE).
FIGURE 12.3-1 FLEXIBLE DIAPHRAGM
to the moment frames exceeds 35 psf (1.68 kN/m2 ). In ad- 3 or less in structures that have no horizontal irregularities are
dition, the dead load of the exterior walls tributary to the permitted to be idealized as rigid.
moment frame shall not exceed 20 psf (0.96 kN/m2 ).
12.3.1.3 Calculated Flexible Diaphragm Condition. Di-
12.2.5.8 Single-Story Steel Ordinary and Intermediate aphragms not satisfying the conditions of Sections 12.3.1.1 or
Moment Frames in Structures Assigned to Seismic Design 12.3.1.2 are permitted to be idealized as flexible where the com-
Category F. Single-story steel ordinary moment frames and in- puted maximum in-plane deflection of the diaphragm under lateral
termediate moment frames in structures assigned to Seismic De- load is more than two times the average story drift of adjoining
sign Category F are permitted up to a height of 65 ft (20 m) vertical elements of the seismic force–resisting system of the as-
where the dead load supported by and tributary to the roof does sociated story under equivalent tributary lateral load as shown in
not exceed 20 psf (0.96 kN/m2 ). In addition, the dead loads of Fig. 12.3-1. The loadings used for this calculation shall be those
the exterior walls tributary to the moment frame shall not exceed prescribed by Section 12.8.
20 psf (0.96 kN/m2 ).
12.3.2 Irregular and Regular Classification. Structures shall
12.2.5.9 Other Steel Intermediate Moment Frame Limita- be classified as regular or irregular based upon the criteria in
tions in Structures Assigned to Seismic Design Category F. In this section. Such classification shall be based on horizontal and
addition to the limitations for steel intermediate moment frames vertical configurations.
in structures assigned to Seismic Design Category E as set forth
in Section 12.2.5.7, steel intermediate moment frames in struc- 12.3.2.1 Horizontal Irregularity. Structures having one or
tures assigned to Seismic Design Category F are permitted in more of the irregularity types listed in Table 12.3-1 shall be desig-
light-frame construction. nated as having horizontal structural irregularity. Such structures
assigned to the seismic design categories listed in Table 12.3-1
12.2.5.10 Shear Wall-Frame Interactive Systems. The shear shall comply with the requirements in the sections referenced in
strength of the shear walls of the shear wall-frame interactive that table.
system shall be at least 75 percent of the design story shear at
each story. The frames of the shear wall-frame interactive system 12.3.2.2 Vertical Irregularity. Structures having one or more
shall be capable of resisting at least 25 percent of the design story of the irregularity types listed in Table 12.3-2 shall be designated
shear in every story. as having vertical irregularity. Such structures assigned to the
seismic design categories listed in Table 12.3-2 shall comply with
the requirements in the sections referenced in that table.
12.3 DIAPHRAGM FLEXIBILITY, CONFIGURATION EXCEPTIONS:
IRREGULARITIES, AND REDUNDANCY 1. Vertical structural irregularities of Types 1a, 1b, or 2 in Table 12.3-2
do not apply where no story drift ratio under design lateral seismic
12.3.1 Diaphragm Flexibility. The structural analysis shall con-
force is greater than 130 percent of the story drift ratio of the next story
sider the relative stiffnesses of diaphragms and the vertical ele- above. Torsional effects need not be considered in the calculation of
ments of the seismic force–resisting system. Unless a diaphragm story drifts. The story drift ratio relationship for the top two stories of
can be idealized as either flexible or rigid in accordance with Sec- the structure are not required to be evaluated.
tions 12.3.1.1, 12.3.1.2, or 12.3.1.3, the structural analysis shall 2. Irregularities Types 1a, 1b, and 2 of Table 12.3-2 are not required to
explicitly include consideration of the stiffness of the diaphragm be considered for one-story buildings in any seismic design category
(i.e., semirigid modeling assumption). or for two-story buildings assigned to Seismic Design Categories B, C,
or D.
12.3.1.1 Flexible Diaphragm Condition. Diaphragms con-
structed of untopped steel decking or wood structural panels are 12.3.3 Limitations and Additional Requirements for Systems
permitted to be idealized as flexible in structures in which the with Structural Irregularities.
vertical elements are steel or composite steel and concrete braced
frames, or concrete, masonry, steel, or composite shear walls. 12.3.3.1 Prohibited Horizontal and Vertical Irregularities for
Diaphragms of wood structural panels or untopped steel decks Seismic Design Categories D through F. Structures assigned to
in one- and two-family residential buildings of light-frame con- Seismic Design Category E or F having horizontal irregularity
struction shall also be permitted to be idealized as flexible. Type 1b of Table 12.3-1 or vertical irregularities Type 1b, 5a, or
5b of Table 12.3-2 shall not be permitted. Structures assigned to
12.3.1.2 Rigid Diaphragm Condition. Diaphragms of concrete Seismic Design Category D having vertical irregularity Type 5b
slabs or concrete filled metal deck with span-to-depth ratios of of Table 12.3-2 shall not be permitted.
124 ASCE 7-05

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TABLE 12.3-1 HORIZONTAL STRUCTURAL IRREGULARITIES

Irregularity Type and Description Reference Seismic Design
Section Category
Application
1a. Torsional Irregularity is defined to exist where the maximum story drift, computed including accidental 12.3.3.4 D, E, and F
torsion, at one end of the structure transverse to an axis is more than 1.2 times the average of the story drifts at 12.8.4.3 C, D, E, and F
the two ends of the structure. Torsional irregularity requirements in the reference sections apply only to 12.7.3 B, C, D, E, and F
structures in which the diaphragms are rigid or semirigid. 12.12.1 C, D, E, and F
Table 12.6-1 D, E, and F
Section 16.2.2 B, C, D, E, and F
1b. Extreme Torsional Irregularity is defined to exist where the maximum story drift, computed including 12.3.3.1 E and F
accidental torsion, at one end of the structure transverse to an axis is more than 1.4 times the average of the story 12.3.3.4 D
drifts at the two ends of the structure. Extreme torsional irregularity requirements in the reference sections apply 12.7.3 B, C, and D
only to structures in which the diaphragms are rigid or semirigid. 12.8.4.3 C and D
12.12.1 C and D
Table 12.6-1 D
Section 16.2.2 B, C, and D
2. Reentrant Corner Irregularity is defined to exist where both plan projections of the structure beyond a 12.3.3.4 D, E, and F
reentrant corner are greater than 15% of the plan dimension of the structure in the given direction. Table 12.6-1 D, E, and F
3. Diaphragm Discontinuity Irregularity is defined to exist where there are diaphragms with abrupt 12.3.3.4 D, E, and F
discontinuities or variations in stiffness, including those having cutout or open areas greater than 50% of the Table 12.6-1 D, E, and F
gross enclosed diaphragm area, or changes in effective diaphragm stiffness of more than 50% from one story to
the next.
4. Out-of-Plane Offsets Irregularity is defined to exist where there are discontinuities in a lateral force-resistance 12.3.3.4 D, E, and F
path, such as out-of-plane offsets of the vertical elements. 12.3.3.3 B, C, D, E, and F
12.7.3 B, C, D, E, and F
16.2.2 B, C, D, E, and F
5. Nonparallel Systems-Irregularity is defined to exist where the vertical lateral force-resisting elements are not 12.5.3 C, D, E, and F
parallel to or symmetric about the major orthogonal axes of the seismic force–resisting system. 12.7.3 B, C, D, E, and F
Section 16.2.2 B, C, D, E, and F
12.3.3.2 Extreme Weak Stories. Structures with a vertical ir- 12.3.3.4 Increase in Forces Due to Irregularities for Seis-
regularity Type 5b as defined in Table 12.3-2, shall not be over mic Design Categories D through F. For structures assigned
two stories or 30 ft (9 m) in height. to Seismic Design Category D, E, or F and having a horizontal
EXCEPTION: The limit does not apply where the “weak” story is ca- structural irregularity of Type 1a, 1b, 2, 3, or 4 in Table 12.3-1
pable of resisting a total seismic force equal to 0 times the design force or a vertical structural irregularity of Type 4 in Table 12.3-2, the
prescribed in Section 12.8. design forces determined from Section 12.8.1 shall be increased
12.3.3.3 Elements Supporting Discontinuous Walls or 25 percent for connections of diaphragms to vertical elements
Frames. Columns, beams, trusses, or slabs supporting dis- and to collectors and for connections of collectors to the vertical
continuous walls or frames of structures having horizontal elements. Collectors and their connections also shall be designed
irregularity Type 4 of Table 12.3-1 or vertical irregularity Type 4 for these increased forces unless they are designed for the load
of Table 12.3-2 shall have the design strength to resist the max- combinations with overstrength factor of Section 12.4.3.2, in ac-
imum axial force that can develop in accordance with the load cordance with Section 12.10.2.1.
combinations with overstrength factor of Section 12.4.3.2. The
connections of such discontinuous elements to the supporting 12.3.4 Redundancy. A redundancy factor, ρ, shall be assigned
members shall be adequate to transmit the forces for which the to the seismic force–resisting system in each of two orthogonal
discontinuous elements were required to be designed. directions for all structures in accordance with this section.
TABLE 12.3-2 VERTICAL STRUCTURAL IRREGULARITIES

Irregularity Type and Description Reference Seismic Design
Section Category
Application
1a. Stiffness-Soft Story Irregularity is defined to exist where there is a story in which the lateral stiffness is less than Table 12.6-1 D, E, and F
70% of that in the story above or less than 80% of the average stiffness of the three stories above.
1b. Stiffness-Extreme Soft Story Irregularity is defined to exist where there is a story in which the lateral stiffness 12.3.3.1 E and F
is less than 60% of that in the story above or less than 70% of the average stiffness of the three stories above. Table 12.6-1 D, E, and F
2. Weight (Mass) Irregularity is defined to exist where the effective mass of any story is more than 150% of the Table 12.6-1 D, E, and F
effective mass of an adjacent story. A roof that is lighter than the floor below need not be considered.
3. Vertical Geometric Irregularity is defined to exist where the horizontal dimension of the seismic force–resisting Table 12.6-1 D, E, and F
system in any story is more than 130% of that in an adjacent story.
4. In-Plane Discontinuity in Vertical Lateral Force-Resisting Element Irregularity is defined to exist where an 12.3.3.3 B, C, D, E, and F
in-plane offset of the lateral force-resisting elements is greater than the length of those elements or there exists a 12.3.3.4 D, E, and F
reduction in stiffness of the resisting element in the story below. Table 12.6-1 D, E, and F
5a. Discontinuity in Lateral Strength–Weak Story Irregularity is defined to exist where the story lateral strength is 12.3.3.1 E and F
less than 80% of that in the story above. The story lateral strength is the total lateral strength of all seismic-resisting Table 12.6-1 D, E, and F
elements sharing the story shear for the direction under consideration.
5b. Discontinuity in Lateral Strength–Extreme Weak Story Irregularity is defined to exist where the story lateral 12.3.3.1 D, E, and F
strength is less than 65% of that in the story above. The story strength is the total strength of all seismic-resisting 12.3.3.2 B and C
elements sharing the story shear for the direction under consideration. Table 12.6-1 D, E, and F

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12.3.4.1 Conditions Where Value of ρ is 1.0. The value of ρ is 12.4 SEISMIC LOAD EFFECTS
permitted to equal 1.0 for the following: AND COMBINATIONS
1. Structures assigned to Seismic Design Category B or C. 12.4.1 Applicability. All members of the structure, including
2. Drift calculation and P-delta effects. those not part of the seismic force–resisting system, shall be
designed using the seismic load effects of Section 12.4 unless
3. Design of nonstructural components. otherwise exempted by this standard. Seismic load effects are
4. Design of nonbuilding structures that are not similar to the axial, shear, and flexural member forces resulting from ap-
buildings. plication of horizontal and vertical seismic forces as set forth in
Section 12.4.2. Where specifically required, seismic load effects
5. Design of collector elements, splices, and their connections shall be modified to account for system overstrength, as set forth
for which the load combinations with overstrength factor of in Section 12.4.3.
Section 12.4.3.2 are used.
12.4.2 Seismic Load Effect. The seismic load effect, E, shall be
6. Design of members or connections where the load combi- determined in accordance with the following:
nations with overstrength of Section 12.4.3.2 are required
for design. 1. For use in load combination 5 in Section 2.3.2 or load com-
bination 5 and 6 in Section 2.4.1, E shall be determined in
7. Diaphragm loads determined using Eq. 12.10-1. accordance with Eq. 12.4-1 as follows:
8. Structures with damping systems designed in accordance E = Eh + Ev (12.4-1)
with Section 18.
2. For use in load combination 7 in Section 2.3.2 or load com-
12.3.4.2 Redundancy Factor, ρ, for Seismic Design Categories bination 8 in Section 2.4.1, E shall be determined in accor-
D through F. For structures assigned to Seismic Design Category dance with Eq. 12.4-2 as follows:
D, E, or F, ρ shall equal 1.3 unless one of the following two E = Eh − Ev (12.4-2)
conditions is met, whereby ρ is permitted to be taken as 1.0:
where
a. Each story resisting more than 35 percent of the base shear E = seismic load effect
in the direction of interest shall comply with Table 12.3-3. E h = effect of horizontal seismic forces as defined in Sec-
b. Structures that are regular in plan at all levels provided that tion 12.4.2.1
the seismic force–resisting systems consist of at least two E v = effect of vertical seismic forces as defined in Section
bays of seismic force–resisting perimeter framing on each 12.4.2.2
side of the structure in each orthogonal direction at each
12.4.2.1 Horizontal Seismic Load Effect. The horizontal seis-
story resisting more than 35 percent of the base shear. The
mic load effect, E h , shall be determined in accordance with Eq.
number of bays for a shear wall shall be calculated as the
12.4-3 as follows:
length of shear wall divided by the story height or two times
the length of shear wall divided by the story height for light- Eh = ρ Q E (12.4-3)
framed construction. where
Q E = effects of horizontal seismic forces from V or F p . Where
TABLE 12.3-3 REQUIREMENTS FOR EACH STORY RESISTING required in Sections 12.5.3 and 12.5.4, such effects shall
MORE THAN 35% OF THE BASE SHEAR result from application of horizontal forces simultaneously
Lateral Force-Resisting Requirement in two directions at right angles to each other.
Element ρ = redundancy factor, as defined in Section 12.3.4
Braced Frames Removal of an individual brace, or connection
thereto, would not result in more than a 33% 12.4.2.2 Vertical Seismic Load Effect. The vertical seismic
reduction in story strength, nor does the load effect, E v , shall be determined in accordance with Eq. 12.4-4
resulting system have an extreme torsional as follows:
irregularity (horizontal structural irregularity
Type 1b). E v = 0.2S DS D (12.4-4)
Moment Frames Loss of moment resistance at the
beam-to-column connections at both ends of a where
single beam would not result in more than a
33% reduction in story strength, nor does the S DS = design spectral response acceleration parameter at short
resulting system have an extreme torsional periods obtained from Section 11.4.4
irregularity (horizontal structural irregularity D = effect of dead load
Type 1b).
Shear Walls or Wall Removal of a shear wall or wall pier with a EXCEPTIONS: The vertical seismic load effect, E v , is permitted to be
Pier with a height-to- height-to-length ratio greater than 1.0 within taken as zero for either of the following conditions:
length ratio of greater any story, or collector connections thereto, 1. In Eqs. 12.4-1, 12.4-2, 12.4-5, and 12.4-6 where S DS is equal to or less
than 1.0 would not result in more than a 33% reduction than 0.125.
in story strength, nor does the resulting system
have an extreme torsional irregularity 2. In Eq. 12.4-2 where determining demands on the soil-structure interface
(horizontal structural irregularity Type 1b). of foundations.
Cantilever Columns Loss of moment resistance at the base 12.4.2.3 Seismic Load Combinations. Where the prescribed
connections of any single cantilever column
would not result in more than a 33% reduction seismic load effect, E, defined in Section 12.4.2 is combined with
in story strength, nor does the resulting system the effects of other loads as set forth in Chapter 2, the following
have an extreme torsional irregularity seismic load combinations for structures not subject to flood or
(horizontal structural irregularity Type 1b).
atmospheric ice loads shall be used in lieu of the seismic load
Other No requirements combinations in either Section 2.3.2 or 2.4.1:
126 ASCE 7-05

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Basic Combinations for Strength Design (see Sections 2.3.2 12.4.3.2 Load Combinations with Overstrength Factor.
and 2.2 for notation). Where the seismic load effect with overstrength, E m , defined in
Section 12.4.3 is combined with the effects of other loads as set
5. (1.2 + 0.2S DS )D + ρ Q E + L + 0.2S
forth in Chapter 2, the following seismic load combination for
7. (0.9 − 0.2S DS )D + ρ Q E + 1.6H structures not subject to flood or atmospheric ice loads shall be
NOTES: shall be used in lieu of the seismic load combinations in either
1. The load factor on L in combination 5 is permitted to equal 0.5 for Section 2.3.2 or 2.4.1:
all occupancies in which L o in Table 4-1 is less than or equal to 100
psf (4.79 kN/m2 ), with the exception of garages or areas occupied as
Basic Combinations for Strength Design with Overstrength
places of public assembly. Factor (see Sections 2.3.2 and 2.2 for notation).
2. The load factor on H shall be set equal to zero in combination 7 if the 5. (1.2 + 0.2S DS )D + o Q E + L + 0.2S
structural action due to H counteracts that due to E. Where lateral earth
pressure provides resistance to structural actions from other forces, it
7. (0.9 − 0.2S DS )D + o Q E + 1.6H
shall not be included in H but shall be included in the design resistance. NOTES:
1. The load factor on L in combination 5 is permitted to equal 0.5 for
Basic Combinations for Allowable Stress Design (see Sections all occupancies in which L o in Table 4-1 is less than or equal to 100
2.4.1 and 2.2 for notation). psf (4.79 kN/m2 ), with the exception of garages or areas occupied as
places of public assembly.
5. (1.0 + 0.14S DS )D + H + F + 0.7ρ Q E
2. The load factor on H shall be set equal to zero in combination 7 if
6. (1.0 + 0.105 DS )D + H + F + 0.525ρ Q E + 0.75L the structural action due to H counteracts that due to E. Where lat-
+ 0.75(L r or S or R) eral earth pressure provides resistance to structural actions from other
forces, it shall not be included in H but shall be included in the design
8. (0.6 − 0.14S DS )D + 0.7ρ Q E + H resistance.
12.4.3 Seismic Load Effect Including Overstrength Factor. Basic Combinations for Allowable Stress Design with Over-
Where specifically required, conditions requiring overstrength strength Factor (see Sections 2.4.1 and 2.2 for notation).
factor applications shall be determined in accordance with the
following: 5. (1.0 + 0.14S DS )D + H + F + 0.7o Q E
1. For use in load combination 5 in Section 2.3.2 or load com- 6. (1.0 + 0.105S DS )D + H + F + 0.525o Q E + 0.75L
binations 5 and 6 in Section 2.4.1, E shall be taken equal to + 0.75(L r or S or R)
E m as determined in accordance with Eq. 12.4-5 as follows: 8. (0.6 − 0.14S DS )D + 0.7o Q E + H
12.4.3.3 Allowable Stress Increase for Load Combinations
E m = E mh + E v (12.4-5) with Overstrength. Where allowable stress design methodolo-
gies are used with the seismic load effect defined in Section 12.4.3
2. For use in load combination 7 in Section 2.3.2 or load com- applied in load combinations 5, 6, or 8 of Section 2.4.1, allow-
bination 8 in Section 2.4.1, E shall be taken equal to E m as able stresses are permitted to be determined using an allowable
determined in accordance with Eq. 12.4-6 as follows: stress increase of 1.2. This increase shall not be combined with
increases in allowable stresses or load combination reductions
otherwise permitted by this standard or the material reference
E m = E mh − E v (12.4-6) document except that combination with the duration of load in-
creases permitted in AF&PA NDS is permitted.
where
12.4.4 Minimum Upward Force for Horizontal Cantilevers
E m = seismic load effect including overstrength factor for Seismic Design Categories D through F. In structures as-
E mh = effect of horizontal seismic forces including struc- signed to Seismic Design Category D, E, or F, horizontal can-
tural overstrength as defined in Section 12.4.3.1 tilever structural components shall be designed for a minimum
E v = vertical seismic load effect as defined in Section net upward force of 0.2 times the dead load in addition to the
12.4.2.2 applicable load combinations of Section 12.4.
12.4.3.1 Horizontal Seismic Load Effect with Overstrength
Factor. The horizontal seismic load effect with overstrength fac- 12.5 DIRECTION OF LOADING
tor, E mh , shall be determined in accordance with Eq. 12.4-7 as
follows: 12.5.1 Direction of Loading Criteria. The directions of appli-
cation of seismic forces used in the design shall be those which
E mh = o Q E (12.4-7) will produce the most critical load effects. It is permitted to sat-
isfy this requirement using the procedures of Section 12.5.2 for
where
Seismic Design Category B, Section 12.5.3 for Seismic Design
Q E = effects of horizontal seismic forces from V or F p as speci- Category C, and Section 12.5.4 for Seismic Design Categories D,
fied in Sections 12.8.1 and 13.3.1, respectively. Where re- E, and F.
quired in Sections 12.5.3 and 12.5.4, such effects shall re-
12.5.2 Seismic Design Category B. For structures assigned to
sult from application of horizontal forces simultaneously
Seismic Design Category B, the design seismic forces are per-
in two directions at right angles to each other.
mitted to be applied independently in each of two orthogonal
o = overstrength factor
directions and orthogonal interaction effects are permitted to be
EXCEPTION: The value of E mh need not exceed the maximum force neglected.
that can develop in the element as determined by a rational, plastic mech-
anism analysis or nonlinear response analysis utilizing realistic expected 12.5.3 Seismic Design Category C. Loading applied to struc-
values of material strengths. tures assigned to Seismic Design Category C shall, as a minimum,

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conform to the requirements of Section 12.5.2 for Seismic Design TABLE 12.6-1 PERMITTED ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
History Procedures
Category B and the requirements of this section. Structures that
Spectrum Analysis
Seismic Response
Equivalent Lateral
Modal Response
have horizontal structural irregularity Type 5 in Table 12.3-1 shall
Force Analysis
Section 12.8
Section 12.9
use one of the following procedures:
Chapter 16
Seismic
a. Orthogonal Combination Procedure. The structure shall Design
be analyzed using the equivalent lateral force analysis proce- Category Structural Characteristics
dure of Section 12.8, the modal response spectrum analysis B, C Occupancy Category I or II P P P
procedure of Section 12.9, or the linear response history pro- buildings of light-framed
construction not exceeding
cedure of Section 16.1, as permitted under Section 12.6, with 3 stories in height
the loading applied independently in any two orthogonal di- Other Occupancy Category I P P P
rections and the most critical load effect due to direction or II buildings not exceeding
of application of seismic forces on the structure is permit- 2 stories in height
ted to be assumed to be satisfied if components and their All other structures P P P
foundations are designed for the following combination of D, E, F Occupancy Category I or II P P P
prescribed loads: 100 percent of the forces for one direction buildings of light-framed
construction not exceeding
plus 30 percent of the forces for the perpendicular direc- 3 stories in height
tion; the combination requiring the maximum component Other Occupancy Category I P P P
strength shall be used. or II buildings not exceeding
2 stories in height
b. Simultaneous Application of Orthogonal Ground
Regular structures with P P P
Motion. The structure shall be analyzed using the linear T <3.5Ts and all structures of
response history procedure of Section 16.1 or the nonlin- light frame construction
ear response history procedure of Section 16.2, as permitted Irregular structures with P P P
by Section 12.6, with orthogonal pairs of ground motion T <3.5Ts and having only
acceleration histories applied simultaneously. horizontal irregularities Type
2, 3, 4, or 5 of Table 12.2-1
12.5.4 Seismic Design Categories D through F. Structures as- or vertical irregularities Type
4, 5a, or 5b of Table 12.3-1
signed to Seismic Design Category D, E, or F shall, as a minimum,
All other structures NP P P
conform to the requirements of Section 12.5.3. In addition, any
NOTE: P: Permitted; NP: Not Permitted
column or wall that forms part of two or more intersecting seis-
mic force–resisting systems and is subjected to axial load due
to seismic forces acting along either principal plan axis equal-
ing or exceeding 20 percent of the axial design strength of the minimum weight of 10 psf (0.48 kN/m2 ) of floor area,
column or wall shall be designed for the most critical load ef- whichever is greater.
fect due to application of seismic forces in any direction. Either
of the procedures of Section 12.5.3 a or b are permitted to be 3. Total operating weight of permanent equipment.
used to satisfy this requirement. Except as required by Section 4. Where the flat roof snow load, P f , exceeds 30 psf
12.7.3, 2-D analyses are permitted for structures with flexible (1.44 kN/m2 ), 20 percent of the uniform design snow load,
diaphragms. regardless of actual roof slope.
12.6 ANALYSIS PROCEDURE SELECTION 12.7.3 Structural Modeling. A mathematical model of the
The structural analysis required by Chapter 12 shall consist of one structure shall be constructed for the purpose of determining
of the types permitted in Table 12.6-1, based on the structure’s member forces and structure displacements resulting from ap-
seismic design category, structural system, dynamic properties, plied loads and any imposed displacements or P-Delta effects.
and regularity, or with the approval of the authority having juris- The model shall include the stiffness and strength of elements
diction, an alternative generally accepted procedure is permitted that are significant to the distribution of forces and deformations
to be used. The analysis procedure selected shall be completed in the structure and represent the spatial distribution of mass and
in accordance with the requirements of the corresponding section stiffness throughout the structure.
referenced in Table 12.6-1. Structures that have horizontal structural irregularity Type 1a,
1b, 4, or 5 of Table 12.3-1 shall be analyzed using a 3-D represen-
tation. Where a 3-D model is used, a minimum of three dynamic
12.7 MODELING CRITERIA
degrees of freedom consisting of translation in two orthogonal
12.7.1 Foundation Modeling. For purposes of determining seis- plan directions and torsional rotation about the vertical axis shall
mic loads, it is permitted to consider the structure to be fixed at the be included at each level of the structure. Where the diaphragms
base. Alternatively, where foundation flexibility is considered, it have not been classified as rigid or flexible in accordance with
shall be in accordance with Section 12.13.3 or Chapter 19. Section 12.3.1, the model shall include representation of the di-
aphragm’s stiffness characteristics and such additional dynamic
12.7.2 Effective Seismic Weight. The effective seismic weight, degrees of freedom as are required to account for the participation
W , of a structure shall include the total dead load and other loads of the diaphragm in the structure’s dynamic response. In addition,
listed below: the model shall comply with the following:
1. In areas used for storage, a minimum of 25 percent of the
floor live load (floor live load in public garages and open a. Stiffness properties of concrete and masonry elements shall
parking structures need not be included). consider the effects of cracked sections.
2. Where provision for partitions is required by Section 4.2.2 b. For steel moment frame systems, the contribution of panel
in the floor load design, the actual partition weight or a zone deformations to overall story drift shall be included.
128 ASCE 7-05

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12.7.4 Interaction Effects. Moment-resisting frames that are TABLE 12.8-1 COEFFICIENT FOR UPPER LIMIT
enclosed or adjoined by elements that are more rigid and not ON CALCULATED PERIOD
Design Spectral Response Acceleration Coefficient Cu
considered to be part of the seismic force–resisting system shall Parameter at 1 s, SD1
be designed so that the action or failure of those elements will not ≥ 0.4 1.4
impair the vertical load and seismic force–resisting capability of
0.3 1.4
the frame. The design shall provide for the effect of these rigid
elements on the structural system at structural deformations cor- 0.2 1.5
responding to the design story drift () as determined in Section 0.15 1.6
12.8.6. In addition, the effects of these elements shall be consid- ≤ 0.1 1.7
ered where determining whether a structure has one or more of
the irregularities defined in Section 12.3.2.
where I and R are as defined in Section 12.8.1.1 and
S D1 = the design spectral response acceleration parameter at a
12.8 EQUIVALENT LATERAL FORCE PROCEDURE period of 1.0 s, as determined from Section 11.4.4
T = the fundamental period of the structure (s) determined
12.8.1 Seismic Base Shear. The seismic base shear, V, in a given in Section 12.8.2
direction shall be determined in accordance with the following TL = long-period transition period (s) determined in Section
equation: 11.4.5
S1 = the mapped maximum considered earthquake spectral
V = Cs W (12.8-1) response acceleration parameter determined in accor-
dance with Section 11.4.1
where 12.8.1.2 Soil Structure Interaction Reduction. A soil struc-
Cs = the seismic response coefficient determined in accordance ture interaction reduction is permitted where determined using
with Section 12.8.1.1 Chapter 19 or other generally accepted procedures approved by
W = the effective seismic weight per Section 12.7.2. the authority having jurisdiction.
12.8.1.3 Maximum Ss Value in Determination of Cs . For reg-
12.8.1.1 Calculation of Seismic Response Coefficient. The ular structures five stories or less in height and having a period,
seismic response coefficient, Cs , shall be determined in accor- T, of 0.5 s or less, Cs is permitted to be calculated using a value
dance with Eq. 12.8-2. of 1.5 for SS .
12.8.2 Period Determination. The fundamental period of the
S DS
Cs = (12.8-2) structure, T, in the direction under consideration shall be estab-
R lished using the structural properties and deformational character-
I istics of the resisting elements in a properly substantiated analysis.
The fundamental period, T, shall not exceed the product of the
where coefficient for upper limit on calculated period (Cu ) from Table
12.8-1 and the approximate fundamental period, Ta , determined
S DS = the design spectral response acceleration parameter in the from Eq. 12.8-7. As an alternative to performing an analysis to
short period range as determined from Section 11.4.4 determine the fundamental period, T, it is permitted to use the
R = the response modification factor in Table 12.2-1 approximate building period, Ta , calculated in accordance with
I = the occupancy importance factor determined in accordance Section 12.8.2.1, directly.
with Section 11.5.1
12.8.2.1 Approximate Fundamental Period. The approximate
The value of Cs computed in accordance with Eq. 12.8-2 need fundamental period (Ta ), in s, shall be determined from the fol-
not exceed the following: lowing equation:
S D1 Ta = Ct h nx (12.8-7)
Cs = for T ≤ TL (12.8-3)
R where h n is the height in ft above the base to the highest level of
T
I the structure and the coefficients Ct and x are determined from
Table 12.8-2.
S D1 TL
Cs = for T > TL (12.8-4) TABLE 12.8-2 VALUES OF APPROXIMATE PERIOD
R PARAMETERS Ct AND x
T 2
Structure Type Ct x
I
Moment-resisting frame systems in which the
frames resist 100% of the required seismic force
Cs shall not be less than and are not enclosed or adjoined by components
that are more rigid and will prevent the frames
from deflecting where subjected to seismic forces:
Cs = 0.01 (12.8-5)
Steel moment-resisting frames 0.028 0.8
(0.0724)a
In addition, for structures located where S1 is equal to or greater Concrete moment-resisting frames 0.016 0.9
than 0.6g, Cs shall not be less than (0.0466)a
Eccentrically braced steel frames 0.03 0.75
0.5S1 (0.0731)a
Cs = (12.8-6) All other structural systems 0.02 0.75
R (0.0488)a
I a Metric equivalents are shown in parentheses.

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Alternatively, it is permitted to determine the approximate where Fi = the portion of the seismic base shear (V ) (kip or kN)
fundamental period (Ta ), in s, from the following equation for induced at Level i.
structures not exceeding 12 stories in height in which the seis-
The seismic design story shear (Vx ) (kip or kN) shall be dis-
mic force–resisting system consists entirely of concrete or steel
tributed to the various vertical elements of the seismic force–
moment resisting frames and the story height is at least 10 ft
resisting system in the story under consideration based on the
(3 m):
relative lateral stiffness of the vertical resisting elements and the
Ta = 0.1 N (12.8-8) diaphragm.
where N = number of stories. 12.8.4.1 Inherent Torsion. For diaphragms that are not flexible,
the distribution of lateral forces at each level shall consider the
The approximate fundamental period, Ta , in s for masonry or
effect of the inherent torsional moment, Mt , resulting from eccen-
concrete shear wall structures is permitted to be determined from
tricity between the locations of the center of mass and the center of
Eq. 12.8-9 as follows:
rigidity. For flexible diaphragms, the distribution of forces to the
0.0019 vertical elements shall account for the position and distribution
Ta = √ hn (12.8-9) of the masses supported.
Cw
where h n is as defined in the preceding text and Cw is calculated 12.8.4.2 Accidental Torsion. Where diaphragms are not flexi-
from Eq. 12.8-10 as follows: ble, the design shall include the inherent torsional moment (Mt )
(kip or kN) resulting from the location of the structure masses
x
100 hn 2 Ai plus the accidental torsional moments (Mta ) (kip or kN) caused
CW = 2 (12.8-10)
A B i=1 h i hi by assumed displacement of the center of mass each way from
1 + 0.83 its actual location by a distance equal to 5 percent of the dimen-
Di sion of the structure perpendicular to the direction of the applied
forces.
where
Where earthquake forces are applied concurrently in two or-
AB = area of base of structure, ft2 thogonal directions, the required 5 percent displacement of the
Ai = web area of shear wall “i” in ft2 center of mass need not be applied in both of the orthogonal di-
Di = length of shear wall “i” in ft rections at the same time, but shall be applied in the direction that
hi = height of shear wall “i” in ft produces the greater effect.
x = number of shear walls in the building effective in resisting
lateral forces in the direction under consideration. 12.8.4.3 Amplification of Accidental Torsional Moment.
12.8.3 Vertical Distribution of Seismic Forces. The lateral Structures assigned to Seismic Design Category C, D, E, or F,
seismic force (Fx ) (kip or kN) induced at any level shall be deter- where Type 1a or 1b torsional irregularity exists as defined in
mined from the following equations: Table 12.3-1 shall have the effects accounted for by multiply-
ing Mta at each level by a torsional amplification factor (A x )
Fx = Cvx V (12.8-11) as illustrated in Fig. 12.8-1 and determined from the following
equation:
and
2
wx h kx δmax
Cvx = n (12.8-12) Ax = (12.8-14)
1.2δavg
wi h ik
i=1
where
where δmax = the maximum displacement at Level x (in. or mm) com-
Cvx = vertical distribution factor, puted assuming A x = 1
V = total design lateral force or shear at the base of the δavg = the average of the displacements at the extreme points of
structure (kip or kN) the structure at Level x computed assuming A x = 1 (in. or
wi and wx = the portion of the total effective seismic weight mm)
of the structure (W ) located or assigned to Level EXCEPTION: The accidental torsional moment need not be amplified
i or x for structures of light-frame construction.
h i and h x = the height (ft or m) from the base to Level i or x The torsional amplification factor (A x ) is not required to exceed
k = an exponent related to the structure period as fol- 3.0. The more severe loading for each element shall be considered
lows: for design.
for structures having a period of 0.5 s or less, k = 1
for structures having a period of 2.5 s or more, k = 2 12.8.5 Overturning. The structure shall be designed to resist
for structures having a period between 0.5 and overturning effects caused by the seismic forces determined in
2.5 s, k shall be 2 or shall be determined by lin- Section 12.8.3.
ear interpolation between 1 and 2
12.8.6 Story Drift Determination. The design story drift ()
12.8.4 Horizontal Distribution of Forces. The seismic design shall be computed as the difference of the deflections at the cen-
story shear in any story (Vx ) (kip or kN) shall be determined from ters of mass at the top and bottom of the story under consider-
the following equation: ation. See Fig. 12.8-2. Where allowable stress design is used,

n shall be computed using the strength level seismic forces
Vx = Fi (12.8-13) specified in Section 12.8 without reduction for allowable stress
i=x design.
130 ASCE 7-05

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δA
δB
2
δA + δB  δ 
δ avg = ; Ax =  max 
2  1.2δ avg 
FIGURE 12.8-1 TORSIONAL AMPLIFICATION FACTOR, Ax
The deflections of Level x at the center of the mass (δx ) (in. 12.8.6.1 Minimum Base Shear for Computing Drift. The elas-
or mm) shall be determined in accordance with the following tic analysis of the seismic force–resisting system shall be made
equation: using the prescribed seismic design forces of Section 12.8.
Cd δxe 12.8.6.2 Period for Computing Drift. For determining compli-
δx = (12.8-15) ance with the story drift limits of Section 12.12.1, it is permitted
I
to determine the elastic drifts, (δ xe ), using seismic design forces
where based on the computed fundamental period of the structure with-
out the upper limit (Cu Ta ) specified in Section 12.8.2.
Cd = the deflection amplification factor in Table 12.2-1
δxe = the deflections determined by an elastic analysis 12.8.7 P-Delta Effects. P-delta effects on story shears and mo-
I = the importance factor determined in accordance with Sec- ments, the resulting member forces and moments, and the story
tion 11.5.1 drifts induced by these effects are not required to be considered
Story Level 2
F2 = strength-level design earthquake force
δe2 = elastic displacement computed under
strength-level design earthquake forces
L2
δ2 = Cd δ e2/IE = amplified displacement
∆2 = (δδe2 - δe1) Cd /IE ≤ ∆a (Table 12.12-1)
Story Level 1
e
F1 = strength-level design earthquake force
δe1 = elastic displacement computed under
strength-level design earthquake forces
δ1 = Cd δe1/IE = amplified displacement
L1 ∆1 = δ1 ≤ ∆a (Table 12.12-1)
∆i = Story Drift
∆ i/Li = Story Drift Ratio
δ2 = Total Displacement
FIGURE 12.8-2 STORY DRIFT DETERMINATION

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where the stability coefficient (θ) as determined by the following except where the calculated fundamental period exceeds (Cu )(Ta ),
equation is equal to or less than 0.10: then (Cu )(Ta ) shall be used in lieu of T in that direction. Where
Px the combined response for the modal base shear (Vt ) is less than
θ= (12.8-16) 85 percent of the calculated base shear (V ) using the equivalent
Vx h sx Cd lateral force procedure, the forces, but not the drifts, shall be mul-
where tiplied by 0.85 VVt :
Px = the total vertical design load at and above Level x (kip or where
kN); where computing Px , no individual load factor need
V = the equivalent lateral force procedure base shear, calculated
exceed 1.0
in accordance with this section and Section 12.8
= the design story drift as defined in Section 12.8.6 occurring
Vt = the base shear from the required modal combination
simultaneously with Vx (in. or mm)
Vx = the seismic shear force acting between Levels x and x − 12.9.5 Horizontal Shear Distribution. The distribution of hor-
1 (kip or kN) izontal shear shall be in accordance with the requirements of
h sx = the story height below Level x (in. or mm) Section 12.8.4 except that amplification of torsion per Section
Cd = the deflection amplification factor in Table 12.2-1 12.8.4.3 is not required where accidental torsional effects are in-
cluded in the dynamic analysis model.
The stability coefficient (θ ) shall not exceed θ max determined
as follows: 12.9.6 P-Delta Effects. The P-delta effects shall be determined
0.5 in accordance with Section 12.8.7. The base shear used to deter-
θmax = ≤ 0.25 (12.8-17) mine the story shears and the story drifts shall be determined in
β Cd
accordance with Section 12.8.6.
where β is the ratio of shear demand to shear capacity for the
story between Levels x and x − 1. This ratio is permitted to be 12.9.7 Soil Structure Interaction Reduction. A soil structure
conservatively taken as 1.0. interaction reduction is permitted where determined using Chap-
ter 19 or other generally accepted procedures approved by the
Where the stability coefficient (θ ) is greater than 0.10 but less authority having jurisdiction.
than or equal to θmax , the incremental factor related to P-delta
effects on displacements and member forces shall be determined
by rational analysis. Alternatively, it is permitted to multiply dis- 12.10 DIAPHRAGMS, CHORDS, AND COLLECTORS
placements and member forces by 1.0/(1 − θ ). 12.10.1 Diaphragm Design. Diaphragms shall be designed for
Where θ is greater than θmax , the structure is potentially unstable both the shear and bending stresses resulting from design forces.
and shall be redesigned. At diaphragm discontinuities, such as openings and reentrant cor-
ners, the design shall assure that the dissipation or transfer of edge
Where the P-delta effect is included in an automated analysis, (chord) forces combined with other forces in the diaphragm is
Eq. 12.8-17 shall still be satisfied, however, the value of θ com- within shear and tension capacity of the diaphragm.
puted from Eq. 12.8-16 using the results of the P-delta analysis is
permitted to be divided by (1 + θ ) before checking Eq. 12.8-17. 12.10.1.1 Diaphragm Design Forces. Floor and roof di-
aphragms shall be designed to resist design seismic forces from
the structural analysis, but shall not be less than that determined
12.9 MODAL RESPONSE SPECTRUM ANALYSIS
in accordance with Eq. 12.10-1 as follows:
12.9.1 Number of Modes. An analysis shall be conducted to
n
determine the natural modes of vibration for the structure. The Fi
analysis shall include a sufficient number of modes to obtain a F px =
i=x
w px (12.10-1)
combined modal mass participation of at least 90 percent of the n
wi
actual mass in each of the orthogonal horizontal directions of i=x
response considered by the model.
where
12.9.2 Modal Response Parameters. The value for each force-
related design parameter of interest, including story drifts, support F px = the diaphragm design force
forces, and individual member forces for each mode of response Fi = the design force applied to Level i
shall be computed using the properties of each mode and the wi = the weight tributary to Level i
response spectra defined in either Section 11.4.5 or 21.2 divided w px = the weight tributary to the diaphragm at Level x
by the quantity RI . The value for displacement and drift quantities The force determined from Eq. 12.10-1 need not exceed
shall be multiplied by the quantity Cd I
. 0.4S DS Iw px , but shall not be less than 0.2S DS Iw px . Where the
diaphragm is required to transfer design seismic force from the
12.9.3 Combined Response Parameters. The value for each
vertical resisting elements above the diaphragm to other verti-
parameter of interest calculated for the various modes shall be
cal resisting elements below the diaphragm due to offsets in the
combined using either the square root of the sum of the squares
placement of the elements or to changes in relative lateral stiff-
method (SRSS) or the complete quadratic combination method
ness in the vertical elements, these forces shall be added to those
(CQC), in accordance with ASCE 4. The CQC method shall be
determined from Eq. 12.10-1. The redundancy factor, ρ, applies
used for each of the modal values or where closely spaced modes
to the design of diaphragms in structures assigned to Seismic
that have significant cross-correlation of translational and tor-
Design Category D, E, or F. For inertial forces calculated in ac-
sional response.
cordance with Eq. 12.10-1, the redundancy factor shall equal 1.0.
12.9.4 Scaling Design Values of Combined Response. A base For transfer forces, the redundancy factor, ρ, shall be the same
shear (V ) shall be calculated in each of the two orthogonal hori- as that used for the structure. For structures having horizontal or
zontal directions using the calculated fundamental period of the vertical structural irregularities of the types indicated in Section
structure T in each direction and the procedures of Section 12.8, 12.3.3.4, the requirements of that section shall also apply.
132 ASCE 7-05

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FULL LENGTH SHEAR WALL

(NO COLLECTOR REQUIRED)
SHEAR WALL AT
STAIRWELL
COLLECTOR ELEMENT TO
TRANSFER FORCE BETWEEN
DIAPHRAGM AND SHEAR WALL
FIGURE 12.10-1 COLLECTORS
12.10.2 Collector Elements. Collector elements shall be pro- where

vided that are capable of transferring the seismic forces originat-
F p = the design force in the individual anchors
ing in other portions of the structure to the element providing the
S DS = the design spectral response acceleration parameter at short
resistance to those forces.
periods per Section 11.4.4
I = the occupancy importance factor per Section 11.5.1
12.10.2.1 Collector Elements Requiring Load Combinations W p = the weight of the wall tributary to the anchor
with Overstrength Factor for Seismic Design Categories C
through F. In structures assigned to Seismic Design Category C, 12.11.2.2 Additional Requirements for Diaphragms in Struc-
D, E, or F, collector elements (see Fig. 12.10-1), splices, and their tures Assigned to Seismic Design Categories C through F.
connections to resisting elements shall resist the load combina- 12.11.2.2.1 Transfer of Anchorage Forces into Diaphragm.
tions with overstrength of Section 12.4.3.2. Diaphragms shall be provided with continuous ties or struts be-
EXCEPTION: In structures or portions thereof braced entirely by light- tween diaphragm chords to distribute these anchorage forces into
frame shear walls, collector elements, splices, and connections to resisting the diaphragms. Diaphragm connections shall be positive, me-
elements need only be designed to resist forces in accordance with Section
12.10.1.1.
chanical, or welded. Added chords are permitted to be used to
form subdiaphragms to transmit the anchorage forces to the main
12.11 STRUCTURAL WALLS AND continuous cross-ties. The maximum length-to-width ratio of the
THEIR ANCHORAGE structural subdiaphragm shall be 2.5 to 1. Connections and an-
chorages capable of resisting the prescribed forces shall be pro-
12.11.1 Design for Out-of-Plane Forces. Structural walls and vided between the diaphragm and the attached components. Con-
their anchorage shall be designed for a force normal to the sur- nections shall extend into the diaphragm a sufficient distance to
face equal to 0.4S DS I times the weight of the structural wall with develop the force transferred into the diaphragm.
a minimum force of 10 percent of the weight of the structural
wall. Interconnection of structural wall elements and connections 12.11.2.2.2 Steel Elements of Structural Wall Anchorage
to supporting framing systems shall have sufficient ductility, rota- System. The strength design forces for steel elements of the struc-
tional capacity, or sufficient strength to resist shrinkage, thermal tural wall anchorage system, with the exception of anchor bolts
changes, and differential foundation settlement when combined and reinforcing steel, shall be increased by 1.4 times the forces
with seismic forces. otherwise required by this section.
12.11.2.2.3 Wood Diaphragms. In wood diaphragms, the
12.11.2 Anchorage of Concrete or Masonry Structural Walls. continuous ties shall be in addition to the diaphragm sheath-
The anchorage of concrete or masonry structural walls to sup- ing. Anchorage shall not be accomplished by use of toe nails
porting construction shall provide a direct connection capable of or nails subject to withdrawal nor shall wood ledgers or framing
resisting the greater of the following: be used in cross-grain bending or cross-grain tension. The di-
aphragm sheathing shall not be considered effective as providing
a. The force set forth in Section 12.11.1. the ties or struts required by this section.
b. A force of 400S DS I lb/ linear ft (5.84S DS I kN/m) of wall 12.11.2.2.4 Metal Deck Diaphragms. In metal deck di-
c. 280 lb/linear ft (4.09 kN/m) of wall aphragms, the metal deck shall not be used as the continuous
ties required by this section in the direction perpendicular to the
Structural walls shall be designed to resist bending between deck span.
anchors where the anchor spacing exceeds 4 ft (1,219 mm).
12.11.2.2.5 Embedded Straps. Diaphragm to structural wall
anchorage using embedded straps shall be attached to, or hooked
12.11.2.1 Anchorage of Concrete or Masonry Structural
around, the reinforcing steel or otherwise terminated so as to
Walls to Flexible Diaphragms. In addition to the requirements
effectively transfer forces to the reinforcing steel.
set forth in Section 12.11.2, anchorage of concrete or masonry
structural walls to flexible diaphragms in structures assigned to 12.11.2.2.6 Eccentrically Loaded Anchorage System.
Seismic Design Category C, D, E, or F shall have the strength to Where elements of the wall anchorage system are loaded
develop the out-of-plane force given by Eq. 12.11-1: eccentrically or are not perpendicular to the wall, the system
shall be designed to resist all components of the forces induced
F p = 0.8S DS I W p (12.11-1) by the eccentricity.

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TABLE 12.12-1 ALLOWABLE STORY DRIFT, ∆a a,b

Structure Occupancy Category
I or II III IV
Structures, other than masonry shear wall structures, 4 stories or less with 0.025h sx c 0.020h sx 0.015h sx
interior walls, partitions, ceilings and exterior wall systems that have been
designed to accommodate the story drifts.
Masonry cantilever shear wall structures d 0.010h sx 0.010h sx 0.010h sx
Other masonry shear wall structures 0.007h sx 0.007h sx 0.007h sx
All other structures 0.020h sx 0.015h sx 0.010h sx
a h is the story height below Level x.
sx
b For seismic force–resisting systems comprised solely of moment frames in Seismic Design Categories D, E, and F, the
allowable story drift shall comply with the requirements of Section 12.12.1.1.
c There shall be no drift limit for single-story structures with interior walls, partitions, ceilings, and exterior wall systems
that have been designed to accommodate the story drifts. The structure separation requirement of Section 12.12.3 is
not waived.
d Structures in which the basic structural system consists of masonry shear walls designed as vertical elements cantilevered
from their base or foundation support which are so constructed that moment transfer between shear walls (coupling) is
negligible.
12.11.2.2.7 Walls with Pilasters. Where pilasters are present Where determining the moments and shears induced in compo-
in the wall, the anchorage force at the pilasters shall be calculated nents that are not included in the seismic force–resisting system in
considering the additional load transferred from the wall panels the direction under consideration, the stiffening effects of adjoin-
to the pilasters. However, the minimum anchorage force at a floor ing rigid structural and nonstructural elements shall be considered
or roof shall not be reduced. and a rational value of member and restraint stiffness shall be
used.
12.12 DRIFT AND DEFORMATION
12.13 FOUNDATION DESIGN
12.12.1 Story Drift Limit. The design story drift () as deter-
mined in Sections 12.8.6, 12.9.2, or 16.1, shall not exceed the 12.13.1 Design Basis. The design basis for foundations shall be
allowable story drift (a ) as obtained from Table 12.12-1 for as set forth in Section 12.1.5.
any story. For structures with significant torsional deflections, the 12.13.2 Materials of Construction. Materials used for the de-
maximum drift shall include torsional effects. For structures assign and construction of foundations shall comply with the re-
signed to Seismic Design Category C, D, E, or F having horizontal quirements of Chapter 14. Design and detailing of steel piles shall
irregularity Types 1a or 1b of Table 12.3-1, the design story drift, comply with Section 14.1.8. Design and detailing of concrete piles
, shall be computed as the largest difference of the deflections shall comply with Section 14.2.3.
along any of the edges of the structure at the top and bottom of
the story under consideration. 12.13.3 Foundation Load-Deformation Characteristics.
12.12.1.1 Moment Frames in Structures Assigned to Seismic Where foundation flexibility is included for the linear analysis
Design Categories D through F. For seismic force–resisting sys- procedures in Chapters 12 and 16, the load-deformation charac-
tems comprised solely of moment frames in structures assigned teristics of the foundation-soil system (foundation stiffness) shall
to Seismic Design Categories D, E, or F, the design story drift be modeled in accordance with the requirements of this section.
() shall not exceed a /ρ for any story. ρ shall be determined in The linear load-deformation behavior of foundations shall be rep-
accordance with Section 12.3.4.2. resented by an equivalent linear stiffness using soil properties that
are compatible with the soil strain levels associated with the design
12.12.2 Diaphragm Deflection. The deflection in the plane of earthquake motion. The strain-compatible shear modulus, G, and
the diaphragm, as determined by engineering analysis, shall not the associated strain-compatible shear wave velocity, v S , needed
exceed the permissible deflection of the attached elements. Per- for the evaluation of equivalent linear stiffness shall be determined
missible deflection shall be that deflection that will permit the using the criteria in Section 19.2.1.1 or based on a site-specific
attached element to maintain its structural integrity under the in- study. A 50 percent increase and decrease in stiffness shall be
dividual loading and continue to support the prescribed loads. incorporated in dynamic analyses unless smaller variations can
12.12.3 Building Separation. All portions of the structure shall be justified based on field measurements of dynamic soil proper-
be designed and constructed to act as an integral unit in resisting ties or direct measurements of dynamic foundation stiffness. The
seismic forces unless separated structurally by a distance suf- largest values of response shall be used in design.
ficient to avoid damaging contact under total deflection (δx ) as 12.13.4 Reduction of Foundation Overturning. Overturning
determined in Section 12.8.6 effects at the soil-foundation interface are permitted to be reduced
by 25 percent for foundations of structures that satisfy both of the
12.12.4 Deformation Compatibility for Seismic Design Cate-
following conditions:
gories D through F. For structures assigned to Seismic Design
Category D, E, or F, every structural component not included in a. The structure is designed in accordance with the Equivalent
the seismic force–resisting system in the direction under consider- Lateral Force Analysis as set forth in Section 12.8.
ation shall be designed to be adequate for the gravity load effects b. The structure is not an inverted pendulum or cantilevered
and the seismic forces resulting from displacement to the design column type structure.
story drift () as determined in accordance with Section 12.8.6
(see also Section 12.12.1). Overturning effects at the soil-foundation interface are permit-
EXCEPTION: Reinforced concrete frame members not designed as part ted to be reduced by 10 percent for foundations of structures
of the seismic force–resisting system shall comply with Section 21.9 of designed in accordance with the modal analysis requirements of
ACI 318. Section 12.9.
134 ASCE 7-05

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12.13.5 Requirements for Structures Assigned to Seismic 12.13.6.4 Batter Piles. Batter piles and their connections shall be
Design Category C. In addition to the requirements of Section capable of resisting forces and moments from the load combina-
11.8.2, the following foundation design requirements shall apply tions with overstrength factor of Section 12.4.3.2 or 12.14.3.2.2.
to structures assigned to Seismic Design Category C. Where vertical and batter piles act jointly to resist foundation
forces as a group, these forces shall be distributed to the individ-
12.13.5.1 Pole-Type Structures. Where construction employ-
ual piles in accordance with their relative horizontal and vertical
ing posts or poles as columns embedded in earth or embedded
rigidities and the geometric distribution of the piles within the
in concrete footings in the earth is used to resist lateral loads,
group.
the depth of embedment required for posts or poles to resist seis-
mic forces shall be determined by means of the design criteria 12.13.6.5 Pile Anchorage Requirements. In addition to the re-
established in the foundation investigation report. quirements of Section 12.3.5.3, anchorage of piles shall com-
12.13.5.2 Foundation Ties. Individual pile caps, drilled piers, ply with this section. Design of anchorage of piles into the pile
or caissons shall be interconnected by ties. All ties shall have a cap shall consider the combined effect of axial forces due to
design strength in tension or compression at least equal to a force uplift and bending moments due to fixity to the pile cap. For
equal to 10 percent of S DS times the larger pile cap or column piles required to resist uplift forces or provide rotational restraint,
factored dead plus factored live load unless it is demonstrated anchorage into the pile cap shall be capable of developing the
that equivalent restraint will be provided by reinforced concrete following:
beams within slabs on grade or reinforced concrete slabs on grade 1. In the case of uplift, the lesser of the nominal tensile strength
or confinement by competent rock, hard cohesive soils, very dense of the longitudinal reinforcement in a concrete pile, or the
granular soils, or other approved means. nominal tensile strength of a steel pile, or 1.3 times the pile
12.13.5.3 Pile Anchorage Requirements. In addition to the re- pullout resistance, or the axial tension force resulting from
quirements of Section 14.2.3.1, anchorage of piles shall comply the load combinations with overstrength factor of Section
with this section. Where required for resistance to uplift forces, 12.4.3.2 or 12.14.3.2.2. The pile pullout resistance shall be
anchorage of steel pipe (round HSS sections), concrete-filled steel taken as the ultimate frictional or adhesive force that can
pipe or H piles to the pile cap shall be made by means other than be developed between the soil and the pile plus the pile
concrete bond to the bare steel section. weight.
EXCEPTION: Anchorage of concrete-filled steel pipe piles is permit- 2. In the case of rotational restraint, the lesser of the axial
ted to be accomplished using deformed bars developed into the concrete and shear forces and moments resulting from the load com-
portion of the pile. binations with overstrength factor of Section 12.4.3.2 or
12.13.6 Requirements for Structures Assigned to Seismic 12.14.3.2.2 or development of the full axial, bending, and
Design Categories D through F. In addition to the requirements shear nominal strength of the pile.
of Sections 11.8.2, 11.8.3, 14.1.8, and 14.2.3.2, the following 12.13.6.6 Splices of Pile Segments. Splices of pile segments
foundation design requirements shall apply to structures assigned shall develop the nominal strength of the pile section, but the
to Seismic Design Category D, E, or F. Design and construc- splice need not develop the nominal strength of the pile in ten-
tion of concrete foundation components shall conform to the re- sion, shear, and bending where it has been designed to resist axial
quirements of ACI 318, Section 21.8, except as modified by the and shear forces and moments from the load combinations with
requirements of this section. overstrength factor of Section 12.4.3.2 or 12.14.3.2.2.
EXCEPTION: Detached one- and two-family dwellings of light-frame
construction not exceeding two stories in height above grade need 12.13.6.7 Pile Soil Interaction. Pile moments, shears, and lat-
only comply with the requirements for Sections 11.8.2, 11.8.3 (Items 2 eral deflections used for design shall be established considering
through 4), 12.13.2, and 12.13.5. the interaction of the shaft and soil. Where the ratio of the depth
12.13.6.1 Pole-Type Structures. Where construction employ- of embedment of the pile to the pile diameter or width is less than
ing posts or poles as columns embedded in earth or embedded or equal to 6, the pile is permitted to be assumed to be flexurally
in concrete footings in the earth is used to resist lateral loads, rigid with respect to the soil.
the depth of embedment required for posts or poles to resist seis- 12.13.6.8 Pile Group Effects. Pile group effects from soil on
mic forces shall be determined by means of the design criteria lateral pile nominal strength shall be included where pile center-
established in the foundation investigation report. to-center spacing in the direction of lateral force is less than eight
12.13.6.2 Foundation Ties. Individual pile caps, drilled piers, pile diameters or widths. Pile group effects on vertical nominal
or caissons shall be interconnected by ties. In addition, individual strength shall be included where pile center-to-center spacing is
spread footings founded on soil defined in Chapter 20 as Site less than three pile diameters or widths.
Class E or F shall be interconnected by ties. All ties shall have a
design strength in tension or compression at least equal to a force 12.14 SIMPLIFIED ALTERNATIVE STRUCTURAL
equal to 10 percent of S DS times the larger pile cap or column DESIGN CRITERIA FOR SIMPLE BEARING
factored dead plus factored live load unless it is demonstrated WALL
that equivalent restraint will be provided by reinforced concrete OR BUILDING FRAME SYSTEMS
beams within slabs on grade or reinforced concrete slabs on grade
or confinement by competent rock, hard cohesive soils, very dense 12.14.1 General.
granular soils, or other approved means.
12.14.1.1 Simplified Design Procedure. The procedures of this
12.13.6.3 General Pile Design Requirement. Piling shall be section are permitted to be used in lieu of other analytical proce-
designed and constructed to withstand deformations from earth- dures in Chapter 12 for the analysis and design of simple buildings
quake ground motions and structure response. Deformations shall with bearing wall or building frame systems, subject to all of the
include both free-field soil strains (without the structure) and de- limitations listed in this Section 12.14.1.1. Where these proce-
formations induced by lateral pile resistance to structure seismic dures are used, the seismic design category shall be determined
forces, all as modified by soil-pile interaction. from Table 11.6-1 using the value of S DS from Section 12.14.8.1.

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TABLE 12.14-1 DESIGN COEFFICIENTS AND FACTORS FOR SEISMIC FORCE–RESISTING SYSTEMS FOR SIMPLIFIED DESIGN
PROCEDURE
Limitationsb
Seismic Force–Resisting System ASCE 7 Section where Detailing Response Modification Seismic Design Category
Requirements are Specified Coefficient, Ra B C D, E
A. BEARING WALL SYSTEMS
1. Special reinforced concrete shear walls 14.2 and 14.2.3.6 5 P P P
2. Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls 14.2 and 14.2.3.4 4 P P NP
3. Detailed plain concrete shear walls 14.2 and 14.2.3.2 2 P NP NP
4. Ordinary plain concrete shear walls 14.2 and 14.2.3.1 11/2 P NP NP
5. Intermediate precast shear walls 14.2 and 14.2.3.5 4 P P 40c
6. Ordinary precast shear walls 14.2 and 14.2.3.3 3 P NP NP
7. Special reinforced masonry shear walls 14.4 and 14.4.3 5 P P P
8. Intermediate reinforced masonry shear walls 14.4 and 14.4.3 31/2 P P NP
9. Ordinary reinforced masonry shear walls 14.4 2 P NP NP
10. Detailed plain masonry shear walls 14.4 2 P NP NP
11. Ordinary plain masonry shear walls 14.4 11/2 P NP NP
12. Prestressed masonry shear walls 14.4 11/2 P NP NP
13. Light-frame walls sheathed with wood structural panels rated for 14.1, 14.1.4.2, and 14.5 61/2 P P P
shear resistance or steel sheets
14. Light-framed walls with shear panels of all other materials 14.1, 14.1.4.2, and 14.5 2 P P NPd
15. Light-framed wall systems using flat strap bracing 14.1, 14.1.4.2, and 14.5 4 P P P
B. BUILDING FRAME SYSTEMS
1. Steel eccentrically braced frames, moment-resisting connections at 14.1 8 P P P
2. Steel eccentrically braced frames, non-moment-resisting 14.1 7 P P P
connections at columns away from links
3. Special steel concentrically braced frames 14.1 6 P P P
4. Ordinary steel concentrically braced frames 14.1 31/4 P P P
5. Special reinforced concrete shear walls 14.2 and 14.2.3.6 6 P P P
6. Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls 14.2 and 14.2.3.4 5 P P NP
7. Detailed plain concrete shear walls 14.2 and 14.2.3.2 2 P NP NP
8. Ordinary plain concrete shear walls 14.2 and 14.2.3.1 11/2 P NP NP
9. Intermediate precast shear walls 14.2 and 14.2.3.5 5 P P 40c
10. Ordinary precast shear walls 14.2 and 14.2.3.3 4 P NP NP
11. Composite steel and concrete eccentrically braced frames 14.3 8 P P P
12. Composite steel and concrete concentrically braced frames 14.3 5 P P P
13. Ordinary composite steel and concrete braced frames 14.3 3 P P NP
14. Composite steel plate shear walls 14.3 61/2 P P P
15. Special composite reinforced concrete shear walls with steel 14.3 6 P P P
elements
16. Ordinary composite reinforced concrete shear walls with steel 14.3 5 P P NP
elements
17. Special reinforced masonry shear walls 14.4 51/2 P P P
18. Intermediate reinforced masonry shear walls 14.4 4 P P NP
19. Ordinary reinforced masonry shear walls 14.4 2 P NP NP
20. Detailed plain masonry shear walls 14.4 2 P NP NP
21. Ordinary plain masonry shear walls 14.4 11/2 P NP NP
22. Prestressed masonry shear walls 14.4 11/2 P NP NP
23. Light-frame walls sheathed with wood structural panels rated for 14.1, 14.1.4.2, and 14.5 7 P P P
shear resistance or steel sheets
24. Light-framed walls with shear panels of all other materials 14.1, 14.1.4.2, and 14.5 21/2 P P NPd
25. Buckling-restrained braced frames, non-moment-resisting 14.1 7 P P P
beam-column connections
26. Buckling-restrained braced frames, moment-resisting 14.1 8 P P P
beam-column connections
27. Special steel plate shear wall 14.1 7 P P P
a Response modification coefficient, R, for use throughout the standard.
b P = permitted; NP = not permitted.
c Light-framed walls with shear panels of all other materials not permitted in Seismic Design Category E.
d Light-framed walls with shear panels of all other materials permitted up to 35 ft in height in Seismic Design Category D and not permitted in Seismic Design
Category E.
136 ASCE 7-05

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Axis 2
Y-axis
k11
Wall 1
Center of
d11
Rigidity Axis 1
e1
Center of
d12 = d13
Mass
b1
d23 d22
k23
k22
Wall 3 Wall 2
k13 k12 X - axis
b2
FIGURE 12.14-1 NOTATION USED IN TORSION CHECK FOR NONFLEXIBLE DIAPHRAGMS
The simplified design procedure is permitted to be used if the where

following limitations are met: a = the distance perpendicular to the forces being consid-
1. The structure shall qualify for Occupancy Category I or II ered from the extreme edge of the diaphragm to the line
in accordance with Table 1-1. of vertical resistance closest to that edge
d = the depth of the diaphragm parallel to the forces being
2. The site class, defined in Chapter 20, shall not be class E
considered at the line of vertical resistance closest to
or F.
the edge
3. The structure shall not exceed three stories in height above 8. For buildings with a diaphragm that is not flexible, the dis-
grade. tance between the center of rigidity and the center of mass
4. The seismic-force resisting system shall be either a bear- parallel to each major axis shall not exceed 15 percent of
ing wall system or building frame system, as indicated in the greatest width of the diaphragm parallel to that axis. In
Table 12.14-1. addition, the following shall be satisfied for each major axis
direction:
5. The structure shall have at least two lines of lateral resistance
in each of two major axis directions.
m
n e1 2 m
k1i di2 + k2 j d 2j ≥ 2.5 0.05 + b k1i
6. At least one line of resistance shall be provided on each side i=1 j=1
b i=1
of the center of mass in each direction.
(12.14-2)
7. For structures with flexible diaphragms, overhangs beyond
the outside line of shear walls or braced frames shall satisfy where (see Fig. 12.14-1):
the following: k1i = the lateral load stiffness of wall “i” or braced frame
“i” parallel to major axis 1
k2 j = the lateral load stiffness of wall “ j” or braced frame
a ≤ d/5 (12.14-1) “ j” parallel to major axis 2

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d1i = the distance from the wall “i” or braced frame h i = The height above the base to Level i
“i” to the center of rigidity, perpendicular to major h x = The height above the base to Level x
axis 1
Level I = The building level referred to by the subscript i;
d2 j = the distance from the wall “ j” or braced frame i = 1 designates the first level above the base
“ j” to the center of rigidity, perpendicular to major
Level n = The level that is uppermost in the main portion of
axis 2
the building
e1 = the distance perpendicular to major axis 1 between
the center of rigidity and the center of mass Level x = See “Level i”
b1 = the width of the diaphragm perpendicular to major Q E = The effect of horizontal seismic forces
axis 1 R = The response modification coefficient as given in
m = the number of walls and braced frames resisting lat- Table 12.14-1
eral force in direction 1 S DS = See Section 12.14.8.1
n = the number of walls and braced frames resisting lat-
eral force in direction 2 SS = See Section 11.4.1
V = The total design shear at the base of the structure
Eq. 12.14-2 need not be checked where a structure fulfills
in the direction of interest, as determined using the
all the following limitations:
procedure of 12.14.8.1
1. The arrangement of walls or braced frames is symmet- Vx = The seismic design shear in Story x. See Section
ric about each major axis direction. 12.14.8.3
2. The distance between the two most separated lines of
W = See Section 12.14.8.1
walls or braced frames is at least 90 percent of the
dimension of the structure perpendicular to that axis Wc = Weight of wall
direction. W p = Weight of structural component
3. The stiffness along each of the lines considered for wi = The portion of the effective seismic weight, W,
item 2 above is at least 33 percent of the total stiffness located at or assigned to Level i
in that axis direction. wx = See Section 12.14.8.2
9. Lines of resistance of the lateral force-resisting system shall
be oriented at angles of no more than 15◦ from alignment 12.14.2 Design Basis. The structure shall include complete lat-
with the major orthogonal horizontal axes of the building. eral and vertical-force-resisting systems with adequate strength to
resist the design seismic forces, specified in this section, in combi-
10. The simplified design procedure shall be used for each major nation with other loads. Design seismic forces shall be distributed
orthogonal horizontal axis direction of the building. to the various elements of the structure and their connections us-
11. System irregularities caused by in-plane or out-of-plane off- ing a linear elastic analysis in accordance with the procedures
sets of lateral force-resisting elements shall not be permitted. of Section 12.14.8. The members of the seismic force–resisting
system and their connections shall be detailed to conform with
the applicable requirements for the selected structural system as
EXCEPTION: Out-of-plane and in-plane offsets of shear walls are indicated in Section 12.14.4.1. A continuous load path, or paths,
permitted in two-story buildings of light-frame construction provided
that the framing supporting the upper wall is designed for seismic force
with adequate strength and stiffness shall be provided to transfer
effects from overturning of the wall amplified by a factor of 2.5. all forces from the point of application to the final point of re-
sistance. The foundation shall be designed to accommodate the
12. The lateral-load-resistance of any story shall not be less than forces developed.
80 percent of the story above.
12.14.3 Seismic Load Effects and Combinations. All mem-
12.14.1.2 Reference Documents. The reference documents bers of the structure, including those not part of the seis-
listed in Chapter 23 shall be used as indicated in Section 12.14. mic force–resisting system, shall be designed using the seis-
mic load effects of Section 12.14.3 unless otherwise exempted
by this standard. Seismic load effects are the axial, shear,
12.14.1.3 Definitions. The definitions listed in Section 11.2 shall
and flexural member forces resulting from application of hor-
be used in addition to the following:
izontal and vertical seismic forces as set forth in Section
PRINCIPAL ORTHOGONAL HORIZONTAL DIREC- 12.14.3.1. Where specifically required, seismic load effects shall
TIONS: The orthogonal directions that overlay the majority of be modified to account for system overstrength, as set forth in
lateral force resisting elements. Section 12.14.3.1.3.
12.14.1.4 Notation. 12.14.3.1 Seismic Load Effect. The seismic load effect, E, shall
be determined in accordance with the following:
D = The effect of dead load
E = The effect of horizontal and vertical earthquake-
bination 5 and 6 in Section 2.4.1, E shall be determined in
induced forces
accordance with Eq. 12.14-3 as follows:
Fa = Acceleration-based site coefficient, see Section
12.14.8.1 E = Eh + Ev (12.14-3)
Fi = The portion of the seismic base shear, V , induced
at Level i 2. For use in load combination 7 in Section 2.3.2 or load com-
bination 8 in Section 2.4.1, E shall be determined in accor-
F p = The seismic design force applicable to a particular dance with Eq. 12.14-4 as follows:
structural component
Fx = See Section 12.14.8.2 E = Eh − Ev (12.14-4)
138 ASCE 7-05

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where 1. For use in load combination 5 in Section 2.3.2 or load com-

binations 5 and 6 in Section 2.4.1, E shall be taken equal
E = seismic load effect
to E m as determined in accordance with Eq. 12.14-7 as
E h = effect of horizontal seismic forces as defined in
follows:
Section 12.14.3.1.1
E v = effect of vertical seismic forces as defined in Sec- E m = E mh + E v (12.14-7)
tion 12.14.3.1.2
12.14.3.1.1 Horizontal Seismic Load Effect. The horizontal bination 8 in Section 2.4.1, E shall be taken equal to E m as
seismic load effect, E h , shall be determined in accordance with determined in accordance with Eq. 12.14-8 as follows:
E m = E mh − E v (12.14-8)
Eh = Q E (12.14-5)
where where
Q E = effects of horizontal seismic forces from V or F p as spec- E m = seismic load effect including overstrength factor
ified in Sections 12.14.7.5, 12.14.8.1, and 13.3.1. E mh = effect of horizontal seismic forces including struc-
tural overstrength as defined in Section 12.14.3.2.1.
12.14.3.1.2 Vertical Seismic Load Effect. The vertical seis- E v = vertical seismic load effect as defined in Section
mic load effect, E v , shall be determined in accordance with 12.14.3.1.2
12.14.3.2.1 Horizontal Seismic Load Effect with a 2.5 Over-
E v = 0.2S DS D (12.14-6) strength Factor. The horizontal seismic load effect with over-
strength factor, E mh , shall be determined in accordance with Eq.
where 12.14-9 as follows:
S DS = design spectral response acceleration parameter at short E mh = 2.5Q E (12.14-9)
periods obtained from Section 11.4.4
D = effect of dead load where
EXCEPTION: The vertical seismic load effect, E v , is permitted to be Q E = effects of horizontal seismic forces from V or F p as spec-
taken as zero for either of the following conditions: ified in Sections 12.14.8.1, 12.14.7.5, and 13.3.1
1. In Eqs. 12.4-3, 12.4-4, 12.4-7, and 12.14-8 where S DS is equal to or
less than 0.125. EXCEPTION: The value of E mh need not exceed the maximum force
that can develop in the element as determined by a rational, plastic mech-
2. In Eq. 12.14-4 where determining demands on the soil-structure anism analysis or nonlinear response analysis utilizing realistic expected
interface of foundations. values of material strengths.
12.14.3.1.3 Seismic Load Combinations. Where the pre- 12.14.3.2.2 Load Combinations with Overstrength Factor.
scribed seismic load effect, E, defined in Section 12.14.3.1 is Where the seismic load effect with overstrength, E m , defined in
combined with the effects of other loads as set forth in Chapter 2, Section 12.14.3.2 is combined with the effects of other loads as
the following seismic load combinations for structures not sub- set forth in Section 2, the following seismic load combinations
ject to flood or atmospheric ice loads shall be used in lieu of the for structures not subject to flood or atmospheric ice loads shall
seismic load combinations in Sections 2.3.2 or 2.4.1: be used in lieu of the seismic load combinations in Section 2.3.2
or 2.4.1:
Basic Combinations for Strength Design (see Sections 2.3.2
and 2.2 for notation). Basic Combinations for Strength Design with Overstrength
5. (1.2 + 0.2S DS )D + Q E + L + 0.2 S Factor (see Sections 2.3.2 and 2.2 for notation).
7. (0.9 − 0.2S DS )D + Q E + 1.6H 5. (1.2 + 0.2S DS )D + 2.5Q E + L + 0.2S

NOTES: 7. (0.9 − 0.2S DS )D + 2.5Q E + 1.6H
1. The load factor on L in combination (5) is permitted to equal 0.5 for NOTES:
all occupancies in which L o in Table 4-1 is less than or equal to 100 1. The load factor on L in combination 5 is permitted to equal 0.5 for all
psf (4.79 kN/m2 ), with the exception of garages or areas occupied as occupancies in which L o in Table 4-1 is less than or equal to 100 psf
places of public assembly. (4.79 kN/m2 ), with the exception of garages or areas occupied as places
2. The load factor on H shall be set equal to zero in combination 7 if the of public assembly.
structural action due to H counteracts that due to E. Where lateral earth 2. The load factor on H shall be set equal to zero in combination 7 if the
pressure provides resistance to structural actions from other forces, it structural action due to H counteracts that due to E. Where lateral earth
shall not be included in H but shall be included in the design resistance. pressure provides resistance to structural actions from other forces, it
shall not be included in H , but shall be included in the design resistance.
Basic Combinations for Allowable Stress Design (see Sections
2.4.1 and 2.2 for notation). Basic Combinations for Allowable Stress Design with Over-
5. (1.0 + 0.14S DS )D + H + F + 0.7Q E strength Factor (see Sections 2.4.1 and 2.2 for notation).
6. (1.0 + 0.105S DS )D + H + F + 0.525Q E + 0.75L 5. (1.0 + 0.14S DS )D + H + F + 1.75Q E

+ 0.75(L r or S or R) 6. (1.0 + 0.105S DS )D + H + F + 1.313Q E + 0.75L
8. (0.6 − 0.14S DS )D + 0.7Q E + H + 0.75(L r or S or R)
8. (0.6 − 0.14S DS )D + 1.75Q E + H
12.14.3.2 Seismic Load Effect Including a 2.5 Overstrength
Factor. Where specifically required, conditions requiring over- 12.14.3.2.3 Allowable Stress Increase for Load Combi-
strength factor applications shall be determined in accordance nations with Overstrength. Where allowable stress design
with the following: methodologies are used with the seismic load effect defined in

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Section 12.14.3.2 applied in load combinations 5, 6, or 8 of Sec- Section 12.13. Structural elements including foundation elements
tion 2.4.1, allowable stresses are permitted to be determined using shall conform to the material design and detailing requirements
an allowable stress increase of 1.2. This increase shall not be com- set forth in Chapter 14.
bined with increases in allowable stresses or load combination
reductions otherwise permitted by this standard or the material 12.14.7.1 Connections. All parts of the structure between sepa-
reference document except that combination with the duration of ration joints shall be interconnected, and the connection shall be
load increases permitted in AF&PA NDS is permitted. capable of transmitting the seismic force, F p , induced by the parts
being connected. Any smaller portion of the structure shall be tied
12.14.4 Seismic Force–Resisting System. to the remainder of the structure with elements having a strength
12.14.4.1 Selection and Limitations. The basic lateral and ver- of 0.20 times the short period design spectral response accelera-
tical seismic force–resisting system shall conform to one of the tion coefficient, S DS , times the weight of the smaller portion or
types indicated in Table 12.14-1 and shall conform to all of the 5 percent of the portion’s weight, whichever is greater.
detailing requirements referenced in the table. The appropriate A positive connection for resisting a horizontal force acting
response modification coefficient, R, indicated in Table 12.14-1 parallel to the member shall be provided for each beam, girder,
shall be used in determining the base shear and element design or truss either directly to its supporting elements, or to slabs de-
forces as set forth in the seismic requirements of this standard. signed to act as diaphragms. Where the connection is through
Special framing and detailing requirements are indicated in a diaphragm, then the member’s supporting element must also
Section 12.14.7 and in Sections 14.1, 14.2, 14.3, 14.4, and 14.5 be connected to the diaphragm. The connection shall have min-
for structures assigned to the various seismic design categories. imum design strength of 5 percent of the dead plus live load
reaction.
12.14.4.2 Combinations of Framing Systems.
12.14.7.2 Openings or Reentrant Building Corners. Except
12.14.4.2.1 Horizontal Combinations. Different seismic where as otherwise specifically provided for in this standard,
force-resisting systems are permitted to be used in each of the two openings in shear walls, diaphragms, or other plate-type elements,
principal orthogonal building directions. Where a combination of shall be provided with reinforcement at the edges of the open-
different structural systems is utilized to resist lateral forces in the ings or reentrant corners designed to transfer the stresses into the
same direction, the value of R used for design in that direction structure. The edge reinforcement shall extend into the body of
shall not be greater than the least value of R for any of the systems the wall or diaphragm a distance sufficient to develop the force in
utilized in that direction. the reinforcement.
EXCEPTION: For buildings of light-frame construction or have flexible EXCEPTION: Perforated shear walls of wood structural panels are per-
diaphragms and that are two stories or less in height, resisting elements are mitted where designed in accordance with AF&PA SDPWS.
permitted to be designed using the least value of R of the different seismic
force–resisting systems found in each independent line of framing. The 12.14.7.3 Collector Elements. Collector elements shall be pro-
value of R used for design of diaphragms in such structures shall not
vided with adequate strength to transfer the seismic forces origi-
be greater than the least value for any of the systems utilized in that same
direction. nating in other portions of the structure to the element providing
the resistance to those forces (see Fig. 12.10-1). Collector ele-
12.14.4.2.2 Vertical Combinations. Different seismic force– ments, splices, and their connections to resisting elements shall
resisting systems are permitted to be used in different stories. be designed to resist the forces defined in Section 12.14.3.2.
The value of R used in a given direction shall not be greater than EXCEPTION: In structures, or portions thereof, braced entirely by light-
the least value of any of the systems used in that direction. frame shear walls, collector elements, splices, and connections to resisting
elements are permitted to be designed to resist forces in accordance with
12.14.4.2.3 Combination Framing Detailing Require- Section 12.14.7.4.
ments. The detailing requirements of Section 12.14.7 required
by the higher response modification coefficient, R, shall be used 12.14.7.4 Diaphragms. Floor and roof diaphragms shall be de-
for structural components common to systems having different signed to resist the design seismic forces at each level, Fx , calcu-
response modification coefficients. lated in accordance with Section 12.14.8.2. Where the diaphragm
is required to transfer design seismic forces from the vertical-
12.14.5 Diaphragm Flexibility. Diaphragms constructed of resisting elements above the diaphragm to other vertical-resisting
steel decking, (untopped), wood structural panels, or similar pan- elements below the diaphragm due to changes in relative lateral
elized construction are permitted to be considered flexible. stiffness in the vertical elements, the transferred portion of the
12.14.6 Application of Loading. The effects of the combination seismic shear force at that level, Vx , shall be added to the di-
of loads shall be considered as prescribed in Section 12.14.3. The aphragm design force. Diaphragms shall provide for both the shear
design seismic forces are permitted to be applied separately in and bending stresses resulting from these forces. Diaphragms
each orthogonal direction and the combination of effects from shall have ties or struts to distribute the wall anchorage forces
the two directions need not be considered. Reversal of load shall into the diaphragm. Diaphragm connections shall be positive, me-
be considered. chanical, or welded type connections.
12.14.7 Design and Detailing Requirements. The design and 12.14.7.5 Anchorage of Concrete or Masonry Structural
detailing of the components of the seismic force–resisting system Walls. Concrete or masonry structural walls shall be anchored
shall comply with the requirements of this section. The foundation to all floors, roofs, and members that provide out-of-plane lat-
shall be designed to resist the forces developed and accommodate eral support for the wall or that are supported by the wall. The
the movements imparted to the structure by the design ground anchorage shall provide a positive direct connection between the
motions. The dynamic nature of the forces, the expected ground wall and floor, roof, or supporting member with the strength to
motion, the design basis for strength and energy dissipation ca- resist horizontal forces specified in this section for structures with
pacity of the structure, and the dynamic properties of the soil shall flexible diaphragms or of Section 13.3.1 (using a p equal to 1.0
be included in the determination of the foundation design crite- and R p equal to 2.5) for structures with diaphragms that are not
ria. The design and construction of foundations shall comply with flexible.
140 ASCE 7-05

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Anchorage of structural walls to flexible diaphragms shall 12.14.8.1 Seismic Base Shear. The seismic base shear, V, in
have the strength to develop the out-of-plane force given by a given direction shall be determined in accordance with Eq.
Eq. 12.14-8: 12.14-9:
F p = 0.8S DS W p (12.14-10) F S DS
V = W (12.14-11)
R
where
where
F p = the design force in the individual anchors
2
S DS = the design spectral response acceleration at short periods S DS = Fa Ss
per Section 12.14.8.1 3
W p = the weight of the wall tributary to the anchor where Fa is permitted to be taken as 1.0 for rock sites, 1.4 for
EXCEPTION: For Seismic Design Category B, the coefficient 0.8 shall soil sites, or determined in accordance with Section 11.4.3. For
be 0.4, with a minimum force of 10 percent of the tributary weight of the the purpose of this section, sites are permitted to be considered
wall or 400S DS in pounds per foot, whichever is greater. to be rock if there is no more than 10 ft (3 m) of soil between the
rock surface and the bottom of spread footing or mat foundation.
12.14.7.5.1 Transfer of Anchorage Forces into Diaphragms. In calculating S DS , Ss shall be in accordance with Section 11.4.1,
Diaphragms shall be provided with continuous ties or struts but need not be taken larger than 1.5.
between diaphragm chords to distribute these anchorage forces
into the diaphragms. Added chords are permitted to be used to F = 1.0 for one-story buildings
form subdiaphragms to transmit the anchorage forces to the main F = 1.1 for two-story buildings
continuous cross ties. The maximum length-to-width ratio of F = 1.2 for three-story buildings
the structural subdiaphragm shall be 2.5 to 1. Connections and R = the response modification factor from Table 12.14-1
anchorages capable of resisting the prescribed forces shall be W = effective seismic weight of structure that shall include the
provided between the diaphragm and the attached components. total dead load and other loads listed in the following
Connections shall extend into the diaphragm a sufficient distance text
to develop the force transferred into the diaphragm. 1. In areas used for storage, a minimum of 25 percent of the
floor live load (floor live load in public garages and open
12.14.7.5.2 Wood Diaphragms. In wood diaphragms, the
parking structures need not be included).
continuous ties shall be in addition to the diaphragm sheath-
ing. Anchorage shall not be accomplished by use of toenails or 2. Where provision for partitions is required by Section 4.2.2
nails subject to withdrawal nor shall wood ledgers or framing be in the floor load design, the actual partition weight, or a min-
used in cross-grain bending or cross-grain tension. The diaphragm imum weight of 10 psf (0.48 kN/m2 ) of floor area, whichever
sheathing shall not be considered effective as providing the ties is greater.
or struts required by this section. 3. Total operating weight of permanent equipment.
12.14.7.5.3 Metal Deck Diaphragms. In metal deck di- 4. Where the flat roof snow load, P f , exceeds 30 psf (1.44
aphragms, the metal deck shall not be used as the continuous kN/m2 ), 20 percent of the uniform design snow load,
ties required by this section in the direction perpendicular to the regardless of actual roof slope.
deck span.
12.14.8.2 Vertical Distribution. The forces at each level shall
12.14.7.5.4 Embedded Straps. Diaphragm to wall anchorage be calculated using the following equation:
using embedded straps shall be attached to or hooked around
the reinforcing steel or otherwise terminated so as to effectively wx
Fx = V (12.14-12)
transfer forces to the reinforcing steel. W
12.14.7.6 Bearing Walls and Shear Walls. Exterior and inte- where wx = the portion of the effective seismic weight of the
rior bearing walls and shear walls and their anchorage shall be structure, W , at level x.
designed for a force equal to 40 percent of the short period design 12.14.8.3 Horizontal Shear Distribution. The seismic design
spectral response acceleration S DS times the weight of wall, Wc , story shear in any story, Vx (kip or kN), shall be determined from
normal to the surface, with a minimum force of 10 percent of the the following equation:
weight of the wall. Interconnection of wall elements and connec-
tions to supporting framing systems shall have sufficient ductility,
n
rotational capacity, or sufficient strength to resist shrinkage, ther- Vx = Fi (12.14-13)

i=x
mal changes, and differential foundation settlement where com-
bined with seismic forces. where Fi = the portion of the seismic base shear, V (kip or kN)
induced at Level, i.
12.14.7.7 Anchorage of Nonstructural Systems. Where re-
quired by Chapter 13, all portions or components of the structure 12.14.8.3.1 Flexible Diaphragm Structures. The seismic de-
shall be anchored for the seismic force, F p , prescribed therein. sign story shear in stories of structures with flexible diaphragms,
as defined in Section 12.14.5, shall be distributed to the vertical
12.14.8 Simplified Lateral Force Analysis Procedure. An elements of the lateral force resisting system using tributary area
equivalent lateral force analysis shall consist of the application of rules. Two-dimensional analysis is permitted where diaphragms
equivalent static lateral forces to a linear mathematical model of are flexible.
the structure. The lateral forces applied in each direction shall sum
to a total seismic base shear given by Section 12.14.8.1 and shall 12.14.8.3.2 Structures with Diaphragms That Are Not
be distributed vertically in accordance with Section 12.14.8.2. For Flexible. For structures with diaphragms that are not flexible,
purposes of analysis, the structure shall be considered fixed at as defined in Section 12.14.5, the seismic design story shear, Vx ,
the base. (kip or kN) shall be distributed to the various vertical elements of

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the seismic force–resisting system in the story under considera- for not less than 75 percent of the foundation overturning design
tion based on the relative lateral stiffnesses of the vertical elements moment, M f (kip-ft or kN-m) at the foundation-soil interface.
and the diaphragm.
12.14.8.5 Drift Limits and Building Separation. Structural
12.14.8.3.2.1 Torsion. The design of structures with di- drift need not be calculated. Where a drift value is needed for use
aphragms that are not flexible shall include the torsional moment, in material standards, to determine structural separations between
Mt (kip-ft. or KN-m) resulting from eccentricity between the lo- buildings, for design of cladding, or for other design requirements,
cations of center of mass and the center of rigidity. it shall be taken as 1 percent of building height unless computed
to be less. All portions of the structure shall be designed to act as
12.14.8.4 Overturning. The structure shall be designed to resist an integral unit in resisting seismic forces unless separated struc-
overturning effects caused by the seismic forces determined in turally by a distance sufficient to avoid damaging contact under
Section 12.14.8.2. The foundations of structures shall be designed the total deflection.
142 ASCE 7-05

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Chapter 13
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR NONSTRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
13.1 GENERAL 13.1.5 Applicability of Nonstructural Component Require-

ments. Where the weight of a nonstructural component is greater
13.1.1 Scope. This chapter establishes minimum design criteria
than or equal to 25 percent of the effective seismic weight, W ,
for nonstructural components that are permanently attached to
defined in Section 12.7.2, the component shall be classified as a
structures and for their supports and attachments.
nonbuilding structure and shall be designed in accordance with
13.1.2 Seismic Design Category. For the purposes of this chap- Section 15.3.2.
ter, nonstructural components shall be assigned to the same seis- Nonbuilding structures (including storage racks and tanks) that
mic design category as the structure that they occupy or to which are supported by other structures shall be designed in accordance
they are attached. with Chapter 15. Where Section 15.3 requires that seismic forces
be determined in accordance with Chapter 13 and values for R p
13.1.3 Component Importance Factor. All components shall are not provided in Table 13.5-1 or 13.6-1, R p shall be taken as
be assigned a component importance factor as indicated in this equal to the value of R listed in Section 15. The value of a p shall
section. The component importance factor, I p , shall be taken as be determined in accordance with footnote a of Table 13.5-1 or
1.5 if any of the following conditions apply: 13.6-1.
1. The component is required to function for life-safety pur-
poses after an earthquake, including fire protection sprinkler 13.1.6 Reference Documents. Where a reference document
systems. provides a basis for the earthquake-resistant design of a particular
type of system or component, that document is permitted to be
2. The component contains hazardous materials. used, subject to the approval of the authority having jurisdiction
3. The component is in or attached to an Occupancy Category and the following conditions:
IV structure and it is needed for continued operation of the
facility or its failure could impair the continued operation a. The design earthquake forces shall not be less than those de-
of the facility. termined in accordance with Section 13.3.1.
b. Each component’s seismic interactions with all other con-
All other components shall be assigned a component importance nected components and with the supporting structure shall be
factor, I p , equal to 1.0. accounted for in the design. The component shall accommo-
date drifts, deflections, and relative displacements determined
13.1.4 Exemptions. The following nonstructural components
in accordance with the applicable seismic requirements of this
are exempt from the requirements of this section:
standard.
1. Architectural components in Seismic Design Category B
other than parapets supported by bearing walls or shear walls 13.1.7 Reference Documents Using Allowable Stress Design.
provided that the component importance factor, I p , is equal Where a reference document provides a basis for the earthquake-
to 1.0. resistant design of a particular type of system or component, and
the same reference document defines acceptance criteria in terms
2. Mechanical and electrical components in Seismic Design of allowable stresses rather than strengths, that reference docu-
Category B. ment is permitted to be used. The allowable stress load combina-
3. Mechanical and electrical components in Seismic Design tion shall consider dead, live, operating, and earthquake loads in
Category C provided that the component importance factor, addition to those in the reference document. The earthquake loads
I p , is equal to 1.0. determined in accordance with Section 13.3.1 shall be multiplied
by a factor of 0.7. The allowable stress design load combina-
4. Mechanical and electrical components in Seismic Design tions of Section 2.4 need not be used. The component or system
Categories D, E, and F where the component importance shall also accommodate the relative displacements specified in
factor, I p , is equal to 1.0 and either: Section 13.3.2.
a. Flexible connections between the components and asso-
ciated ductwork, piping, and conduit are provided.
b. Components are mounted at 4 ft (1.22 m) or less above 13.2 GENERAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
a floor level and weigh 400 lb (1780 N) or less.
13.2.1 Applicable Requirements for Architectural, Mechani-
5. Mechanical and electrical components in Seismic Design cal, and Electrical Components, Supports, and Attachments.
Categories D, E, and F where the component importance Architectural, mechanical, and electrical components, supports,
factor, I p , is equal to 1.0 and and attachments shall comply with the sections referenced in
a. Flexible connections between the components and asso- Table 13.2-1. These requirements shall be satisfied by one of the
ciated ductwork, piping, and conduit are provided. following methods:
b. The components weigh 20 lb (89 N) or less or, for dis- 1. Project-specific design and documentation prepared and
tribution systems, weighing 5 lb/ft (73 N/m) or less. submitted by a registered design professional.

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TABLE 13.2-1 APPLICABLE REQUIREMENTS FOR ARCHITECTURAL, MECHANICAL, AND ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS:
SUPPORTS AND ATTACHMENTS
Nonstructural Element General Design Force and Displacement Attachment Requirements Architectural Component Mechanical and Electrical
(i.e., Component, Support, Requirements Section 13.2 Requirements Section 13.3 Section 13.4 Requirements Section 13.5 Component Requirements
Attachment) Section 13.6
Architectural Components X X X X
and Supports and
Attachments for
Architectural Components
Mechanical and Electrical X X X X
Components with I p > 1
Supports and Attachments X X X X
for Mechanical and
Electrical Components
2. Submittal of the manufacturer’s certification that the com- 13.2.6 Experience Data Alternative for Seismic Capacity
ponent is seismically qualified by Determination. As an alternative to the analytical requirements
a. Analysis. of Sections 13.2 through 13.6, use of experience data shall be
deemed as an acceptable method to determine the seismic capac-
b. Testing in accordance with the alternative set forth in
ity of components and their supports and attachments. Seismic
Section 13.2.5.
qualification by experience data based upon nationally recognized
c. Experience data in accordance with the alternative set procedures acceptable to the authority having jurisdiction shall
forth in Section 13.2.6. be deemed to satisfy the design and evaluation requirements pro-
vided that the substantiated seismic capacities equal or exceed the
13.2.2 Special Certification Requirements for Designated
seismic demands determined in accordance with Sections 13.3.1
Seismic Systems. Certifications shall be provided for designated
and 13.3.2.
seismic systems assigned to Seismic Design Categories C through
F as follows: 13.2.7 Construction Documents. Where design of nonstruc-
tural components or their supports and attachments is required
a. Active mechanical and electrical equipment that must remain by Table 13.2-1, such design shall be shown in construction
operable following the design earthquake shall be certified by documents prepared by a registered design professional for use
the supplier as operable based on approved shake table testing by the owner, building officials, contractors, and inspectors. Such
in accordance with Section 13.2.5 or experience data in ac- documents shall include a quality assurance plan if required by
cordance with Section 13.2.6. Evidence demonstrating com- Appendix 11A.
pliance of this requirement shall be submitted to the authority
having jurisdiction after review and approval by the registered
design professional. 13.3 SEISMIC DEMANDS ON NONSTRUCTURAL
b. Components with hazardous contents shall be certified by COMPONENTS
the supplier as maintaining containment following the design 13.3.1 Seismic Design Force. The horizontal seismic design
earthquake by (1) analysis, (2) approved shake table testing force (F p ) shall be applied at the component’s center of grav-
in accordance with Section 13.2.5, or (3) experience data in ity and distributed relative to the component’s mass distribution
accordance with Section 13.2.6. Evidence demonstrating com- and shall be determined in accordance with Eq. 13.3-1:
pliance of this requirement shall be submitted to the authority
having jurisdiction after review and approval by the registered 0.4a p S DS W p z
design professional. Fp = 1+2 (13.3-1)
Rp h
13.2.3 Consequential Damage. The functional and physical in- Ip
terrelationship of components, their supports, and their effect on F p is not required to be taken as greater than
each other shall be considered so that the failure of an essential or
nonessential architectural, mechanical, or electrical component F p = 1.6S DS I p W p (13.3-2)
shall not cause the failure of an essential architectural, mechani-
cal, or electrical component. and F p shall not be taken as less than
13.2.4 Flexibility. The design and evaluation of components, F p = 0.3S DS I p W p (13.3-3)

their supports, and their attachments shall consider their flexi- where
bility as well as their strength.
F p = seismic design force
13.2.5 Testing Alternative for Seismic Capacity Determina- S DS = spectral acceleration, short period, as determined from
tion. As an alternative to the analytical requirements of Sec- Section 11.4.4
tions 13.2 through 13.6, testing shall be deemed as an acceptable a p = component amplification factor that varies from 1.00
method to determine the seismic capacity of components and to 2.50 (select appropriate value from Table 13.5-1 or
their supports and attachments. Seismic qualification by testing 13.6-1)
based upon a nationally recognized testing standard procedure, I p = component importance factor that varies from 1.00 to 1.50
such as ICC-ES AC 156, acceptable to the authority having ju- (see Section 13.1.3)
risdiction shall be deemed to satisfy the design and evaluation W p = component operating weight
requirements provided that the substantiated seismic capacities R p = component response modification factor that varies from
equal or exceed the seismic demands determined in accordance 1.00 to 12 (select appropriate value from Table 13.5-1 or
with Sections 13.3.1 and 13.3.2. 13.6-1)
144 ASCE 7-05

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z = height in structure of point of attachment of component where

with respect to the base. For items at or below the base, z D p = relative seismic displacement that the component must be
shall be taken as 0. The value of z/ h need not exceed 1.0 designed to accommodate
h = average roof height of structure with respect to the base δx A = deflection at building Level x of Structure A, determined
The force (F p ) shall be applied independently in at least two or- by an elastic analysis as defined in Section 12.8.6
thogonal horizontal directions in combination with service loads δ y A = deflection at building Level y of Structure A, determined
associated with the component, as appropriate. For vertically by an elastic analysis as defined in Section 12.8.6
cantilevered systems, however, the force F p shall be assumed to δ y B = deflection at building Level y of Structure B, determined
act in any horizontal direction. In addition, the component shall by an elastic analysis as defined in Section 12.8.6
be designed for a concurrent vertical force ±0.2S DS W p . The re- h x = height of Level x to which upper connection point is
dundancy factor, ρ, is permitted to be taken equal to 1 and the attached
overstrength factor, 0 , does not apply. h y = height of Level y to which lower connection point is
EXCEPTION: The concurrent vertical seismic force need not be con- attached
sidered for lay-in access floor panels and lay-in ceiling panels. a A = allowable story drift for Structure A as defined in
Where nonseismic loads on nonstructural components exceed F p , Table 12.12-1
such loads shall govern the strength design, but the detailing re- a B = allowable story drift for Structure B as defined in
quirements and limitations prescribed in this chapter shall apply. Table 12.12-1
h sx = story height used in the definition of the allowable drift
In lieu of the forces determined in accordance with Eq. 13.3-1, a in Table12.12-1. Note that a /h sx = the drift index.
accelerations at any level are permitted to be determined by the
modal analysis procedures of Section 12.9 with R = 1.0. Seismic The effects of seismic relative displacements shall be consid-
forces shall be in accordance with Eq. 13.3-4: ered in combination with displacements caused by other loads as
appropriate.
ai a p W p
Fp = Ax (13.3-4)
Rp 13.4 NONSTRUCTURAL COMPONENT
Ip ANCHORAGE
Components and their supports shall be attached (or anchored) to
Where ai is the acceleration at level i obtained from the modal the structure in accordance with the requirements of this section
analysis and where A x is the torsional amplification factor and the attachment shall satisfy the requirements for the parent
determined by Eq.12.8-14. Upper and lower limits of F p deter- material as set forth elsewhere in this standard.
mined by Eqs. 13.3-2 and 13.3-3 shall apply.
Component attachments shall be bolted, welded, or otherwise
13.3.2 Seismic Relative Displacements. The effects of seismic positively fastened without consideration of frictional resistance
relative displacements shall be considered in combination with produced by the effects of gravity. A continuous load path of suf-
displacements caused by other loads as appropriate. Seismic rel- ficient strength and stiffness between the component and the sup-
ative displacements (D p ) shall be determined in accordance with porting structure shall be provided. Local elements of the structure
the equations set forth in Sections 13.3.2.1 and 13.3.2.2. including connections shall be designed and constructed for the
component forces where they control the design of the elements
13.3.2.1 Displacements within Structures. For two connection or their connections. The component forces shall be those de-
points on the same Structure A or the same structural system, one termined in Section 13.3.1, except that modifications to F p and
at a height h x and the other at a height h y , D p shall be determined R p due to anchorage conditions need not be considered. The de-
as sign documents shall include sufficient information relating to
the attachments to verify compliance with the requirements of
D p = δx A − δ y A (13.3-5) this section.
Alternatively, D p is permitted to be determined using modal pro- 13.4.1 Design Forces. The force in the attachment shall be de-
cedures described in Section 12.9, using the difference in story termined based on the prescribed forces and displacements for the
deflections calculated for each mode and then combined using component determined specified in Sections 13.3.1 and 13.3.2.
appropriate modal combination procedures. D p is not required to
13.4.2 Anchors in Concrete or Masonry. Anchors embedded
be taken as greater than
in concrete or masonry shall be proportioned to carry the least of
(h x − h y ) a A the following:
Dp = (13.3-6) a. 1.3 times the force in the component and its supports due to
h sx
the prescribed forces.
13.3.2.2 Displacements between Structures. For two connec- b. The maximum force that can be transferred to the anchor by
tion points on separate Structures A and B or separate structural the component and its supports.
systems, one at a height h x and the other at a height h y , D p shall The value of R p used in Section 13.3.1 to determine the forces in
be determined as the connected part shall not exceed 1.5 unless

D p = |δx A | + δ y B
a. The component anchorage is designed to be governed by the
(13.3-7)
strength of a ductile steel element.
D p is not required to be taken as greater than b. The design of post-installed anchors in concrete used for the
component anchorage is prequalified for seismic applications
h x a A h y a B in accordance with ACI 355.2.
Dp = + (13.3-8)
h sx h sx c. The anchor is designed in accordance with Section 14.2.2.14.

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13.4.3 Installation Conditions. Determination of forces in 1. The design load for such items shall be equal to 1.4 times the oper-
attachments shall take into account the expected conditions of ating weight acting down with a simultaneous horizontal load equal
installation including eccentricities and prying effects. to 1.4 times the operating weight. The horizontal load shall be ap-
plied in the direction that results in the most critical loading for
13.4.4 Multiple Attachments. Determination of force distribu- design.
tion of multiple attachments at one location shall take into account 2. Seismic interaction effects shall be considered in accordance with
the stiffness and ductility of the component, component supports, Section 13.2.3.
attachments, and structure and the ability to redistribute loads to 3. The connection to the structure shall allow a 360◦ range of motion
other attachments in the group. Designs of anchorage in concrete in the horizontal plane.
in accordance with Appendix D of ACI 318 shall be considered
to satisfy this requirement. 13.5.2 Forces and Displacements. All architectural compo-
nents, and their supports and attachments, shall be designed for
13.4.5 Power Actuated Fasteners. Power actuated fasteners the seismic forces defined in Section 13.3.1.
shall not be used for tension load applications in Seismic Design Architectural components that could pose a life-safety haz-
Categories D, E, and F unless approved for such loading. ard shall be designed to accommodate the seismic relative dis-
13.4.6 Friction Clips. Friction clips shall not be used for anchor- placement requirements of Section 13.3.2. Architectural compo-
age attachment. nents shall be designed considering vertical deflection due to joint
rotation of cantilever structural members.
13.5 ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS 13.5.3 Exterior Nonstructural Wall Elements and Connec-
13.5.1 General. Architectural components, and their supports tions. Exterior nonstructural wall panels or elements that are at-
and attachments, shall satisfy the requirements of this section. tached to or enclose the structure shall be designed to accommo-
Appropriate coefficients shall be selected from Table 13.5-1. date the seismic relative displacements defined in Section 13.3.2
EXCEPTIONS: Components supported by chains or otherwise sus- and movements due to temperature changes. Such elements shall
pended from the structure are not required to satisfy the seismic force be supported by means of positive and direct structural supports
and relative displacement requirements provided they meet all of the fol- or by mechanical connections and fasteners in accordance with
lowing criteria: the following requirements:
TABLE 13.5-1 COEFFICIENTS FOR ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENT

Architectural Component or Element ap a Rp b
Interior Nonstructural Walls and Partitionsb

Plain (unreinforced) masonry walls 1.0 1.5
All other walls and partitions 1.0 2.5
Cantilever Elements (Unbraced or braced to structural frame below its center of mass)
Parapets and cantilever interior nonstructural walls 2.5 2.5
Chimneys and stacks where laterally braced or supported by the structural frame 2.5 2.5
Cantilever Elements (Braced to structural frame above its center of mass)
Parapets 1.0 2.5
Chimneys and Stacks 1.0 2.5
Exterior Nonstructural Wallsb 1.0b 2.5
Exterior Nonstructural Wall Elements and Connectionsb
Wall Element 1.0 2.5
Body of wall panel connections 1.0 2.5
Fasteners of the connecting system 1.25 1.0
Veneer
Limited deformability elements and attachments 1.0 2.5
Low deformability elements and attachments 1.0 1.5
Penthouses (except where framed by an extension of the building frame) 2.5 3.5
Ceilings
All 1.0 2.5
Cabinets
Storage cabinets and laboratory equipment 1.0 2.5
Access Floors
Special access floors (designed in accordance with Section 13.5.7.2) 1.0 2.5
All other 1.0 1.5
Appendages and Ornamentations 2.5 2.5
Signs and Billboards 2.5 2.5
Other Rigid Components
High deformability elements and attachments 1.0 3.5
Low deformability materials and attachments 1.0 1.5
Other Flexible Components
High deformability elements and attachments 2.5 3.5
Low deformability materials and attachments 2.5 1.5
a A lower value for a shall not be used unless justified by detailed dynamic analysis. The value for a shall not be
p p
less than 1.00. The value of a p = 1 is for rigid components and rigidly attached components. The value of ap = 2.5 is
for flexible components and flexibly attached components. See Section 11.2 for definitions of rigid and flexible.
b Where flexible diaphragms provide lateral support for concrete or masonry walls and partitions, the design forces for
anchorage to the diaphragm shall be as specified in Section 12.11.2.
146 ASCE 7-05

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a. Connections and panel joints shall allow for the story drift The tributary areas of the horizontal restraints shall be approx-
caused by relative seismic displacements (D p ) determined in imately equal.
Section 13.3.2, or 0.5 in. (13 mm), whichever is greatest. EXCEPTION: Rigid braces are permitted to be used instead of di-
b. Connections to permit movement in the plane of the panel for agonal splay wires. Braces and attachments to the structural system
story drift shall be sliding connections using slotted or oversize above shall be adequate to limit relative lateral deflections at point of
attachment of ceiling grid to less than 0.25 in. (6 mm) for the loads
holes, connections that permit movement by bending of steel,
prescribed in Section 13.3.1.
or other connections that provide equivalent sliding or ductile
capacity. d. For ceiling areas exceeding 2,500 ft2 (232 m2 ), a seismic sepa-
ration joint or full height partition that breaks the ceiling up into
c. The connecting member itself shall have sufficient ductility
areas not exceeding 2,500 ft2 shall be provided unless struc-
and rotation capacity to preclude fracture of the concrete or
tural analyses are performed of the ceiling bracing system for
brittle failures at or near welds.
the prescribed seismic forces that demonstrate ceiling system
d. All fasteners in the connecting system such as bolts, inserts, penetrations and closure angles provide sufficient clearance
welds, and dowels and the body of the connectors shall be to accommodate the anticipated lateral displacement. Each
designed for the force (F p ) determined by Section 13.3.1 with area shall be provided with closure angles in accordance with
values of R p and a p taken from Table 13.5-1 applied at the item 2 and horizontal restraints or bracing in accordance with
center of mass of the panel. item 3.
e. Where anchorage is achieved using flat straps embedded in e. Except where rigid braces are used to limit lateral deflec-
concrete or masonry, such straps shall be attached to or hooked tions, sprinkler heads and other penetrations shall have a 2 in.
around reinforcing steel or otherwise terminated so as to effec- (50 mm) oversize ring, sleeve, or adapter through the ceiling
tively transfer forces to the reinforcing steel or to assure that tile to allow for free movement of at least 1 in. (25 mm) in
pullout of anchorage is not the initial failure mechanism. all horizontal directions. Alternatively, a swing joint that can
13.5.4 Glass. Glass in glazed curtain walls and storefronts shall accommodate 1 in. (25 mm) of ceiling movement in all hori-
be designed and installed in accordance with Section 13.5.9. zontal directions is permitted to be provided at the top of the
sprinkler head extension.
13.5.5 Out-of-Plane Bending. Transverse or out-of-plane bend- f. Changes in ceiling plan elevation shall be provided with posi-
ing or deformation of a component or system that is subjected tive bracing.
to forces as determined in Section 13.5.2 shall not exceed the
deflection capability of the component or system. g. Cable trays and electrical conduits shall be supported indepen-
dently of the ceiling.
13.5.6 Suspended Ceilings. h. Suspended ceilings shall be subject to the special inspection
13.5.6.1 Seismic Forces. The weight of the ceiling, W p , shall requirements of Section 11A.1.3.9 of this standard.
include the ceiling grid and panels; light fixtures if attached to, 13.5.6.3 Integral Construction. As an alternate to providing
clipped to, or laterally supported by the ceiling grid; and other large clearances around sprinkler system penetrations through
components that are laterally supported by the ceiling. W p shall ceiling systems, the sprinkler system and ceiling grid are per-
be taken as not less than 4 psf (19 N/m2 ). mitted to be designed and tied together as an integral unit. Such
The seismic force, F p , shall be transmitted through the ceiling a design shall consider the mass and flexibility of all elements
attachments to the building structural elements or the ceiling- involved, including the ceiling system, sprinkler system, light
structure boundary. fixtures, and mechanical (HVAC) appurtenances. Such design
shall be performed by a registered design professional.
13.5.6.2 Industry Standard Construction. Unless designed in
accordance with Section 13.5.6.3, suspended ceilings shall be 13.5.7 Access Floors.
designed and constructed in accordance with this section. 13.5.7.1 General. The weight of the access floor, W p , shall in-
13.5.6.2.1 Seismic Design Category C. Suspended ceilings clude the weight of the floor system, 100 percent of the weight of
in structures assigned to Seismic Design Category C shall be all equipment fastened to the floor, and 25 percent of the weight
designed and installed in accordance with ASTM C635, ASTM of all equipment supported by, but not fastened to the floor. The
C636, and the CISCA for Seismic Zones 0-2, except that seismic seismic force, F p , shall be transmitted from the top surface of the
forces shall be determined in accordance with Sections 13.3.1 and access floor to the supporting structure.
13.5.6.1. Overturning effects of equipment fastened to the access floor
13.5.6.2.2 Seismic Design Categories D through F. Sus- panels also shall be considered. The ability of “slip on” heads for
pended ceilings in Seismic Design Categories D, E, and F shall be pedestals shall be evaluated for suitability to transfer overturning
designed and installed in accordance with ASTM C635, ASTM effects of equipment.
C636, and the CISCA for Seismic Zones 3-4 as modified by the Where checking individual pedestals for overturning effects,
following: the maximum concurrent axial load shall not exceed the portion
of W p assigned to the pedestal under consideration.
a. A heavy duty T-bar grid system shall be used.
b. The width of the perimeter supporting closure angle shall be 13.5.7.2 Special Access Floors. Access floors shall be consid-
not less than 2.0 in. (50 mm). In each orthogonal horizontal ered to be “special access floors” if they are designed to comply
direction, one end of the ceiling grid shall be attached to the with the following considerations:
closure angle. The other end in each horizontal direction shall 1. Connections transmitting seismic loads consist of me-
have a 0.75 in. (19 mm) clearance from the wall and shall rest chanical fasteners, anchors satisfying the requirements of
upon and be free to slide on a closure angle. Appendix D of ACI 318, welding, or bearing. Design load
c. For ceiling areas exceeding 1,000 ft2 (92.9 m2 ), horizontal re- capacities comply with recognized design codes and/or
straint of the ceiling to the structural system shall be provided. certified test results.

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2. Seismic loads are not transmitted by friction, power actuated h p = the height of the rectangular glass panel
fasteners, adhesives, or by friction produced solely by the b p = the width of the rectangular glass panel
effects of gravity. c1 = the clearance (gap) between the vertical glass edges and the
frame
3. The design analysis of the bracing system includes the c2 = the clearance (gap) between the horizontal glass edges and
destabilizing effects of individual members buckling in the frame
compression. 2. Fully tempered monolithic glass in Occupancy Categories I, II, and III
located no more than 10 ft (3 m) above a walking surface need not
4. Bracing and pedestals are of structural or mechanical shapes comply with this requirement.
produced to ASTM specifications that specify minimum
mechanical properties. Electrical tubing shall not be used. 3. Annealed or heat-strengthened laminated glass in single thickness with
interlayer no less than 0.030 in. (0.76 mm) that is captured mechanically
5. Floor stringers that are designed to carry axial seismic in a wall system glazing pocket, and whose perimeter is secured to the
loads and that are mechanically fastened to the supporting frame by a wet glazed gunable curing elastomeric sealant perimeter
pedestals are used. bead of 0.5 in. (13 mm) minimum glass contact width, or other approved
anchorage system need not comply with this requirement.
13.5.8 Partitions.
13.5.9.2 Seismic Drift Limits for Glass Components. fallout ,
13.5.8.1 General. Partitions that are tied to the ceiling and all the drift causing glass fallout from the curtain wall, storefront, or
partitions greater than 6 ft (1.8 m) in height shall be laterally partition shall be determined in accordance with AAMA 501.6,
braced to the building structure. Such bracing shall be independent or by engineering analysis.
of any ceiling splay bracing. Bracing shall be spaced to limit
horizontal deflection at the partition head to be compatible with
ceiling deflection requirements as determined in Section 13.5.6 13.6 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL
for suspended ceilings and elsewhere in this section for other COMPONENTS
systems. 13.6.1 General. Mechanical and electrical components and their
EXCEPTION: Partitions that meet all of the following conditions: supports shall satisfy the requirements of this section. The attach-
1. The partition height does not exceed 9 ft (2,740 mm). ment of mechanical and electrical components and their supports
2. The linear weight of the partition does not exceed the product of 10 lb to the structure shall meet the requirements of Section 13.4. Ap-
(0.479 kN) times the height (ft) of the partition. propriate coefficients shall be selected from Table 13.6-1.
3. The partition horizontal seismic load does not exceed 5 psf. EXCEPTIONS: Light fixtures, lighted signs, and ceiling fans not con-
nected to ducts or piping, which are supported by chains or otherwise
13.5.8.2 Glass. Glass in glazed partitions shall be designed and suspended from the structure, are not required to satisfy the seismic force
installed in accordance with Section 13.5.9. and relative displacement requirements provided they meet all of the
following criteria:
13.5.9 Glass in Glazed Curtain Walls, Glazed Storefronts, and 1. The design load for such items shall be equal to 1.4 times the operat-
Glazed Partitions. ing weight acting down with a simultaneous horizontal load equal to
1.4 times the operating weight. The horizontal load shall be applied in
13.5.9.1 General. Glass in glazed curtain walls, glazed store- the direction that results in the most critical loading for design.
fronts, and glazed partitions shall meet the relative displacement 2. Seismic interaction effects shall be considered in accordance with
requirement of Eq. 13.5-1: Section 13.2.3.
3. The connection to the structure shall allow a 360◦ range of motion in
fallout ≥ 1.25ID p (13.5-1) the horizontal plane.
or 0.5 in. (13 mm), whichever is greater where: Where design of mechanical and electrical components for seis-
mic effects is required, consideration shall be given to the dynamic
where effects of the components, their contents, and where appropriate,
fallout = the relative seismic displacement (drift) at which glass their supports. In such cases, the interaction between the compo-
fallout from the curtain wall, storefront wall, or partition nents and the supporting structures, including other mechanical
occurs (Section 13.5.9.2) and electrical components, shall also be considered.
D p = the relative seismic displacement that the component
must be designed to accommodate (Eq. 13.3-2). D p 13.6.2 Component Period. The fundamental period of the me-
shall be applied over the height of the glass component chanical and electrical component (and its attachment to the build-
under consideration ing), T p , shall be determined by the following equation provided
I = the occupancy importance factor (Table 11.5-1) that the component and attachment can be reasonably represented
analytically by a simple spring and mass single degree-of-freedom
EXCEPTIONS:
system:
1. Glass with sufficient clearances from its frame such that physical con-
tact between the glass and frame will not occur at the design drift, as
demonstrated by Eq. 13.5-2, need not comply with this requirement: Wp
T p = 2π (13.6-1)
K pg
Dclear ≥ 1.25D p (13.5-2)
where where
Dclear = relative horizontal (drift) displacement, measured over the T p = component fundamental period
height of the glass panel under consideration, which causes W p = component operating weight
initial glass-to-frame contact. For rectangular glass panels g = gravitational acceleration
within a rectangular wall frame
K p = stiffness of resilient support system of the component and

h p c2 attachment, determined in terms of load per unit deflection
Dclear = 2c1 1 +
b p c1 at the center of gravity of the component
148 ASCE 7-05

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TABLE 13.6-1 SEISMIC COEFFICIENTS FOR MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS ap a Rp b
Air-side HVAC, fans, air handlers, air conditioning units, cabinet heaters, air distribution boxes, and other mechanical components 2.5 6.0
constructed of sheet metal framing.
Wet-side HVAC, boilers, furnaces, atmospheric tanks and bins, chillers, water heaters, heat exchangers, evaporators, air separators, 1.0 2.5
manufacturing or process equipment, and other mechanical components constructed of high-deformability materials.
Engines, turbines, pumps, compressors, and pressure vessels not supported on skirts and not within the scope of Chapter 15. 1.0 2.5
Skirt-supported pressure vessels not within the scope of Chapter 15. 2.5 2.5
Elevator and escalator components. 1.0 2.5
Generators, batteries, inverters, motors, transformers, and other electrical components constructed of high deformability materials. 1.0 2.5
Motor control centers, panel boards, switch gear, instrumentation cabinets, and other components constructed of sheet metal framing. 2.5 6.0
Communication equipment, computers, instrumentation, and controls. 1.0 2.5
Roof-mounted chimneys, stacks, cooling and electrical towers laterally braced below their center of mass. 2.5 3.0
Roof-mounted chimneys, stacks, cooling and electrical towers laterally braced above their center of mass. 1.0 2.5
Lighting fixtures. 1.0 1.5
Other mechanical or electrical components. 1.0 1.5
VIBRATION ISOLATED COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMSb
Components and systems isolated using neoprene elements and neoprene isolated floors with built-in or separate elastomeric snubbing 2.5 2.5
devices or resilient perimeter stops.
Spring isolated components and systems and vibration isolated floors closely restrained using built-in or separate elastomeric snubbing 2.5 2.0
devices or resilient perimeter stops.
Internally isolated components and systems. 2.5 2.0
Suspended vibration isolated equipment including in-line duct devices and suspended internally isolated components. 2.5 2.5
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Piping in accordance with ASME B31, including in-line components with joints made by welding or brazing. 2.5 12.0
Piping in accordance with ASME B31, including in-line components, constructed of high or limited deformability materials, with joints 2.5 6.0
made by threading, bonding, compression couplings, or grooved couplings.
Piping and tubing not in accordance with ASME B31, including in-line components, constructed of high-deformability materials, with 2.5 9.0
joints made by welding or brazing.
Piping and tubing not in accordance with ASME B31, including in-line components, constructed of high- or limited-deformability 2.5 4.5
materials, with joints made by threading, bonding, compression couplings, or grooved couplings.
Piping and tubing constructed of low-deformability materials, such as cast iron, glass, and nonductile plastics. 2.5 3.0
Ductwork, including in-line components, constructed of high-deformability materials, with joints made by welding or brazing. 2.5 9.0
Ductwork, including in-line components, constructed of high- or limited-deformability materials with joints made by means other than 2.5 6.0
welding or brazing.
Ductwork, including in-line components, constructed of low-deformability materials, such as cast iron, glass, and nonductile plastics. 2.5 3.0
Electrical conduit, bus ducts, rigidly mounted cable trays, and plumbing. 1.0 2.5
Manufacturing or process conveyors (nonpersonnel). 2.5 3.0
Suspended cable trays. 2.5 6.0
a A lower value for a is permitted where justified by detailed dynamic analyses. The value for a shall not be less than 1.0. The value of a equal to 1.0 is for
p p p
rigid components and rigidly attached components. The value of a p equal to 2.5 is for flexible components and flexibly attached components.
b Components mounted on vibration isolators shall have a bumper restraint or snubber in each horizontal direction. The design force shall be taken as 2F if the
p
nominal clearance (air gap) between the equipment support frame and restraint is greater than 0.25 in. If the nominal clearance specified on the construction
documents is not greater than 0.25 in., the design force is permitted to be taken as F p .
Alternatively, the fundamental period of the component in s (T p ) 3. Where piping or HVAC ductwork components are attached
is permitted to be determined from experimental test data or by a to structures that could displace relative to one another and
properly substantiated analysis. for isolated structures where such components cross the
13.6.3 Mechanical Components. HVAC ductwork shall meet isolation interface, the components shall be designed to
the requirements of Section 13.6.7. Piping systems shall meet the accommodate the seismic relative displacements defined in
requirements of Section 13.6.8. Boilers and vessels shall meet the Section 13.3.2.
requirements of Section 13.6.9. Elevators shall meet the require- 13.6.4 Electrical Components. Electrical components with I p
ments of Section 13.6.10. All other mechanical components shall greater than 1.0 shall be designed for the seismic forces and rela-
meet the requirements of Section 13.6.11. Mechanical compo- tive displacements defined in Sections 13.3.1 and 13.3.2 and shall
nents with I p greater than 1.0 shall be designed for the seismic satisfy the following additional requirements:
forces and relative displacements defined in Sections 13.3.1 and 1. Provision shall be made to eliminate seismic impact between
13.3.2 and shall satisfy the following additional requirements: components.
1. Provision shall be made to eliminate seismic impact for 2. Loads imposed on the components by attached utility or
components vulnerable to impact, for components con- service lines that are attached to separate structures shall be
structed of nonductile materials, and in cases where material evaluated.
ductility will be reduced due to service conditions (e.g., low 3. Batteries on racks shall have wrap-around restraints to en-
temperature applications). sure that the batteries will not fall from the rack. Spacers
2. The possibility of loads imposed on components by attached shall be used between restraints and cells to prevent damage
utility or service lines, due to differential movement of sup- to cases. Racks shall be evaluated for sufficient lateral load
port points on separate structures, shall be evaluated. capacity.

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4. Internal coils of dry type transformers shall be positively the base is not reinforced with stiffeners or is not capable of
attached to their supporting substructure within the trans- transferring the required loads.
former enclosure.
3. Where weak-axis bending of cold-formed steel supports is
5. Electrical control panels, computer equipment, and other relied on for the seismic load path, such supports shall be
items with slide-out components shall have a latching mech- specifically evaluated.
anism to hold the components in place.
4. Components mounted on vibration isolators shall have a
6. Electrical cabinet design shall comply with the applica- bumper restraint or snubber in each horizontal direction,
ble National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) and vertical restraints shall be provided where required to
standards. Cutouts in the lower shear panel that have not resist overturning. Isolator housings and restraints shall be
been made by the manufacturer and reduce significantly the constructed of ductile materials. (See additional design force
strength of the cabinet shall be specifically evaluated. requirements in footnote b to Table 13.6-1.) A viscoelastic
pad or similar material of appropriate thickness shall be used
7. The attachments for additional external items weighing
between the bumper and components to limit the impact
more than 100 lb (445 N) shall be specifically evaluated
load.
if not provided by the manufacturer.
5. Expansion anchors shall not be used for non-vibration iso-
8. Where conduit, cable trays, or similar electrical distribution
lated mechanical equipment rated over 10 hp (7.45 kW).
components are attached to structures that could displace
relative to one another and for isolated structures where EXCEPTION: Undercut expansion anchors are permitted.
such components cross the isolation interface, the compo- 6. The supports for electrical distribution components shall be
nents shall be designed to accommodate the seismic relative designed for the seismic forces and relative displacements
displacements defined in Section 13.3.2. defined in Sections 13.3.1 and 13.3.2 if any of the following
13.6.5 Component Supports. Mechanical and electrical com- conditions apply:
ponent supports (including those with I p = 1.0) and the means a. I p is equal to 1.5 and conduit diameter is greater than
by which they are attached to the component shall be designed 2.5 in. (64 mm) trade size.
for the forces and displacements determined in Sections 13.3.1 b. Trapeze assemblies supporting conduit, and bus ducts or
and 13.3.2. Such supports include structural members, braces, cable trays where I p is equal to 1.5 and the total weight of
frames, skirts, legs, saddles, pedestals, cables, guys, stays, snub- the bus duct, cable tray, or conduit supported by trapeze
bers, and tethers, as well as elements forged or cast as a part of assemblies exceeds 10 lb/ft (146 N/m).
the mechanical or electrical component. c. Supports are cantilevered up from the floor.
13.6.5.1 Design Basis. If standard supports, for example, ASME d. Supports include bracing to limit deflection.
B31, NFPA 13, or MSS SP-58, or proprietary supports are used, e. Supports are constructed as rigid welded frames.
they shall be designed by either load rating (i.e., testing) or for the
f. Attachments into concrete utilize nonexpanding insets,
calculated seismic forces. In addition, the stiffness of the support,
power actuated fasteners, or cast iron embedments.
where appropriate, shall be designed such that the seismic load
path for the component performs its intended function. g. Attachments utilize spot welds, plug welds, or minimum
size welds as defined by AISC.
13.6.5.2 Design for Relative Displacement. Component sup-
ports shall be designed to accommodate the seismic relative dis- 7. For piping, boilers, and pressure vessels, attachments to con-
placements between points of support determined in accordance crete shall be suitable for cyclic loads.
with Section 13.3.2. 8. For mechanical equipment, drilled and grouted-in-place an-
13.6.5.3 Support Attachment to Component. The means by chors for tensile load applications shall use either expansive
which supports are attached to the component, except where in- cement or expansive epoxy grout.
tegral (i.e., cast or forged), shall be designed to accommodate
both the forces and displacements determined in accordance with 13.6.6 Utility and Service Lines. At the interface of adjacent
Sections 13.3.1 and 13.3.2. If the value of I p = 1.5 for the com- structures or portions of the same structure that may move
ponent, the local region of the support attachment point to the independently, utility lines shall be provided with adequate
component shall be evaluated for the effect of the load transfer on flexibility to accommodate the anticipated differential movement
the component wall. between the portions that move independently. Differential dis-
13.6.5.4 Material Detailing Requirements. The materials placement calculations shall be determined in accordance with
comprising supports and the means of attachment to the compo- Section 13.3.2.
nent shall be constructed of materials suitable for the application, The possible interruption of utility service shall be considered
including the effects of service conditions, for example, low tem- in relation to designated seismic systems in Occupancy Cate-
perature applications. Materials shall be in conformance with a gory IV as defined in Table 1-1. Specific attention shall be given
nationally recognized standard. to the vulnerability of underground utilities and utility interfaces
between the structure and the ground where Site Class E or F soil
13.6.5.5 Additional Requirements. The following additional
is present, and where the seismic coefficient S DS at the under-
requirements shall apply to mechanical and electrical component
ground utility or at the base of the structure is equal to or greater
supports:
than 0.33.
1. Seismic supports shall be constructed so that support en-
gagement is maintained.
13.6.7 HVAC Ductwork. Seismic supports are not required for
2. Oversized plate washers or other reinforcement shall be pro- HVAC ductwork with I p = 1.0 if either of the following conditions
vided at bolted connections through a sheet metal base if is met for the full length of each duct run:
150 ASCE 7-05

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a. HVAC ducts are suspended from hangers 12 in. (305 mm) or 1. The hangers and sway bracing of the fire protection sprinkler
less in length. The hangers shall be detailed to avoid significant systems shall be deemed to meet the requirements of this
bending of the hangers and their attachments. section if both of the following requirements are satisfied:
b. HVAC ducts have a cross-sectional area of less than 6 ft2 a. The hangers and sway bracing are designed and con-
(0.557 m2 ). structed in accordance with NFPA 13.
HVAC duct systems fabricated and installed in accordance with b. The force and displacement requirements of Sections
standards approved by the authority having jurisdiction shall 13.3.1 and 13.3.2 are satisfied.
be deemed to meet the lateral bracing requirements of this 2. The fire protection sprinkler system piping itself shall meet
section. the force and displacement requirements of Section 13.3.1
Components that are installed in-line with the duct system and and 13.3.2.
have an operating weight greater than 75 lb. (334 N), such as fans, 3. The design strength of the fire protection sprinkler system
heat exchangers, and humidifiers, shall be supported and laterally piping for seismic loads in combination with other service
braced independent of the duct system and such braces shall meet loads and appropriate environmental effects shall be based
the force requirements of Section 13.3.1. Appurtenances such as on the following material properties:
dampers, louvers, and diffusers shall be positively attached with
a. For piping and components constructed with ductile ma-
mechanical fasteners. Unbraced piping attached to in-line equip-
terials (e.g., steel, aluminum, or copper), 90 percent of
ment shall be provided with adequate flexibility to accommodate
the minimum specified yield strength.
differential displacements.
b. For threaded connections in components constructed
13.6.8 Piping Systems. Piping systems shall satisfy the require- with ductile materials, 70 percent of the minimum spec-
ments of this section except that elevator system piping shall sat- ified yield strength.
isfy the requirements of Section 13.6.10. c. For piping and components constructed with nonductile
materials (e.g., plastic, cast iron, or ceramics), 10 percent
Except for piping designed and constructed in accordance with
of the material minimum specified tensile strength.
NFPA 13, seismic supports shall not be required for other piping
systems where one of the following conditions is met: 13.6.8.4 Other Piping Systems. Piping not designed and con-
1. Piping is supported by rod hangers; hangers in the pipe structed in accordance with ASME B31 or NFPA 13 shall comply
run are 12 in. (305 mm) or less in length from the top of with the requirements of Section 13.6.11.
the pipe to the supporting structure; hangers are detailed
to avoid bending of the hangers and their attachments; and 13.6.9 Boilers and Pressure Vessels. Boilers or pressure ves-
provisions are made for piping to accommodate expected sels designed in accordance with ASME BPVC shall be deemed
deflections. to meet the force, displacement, and other requirements of this
section. In lieu of the specific force and displacement require-
2. High-deformability piping is used; provisions are made to ments provided in the ASME BPVC, the force and displace-
avoid impact with larger piping or mechanical components ment requirements of Sections 13.3.1 and 13.3.2 shall be used.
or to protect the piping in the event of such impact; and the Other boilers and pressure vessels designated as having an
following size requirements are satisfied: I p = 1.5, but not constructed in accordance with the require-
a. For Seismic Design Categories D, E, or F where I p is ments of ASME BPVC shall comply with the requirements of
greater than 1.0, the nominal pipe size shall be 1 in. (25 Section 13.6.11.
mm) or less.
13.6.10 Elevator and Escalator Design Requirements. Eleva-
b. For Seismic Design Category C, where I p is greater than tors and escalators designed in accordance with the seismic re-
1.0, the nominal pipe size shall be 2 in. (51 mm) or less. quirements of ASME A17.1 shall be deemed to meet the seismic
c. For Seismic Design Categories D, E, or F where I p is force requirements of this section, except as modified in the fol-
equal to 1.0, the nominal pipe size shall be 3 in. (76 mm) lowing text.
or less.
13.6.10.1 Escalators, Elevators, and Hoistway Structural Sys-
13.6.8.1 ASME Pressure Piping Systems. Pressure piping system. Escalators, elevators, and hoistway structural systems shall
tems, including their supports, designed and constructed in ac- be designed to meet the force and displacement requirements of
cordance with ASME B31 shall be deemed to meet the force, Sections 13.3.1 and 13.3.2.
displacement, and other requirements of this section. In lieu of
specific force and displacement requirements provided in ASME 13.6.10.2 Elevator Equipment and Controller Supports and
B31, the force and displacement requirements of Sections 13.3.1 Attachments. Elevator equipment and controller supports and
and 13.3.2 shall be used. attachments shall be designed to meet the force and displacement
requirements of Sections 13.3.2 and 13.3.2.
13.6.8.2 Fire Protection Sprinkler Systems in Seismic Design
Category C. In structures assigned to Seismic Design Category 13.6.10.3 Seismic Switches. Elevators operating with a speed of
C, fire protection sprinkler systems designed and constructed in 150 ft/min (46 m/min) or greater shall be provided with seismic
accordance with NFPA 13 shall be deemed to meet the other switches. Seismic switches shall provide an electrical signal in-
requirements of this section. dicating that structural motions are of such a magnitude that the
operation of elevators may be impaired. The seismic switch shall
13.6.8.3 Fire Protection Sprinkler Systems in Seismic Design be located at or above the highest floor serviced by the elevators.
Categories D through F. In structures assigned to Seismic De- The seismic switch shall have two horizontal perpendicular axes
sign Categories D, E, or F, the following requirements shall be of sensitivity. Its trigger level shall be set to 30 percent of the
satisfied: acceleration of gravity. Upon activation of the seismic switch,

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elevator operations shall conform to requirements of ASME 2. Where mechanical components contain a sufficient quan-
A17.1, except as noted in the following text. tity of hazardous material to pose a danger if released, and
for boilers and pressure vessels not designed in accordance
In facilities where the loss of the use of an elevator is a life-
with ASME BPVC, the design strength for seismic loads in
safety issue, the elevator shall only be used after the seismic switch
combination with other service loads and appropriate envi-
has triggered provided that:
ronmental effects shall be based on the following material
1. The elevator shall operate no faster than the service speed. properties.
2. Before the elevator is occupied, it is operated from top to a. For mechanical components constructed with ductile
bottom and back to top to verify that it is operable. materials (e.g., steel, aluminum, or copper), 90 percent
of the minimum specified yield strength.
13.6.10.4 Retainer Plates. Retainer plates are required at the top
and bottom of the car and counterweight. b. For threaded connections in components constructed
with ductile materials, 70 percent of the minimum spec-
13.6.11 Other Mechanical and Electrical Components. ified yield strength.
Mechanical and electrical components, including distribution sys- c. For mechanical components constructed with nonductile
tems, not designed and constructed in accordance with the refer- materials (e.g., plastic, cast iron, or ceramics), 10 percent
ence documents in Chapter 23 shall meet the following: of the material minimum specified tensile strength.
1. Components, their supports and attachments shall comply d. For threaded connections in piping constructed with non-
with the requirements of Sections 13.4, 13.6.3, 13.6.4, and ductile materials, 8 percent of the material minimum
13.6.5. specified tensile strength.
152 ASCE 7-05

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Chapter 14
MATERIAL SPECIFIC SEISMIC DESIGN AND DETAILING REQUIREMENTS
14.0 SCOPE 14.1.5 Prescriptive Framing. One- and two-family dwellings

are permitted to be designed and constructed in accordance with
Structural elements including foundation elements shall conform
the requirements of AISI PM subject to the limitations therein.
to the material design and detailing requirements set forth in this
chapter or as otherwise specified for non-building structures in 14.1.6 Steel Deck Diaphragms. Steel deck diaphragms shall be
Tables 15.4-1 and 15.4-2. made from materials conforming to the requirements of AISI NAS
or ASCE 8. Nominal strengths shall be determined in accordance
with approved analytical procedures or with test procedures pre-
14.1 STEEL
pared by a registered design professional experienced in testing
Structures, including foundations, constructed of steel to resist of cold-formed steel assemblies and approved by the authority
seismic loads shall be designed and detailed in accordance with having jurisdiction. The required strength of diaphragms, includ-
this standard including the reference documents and additional ing bracing members that form part of the diaphragm, shall be
requirements provided in this section. determined in accordance with Section 12.10.1. The steel deck in-
stallation for the building, including fasteners, shall comply with
14.1.1 Reference Documents. The design, construction, and
the test assembly arrangement. Quality standards established for
quality of steel components that resist seismic forces shall con-
the nominal strength test shall be the minimum standards required
form to the applicable requirements of
for the steel deck installation, including fasteners.
1. AISC 360
14.1.7 Steel Cables. The design strength of steel cables shall be
2. AISC 341 determined by the requirements of ASCE 19 except as modified
3. AISI NAS by this chapter. ASCE 19, Section 5d, shall be modified by substi-
tuting 1.5(T4 ) where T4 is the net tension in cable due to dead load,
4. AISI-GP prestress, live load, and seismic load. A load factor of 1.1 shall be
5. AISI-PM applied to the prestress force to be added to the load combination
of Section 3.1.2 of ASCE 19.
6. AISI Lateral
14.1.8 Additional Detailing Requirements for Steel Piles in
7. AISI WSD Seismic Design Categories D through F. In addition to the foun-
8. ASCE 19 dation requirements set forth in Section 12.1.5 and 12.13, design
and detailing of H-piles shall conform to the requirements of AISC
9. ASCE 8 341, and the connection between the pile cap and steel piles or
10. SJI Tables unfilled steel pipe piles in structures assigned to Seismic Design
Category D, E, or F shall be designed for a tensile force not less
14.1.2 Seismic Design Categories B and C. Steel structures as- than 10 percent of the pile compression capacity.
signed to Seismic Design Category B or C shall be of any con-
EXCEPTION: Connection tensile capacity need not exceed the strength
struction permitted by the reference documents in Section 14.1.1. required to resist the load combinations with overstrength factor of Section
An R factor as set forth in Table 12.2-1 is permitted where the 12.4.3.2 or Section 12.14.2.2.2.2. Connections need not be provided where
structure is designed and detailed in accordance with the require- the foundation or supported structure does not rely on the tensile capacity
ments of AISC 341 for structural steel buildings and AISI Lateral of the piles for stability under the design seismic forces.
for light-framed cold-formed steel construction. Systems not de-
tailed in accordance with AISC 341 or AISI Lateral shall use the 14.2 CONCRETE
R factor designated for “Structural steel systems not specifically
detailed for seismic resistance” in Table 12.2-1. Structures, including foundations, constructed of concrete to resist
seismic loads shall be designed and detailed in accordance with
14.1.3 Seismic Design Categories D through F. Steel structures
this standard including the reference documents and additional
assigned to Seismic Design Category D, E, or F shall be designed
requirements provided in this section.
and detailed in accordance with AISC 341 for structural steel or
AISI Lateral for light-framed cold-formed steel construction. 14.2.1 Reference Documents. The quality and testing of con-
crete materials and the design and construction of structural con-
14.1.4 Cold-Formed Steel. The design of cold-formed carbon
crete components that resist seismic forces shall conform to the
or low-alloy steel to resist seismic loads shall be in accordance
requirements of ACI 318, except as modified in Section 14.2.2.
with the requirements of AISI NAS and the design of cold-formed
stainless steel structural members to resist seismic loads shall be 14.2.2 Modifications to ACI 318. The text of ACI 318 shall
in accordance with the requirements of ASCE 8. be modified as indicated in Sections 14.2.2.1 through 14.2.2.18.
Italics are used for text within Sections 14.2.2.1 through 14.2.2.18
14.1.4.1 Light-Framed Cold-Formed Construction. Light-
to indicate requirements that differ from ACI 318.
framed cold-formed steel construction shall be designed in ac-
cordance with AISI NAS and AISI PM, AISI GP, AISI WSD, 14.2.2.1 ACI 318, Section 7.10. Modify Section 7.10 by revis-
AISI Lateral, or ASCE 8. ing Section 7.10.5.6 to read as follows:

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7.10.5.6 Where anchor bolts are placed in the top of columns or pedestals, 21.2.1.4 For structures assigned to Seismic Design Category D, E, or
the bolts shall be enclosed by lateral reinforcement that also surrounds at F, special moment frames, special structural walls, diaphragms, trusses,
least four vertical bars of the column or pedestal. The lateral reinforcement and foundations complying with Sections 21.2 through 21.10, or inter-
shall also be distributed within 5 in. of the top of the column or pedestal, mediate precast structural walls complying with 21.13, shall be used to
and shall consist of at least two No. 4 or three No. 3 bars. In structures resist earthquake motions. Members not proportioned to resist earthquake
assigned to Seismic Design Categories C, D, E, or F, the ties shall have forces shall comply with Section 21.11.
a hook on each free end that complies with 7.1.4.
14.2.2.6 Reinforcement in Members Resisting Earthquake-
14.2.2.2 ACI 318, Section 10.5. Modify Section 10.5, by adding Induced Forces. Modify Section 21.2.5 by renumbering as
a new Section 10.5.5 to read as follows: Section 21.2.5.1 and adding new Section 21.2.5.2, to read as
follows:
10.5.5 In structures assigned to Seismic Design Category B, flexural
members of ordinary moment frames forming part of the seismic force– 21.2.5 Reinforcement in Members Resisting Earthquake-Induced
resisting system shall have at least two main flexural bars continuously Forces.
top and bottom throughout the beams, through or developed within exte-
rior columns or boundary elements. 21.2.5.1 Deformed reinforcement resisting earthquake-induced flexural
and axial forces in frame members and in wall boundary elements shall
14.2.2.3 ACI 318, Section 11.11. Modify Section 11.11, by comply with ASTM A706. ASTM A615 Grades 40 and 60 reinforcement
shall be permitted in these members if
changing its title to read as shown in the following text, and by
adding a new Section 11.11.3 to read as follows:
a. The actual yield strength based on mill tests does not exceed the specified
11.11 Special Provisions for Columns yield strength by more than 18,000 psi (retests shall not exceed this value
by more than an additional 3,000 psi); and
11.11.3 In structures assigned to Seismic Design Category B, columns
of ordinary moment frames having a clear height-to-maximum-plan- b. The ratio of the actual tensile strength to the actual yield strength is not
dimension ratio of five or less shall be designed for shear in accordance less than 1.25.
with 21.12.3.
21.2.5.2 Prestressing steel resisting earthquake-induced flexural and ax-
14.2.2.4 Definitions. Add the following definitions to Sec- ial loads in frame members shall comply with ASTM A 421 or ASTM A
tion 21.1. 722. The average prestress, f pc , calculated for an area equal to the mem-
ber’s shortest cross-sectional dimension multiplied by the perpendicular
dimension shall be the lesser of 700 psi (4.83 MPa) or f c /6 at plastic
DETAILED PLAIN CONCRETE STRUCTURAL WALL: A hinge regions.
wall complying with the requirements of Chapter 22, includ-
ing 22.6.7. 14.2.2.7 Anchorages for Unbonded Posttensioning Tendons.
ORDINARY STRUCTURAL PLAIN CONCRETE WALL: A Modify Section 21.2 by adding a new Section 21.2.9 to read as
wall complying with the requirements of Chapter 22, exclud- follows:
ing 22.6.7.
21.2.9 Anchorages for Unbonded Posttensioning Tendons.
ORDINARY PRECAST STRUCTURAL WALL: A precast
wall complying with the requirements of Chapters 1 through 21.2.9 Anchorages for unbonded posttensioning tendons resisting
18. earthquake-induced forces in structures in regions of moderate or high
seismic risk, or assigned to intermediate or high seismic performance
ORDINARY REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURAL or design categories shall withstand, without failure, 50 cycles of load-
WALL: A cast-in-place wall complying with the require- ing ranging between 40 percent and 85 percent of the specified tensile
ments of Chapters 1 through 18. strength of the prestressing steel.
WALL PIER: A wall segment with a horizontal length-to-
thickness ratio of at least 2.5, but not exceeding 6, whose 14.2.2.8 Flexural Members of Special Moment Frames. Mod-
clear height is at least two times its horizontal length. ify Section 21.3 by adding a new Section 21.3.2.5 to read as
follows:
14.2.2.5 Scope. Modify Sections 21.2.1.2 through 21.2.1.4 to 21.3.2.5 Unless the special moment frame is qualified for use through
read as follows: structural testing as required by Section 21.6.3, for flexural members
prestressing steel shall not provide more than one-quarter of the strength
21.2.1.2 For structures assigned to Seismic Design Category A or B, the for either positive or negative moment at the critical section in a plastic
provisions of Chapters 1 through 18 and 22 shall apply except as modified hinge location and shall be anchored at or beyond the exterior face of a
by the requirements of Chapters 14 and 15 of ASCE 7. Where the design joint.
seismic loads are computed using provisions for intermediate or special
concrete systems, the requirements of Chapter 21 for intermediate or 14.2.2.9 Wall Piers and Wall Segments. Modify Section 21.7
special systems, as applicable, shall be satisfied. by adding a new Section 21.7.10 to read as follows:
21.2.1.3 For structures assigned to Seismic Design Category C, inter-
mediate or special moment frames, or ordinary, intermediate, or special 21.7.10 Wall Piers and Wall Segments.
reinforced concrete structural walls, or intermediate or special precast
21.7.10.1 Wall piers not designed as a part of a special moment-resisting
structural walls shall be used to resist forces induced by earthquake mo-
frame shall have transverse reinforcement designed to satisfy the require-
tions except as modified by the requirements of Chapter 15 of ASCE 7.
ments in Section 21.7.10.2.
Where the design seismic loads are computed using provisions for special
concrete systems, the requirements of Chapter 21 for special systems, as EXCEPTIONS:
applicable, shall be satisfied. 1. Wall piers that satisfy Section 21.11.
154 ASCE 7-05

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2. Wall piers along a wall line within a story where other shear wall segments exceed 8 in. Transverse reinforcement shall be extended beyond the pier
provide lateral support to the wall piers, and such segments have a total clear height for at least 12 in.
stiffness of at least six times the sum of the stiffnesses of all the wall piers.
EXCEPTIONS: The preceding requirement need not apply in the fol-
21.7.10.2 Transverse reinforcement with seismic hooks at both ends shall lowing situations:
be designed to resist the shear forces determined from Section 21.4.5.1. 1. Wall piers that satisfy Section 21.11.
Spacing of transverse reinforcement shall not exceed 6 in. (152 mm).
Transverse reinforcement shall be extended beyond the pier clear height 2. Wall piers along a wall line within a story where other shear wall
for at least 12 in. (304 mm). segments provide lateral support to the wall piers and such segments
have a total stiffness of at least six times the sum of the stiffnesses of
21.7.10.3 Wall segments with a horizontal length-to-thickness ratio less all the wall piers.
than 2.5 shall be designed as columns.
Wall segments with a horizontal length-to-thickness ratio less
14.2.2.10 Special Precast Structural Walls. Modify Section than 2.5 shall be designed as columns.
21.8.1 to read as follows:
14.2.2.15 Detailed Plain Concrete Shear Walls. Modify Sec-
tion 22.6 by adding a new Section 22.6.7 to read
21.8.1 Special structural walls constructed using precast concrete shall
satisfy all the requirements of Section 21.7 for cast-in-place special struc-
tural walls in addition to Sections 21.13.2 through 21.13.4. 22.6.7 Detailed Plain Concrete Shear Walls.
22.6.7.1 Detailed plain concrete shear walls are walls conforming to the
14.2.2.11 Foundations. Modify Section 21.10.1.1 to read as fol- requirements for ordinary plain concrete shear walls and Section 22.6.7.2
lows: 22.6.7.2 Reinforcement shall be provided as follows:
a. Vertical reinforcement of at least 0.20 in.2 (129 mm2 ) in cross-
21.10.1.1 Foundations resisting earthquake-induced forces or transfer-
sectional area shall be provided continuously from support to sup-
ring earthquake-induced forces between structure and ground shall com-
port at each corner, at each side of each opening, and at the ends
ply with requirements of Section 21.10 and other applicable code require-
of walls. The continuous vertical bar required beside an opening
ments unless modified by Sections 12.1.5, 12.13, or 14.2 of ASCE 7.
is permitted to substitute for one of the two No. 5 bars required by
Section 22.6.6.5.
14.2.2.12 Members Not Designated as Part of the Lateral- b. Horizontal reinforcement at least 0.20 in.2 (129 mm2 ) in cross-
Force-Resisting System. Modify Section 21.11.2.2 to read as sectional area shall be provided:
follows:
1. Continuously at structurally connected roof and floor levels and
at the top of walls.
21.11 Members Not Designated As Part of the Lateral-Force-Resisting
2. At the bottom of load-bearing walls or in the top of foundations
System
where doweled to the wall.
21.11.2.2 Members with factored gravity axial forces exceeding 3. At a maximum spacing of 120 in. (3048 mm).
(A g f c /10) shall satisfy Sections 21.4.3, 21.4.4.1 (c), 21.4.4.3, and 21.4.5.
The maximum longitudinal spacing of ties shall be so for the full column
Reinforcement at the top and bottom of openings, where used
height. The spacing s0 shall not be more than six diameters of the smallest
longitudinal bar enclosed or 6 in. (152 mm), whichever is smaller. Lap in determining the maximum spacing specified in Item 3 in the
splices of longitudinal reinforcement in such members need not satisfy preceding text, shall be continuous in the wall.
Section 21.4.3.2 in structures where the seismic force–resisting system 14.2.2.16 Plain Concrete in Structures Assigned to Seismic
does not include special moment frames.
Design Category C, D, E, or F. Delete Section 22.10 and replace
with the following:
14.2.2.13 Columns Supporting Reactions from Discontinuous
Stiff Members. Modify Section 21.12.5, by adding a new Section 22.10 Plain concrete in structures assigned to Seismic Design Category
21.12.5.6 to read as follows: C, D, E, or F.
22.10.1 Structures assigned to Seismic Design Category C, D, E, or F
21.12.5.6 Columns supporting reactions from discontinuous stiff mem-
shall not have elements of structural plain concrete, except as follows:
bers, such as walls, shall be designed for the special load combinations
of Section 12.4.3 of ASCE 7, and shall be provided with transverse rein- (a)Structural plain concrete basement, foundation, or other walls
forcement at the spacing, so , as defined in Section 21.12.5.2 over the full below the base are permitted in detached one- and two-family
height beneath the level at which the discontinuity occurs. This transverse dwellings three stories or less in height constructed with stud-
reinforcement shall be extended above and below the column as required bearing walls. In dwellings assigned to Seismic Design Category
in Section 21.4.4.5. D or E, the height of the wall shall not exceed 8 ft, the thickness
shall not be less than 7.5 in., and the wall shall retain no more than
14.2.2.14 Intermediate Precast Structural Walls. Modify Sec- 4 ft of unbalanced fill. Walls shall have reinforcement in accordance
tion 21.13 by renumbering Section 21.13.3 to Section 21.13.4 and with Section 22.6.6.5.
adding new Sections 21.13.3 and 21.13.5, to read as follows: (b)Isolated footings of plain concrete supporting pedestals or columns
are permitted provided the projection of the footing beyond the face
of the supported member does not exceed the footing thickness.
21.13.3 Connections that are designed to yield shall be capable of main-
taining 80 percent of their design strength at the deformation induced by EXCEPTION: In detached one- and two-family dwellings three
design displacement, or shall use type 2 mechanical splices. stories or less in height, the projection of the footing beyond the
face of the supported member is permitted to exceed the footing
21.13.4 Elements of the connection that are not designed to yield shall thickness.
develop at least 1.5 Sy .
(c) Plain concrete footings supporting walls are permitted provided the
21.13.5 Wall piers not designed as part of a moment frame shall have footings have not less than two continuous longitudinal reinforcing
transverse reinforcement designed to resist the shear forces determined bars. Bars shall not be smaller than No. 4 and shall have a total
from Section 21.12.3. Spacing of transverse reinforcement shall not area of not less than 0.002 times the gross cross-sectional area of

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the footing. For footings that exceed 8 in. (203 mm) in thickness, a Where a minimum length for reinforcement or the extent of
minimum of one bar shall be provided at the top and bottom of the closely spaced confinement reinforcement is specified at the top
footing. Continuity of reinforcement shall be provided at corners of the pile, provisions shall be made so that those specified lengths
and intersections. or extents are maintained after pile cutoff.
EXCEPTIONS:
1. In detached one- and two-family dwellings three stories or less in 14.2.3.1.2 Reinforcement for Uncased Concrete Piles
height and constructed with stud bearing walls, plain concrete foot- (SDC C). Reinforcement shall be provided where required by
ings supporting walls and without longitudinal reinforcement are analysis. For uncased cast-in-place drilled or augered concrete
permitted. piles, a minimum of four longitudinal bars, with a minimum lon-
2. For foundation systems consisting of a plain concrete footing and a gitudinal reinforcement ratio of 0.0025, and transverse reinforce-
plain concrete stemwall, a minimum of one bar shall be provided at ment, as defined below, shall be provided throughout the minimum
the top of the stemwall and at the bottom of the footing.
reinforced length of the pile as defined below starting at the top
3. Where a slab-on-ground is cast monolithically with the footing, one
No. 5 bar is permitted to be located at either the top or bottom of
of the pile. The longitudinal reinforcement shall extend beyond
the footing. the minimum reinforced length of the pile by the tension develop-
ment length. Transverse reinforcement shall consist of closed ties
14.2.2.17 General Requirements for Anchoring to Concrete. (or equivalent spirals) with a minimum 3/8 in. (9 mm) diameter.
Modify Section D.3.3 by deleting Sections D.3.2 through Spacing of transverse reinforcing shall not exceed 6 in. (150 mm)
D.3.3.5.2 and replace with the following: or 8 longitudinal-bar diameters within a distance of three times
the pile diameter from the bottom of the pile cap. Spacing of trans-
verse reinforcing shall not exceed 16 longitudinal-bar diameters
D.3.3.2 In structures assigned to Seismic Design Category C, D, E, or F, throughout the remainder of the minimum reinforced length.
post-installed structural anchors for use under Section D.2.3 shall have
passed the Simulated Seismic Tests of ACI 355.2. The minimum reinforced length of the pile shall be taken as
D.3.3.3 In structures assigned to Seismic Design Categories C, D, E, or the greater of
F, the design strength of anchors shall be taken as 0.75φ Nn and 0.75φVn , 1. One third of the pile length.
where φ is given in Sections D.4.4 or in D.4.5, and Nn and Vn are deter-
mined in accordance with Section D.4.1. 2. A distance of 10 ft (3 m).
D.3.3.4 In structures assigned to Seismic Design Categories C, D, E, or 3. Three times the pile diameter.
F, anchors shall be designed to be governed by tensile or shear strength
of a ductile steel element, unless Section D.3.3.5 is satisfied. 4. The flexural length of the pile, which shall be taken as the
length from the bottom of the pile cap to a point where
D.3.3.5 Instead of Section D.3.3.4, the attachment that the anchor is the concrete section cracking moment multiplied by a re-
connecting to the structure shall be designed so that the attachment un- sistance factor 0.4 exceeds the required factored moment at
dergoes ductile yielding at a load level corresponding to anchor forces no
greater than the design strength of anchors specified in Section D.3.3.3,
that point.
or the minimum design strength of the anchors shall be at least 2.5 times
the factored forces transmitted by the attachment. 14.2.3.1.3 Reinforcement for Metal-Cased Concrete Piles
(SDC C). Reinforcement requirements are the same as for un-
14.2.2.18 Strength Requirements for Anchors. Modify Sec- cased concrete piles.
tion D.4 by adding a new exception at the end of Section D.4.2.2 EXCEPTION: Spiral welded metal casing of a thickness not less than
to read as follows: No. 14 gauge can be considered as providing concrete confinement equiv-
alent to the closed ties or equivalent spirals required in an uncased concrete
EXCEPTION: If Nb is determined using Eq. D-7, the concrete breakout
pile, provided that the metal casing is adequately protected against pos-
strength of Section D.4.2 shall be considered satisfied by the design pro-
sible deleterious action due to soil constituents, changing water levels, or
cedure of Sections D.5.2 and D.6.2 without the need for testing regardless
other factors indicated by boring records of site conditions.
of anchor bolt diameter and tensile embedment.
14.2.3 Additional Detailing Requirements for Concrete Piles. 14.2.3.1.4 Reinforcement for Concrete-Filled Pipe Piles
In addition to the foundation requirements set forth in Sections (SDC C). Minimum reinforcement 0.01 times the cross-sectional
12.1.5 and 12.13 and in Section 21.10 of ACI 318, design, de- area of the pile concrete shall be provided in the top of the pile
tailing, and construction of concrete piles shall conform to the with a length equal to two times the required cap embedment
requirements of this section. anchorage into the pile cap.
14.2.3.1 Concrete Pile Requirements for Seismic Design
Category C. Concrete piles in structures assigned to Seismic 14.2.3.1.5 Reinforcement for Precast Nonprestressed Con-
Design Category C shall comply with the requirements of this crete Piles (SDC C). A minimum longitudinal steel reinforce-
section. ment ratio of 0.01 shall be provided for precast nonprestressed
concrete piles. The longitudinal reinforcing shall be confined with
14.2.3.1.1 Anchorage of Piles. All concrete piles and closed ties or equivalent spirals of a minimum 3/8 in. (10 mm) di-
concrete-filled pipe piles shall be connected to the pile cap by ameter. Transverse confinement reinforcing shall be provided at a
embedding the pile reinforcement in the pile cap for a distance maximum spacing of eight times the diameter of the smallest lon-
equal to the development length as specified in ACI 318 as modi- gitudinal bar, but not to exceed 6 in. (152 mm), within three pile
fied by Section 14.2.2 of this standard or by the use of field-placed diameters of the bottom of the pile cap. Outside of the confine-
dowels anchored in the concrete pile. For deformed bars, the de- ment region, closed ties or equivalent spirals shall be provided at
velopment length is the full development length for compression a 16 longitudinal-bar-diameter maximum spacing, but not greater
or tension, in the case of uplift, without reduction in length for than 8 in. (200 mm). Reinforcement shall be full length.
excess area.
Hoops, spirals, and ties shall be terminated with seismic hooks 14.2.3.1.6 Reinforcement for Precast Prestressed Piles
as defined in Section 21.1 of ACI 318. (SDC C). For the upper 20 ft (6 m) of precast prestressed piles,
156 ASCE 7-05

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the minimum volumetric ratio of spiral reinforcement shall not be and below the interfaces of soft to medium stiff clay or liquefi-
less than 0.007 or the amount required by the following equation: able strata except that transverse reinforcing not located within
the minimum reinforced length shall be permitted to use a trans-
0.12 f c
ρs = (14.2-1) verse spiral reinforcement ratio of not less than one-half of that
f yh required in Section 21.4.4.1(a) of ACI 318. Spacing of transverse
where reinforcing not located within the minimum reinforced length is
permitted to be increased, but shall not exceed the least of the
ρs = volumetric ratio (vol. spiral/ vol. core) following:
f c = specified compressive strength of concrete, psi (MPa)
f yh = specified yield strength of spiral reinforcement, which shall 1. 12 longitudinal bar diameters.
not be taken greater than 85,000 psi (586 MPa) 2. One-half the pile diameter.
A minimum of one-half of the volumetric ratio of spiral reinforce- 3. 12 in. (300 mm).
ment required by Eq. 14.2-1 shall be provided for the remaining
length of the pile. 14.2.3.2.4 Reinforcement for Metal-Cased Concrete Piles
(SDC D through F). Reinforcement requirements are the same
14.2.3.2 Concrete Pile Requirements for Seismic Design Cat- as for uncased concrete piles.
egories D through F. Concrete piles in structures assigned to
EXCEPTION: Spiral-welded metal-casing of a thickness not less than
Seismic Design Category D, E, or F shall comply with the re-
No. 14 gauge can be considered as providing concrete confinement equiv-
quirements of this section. alent to the closed ties or equivalent spirals required in an uncased concrete
14.2.3.2.1 Site Class E or F Soil. Where concrete piles are pile, provided that the metal casing is adequately protected against pos-
sible deleterious action due to soil constituents, changing water levels, or
used in Site Class E or F, they shall be designed and detailed other factors indicated by boring records of site conditions.
in accordance with Sections 21.4.4.1, 21.4.4.2, and 21.4.4.3 of
ACI 318 within seven pile diameters of the pile cap and of the 14.2.3.2.5 Reinforcement for Precast Concrete Piles
interfaces between strata that are hard or stiff and strata that are (SDC D through F). Transverse confinement reinforcement con-
liquefiable or are composed of soft to medium stiff clay. sisting of closed ties or equivalent spirals shall be provided in
14.2.3.2.2 Nonapplicable ACI 318 Sections for Grade Beam accordance with Sections 21.4.4.1, 21.4.4.2, and 21.4.4.3 of ACI
and Piles. Section 21.10.3.3 of ACI 318 need not apply where 318 for the full length of the pile.
grade beams have the required strength to resist the forces from EXCEPTION: In other than Site Classes E or F, the specified transverse
the load combinations with overstrength factor of Section 12.4.3.2 confinement reinforcement shall be provided within three pile diameters
below the bottom of the pile cap, but it is permitted to use a transverse rein-
or 12.14.3.2.2. Section 21.10.4.4(a) of ACI 318 need not apply to forcing ratio of not less than one-half of that required in Section 21.4.4.1(a)
concrete piles. Section 21.10.4.4(b) of ACI 318 need not apply to of ACI 318 throughout the remainder of the pile length.
precast, prestressed concrete piles.
14.2.3.2.6 Reinforcement for Precast Prestressed Piles
14.2.3.2.3 Reinforcement for Uncased Concrete Piles
(SDC D through F). In addition to the requirements for Seis-
(SDC D through F). Reinforcement shall be provided where
mic Design Category C, the following requirements shall be met:
required by analysis. For uncased cast-in-place drilled or augered
concrete piles, a minimum of four longitudinal bars with a min- 1. Requirements of ACI 318, Chapter 21, need not apply.
imum longitudinal reinforcement ratio of 0.005 and transverse
2. Where the total pile length in the soil is 35 ft (10,668 mm) or
confinement reinforcement in accordance with Section 21.4.4.1,
less, the ductile pile region shall be taken as the entire length
21.4.4.2, and 21.4.4.3 of ACI 318 shall be provided throughout
of the pile. Where the pile length exceeds 35 ft (10,668 mm),
the minimum reinforced length of the pile as defined below start-
the ductile pile region shall be taken as the greater of 35 ft.
ing at the top of the pile. The longitudinal reinforcement shall
(10,668 mm) or the distance from the underside of the pile
extend beyond the minimum reinforced length of the pile by the
cap to the point of zero curvature plus three times the least
tension development length.
pile dimension.
The minimum reinforced length of the pile shall be taken as
3. In the ductile pile region, the center to center spacing of
the greater of
the spirals or hoop reinforcement shall not exceed one-fifth
1. One-half of the pile length. of the least pile dimension, six times the diameter of the
longitudinal strand, or 8 in. (203 mm), whichever is smaller.
2. A distance of 10 ft (3 m).
4. Spiral reinforcement shall be spliced by lapping one full
3. Three times the pile diameter.
turn, by welding, or by the use of a mechanical connector.
4. The flexural of the pile which shall be taken as the length Where spiral reinforcement is lap spliced, the ends of the spi-
from the bottom of the pile cap to a point where the concrete ral shall terminate in a seismic hook in accordance with ACI
section cracking moment multiplied by a resistance factor 318, except that the bend shall be not less than 135◦ . Welded
0.4 exceeds the required factored moment at that point. splices and mechanical connectors shall comply with Sec-
In addition, for piles located in Site Classes E or F, longitudi- tion 12.14.3 of ACI 318.
nal reinforcement and transverse confinement reinforcement, as 5. Where the transverse reinforcement consists of spirals or
described above, shall extend the full length of the pile. circular hoops, the volumetric ratio of spiral transverse re-
inforcement in the ductile pile region shall comply with
Where transverse reinforcing is required, transverse reinforcing
ties shall be a minimum of No. 3 bars for up to 20-in.-diameter fc Ag 1.4P
ρs = 0.25 − 1.0 0.5 +
(500 mm) piles and No. 4 bars for piles of larger diameter. f yh Ach fc Ag
In Site Classes A through D, longitudinal reinforcement and but not less than

transverse confinement reinforcement, as defined above, shall fc 1.4P
ρs = 0.12 0.5 +
also extend a minimum of seven times the pile diameter above f yh fc Ag

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and ρs need not exceed 0.021 14.4.1 Reference Documents. The design, construction, and
quality assurance of masonry components that resist seismic
where
forces shall conform to the requirements of ACI 530/ASCE 5/
ρs = volumetric ratio (vol. of spiral/vol. of core) TMS 402 and ACI 530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602 except as modified
f c ≤ 6,000 psi (41.4 MPa) by Section 14.4.
f yh = yield strength of spiral reinforcement ≤ 85 ksi
(586 MPa) 14.4.2 R factors. To qualify for the R factors set forth in this
standard, the requirements of ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402 and
A g = pile cross-sectional area, in.2 (mm2 )
ACI 530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602, as amended in subsequent sections,
Ach = core area defined by spiral outside diameter, in.2
shall be satisfied.
(mm2 )
P = axial load on pile resulting from the load combina- Intermediate and special reinforced masonry shear walls de-
tion 1.2D + 0.5L + 1.0E, lb (kN) signed in accordance with Section 2.3 of ACI 530/ASCE 5/
TMS 402 shall also comply with the additional requirements con-
This required amount of spiral reinforcement is permitted tained in Section 14.4.6.
to be obtained by providing an inner and outer spiral.
14.4.3 Classification of Shear Walls. Masonry walls, unless
6. Where transverse reinforcement consists of rectangular isolated from the seismic force-resisting system, shall be con-
hoops and cross ties, the total cross-sectional area of lateral sidered shear walls.
transverse reinforcement in the ductile region with spacing,
s, and perpendicular 14.4.4 Anchorage Forces. The anchorage forces given in Sec-
to dimension,
, shall
h c conform to tion 1.14.3.3 of ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402 shall not be inter-
f c Ag 1.4P
Ash = 0.3sh c − 1.0 0.5 + preted to replace the anchorage forces set forth in this standard.
f yh Ach fc Ag
but not less than 14.4.5 Modifications to Chapter 1 of ACI 530/ASCE 5/
fc 1.4P TMS 402.
Ash = 0.12sh c 0.5 +
f yh fc Ag
where 14.4.5.1 Separation Joints. Add the following new Section
1.16.3 to ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402:
s = spacing of transverse reinforcement measured along
length of pile, in. (mm) 1.16.3 Separation Joints. Where concrete abuts structural masonry and
h c = cross-sectional dimension of pile core measured the joint between the materials is not designed as a separation joint, the
center to center of hoop reinforcement, in. (mm) concrete shall be roughened so that the average height of aggregate expo-
f yh ≤ 70 ksi (483 MPa) sure is 1/8 in. (3 mm) and shall be bonded to the masonry in accordance
with these requirements as if it were masonry. Vertical joints not intended
The hoops and cross ties shall be equivalent to deformed to act as separation joints shall be crossed by horizontal reinforcement
bars not less than No. 3 in size. Rectangular hoop ends shall as required by Section 1.9.4.2.
terminate at a corner with seismic hooks.
14.4.5.2 Flanged Shear Walls. Replace Section 1.9.4.2.3 of
7. Outside of the ductile pile region, the spiral or hoop rein- ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402 with the following:
forcement with a volumetric ratio not less than one-half of
that required for transverse confinement reinforcement shall
1.9.4.2.3 The width of flange considered effective in compression on each
be provided. side of the web shall be the lesser of six times the flange thickness or the
actual flange on either side of the web wall. The width of flange considered
14.3 COMPOSITE STEEL AND effective in tension on each side of the web shall be taken equal to 0.75
CONCRETE STRUCTURES times the floor to floor wall height or the actual width of the flange on
that side, whichever is less.
Structures, including foundations, constructed of composite steel
and concrete to resist seismic loads shall be designed and de- 14.4.6 Modifications to Chapter 2 of ACI 530/ASCE 5/
tailed in accordance with this standard including the reference TMS 402.
documents and additional requirements provided in this section.
14.4.6.1 Stress Increase. If the increase in stress given in Section
14.3.1 Reference Documents. The design, construction, and 2.1.2.3 of ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402 is used, the restriction on
quality of composite steel and concrete components that resist load reduction in Section 2.4.1 of this standard shall be observed.
seismic forces shall conform to the applicable requirements of
14.4.6.2 Reinforcement Requirements and Details.
1. ACI 318 excluding Chapter 22
14.4.6.2.1 Reinforcing Bar Size Limitations. Reinforcing
2. AISC LRFD bars used in masonry shall not be larger than No. 9 (M#29). The
3. AISC Seismic nominal bar diameter shall not exceed one-eighth of the nominal
member thickness and shall not exceed one-quarter of the least
14.3.2 Metal-Cased Concrete Piles. Metal-cased concrete piles clear dimension of the cell, course, or collar joint in which it is
shall be designed and detailed in accordance with Section placed. The area of reinforcing bars placed in a cell or in a course
14.2.7.2.4. of hollow unit construction shall not exceed 4 percent of the cell
area.
14.4 MASONRY
14.4.6.2.2 Splices. Lap splices shall not be used in plastic
Structures, including foundations, constructed of masonry to re- hinge zones of special reinforced masonry shear walls. The length
sist seismic loads shall be designed and detailed in accordance of the plastic hinge zone shall be taken as at least 0.15 times
with this standard including the references and additional require- the distance between the point of zero moment and the point
ments provided in this section. of maximum moment. Reinforcement splices shall comply with
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ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402 except paragraphs 2.1.10.7.2 and 14.4.7.3 Coupling Beams. Add the following new Section
2.1.10.7.3 shall be modified as follows: 3.3.4.2.6 to ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402:
2.1.10.7.2 Welded Splices: A welded splice shall be capable of devel-

oping in tension 125 percent of the specified yield strength, f y , of the 3.3.4.2.6 Coupling Beams. Structural members that provide coupling
bar. Welded splices shall only be permitted for ASTM A706 steel rein- between shear walls shall be designed to reach their moment or shear
forcement. Welded splices shall not be permitted in plastic hinge zones nominal strength before either shear wall reaches its moment or shear
of intermediate or special reinforced walls of masonry. nominal strength. Analysis of coupled shear walls shall comply with ac-
cepted principles of mechanics.
2.1.10.7.3 Mechanical Connections: Mechanical splices shall be classi-
fied as Type 1 or Type 2 according to Section 21.2.6.1 of ACI 318. Type 1 The design shear strength, φVn , of the coupling beams shall satisfy the
mechanical splices shall not be used within a plastic hinge zone or within following criterion:
a beam-wall joint of intermediate or special reinforced masonry shear
1.25 (M1 + M2 )
wall system. Type 2 mechanical splices shall be permitted in any location φVn ≥ + 1.4Vg
within a member. Lc
14.4.6.2.3 Maximum Area of Flexural Tensile Reinforce- where

ment. Special reinforced masonry shear walls having a shear span M1 and M2 = nominal moment strength at the ends of the beam
ratio, M/Vd, equal to or greater than 1.0 and having an axial load, L c = length of the beam between the shear walls
P, greater than 0.05 f m An , which are subjected to in-plane forces, Vg = unfactored shear force due to gravity loads
shall have a maximum reinforcement ratio, ρmax , not greater than The calculation of the nominal flexural moment shall include the rein-
that computed as follows: forcement in reinforced concrete roof and floor systems. The width of the
nf reinforced concrete used for calculations of reinforcement shall be six
ρmax = m times the floor or roof slab thickness.
fy
2 fy n + f m
The maximum reinforcement ratio does not apply in the out-of- 14.4.7.4 Deep Flexural Members. Add the following new
plane direction. Section 3.3.4.2.7 to ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402:
14.4.7 Modifications to Chapter 3 of ACI 530/ASCE 5/
TMS 402. 3.3.4.2.7 Deep Flexural Member Detailing. Flexural members with
overall-depth-to-clear-span ratio greater than 2/5 for continuous spans
14.4.7.1 Walls with Factored Axial Stress Greater Than or 4/5 for simple spans shall be detailed in accordance with this
0.05 fm . Add the following exception following the second para- section.
graph of Section 3.3.5.4 of ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402. 3.3.4.2.7.1. Minimum flexural tension reinforcement shall conform to
EXCEPTION: A nominal thickness of 4 in. (102 mm) is permitted where Section 3.3.4.3.2.
load-bearing reinforced hollow clay unit masonry walls satisfy all of the
following conditions. 3.3.4.2.7.2. Uniformly distributed horizontal and vertical reinforcement
1. The maximum unsupported height-to-thickness or length-to-thickness ra- shall be provided throughout the length and depth of deep flexural mem-
tios do not exceed 27. bers such that the reinforcement ratios in both directions are at least
0.001. Distributed flexural reinforcement is to be included in the deter-
2. The net area unit strength exceeds 8,000 psi (55 MPa). mination of the actual reinforcement ratios.
3. Units are laid in running bond.
4. Bar sizes do not exceed No. 4 (13 mm).
14.4.7.5 Shear Keys. Add the following new Section 3.3.6.11 to
5. There are no more than two bars or one splice in a cell. ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402:
6. Joints are not raked.
14.4.7.2 Splices in Reinforcement. Replace Sections 3.3.3.4(b) 3.3.6.11 Shear Keys. The surface of concrete upon which a special rein-
and 3.3.3.4(c) of ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402 with the following: forced masonry shear wall is constructed shall have a minimum surface
roughness of 1/8 in. (3 mm). Shear keys are required where the calculated
(b)A welded splice shall be capable of developing in tension tensile strain in vertical reinforcement from in-plane loads exceeds the
125 percent of the specified yield strength, f y , of the bar. yield strain under load combinations that include seismic forces based
Welded splices shall only be permitted for ASTM A706 steel on an R factor equal to 1.5. Shear keys that satisfy the following re-
reinforcement. Welded splices shall not be permitted in plas- quirements shall be placed at the interface between the wall and the
tic hinge zones of intermediate or special reinforced walls foundation.
of masonry. 1. The width of the keys shall be at least equal to the width of the grout
(c)Mechanical splices shall be classified as Type 1 or Type 2 space.
according to Section 21.2.6.1 of ACI 318. Type 1 mechani- 2. The depth of the keys shall be at least 1.5 in. (38 mm).
cal splices shall not be used within a plastic hinge zone or 3. The length of the key shall be at least 6 in. (152 mm).
within a beam-column joint of intermediate or special rein-
forced masonry shear walls. Type 2 mechanical splices are 4. The spacing between keys shall be at least equal to the length of
permitted in any location within a member. the key.
5. The cumulative length of all keys at each end of the shear wall shall
Add the following new Section 3.3.3.4.1 to ACI 530/ASCE 5/
be at least 10 percent of the length of the shear wall (20 percent
TMS 402: total).
3.3.3.4.1 Lap splices shall not be used in plastic hinge zones of special 6. At least 6 in. (150 mm) of a shear key shall be placed within 16 in.
reinforced masonry shear walls. The length of the plastic hinge zone (406 mm) of each end of the wall.
shall be taken as at least 0.15 times the distance between the point of zero 7. Each key and the grout space above each key in the first course of
moment and the point of maximum moment. masonry shall be grouted solid.

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14.4.7.6 Anchoring to Masonry. Add the following as the first 14.4.9.1 Construction Procedures. Add the following new Ar-
paragraph in Section 3.1.6 to ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402: ticle 3.5 H to ACI 530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602:
3.1.6 Headed and Bent-Bar Anchor Bolts. Anchorage assemblies con- 3.5 H. Construction procedures or admixtures shall be used to facilitate
necting masonry elements that are part of the seismic force–resisting placement and control shrinkage of grout.
system to diaphragms and chords shall be designed so that the strength
of the anchor is governed by steel tensile or shear yielding. Alternatively, 14.5 WOOD
the anchorage assembly is permitted to be designed so that it is governed
by masonry breakout or anchor pullout provided that the anchorage as- Structures, including foundations, constructed of wood to resist
sembly is designed to resist not less than 2.5 times the factored forces seismic loads shall be designed and detailed in accordance with
transmitted by the assembly. this standard including the references and additional requirements
provided in this section.
14.4.7.7 Anchor Bolts. Replace the existing Section 3.1.4.4 of
14.5.1 Reference Documents. The quality, testing, design, and
ACI 530/ASCE 5/ TMS 402 with the following:
construction of members and their fastenings in wood systems
3.1.4.4 Anchor Bolts. For cases where the nominal strength of an anchor that resist seismic forces shall conform to the requirements of the
bolt is controlled by masonry breakout or masonry pryout, ϕ shall be applicable following reference documents, including the modifi-
taken as 0.50. For cases where the nominal strength of an anchor bolt is cations set in Section 14.5.3:
controlled by anchor bolt steel, ϕ shall be taken as 0.90. For cases where
1. AF&PA NDS
the nominal strength of an anchor bolt is controlled by anchor pullout, ϕ
shall be taken as 0.65. 2. AF&PA SDPWS
14.4.7.8 Nominal Shear Strength of Headed and Bent-Bar 14.5.2 Framing. All wood columns and posts shall be framed
Anchor Bolts. Replace the existing Section 3.1.6.3 of ACI 530/ to provide full end bearing. Alternatively, column and post end
ASCE 5/TMS 402 with the following: connections shall be designed to resist the full compressive loads,
neglecting all end-bearing capacity. Continuity of wall top plates
3.1.6.3 Nominal Shear Strength of Headed and Bent-Bar Anchor Bolts. or provision for transfer of induced axial load forces shall be
The nominal shear strength, Bvn , shall be computed by Eq. (3-8) (strength provided. Where offsets occur in the wall line, portions of the
governed by masonry breakout) and Eq. (3-9) (strength governed by shear wall on each side of the offset shall be considered as separate
steel), and shall not exceed 2.0 times that computed by Eq. (3-4) (strength shear walls unless provisions for force transfer around the offset
governed by masonry pryout). In computing the capacity, the smallest of are provided.
the design strengths shall be used.
14.5.3 Modifications to AF&PA SDPWS. Wood structures
No change to Eqs. 3-8 and 3-9. shall satisfy the requirements for engineered wood construction
in accordance with AF&PA SDPWS as modified by this section.
14.4.8 Modifications to Chapter 6 of ACI 530/ASCE 5/
TMS 402. 14.5.3.1 AF&PA SDPWS, Section 4.3.3.2. Replace the first
three paragraphs with the following (keep wind exception):
14.4.8.1 Corrugated Sheet Metal Anchors. Add Section
6.2.2.10.2.3 to ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402 as follows: The shear values for shear panels of different capacities applied to the
same side of the wall are not cumulative. The shear values for material
6.2.2.10.2.3 Provide continuous single wire joint reinforcement of wire of the same type and capacity applied to both faces of the same wall
size W1.7 (MW11) at a maximum spacing of 18 in. (457 mm) on center are cumulative. Where the material shear capacities are not equal, the
vertically. Mechanically attach anchors to the joint reinforcement with allowable shear shall be either two times the smaller shear capacity or
clips or hooks. Corrugated sheet metal anchors shall not be used. the capacity of the stronger side, whichever is greater. Summing shear
capacities of dissimilar materials applied to opposite faces or to the same
14.4.9 Modifications to ACI 530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602. wall line is not allowed.
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Chapter 15
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR NONBUILDING STRUCTURES
15.1 GENERAL 15.3 NONBUILDING STRUCTURES SUPPORTED

BY OTHER STRUCTURES
15.1.1 Nonbuilding Structures. Nonbuilding structures include
all self-supporting structures that carry gravity loads and that may Where nonbuilding structures identified in Table 15.4-2 are sup-
be required to resist the effects of earthquake, with the exception ported by other structures, and the nonbuilding structures are not
of building structures specifically excluded in Section 11.1.2, part of the primary seismic force-resisting system, one of the fol-
and other nonbuilding structures where specific seismic provi- lowing methods shall be used.
sions have yet to be developed, and therefore, are not set forth
in Chapter 15. Nonbuilding structures supported by the earth 15.3.1 Less Than 25 percent Combined Weight Condition.
or supported by other structures shall be designed and detailed For the condition where the weight of the nonbuilding structure
to resist the minimum lateral forces specified in this section. is less than 25 percent of the combined weight of the nonbuilding
Design shall conform to the applicable requirements of other structure and supporting structure, the design seismic forces of
sections as modified by this section. Foundation design shall the nonbuilding structure shall be determined in accordance with
comply with the requirements of Sections 12.1.5, 12.13, and Chapter 13 where the values of R p and a p shall be determined in
Chapter 14. accordance to Section 13.1.5. The supporting structure shall be
designed in accordance with the requirements of Chapter 12 or
15.1.2 Design. The design of nonbuilding structures shall pro- Section 15.5 as appropriate with the weight of the nonbuilding
vide sufficient stiffness, strength, and ductility consistent with structure considered in the determination of the effective seismic
the requirements specified herein for buildings to resist the ef- weight, W .
fects of seismic ground motions as represented by these design
forces: 15.3.2 Greater Than or Equal to 25 percent Combined Weight
Condition. For the condition where the weight of the nonbuild-
a. Applicable strength and other design criteria shall be obtained ing structure is equal to or greater than 25 percent of the combined
from other portions of the seismic requirements of this standard weight of the nonbuilding structure and supporting structure, an
or its reference documents. analysis combining the structural characteristics of both the non-
building structure and the supporting structures shall be performed
b. Where applicable strength and other design criteria are not
to determine the seismic design forces as follows:
contained in, or referenced by the seismic requirements of this
standard, such criteria shall be obtained from reference docu- 1. Where the nonbuilding structure has rigid component dy-
ments. Where reference documents define acceptance criteria namic characteristics (as defined in Section 15.4.2), the non-
in terms of allowable stresses as opposed to strength, the design building structure shall be considered a rigid element with
seismic forces shall be obtained from this section and used in appropriate distribution of its effective seismic weight. The
combination with other loads as specified in Section 2.4 of this supporting structure shall be designed in accordance with
standard and used directly with allowable stresses specified in the requirements of Chapter 12 or Section 15.5 as appropri-
the reference documents. Detailing shall be in accordance with ate, and the R value of the combined system is permitted to
the reference documents. be taken as the R value of the supporting structural system.
The nonbuilding structure and attachments shall be designed
15.1.3 Structural Analysis Procedure Selection. Structural for the forces using the procedures of Chapter 13 where the
analysis procedures for nonbuilding structures that are similar value of R p shall be taken as equal to the R value of the
to buildings shall be selected in accordance with Section 12.6. nonbuilding structure as set forth in Table 15.4-2 and a p
Nonbuilding structures that are not similar to buildings shall be shall be taken as 1.0.
designed using either the equivalent lateral force procedure in
accordance with Section 12.8, the modal analysis procedure in 2. Where the nonbuilding structure has nonrigid characteris-
accordance with Section 12.9, the linear response history anal- tics (as defined in Section 15.4.2), the nonbuilding struc-
ysis procedure in accordance with Section 16.1, the nonlinear ture and supporting structure shall be modeled together in
response history analysis procedure in accordance with Sec- a combined model with appropriate stiffness and effective
tion 16.2, or the procedure prescribed in the specific reference seismic weight distributions. The combined structure shall
document. be designed in accordance with Section 15.5 with the R
value of the combined system taken as the lesser R value of
the nonbuilding structure or the supporting structure. The
nonbuilding structure and attachments shall be designed for
15.2 REFERENCE DOCUMENTS
the forces determined for the nonbuilding structure in the
Reference documents referred to in Chapter 15 are listed in Chap- combined analysis.
ter 23 and have seismic requirements based on the same force and
displacement levels used in this standard or have seismic require- 15.3.3 Architectural, Mechanical, and Electrical Components.
ments that are specifically modified by Chapter 15. Architectural, mechanical, and electrical components supported

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by nonbuilding structures shall be designed in accordance with requirements shall comply with the sections referenced
Chapter 13 of this standard. in Table 15.4-2.
c. Where neither Table 15.4-1 nor Table 15.4-2 contains an
15.4 STRUCTURAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS appropriate entry, applicable strength and other design
criteria shall be obtained from a reference document that
15.4.1 Design Basis. Nonbuilding structures having specific is applicable to the specific type of nonbuilding structure.
seismic design criteria established in reference documents shall Design and detailing requirements shall comply with the
be designed using the standards as amended herein. Where refer- reference document.
ence documents are not cited herein, nonbuilding structures shall
be designed in compliance with Sections 15.5 and 15.6 to resist 2. For nonbuilding systems that have an R value provided in
minimum seismic lateral forces that are not less than the require- Table 15.4-2, the seismic response coefficient (Cs ) shall not
ments of Section 12.8 with the following additions and exceptions: be taken less than
1. The seismic force–resisting system shall be selected as fol- Cs = 0.03 (15.4-1)
lows: and for nonbuilding structures located where S1 ≥ 0.6g, Cs
a. For nonbuilding structures similar to buildings, a sys- shall not be taken less than
tem shall be selected from among the types indicated in 0.8S1
Cs = R (15.4-2)
Table 12.2-1 or Table 15.4-1 subject to the system lim-
I
itations and height limits, based on the seismic design
category indicated in the table. The appropriate values EXCEPTION: Tanks and vessels that are designed to AWWA
D100, AWWA D103, API 650 Appendix E, and API 620 Appendix
of R, o , and Cd indicated in Table 15.4-1 shall be used
L as modified by this standard, shall be subject to the larger of the
in determining the base shear, element design forces, minimum base shear values defined by the reference document or
and design story drift as indicated in this standard. De- the following equations:
sign and detailing requirements shall comply with the Cs = 0.01 (15.4-3)
sections referenced in Table 15.4-1.
and for nonbuilding structures located where S1 ≥ 0.6g, Cs shall
b. For nonbuilding structures not similar to buildings, a not be taken less than
system shall be selected from among the types indicated 0.5S1
in Table 15.4-2 subject to the system limitations and Cs = R (15.4-4)
height limits, based on seismic design category indicated I
in the table. The appropriate values of R, o , and Cd Minimum base shear requirements need not apply to the convective
indicated in Table 15.4-2 shall be used in determining (sloshing) component of liquid in tanks.
the base shear, element design forces, and design story 3. The importance factor, I , shall be as set forth in Section
drift as indicated in this standard. Design and detailing 15.4.1.1.
TABLE 15.4-1 SEISMIC COEFFICIENTS FOR NONBUILDING STRUCTURES SIMILAR TO BUILDINGS

STRUCTURAL SYSTEM AND
HEIGHT LIMITS (ft)a,e
Nonbuilding Structure Type Detailing Requirements R Ω0 Cd A&B C D E F
Steel storage racks 15.5.3 4 2 3.5 NL NL NL NL NL

Building frame systems:
Special steel concentrically braced frames AISC 341 6 2 5 NL NL 160 160 100
Ordinary steel concentrically braced frame AISC 341 31/4 2 31/4 NL NL 35b 35b NPb
With permitted height increase AISC 341 21/2 2 21/2 NL NL 160 160 100
With unlimited height AISC 360 1.5 1 1.5 NL NL NL NL NL
Moment-resisting frame systems:
Special steel moment frames AISC 341 8 3 5.5 NL NL NL NL NL
Special reinforced concrete moment frames 14.2.2.6 & ACI 318, including Chapter 21 8 3 5.5 NL NL NL NL NL
Intermediate steel moment frames AISC 341 4.5 3 4 NL NL 35c,d NPc,d NPc,d
With permitted height increase AISC 341 2.5 2 2.5 NL NL 160 160 100
With unlimited height AISC 341 1.5 1 1.5 NL NL NL NL NL
Intermediate reinforced concrete moment frames ACI 318, including Chapter 21 5 3 4.5 NL NL NP NP NP
With permitted height increase ACI 318, including Chapter 21 3 2 2.5 NL NL 50 50 50
With unlimited height ACI 318, including Chapter 21 0.8 1 1 NL NL NL NL NL
Ordinary moment frames of steel AISC 341 3.5 3 3 NL NL NPc,d NPc,d NPc,d
With permitted height increase AISC 341 2.5 2 2.5 NL NL 100 100 NPc,d
With unlimited height AISC 360 1 1 1 NL NL NL NL NL
Ordinary reinforced concrete moment frames ACI 318, excluding Chapter 21 3 3 2.5 NL NP NP NP NP
With permitted height increase ACI 318, excluding Chapter 21 0.8 1 1 NL NL 50 50 50
a NL = no limit and NP = not permitted. Height shall be measured from the base.
b Steel ordinary braced frames are permitted in pipe racks up to 65 ft (20 m).
c Steel ordinary moment frames and intermediate moment frames are permitted in pipe racks up to a height of 65 ft (20 m) where the moment joints of field
connections are constructed of bolted end plates.
d Steel ordinary moment frames and intermediate moment frames are permitted in pipe racks up to a height of 35 ft (11 m).
e For the purpose of height limit determination, the height of the structure shall be taken as the height to the top of the structural frame making up the primary
seismic-force resisting system.
162 ASCE 7-05

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TABLE 15.4-2 SEISMIC COEFFICIENTS FOR NONBUILDING STRUCTURES NOT SIMILAR TO BUILDINGS
STRUCTURAL SYSTEM AND
HEIGHT LIMITS (ft.)a,d
Nonbuilding Structure Type Detailing Requirementsc R Ω0 Cd A&B C D E F
Elevated tanks, vessels, bins, or hoppers:

On symmetrically braced legs (not similar 15.7.10 3 2b 2.5 NL NL 160 100 100
to buildings)
On unbraced legs or asymmetrically braced legs (not similar 15.7.10 2 2b 2.5 NL NL 100 60 60
to buildings)
Single pedestal or skirt supported
- welded steel 15.7.10 2 2b 2 NL NL NL NL NL
- welded steel with special detailing 15.7.10 and 15.7.10.5 a and b. 3 2b 2 NL NL NL NL NL
- prestressed or reinforced concrete 15.7.10 2 2b 2 NL NL NL NL NL
- prestressed or reinforced concrete with special detailing 15.7.10 and 14.2.3.6 3 2b 2 NL NL NL NL NL
Horizontal, saddle supported welded steel vessels 15.7.14 3 2b 2.5 NL NL NL NL NL
Use values for the appropriate structure type in the
Tanks or vessels supported on structural towers similar 15.5.5
to buildings categories for building frame systems and moment
resisting frame systems listed in Table 15.4-1.
Flat-bottom ground-supported tanks: 15.7
Steel or fiber-reinforced plastic:
Mechanically anchored 3 2b 2.5 NL NL NL NL NL
Self-anchored 2.5 2b 2 NL NL NL NL NL
Reinforced or prestressed concrete:
reinforced nonsliding base 2 2b 2 NL NL NL NL NL
anchored flexible base 3.25 2b 2 NL NL NL NL NL
unanchored and unconstrained flexible base 1.5 1.5b 1.5 NL NL NL NL NL
All other 1.5 1.5b 1.5 NL NL NL NL NL
Cast-in-place concrete silos, stacks, and chimneys 15.6.2 3 1.75 3 NL NL NL NL NL
having walls continuous to the foundation
All other reinforced masonry structures not similar to 14.4.1 3 2 2.5 NL NL NL 50 50
buildings
All other nonreinforced masonry structures not similar 14.4.1 1.25 2 1.5 NL NL 50 50 50
to buildings
All other steel and reinforced concrete distributed mass 15.6.2 15.7.10 and 15.7.10.5 a and b. 3 2 2.5 NL NL NL NL NL
cantilever structures not covered herein including
stacks, chimneys, silos, and skirt-supported vertical
vessels that are not similar to buildings
Trussed towers (freestanding or guyed), guyed stacks 15.6.2 3 2 2.5 NL NL NL NL NL
and chimneys
Cooling towers
Concrete or steel 3.5 1.75 3 NL NL NL NL NL
Wood frames 3.5 3 3 NL NL NL 50 50
Telecommunication towers 15.6.6
Truss: Steel 3 1.5 3 NL NL NL NL NL
Pole: Steel 1.5 1.5 1.5 NL NL NL NL NL
Wood 1.5 1.5 1.5 NL NL NL NL NL
Concrete 1.5 1.5 1.5 NL NL NL NL NL
Frame: Steel 3 1.5 1.5 NL NL NL NL NL
Wood 1.5 1.5 1.5 NL NL NL NL NL
Concrete 2 1.5 1.5 NL NL NL NL NL
Amusement structures and monuments 15.6.3 2 2 2 NL NL NL NL NL
Inverted pendulum type structures (except elevated 12.2.5.3 2 2 2 NL NL NL NL NL
tanks, vessels, bins, and hoppers)
Signs and billboards 3.5 1.75 3 NL NL NL NL NL
All other self-supporting structures, tanks, or vessels not 1.25 2 2.5 NL NL 50 50 50
covered above or by reference standards that are
similar to buildings
a NL = no limit and NP = not permitted. Heights shall be measured from the base.
b See Section 15.7.3a for the application of the overstrength factors, , for tank and vessels.
0
c If a section is not indicated in the Detailing Requirements column, no specific detailing requirements apply.
d For the purpose of height limit determination, the height of the structure shall be taken as the height to the top of the structural frame making up the primary
seismic force–resisting system.
4. The vertical distribution of the lateral seismic forces in non- in Section 15.7.1, the minimum seismic design force shall
building structures covered by this section shall be deter- not be less than that required by the reference document for
mined: the specific system.
a. Using the requirements of Section 12.8.3, or 6. Where a reference document provides a basis for the earth-
b. Using the procedures of Section 12.9, or quake resistant design of a particular type of nonbuilding
structure covered by Chapter 15, such a standard shall not
c. In accordance with reference document applicable to the be used unless the following limitations are met:
specific nonbuilding structure.
a. The seismic ground accelerations, and seismic coeffi-
5. For nonbuilding structural systems containing liquids, cients, shall be in conformance with the requirements of
gases, and granular solids supported at the base as defined Section 11.4.

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b. The values for total lateral force and total base over- The values of f i represent any lateral force distribution in ac-
turning moment used in design shall not be less than cordance with the principles of structural mechanics. The elastic
80 percent of the base shear value and overturning mo- deflections, δi , shall be calculated using the applied lateral forces,
ment, each adjusted for the effects of soil-structure in- f i . Equations 12.8-7, 12.8-8, 12.8-9, and 12.8-10 shall not be used
teraction that is obtained using this standard. for determining the period of a nonbuilding structure.
7. The base shear is permitted to be reduced in accordance with 15.4.5 Drift Limitations. The drift limitations of Section
Section 19.2.1 to account for the effects of soil-structure 12.12.1 need not apply to nonbuilding structures if a rational
interaction. In no case shall the reduced base shear be less analysis indicates they can be exceeded without adversely affect-
than 0.7V . ing structural stability or attached or interconnected components
8. Unless otherwise noted in Chapter 15, the effects on the non- and elements such as walkways and piping. P-delta effects shall
building structure due to gravity loads and seismic forces be considered where critical to the function or stability of the
shall be combined in accordance with the factored load com- structure.
binations as presented in Section 2.3. 15.4.6 Materials Requirements. The requirements regarding
9. Where specifically required by Chapter 15, the design seis- specific materials in Chapter 14 shall be applicable unless specif-
mic force on nonbuilding structures shall be as defined in ically exempted in Chapter 15.
Section 12.4.3. 15.4.7 Deflection Limits and Structure Separation. Deflection
limits and structure separation shall be determined in accordance
15.4.1.1 Importance Factor. The importance factor, I , and oc-
with this standard unless specifically amended in Chapter 15.
cupancy category for nonbuilding structures are based on the rel-
ative hazard of the contents and the function. The value of I shall 15.4.8 Site-Specific Response Spectra. Where required by a
be the largest value determined by the following: reference document or the authority having jurisdiction, specific
types of nonbuilding structures shall be designed for site-specific
a. Applicable reference document listed in Chapter 23.
criteria that accounts for local seismicity and geology, expected re-
b. The largest value as selected from Table 11.5-1. currence intervals and magnitudes of events from known seismic
c. As specified elsewhere in Chapter 15. hazards (see Section 11.4.7 of this standard). If a longer recurrence
interval is defined in the reference document for the nonbuilding
15.4.2 Rigid Nonbuilding Structures. Nonbuilding structures structure, such as liquefied natural gas (LNG) tanks (NFPA 59A),
that have a fundamental period, T , less than 0.06 s, including the recurrence interval required in the reference document shall
their anchorages, shall be designed for the lateral force obtained be used.
from the following:
V = 0.30S DS W I (15.4-5) 15.5 NONBUILDING STRUCTURES SIMILAR
TO BUILDINGS
where
15.5.1 General. Nonbuilding structures similar to buildings as
V = the total design lateral seismic base shear force applied to defined in Section 11.2 shall be designed in accordance with this
a nonbuilding structure standard as modified by this section and the specific reference
S DS = the site design response acceleration as determined from documents. This general category of nonbuilding structures shall
Section 11.4.4 be designed in accordance with the seismic requirements of this
W = nonbuilding structure operating weight standard and the applicable portions of Section 15.4. The combi-
I = the importance factor determined in accordance with nation of load effects, E, shall be determined in accordance with
Section 15.4.1.1 Section 12.4.
The force shall be distributed with height in accordance with 15.5.2 Pipe Racks.
Section 12.8.3.
15.5.2.1 Design Basis. In addition to the requirements of Section
15.4.3 Loads. The seismic effective weight W for nonbuilding 15.5.1, pipe racks supported at the base of the structure shall
structures shall include all dead load as defined for structures in be designed to meet the force requirements of Section 12.8 or
Section 12.7.2. For purposes of calculating design seismic forces 12.9. Displacements of the pipe rack and potential for interaction
in nonbuilding structures, W also shall include all normal operat- effects (pounding of the piping system) shall be considered using
ing contents for items such as tanks, vessels, bins, hoppers, and the the amplified deflections obtained from the following equation:
contents of piping. W shall include snow and ice loads where these
Cd δxe
loads constitute 25 percent or more of W or where required by δx = (15.5-1)
the building official based on local environmental characteristics. I
where
15.4.4 Fundamental Period. The fundamental period of the
nonbuilding structure shall be determined using the structural Cd = deflection amplification factor in Table 15.4-1
properties and deformation characteristics of the resisting ele- δxe = deflections determined using the prescribed seismic design
ments in a properly substantiated analysis as indicated in Section forces of this standard
12.8.2. Alternatively, the fundamental period T is permitted to be I = importance factor determined in accordance with Section
computed from the following equation: 15.4.1.1
See Section 13.6.3 for the design of piping systems and their
n
wi δi2 attachments. Friction resulting from gravity loads shall not be

i=1 considered to provide resistance to seismic forces.
T = 2π n (15.4-6)

g f i δi 15.5.3 Steel Storage Racks. In addition to the requirements of
i=1 Section 15.5.1, steel storage racks shall be designed in accordance
164 ASCE 7-05

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with the requirements of Sections 15.5.3.1 through 15.5.3.4. Al- 15.5.4.2 Design Basis. In addition to the requirements of Section
ternatively, steel storage racks are permitted to be designed in 15.5.1, electrical power generating facilities shall be designed
accordance with the method defined in Section 2.7 “Earthquake using this standard and the appropriate factors contained in
Forces” of RMI where the following changes are included: Section 15.4.
1. The values of Ca and Cv used shall equal 0.4S DS and S D1 , 15.5.5 Structural Towers for Tanks and Vessels.
respectively, where S DS and S D1 are determined in accor-
dance with Section 11.4.4 of this standard. 15.5.5.1 General. In addition to the requirements of Section
15.5.1, structural towers that support tanks and vessels shall be
2. The importance factor for storage racks in structures open designed to meet the requirements of Section 15.3. In addition,
to the public, such as warehouse retail stores, shall be taken the following special considerations shall be included:
equal to 1.5.
3. For storage racks supported at or below grade, the value of a. The distribution of the lateral base shear from the tank or ves-
C S used shall not be less than 0.14S DS . For storage racks sel onto the supporting structure shall consider the relative
supported above grade, the value of C S used shall not be stiffness of the tank and resisting structural elements.
less than the value for F p determined in accordance with b. The distribution of the vertical reactions from the tank or vessel
Section 13.3.1 of this standard where R p is taken as equal onto the supporting structure shall consider the relative stiff-
to R from RMI and a p is taken as equal to 2.5. ness of the tank and resisting structural elements. Where the
tank or vessel is supported on grillage beams, the calculated
15.5.3.1 General Requirements. Steel storage racks shall sat- vertical reaction due to weight and overturning shall be in-
isfy the force requirements of this section. creased at least 20 percent to account for nonuniform support.
The grillage beam and vessel attachment shall be designed for
EXCEPTION: Steel storage racks supported at the base are permitted
to be designed as structures with an R of 4, provided that the seismic
this increased design value.
requirements of this standard are met. Higher values of R are permitted c. Seismic displacements of the tank and vessel shall consider
to be used where the detailing requirements of reference documents listed the deformation of the support structure where determining
in Section 14.1.1 are met. The importance factor for storage racks in P-delta effects or evaluating required clearances to prevent
structures open to the public, such as warehouse retail stores, shall be
taken equal to 1.5.
pounding of the tank on the structure.
15.5.3.2 Operating Weight. Steel storage racks shall be de- 15.5.6 Piers and Wharves.
signed for each of the following conditions of operating weight,
W or W p . 15.5.6.1 General. Piers and wharves are structures located in
waterfront areas that project into a body of water or parallel the
a. Weight of the rack plus every storage level loaded to 67 percent shoreline.
of its rated load capacity.
15.5.6.2 Design Basis. In addition to the requirements of Sec-
b. Weight of the rack plus the highest storage level only loaded tion 15.5.1, piers and wharves that are accessible to the general
to 100 percent of its rated load capacity. public, such as cruise ship terminals and piers with retail or com-
The design shall consider the actual height of the center of mass mercial offices or restaurants, shall be designed to comply with
of each storage load component. this standard.
The design shall account for the effects of liquefaction and soil
15.5.3.3 Vertical Distribution of Seismic Forces. For all steel failure collapse mechanisms, as well as consider all applicable
storage racks, the vertical distribution of seismic forces shall be as marine loading combinations, such as mooring, berthing, wave,
specified in Section 12.8.3 and in accordance with the following: and current on piers and wharves as required. Structural detailing
shall consider the effects of the marine environment.
a. The base shear, V , of the typical structure shall be the base
shear of the steel storage rack where loaded in accordance
with Section 15.5.3.2.
15.6 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR
b. The base of the structure shall be the floor supporting the steel NONBUILDING STRUCTURES
storage rack. Each steel storage level of the rack shall be treated NOT SIMILAR TO BUILDINGS
as a level of the structure with heights h i and h x measured from
the base of the structure. Nonbuilding structures that do not have lateral and vertical seis-
mic force−resisting systems that are similar to buildings shall
c. The factor k is permitted to be taken as 1.0. be designed in accordance with this standard as modified by this
15.5.3.4 Seismic Displacements. Steel storage rack installations section and the specific reference documents. Loads and load dis-
shall accommodate the seismic displacement of the storage racks tributions shall not be less demanding than those determined in
and their contents relative to all adjacent or attached components this standard. The combination of load effects, E, shall be deter-
and elements. The assumed total relative displacement for storage mined in accordance with Section 12.4.2.
racks shall be not less than 5 percent of the height above the EXCEPTION: The redundancy factor, ρ, per Section 12.3.4 shall be
base unless a smaller value is justified by test data or analysis in taken as 1.
accordance with Section 11.1.4.
15.6.1 Earth-Retaining Structures. This section applies to all
15.5.4 Electrical Power Generating Facilities. earth-retaining structures assigned to Seismic Design Category
D, E, or F. The lateral earth pressures due to earthquake ground
15.5.4.1 General. Electrical power generating facilities are motions shall be determined in accordance with Section 11.8.3 for
power plants that generate electricity by steam turbines, com- Seismic Design Categories B, C, D, E, and F with a geotechnical
bustion turbines, diesel generators, or similar turbo machinery. analysis prepared by a registered design professional.

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The occupancy category shall be determined by the proximity designed with a reduction in the structure category (i.e., no re-
of the retaining wall to buildings and other structures. If failure duction in importance factor I ) as permitted by Section 1.5.2, no
of the retaining wall would affect an adjacent structure, the occu- freeboard provision is required. Where the primary containment
pancy category shall not be less than that of the adjacent structure, has been designed for a reduced structure category (i.e., impor-
as determined in Table 1-1. Earth-retaining walls are permitted tance factor I reduced) as permitted by Section 1.5.2, a minimum
to be designed for seismic loads as either yielding or nonyield- freeboard, δ S , shall be provided where
ing walls. Cantilevered reinforced concrete retaining walls shall
be assumed to be yielding walls and shall be designed as simple δs = 0.50DSac (15.6-1)
flexural wall elements. where Sac is the spectral acceleration of the convective compo-
15.6.2 Stacks and Chimneys. Stacks and chimneys are permit- nent and is determined according to the procedures of Section
ted to be either lined or unlined, and shall be constructed from 15.7.6.1 using 0.5 percent damping. For circular impoundment
concrete, steel, or masonry. Steel stacks, concrete stacks, steel dikes, D shall be taken as the diameter of the impoundment dike.
chimneys, concrete chimneys, and liners shall be designed to re- For rectangular impoundment dikes, D shall be taken as the plan
sist seismic lateral forces determined from a substantiated analysis dimension of the impoundment dike, L, for the direction under
using reference documents. Interaction of the stack or chimney consideration.
with the liners shall be considered. A minimum separation shall 15.6.6 Telecommunication Towers. Self-supporting and guyed
be provided between the liner and chimney equal to Cd times the telecommunication towers shall be designed to resist seismic lat-
calculated differential lateral drift. eral forces determined from a substantiated analysis using refer-
15.6.3 Amusement Structures. Amusement structures are per- ence documents.
manently fixed structures constructed primarily for the con-
veyance and entertainment of people. Amusement structures shall 15.7 TANKS AND VESSELS
be designed to resist seismic lateral forces determined from a sub-
stantiated analysis using reference documents. 15.7.1 General. This section applies to all tanks, vessels, bins,
and silos, and similar containers storing liquids, gases, and gran-
15.6.4 Special Hydraulic Structures. Special hydraulic struc- ular solids supported at the base (hereafter referred to generically
tures are structures that are contained inside liquid-containing as “tanks and vessels”). Tanks and vessels covered herein in-
structures. These structures are exposed to liquids on both wall clude reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete, steel, aluminum,
surfaces at the same head elevation under normal operating con- and fiber-reinforced plastic materials. Tanks supported on ele-
ditions. Special hydraulic structures are subjected to out-of-plane vated levels in buildings shall be designed in accordance with
forces only during an earthquake where the structure is subjected Section 15.3.
to differential hydrodynamic fluid forces. Examples of special
hydraulic structures include separation walls, baffle walls, weirs, 15.7.2 Design Basis. Tanks and vessels storing liquids, gases,
and other similar structures. and granular solids shall be designed in accordance with this
standard and shall be designed to meet the requirements of the
15.6.4.1 Design Basis. Special hydraulic structures shall be de- applicable reference documents listed in Section 23. Resistance to
signed for out-of-phase movement of the fluid. Unbalanced forces seismic forces shall be determined from a substantiated analysis
from the motion of the liquid must be applied simultaneously based on the applicable reference documents listed in Chapter 23.
“in front of” and “behind” these elements.
a. Damping for the convective (sloshing) force component shall
Structures subject to hydrodynamic pressures induced by earth- be taken as 0.5 percent.
quakes shall be designed for rigid body and sloshing liquid forces
and their own inertia force. The height of sloshing shall be de- b. Impulsive and convective components shall be combined by
termined and compared to the freeboard height of the structure. the direct sum or the square root of the sum of the squares
Interior elements, such as baffles or roof supports, also shall be (SRSS) method where the modal periods are separated. If
designed for the effects of unbalanced forces and sloshing. significant modal coupling may occur, the complete quadratic
combination (CQC) method shall be used.
15.6.5 Secondary Containment Systems. Secondary contain-
c. Vertical earthquake forces shall be considered in accordance
ment systems, such as impoundment dikes and walls, shall meet
with the applicable reference document. If the reference docu-
the requirements of the applicable standards for tanks and vessels
ment permits the user the option of including or excluding the
and the authority having jurisdiction.
vertical earthquake force, to comply with this standard, it shall
Secondary containment systems shall be designed to withstand be included. For tanks and vessels not covered by a reference
the effects of the maximum considered earthquake ground mo- document, the forces due to the vertical acceleration shall be
tion where empty and two-thirds of the maximum considered defined as follows:
earthquake ground motion where full including all hydrodynamic (1) Hydrodynamic vertical and lateral forces in tank walls:
forces as determined in accordance with the procedures of Sec- The increase in hydrostatic pressures due to the vertical
tion 11.4. Where determined by the risk assessment required by excitation of the contained liquid shall correspond to
Section 1.5.2 or by the authority having jurisdiction that the site an effective increase in unit weight, γ L , of the stored
may be subject to aftershocks of the same magnitude as the max- liquid equal to 0.2S DS Iγ L .
imum considered motion, secondary containment systems shall
(2) Hydrodynamic hoop forces in cylindrical tank walls: In
be designed to withstand the effects of the maximum considered
a cylindrical tank wall, the hoop force per unit height,
earthquake ground motion where full including all hydrodynamic
Nh , at height y from the base, associated with the verti-
forces as determined in accordance with the procedures of Sec-
cal excitation of the contained liquid, shall be computed
tion 11.4.
in accordance with Eq. 15.7-1.
15.6.5.1 Freeboard. Sloshing of the liquid within the secondary
containment area shall be considered in determining the height Di
Nh = 0.2S DS γ L (HL − y) (15.7-1)
of the impound. Where the primary containment has not been 2
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TABLE 15.7-1 MINIMUM DESIGN DISPLACEMENTS FOR PIPING ATTACHMENTS

Condition Displacements (in.)
Mechanically Anchored Tanks and Vessels
Upward vertical displacement relative to support or foundation 1
Downward vertical displacement relative to support or foundation 0.5
Range of horizontal displacement (radial and tangential) relative to support or foundation 0.5
Self-Anchored Tanks or Vessels (at grade)
Upward vertical displacement relative to support or foundation
If designed in accordance with a reference document as modified by this standard
Anchorage ratio less than or equal to 0.785 (indicates no uplift) 1
Anchorage ratio greater than 0.785 (indicates uplift) 4
If designed for seismic loads in accordance with this standard but not covered by a reference document
For tanks and vessels with a diameter less than 40 ft 8
For tanks and vessels with a diameter equal to or greater than 40 ft 12
Downward vertical displacement relative to support or foundation
For tanks with a ringwall/mat foundation 0.5
For tanks with a berm foundation 1
Range of horizontal displacement (radial and tangential) relative to support or foundation 2
where jeopardize the serviceability of the structure. Stiffness degra-

dation and energy dissipation shall be allowed to be obtained
Di = inside tank diameter either through limited microcracking, or by means of lat-
HL = liquid height inside the tank eral force resistance mechanisms that dissipate energy without
y = distance from base of the tank to height being damaging the structure.
investigated
γ L = unit weight of stored liquid 15.7.4 Flexibility of Piping Attachments. Design of piping sys-
(3) Vertical inertia forces in cylindrical and rectangular tems connected to tanks and vessels shall consider the potential
tank walls: Vertical inertia forces associated with the movement of the connection points during earthquakes and pro-
vertical acceleration of the structure itself shall be taken vide sufficient flexibility to avoid release of the product by failure
equal to 0.2S DS IW. of the piping system. The piping system and supports shall be de-
signed so as not to impart significant mechanical loading on the
15.7.3 Strength and Ductility. Structural components and attachment to the tank or vessel shell. Mechanical devices that
members that are part of the lateral support system shall be de- add flexibility, such as bellows, expansion joints, and other flex-
signed to provide the following: ible apparatus, are permitted to be used where they are designed
for seismic displacements and defined operating pressure.
a. Connections and attachments for anchorage and other lateral
force-resisting components shall be designed to develop the Unless otherwise calculated, the minimum displacements in
strength of the anchor (e.g., minimum published yield strength, Table 15.7-1 shall be assumed. For attachment points located
Fy in direct tension, plastic bending moment), or o times above the support or foundation elevation, the displacements in
the calculated element design force. The overstrength require- Table 15.7-1 shall be increased to account for drift of the tank
ments of Section 12.4.3, and the 0 values tabulated in Table or vessel relative to the base of support. The piping system and
15.4-2, do not apply to the design of walls, including interior tank connection shall also be designed to tolerate Cd times the
walls, of tanks or vessels. displacements given in Table 15.7-1 without rupture, although
permanent deformations and inelastic behavior in the piping sup-
b. Penetrations, manholes, and openings in shell components ports and tank shell is permitted. For attachment points located
shall be designed to maintain the strength and stability of the above the support or foundation elevation, the displacements in
shell to carry tensile and compressive membrane shell forces. Table 15.7-1 shall be increased to account for drift of the tank
c. Support towers for tanks and vessels with irregular bracing, or vessel. The values given in Table 15.7-1 do not include the
unbraced panels, asymmetric bracing, or concentrated masses influence of relative movements of the foundation and piping
shall be designed using the requirements of Section 12.3.2 for anchorage points due to foundation movements (e.g., settlement,
irregular structures. Support towers using chevron or eccentric seismic displacements). The effects of the foundation movements
braced framing shall comply with the seismic requirements shall be included in the piping system design including the deter-
of this standard. Support towers using tension-only bracing mination of the mechanical loading on the tank or vessel, and the
shall be designed such that the full cross-section of the tension total displacement capacity of the mechanical devices intended to
element can yield during overload conditions. add flexibility.
d. In support towers for tanks and vessels, compression struts that The anchorage ratio, J , for self-anchored tanks shall comply
resist the reaction forces from tension braces shall be designed with the criteria shown in Table 15.7-2 and is defined as
to resist the lesser of the yield load of the brace, A g Fy , or o
times the calculated tension load in the brace.
Mr w
e. The vessel stiffness relative to the support system (founda- J= (15.7-2)
tion, support tower, skirt, etc.) shall be considered in deter- D 2 (wt+ wa )
mining forces in the vessel, the resisting components and the
connections. where
f. For concrete liquid-containing structures, system ductility, and
energy dissipation under unfactored loads shall not be allowed Ws
to be achieved by inelastic deformations to such a degree as to wt = + wr (15.7-3)
πD

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TABLE 15.7-2 ANCHORAGE RATIO contents that moves in unison with the shell. The convective com-
J Anchorage Ratio Criteria ponent corresponds to the low frequency amplified response of
J < 0.785 No uplift under the design seismic overturning the contents in the fundamental sloshing mode. Damping for the
moment. The tank is self-anchored. convective component shall be 0.5 percent for the sloshing liquid
0.785 < J < 1.54 Tank is uplifting, but the tank is stable for the unless otherwise defined by the reference document. The follow-
design load providing the shell compression ing definitions shall apply:
requirements are satisfied. Tank is self-anchored.
J > 1.54 Tank is not stable and shall be mechanically Di = inside diameter of tank or vessel
anchored for the design load. HL = design liquid height inside tank or vessel
L = inside length of a rectangular tank, parallel to the direc-
tion of the earthquake force being investigated
wr = roof load acting on the shell in pounds per foot of Nh = hydrodynamic hoop force per unit height in the wall of
shell circumference. Only permanent roof loads shall a cylindrical tank or vessel
be included. Roof live load shall not be included. Tc = natural period of the first (convective) mode of sloshing
wa = maximum weight of the tank contents that may be used Ti = fundamental period of the tank structure and impulsive
to resist the shell overturning moment in pounds per component of the content
foot of shell circumference. Usually consists of an an- Vi = base shear due to impulsive component from weight of
nulus of liquid limited by the bending strength of the tank and contents
tank bottom or annular plate. Vc = base shear due to the convective component of the
Mr w = the overturning moment applied at the bottom of the effective sloshing mass
shell due to the seismic design loads in foot-pounds y = distance from base of the tank to level being investigated
(also known as the “ringwall moment”) γ L = unit weight of stored liquid
D = tank diameter in feet
Ws = total weight of tank shell in pounds The seismic base shear is the combination of the impulsive and
convective components:
15.7.5 Anchorage. Tanks and vessels at grade are permitted to V = Vi + Vc (15.7-4)
be designed without anchorage where they meet the requirements where
for unanchored tanks in reference documents. Tanks and vessels
supported above grade on structural towers or building structures Sai Wi
Vi = R (15.7-5)
shall be anchored to the supporting structure. I
The following special detailing requirements shall apply to steel Sac I
tank anchor bolts in seismic regions where S DS > 0.5, or where Vc = Wc (15.7-6)
1.5
the structure is classified as Occupancy Category IV.
Sai = the spectral acceleration as a multiplier of gravity in-
a. Hooked anchor bolts (L- or J-shaped embedded bolts) or other cluding the site impulsive components at period Ti and
anchorage systems based solely on bond or mechanical friction 5 percent damping
shall not be used where S DS ≥ 0.33. Postinstalled anchors are For Ti ≤ Ts :
permitted to be used provided that testing validates their ability
to develop yield load in the anchor under cyclic loads in cracked Sai = S DS (15.7-7)
concrete. For Ts < Ti ≤ TL
b. Where anchorage is required, the anchor embedment into the S D1
foundation shall be designed to develop the minimum specified Sai = (15.7-8)
yield strength of the anchor. Ti
For Ti > TL
15.7.6 Ground-Supported Storage Tanks for Liquids.
S D1 TL
15.7.6.1 General. Ground-supported, flat bottom tanks storing Sai = (15.7-9)
Ti2
liquids shall be designed to resist the seismic forces calculated
NOTES:
using one of the following procedures:
a. Where a reference document is used in which the spectral accelera-
a. The base shear and overturning moment calculated as if tank tion for the tank shell, and the impulsive component of the liquid is
and the entire contents are a rigid mass system per Section independent of Ti , then Sai = S DS .
15.4.2 of this standard. b. Eq. 15.7-8 and Eq. 15.7-9 shall not be less than the minimum values
required in Section 15.4.1 Item 2 multiplied by RI .
b. Tanks or vessels storing liquids in Occupancy Category IV, or
c. For tanks in Occupancy Category IV, the value of the importance factor,
with a diameter greater than 20 ft, shall be designed to con- I , used for freeboard determination only shall be taken as 1.0.
sider the hydrodynamic pressures of the liquid in determin-
d. For tanks in Occupancy Categories I, II, and III, the value of TL used for
ing the equivalent lateral forces and lateral force distribution freeboard determination are permitted to be set equal to 4 s. The value
per the applicable reference documents listed in Chapter 23 and of the importance factor, I , used for freeboard determination for tanks
the requirements of Section 15.7 of this standard. in Occupancy Categories I, II, and III shall be the value determined
c. The force and displacement requirements of Section 15.4 of from Table 11.5-1.
this standard. e. Impulsive and convective seismic forces for tanks are permitted to
be combined using the square root of the sum of the squares (SRSS)
The design of tanks storing liquids shall consider the impulsive method in lieu of the direct sum method shown in Section 15.7.6 and
and convective (sloshing) effects and their consequences on the its related subsections.
tank, foundation, and attached elements. The impulsive compo- Sac = the spectral acceleration of the sloshing liquid (convective
nent corresponds to the high-frequency amplified response to the component) based on the sloshing period Tc and 0.5 percent
lateral ground motion of the tank roof, shell, and portion of the damping
168 ASCE 7-05

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For Tc ≤ TL : c. If the sloshing is restricted because the freeboard is less than

the computed sloshing height, then the roof and supporting
1.5S D1
Sac = ≤ 1.5S DS (15.7-10) structure shall be designed for an equivalent hydrostatic head
Tc equal to the computed sloshing height less the freeboard. In
For Tc > TL : addition, the design of the tank shall use the confined portion
of the convective (sloshing) mass as an additional impulsive
1.5S D1 TL mass.
Sac = (15.7-11)
Tc2
15.7.6.1.3 Equipment and Attached Piping. Equipment,
where piping, and walkways or other appurtenances attached to the
structure shall be designed to accommodate the displacements
D imposed by seismic forces. For piping attachments, see Section
Tc = 2π (15.7-12)
3.68g tanh 3.68H
D
15.7.4.
and where 15.7.6.1.4 Internal Components. The attachments of inter-

D = the tank diameter in ft (or m), H = liquid height in ft nal equipment and accessories that are attached to the primary
(or m), and g = acceleration due to gravity in consistent liquid or pressure retaining shell or bottom, or provide structural
units support for major components (e.g., a column supporting the roof
W I = impulsive weight (impulsive component of liquid, roof rafters) shall be designed for the lateral loads due to the sloshing
and equipment, shell, bottom, and internal components) liquid in addition to the inertial forces by a substantiated analysis
Wc = the portion of the liquid weight sloshing method.
15.7.6.1.1 Distribution of Hydrodynamic and Inertia 15.7.6.1.5 Sliding Resistance. The transfer of the total lateral
Forces. Unless otherwise required by the appropriate reference shear force between the tank or vessel and the subgrade shall be
document listed in Chapter 23, the method given in ACI 350.3 considered:
is permitted to be used to determine the vertical and horizontal a. For unanchored flat bottom steel tanks, the overall horizontal
distribution of the hydrodynamic and inertia forces on the walls seismic shear force is permitted to be resisted by friction be-
of circular and rectangular tanks. tween the tank bottom and the foundation or subgrade. Unan-
15.7.6.1.2 Sloshing. Sloshing of the stored liquid shall be chored storage tanks shall be designed such that sliding will not
taken into account in the seismic design of tanks and vessels in occur where the tank is full of stored product. The maximum
accordance with the following requirements: calculated seismic base shear, V , shall not exceed:
a. The height of the sloshing wave, δs , shall be computed using V < W tan 30◦ (15.7-14)
δs = 0.5Di I Sac (15.7-13) W shall be determined using the effective seismic weight of
For cylindrical tanks, Di shall be the inside diameter of the the tank, roof, and contents after reduction for coincident ver-
tank; for rectangular tanks, the term Di shall be replaced by tical earthquake. Lower values of the friction factor shall be
the longitudinal plan dimension of the tank, L, for the direction used if the design of the tank bottom to supporting founda-
under consideration. tion does not justify the friction value above (e.g., leak de-
tection membrane beneath the bottom with a lower friction
b. The effects of sloshing shall be accommodated by means of factor, smooth bottoms, etc.). Alternatively, the friction factor
one of the following: is permitted to be determined by testing in accordance with
1. A minimum freeboard in accordance with Table 15.7-3. Section 11.1.4.
2. A roof and supporting structure designed to contain the b. No additional lateral anchorage is required for anchored steel
sloshing liquid in accordance with subsection 3 below. tanks designed in accordance with reference documents.
3. For open-top tanks or vessels only, an overflow spillway c. The lateral shear transfer behavior for special tank configu-
around the tank or vessel perimeter. rations (e.g., shovel bottoms, highly crowned tank bottoms,
tanks on grillage) can be unique and are beyond the scope of
this standard.
TABLE 15.7-3 MINIMUM REQUIRED FREEBOARD
Value of SDS Occupancy Category 15.7.6.1.6 Local Shear Transfer. Local transfer of the shear
I or II III III from the roof to the wall and the wall of the tank into the
S DS < 0.167g a a δs c base shall be considered. For cylindrical tanks and vessels, the
0.167g ≤ S DS < 0.33g a a δs c peak local tangential shear per unit length shall be calculated
0.33g ≤ S DS < 0.50g a 0.7δs b δs c by
S DS ≥ 0.50g a 0.7δs b δs c
2V
a No minimum freeboard is required.
vmax = (15.7-15)
b A freeboard equal to 0.7δ is required unless one of the following
s πD
alternatives is provided: (1) Secondary containment is provided to
control the product spill. (2) The roof and supporting structure are
designed to contain the sloshing liquid. a. Tangential shear in flat bottom steel tanks shall be trans-
c Freeboard equal to the calculated wave height, δ , is required un-
s ferred through the welded connection to the steel bottom.
less one of the following alternatives is provided: (1) Secondary This transfer mechanism is deemed acceptable for steel tanks
containment is provided to control the product spill. (2) The
roof and supporting structure are designed to contain the sloshing designed in accordance with the reference documents where
liquid. S DS < 1.0g.

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b. For concrete tanks with a sliding base where the lateral shear a. For TI < To , and TI > Ts , substitute the term Sa /[1.4( RI )]
is resisted by friction between the tank wall and the base, where Sa is defined in Section 11.4.5, Subsections 1, 2, or
the friction coefficient value used for design shall not exceed 3, for the terms in the appropriate equations as shown below:
tan 30◦ .
c. Fixed-base or hinged-base concrete tanks transfer the horizon- For ZC I
R1 shear and overturning moment equations of AWWA
( I )
tal seismic base shear shared by membrane (tangential) shear D110
and radial shear into the foundation. For anchored flexible-
base concrete tanks, the majority of the base shear is resisted For ZC I
Rw shear and overturning moment equations of AWWA
( I )
by membrane (tangential) shear through the anchoring system D115
with only insignificant vertical bending in the wall. The con-
nection between the wall and floor shall be designed to resist For ZRSC
wi
i
in the base shear and overturning moment equations
( I )
the maximum tangential shear. of ACI 350.3
15.7.6.1.7 Pressure Stability. For steel tanks, the internal b. For To ≤ TI ≤ Ts , substitute the term S DSR for terms ZRCI I ,
1.4( I ) ( I )
pressure from the stored product stiffens thin cylindrical shell ZC I
, and ZRSC i
structural elements subjected to membrane compression forces. ( RIw ) wi ( I )
This stiffening effect is permitted to be considered in resisting
seismically induced compressive forces if permitted by the refer- c. For all values of TC (or Tw ), ZC c ZCc Z SCc
Rc , Rw , and Rwc are replaced
( I ) ( I ) ( I )
ence document or the authority having jurisdiction. by 1.5STD12 I TL or 1.5S DS I
Ts TL
c T2 c
15.7.6.1.8 Shell Support. Steel tanks resting on concrete ring
walls or slabs shall have a uniformly supported annulus under the where
shell. Uniform support shall be provided by one of the following Sa , S D1 , S DS , T0 , Ts , and TL are defined in Section 11.4.5 of this
methods: standard.
a. Shimming and grouting the annulus. 15.7.8 Petrochemical and Industrial Tanks and Vessels
b. Using fiberboard or other suitable padding. Storing Liquids.
c. Using butt-welded bottom or annular plates resting directly on 15.7.8.1 Welded Steel. Welded steel petrochemical and indus-
the foundation. trial tanks and vessels storing liquids shall be designed in accor-
d. Using closely spaced shims (without structural grout) provided dance with the seismic requirements of API 650. Tanks designed
that the localized bearing loads are considered in the tank wall in accordance with the requirements of API 620 shall also be de-
and foundation to prevent local crippling and spalling. signed in accordance with the seismic requirements of API 650.
15.7.8.2 Bolted Steel. Bolted steel tanks used for storage of pro-
Anchored tanks shall be shimmed and grouted. Local buckling duction liquids. API 12B covers the material, design, and erection
of the steel shell for the peak compressive force due to operating requirements for vertical, cylindrical, above-ground bolted tanks
loads and seismic overturning shall be considered. in nominal capacities of 100 to 10,000 barrels for production ser-
vice. Unless required by the building official having jurisdiction,
15.7.6.1.9 Repair, Alteration, or Reconstruction. Repairs, these temporary structures need not be designed for seismic loads.
modifications, or reconstruction (i.e., cut down and re-erect) of If design for seismic load is required, the loads are permitted to be
a tank or vessel shall conform to industry standard practice and adjusted for the temporary nature of the anticipated service life.
this standard. For welded steel tanks storing liquids (see API
653) and the applicable reference document listed in Chapter 15.7.8.3 Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete. Reinforced
23. Tanks that are relocated shall be re-evaluated for the seismic concrete tanks for the storage of petrochemical and industrial liq-
loads for the new site and the requirements of new construction uids shall be designed in accordance with the force requirements
in accordance with the appropriate reference document and this of Section 15.7.7.3.
standard. 15.7.9 Ground-Supported Storage Tanks for Granular Ma-
terials.
15.7.7 Water Storage and Water Treatment Tanks
and Vessels. 15.7.9.1 General. The intergranular behavior of the material
shall be considered in determining effective mass and load paths,
15.7.7.1 Welded Steel. Welded steel water storage tanks and ves- including the following behaviors:
sels shall be designed in accordance with the seismic requirements a. Increased lateral pressure (and the resulting hoop stress) due
of AWWA D100. to loss of the intergranular friction of the material during the
seismic shaking.
15.7.7.2 Bolted Steel. Bolted steel water storage structures shall
be designed in accordance with the seismic requirements of b. Increased hoop stresses generated from temperature changes
AWWA D103 except that the design input forces shall be mod- in the shell after the material has been compacted.
ified in the same manner shown in Section 15.7.7.1 of this c. Intergranular friction, which can transfer seismic shear directly
standard. to the foundation.
15.7.9.2 Lateral Force Determination. The lateral forces for
15.7.7.3 Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete. Reinforced
tanks and vessels storing granular materials at grade shall be de-
and prestressed concrete tanks shall be designed in accordance
termined by the requirements and accelerations for short period
with the seismic requirements of AWWA D110, AWWA D115,
structures (i.e., S DS ).
or ACI 350.3 except that the design input forces for allowable
stress design procedures shall be modified as follows: 15.7.9.3 Force Distribution to Shell and Foundation.
170 ASCE 7-05

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15.7.9.3.1 Increased Lateral Pressure. The increase in lat- and mass centroids of the system if the following requirements
eral pressure on the tank wall shall be added to the static design are met:
lateral pressure, but shall not be used in the determination of pres-
sure stability effects on the axial buckling strength of the tank a. The sloshing period, Tc is greater than 3T where T = natural
shell. period of the tank with confined liquid (rigid mass) and sup-
15.7.9.3.2 Effective Mass. A portion of a stored granular mass porting structure.
will act with the shell (the effective mass). The effective mass is b. The sloshing mechanism (i.e., the percentage of convective
related to the physical characteristics of the product, the height-to- mass and centroid) is determined for the specific configuration
diameter (H/D) ratio of the tank, and the intensity of the seismic of the container by detailed fluid-structure interaction analysis
event. The effective mass shall be used to determine the shear and or testing.
overturning loads resisted by the tank.
15.7.9.3.3 Effective Density. The effective density factor (that Soil-structure interaction is permitted to be included in determin-
part of the total stored mass of product that is accelerated by the ing T providing the requirements of Chapter 19 are met.
seismic event) shall be determined in accordance with ACI 313.
15.7.9.3.4 Lateral Sliding. For granular storage tanks that 15.7.10.3 P-Delta Effects. The lateral drift of the elevated tank
have a steel bottom and are supported such that friction at the shall be considered as follows:
bottom to foundation interface can resist lateral shear loads, no ad-
ditional anchorage to prevent sliding is required. For tanks without a. The design drift, the elastic lateral displacement of the stored
steel bottoms (i.e., the material rests directly on the foundation), mass center of gravity, shall be increased by the factor, Cd for
shear anchorage shall be provided to prevent sliding. evaluating the additional load in the support structure.
15.7.9.3.5 Combined Anchorage Systems. If separate an- b. The base of the tank shall be assumed to be fixed rotationally
chorage systems are used to prevent overturning and sliding, the and laterally.
relative stiffness of the systems shall be considered in determining c. Deflections due to bending, axial tension, or compression shall
the load distribution. be considered. For pedestal tanks with a height-to-diameter
ratio less than 5, shear deformations of the pedestal shall be
15.7.9.4 Welded Steel Structures. Welded steel granular stor- considered.
age structures shall be designed in accordance with the seismic
requirements of this standard. Component allowable stresses and d. The dead load effects of roof-mounted equipment or platforms
materials shall be per AWWA D100, except the allowable circum- shall be included in the analysis.
ferential membrane stresses and material requirements in API 650 e. If constructed within the plumbness tolerances specified by
shall apply. the reference document, initial tilt need not be considered in
the P-delta analysis.
15.7.9.5 Bolted Steel Structures. Bolted steel granular storage
structures shall be designed in accordance with the seismic re-
quirements of this section. Component allowable stresses and 15.7.10.4 Transfer of Lateral Forces into Support Tower. For
materials shall be per AWWA D103. post supported tanks and vessels that are cross-braced:
15.7.9.6 Reinforced Concrete Structures. Reinforced concrete
structures for the storage of granular materials shall be designed a. The bracing shall be installed in such a manner as to provide
in accordance with the seismic force requirements of this standard uniform resistance to the lateral load (e.g., pretensioning or
and the requirements of ACI 313. tuning to attain equal sag).
b. The additional load in the brace due to the eccentricity between
15.7.9.7 Prestressed Concrete Structures. Prestressed con- the post to tank attachment and the line of action of the bracing
crete structures for the storage of granular materials shall be de- shall be included.
signed in accordance with the seismic force requirements of this
standard and the requirements of ACI 313. c. Eccentricity of compression strut line of action (elements that
resist the tensile pull from the bracing rods in the seismic
15.7.10 Elevated Tanks and Vessels for Liquids and Granular force–resisting systems) with their attachment points shall be
Materials. considered.
15.7.10.1 General. This section applies to tanks, vessels, bins, d. The connection of the post or leg with the foundation shall
and hoppers that are elevated above grade where the supporting be designed to resist both the vertical and lateral resultant
tower is an integral part of the structure, or where the primary from the yield load in the bracing assuming the direction of
function of the tower is to support the tank or vessel. Tanks and the lateral load is oriented to produce the maximum lateral
vessels that are supported within buildings or are incidental to the shear at the post to foundation interface. Where multiple rods
primary function of the tower are considered mechanical equip- are connected to the same location, the anchorage shall be
ment and shall be designed in accordance with Chapter 13. designed to resist the concurrent tensile loads in the braces.
Elevated tanks shall be designed for the force and displacement
requirements of the applicable reference document or Section 15.7.10.5 Evaluation of Structures Sensitive to Buckling
15.4. Failure. Shell structures that support substantial loads may ex-
hibit a primary mode of failure from localized or general buckling
15.7.10.2 Effective Mass. The design of the supporting tower or of the support pedestal or skirt during seismic loads. Such struc-
pedestal, anchorage, and foundation for seismic overturning shall tures may include single pedestal water towers, skirt-supported
assume the material stored is a rigid mass acting at the volumetric process vessels, and similar single member towers. Where the
center of gravity. The effects of fluid-structure interaction are per- structural assessment concludes that buckling of the support is the
mitted to be considered in determining the forces, effective period, governing primary mode of failure, structures and components in

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Occupancy Category IV shall be designed to resist the seismic TABLE 15.7-4 MAXIMUM MATERIAL STRENGTH
forces as follows: Max. Material Max. Material
Minimum Strength Strength
Material Ratio Fu /Fy Vessel Material Threaded Materiala
a. The seismic response coefficient for this evaluation shall be
in accordance with Section 12.8.1.1 of this standard with I /R Ductile (e.g., steel, 1.33b 90%d 70%d
aluminum, copper)
set equal to 1.0. Soil-structure and fluid-structure interaction is
permitted to be utilized in determining the structural response. Semiductile 1.2c 70%d 50%d
Vertical or orthogonal combinations need not be considered. Nonductile (e.g., cast iron, NA 25%e 20%e
ceramics, fiberglass)
b. The resistance of the structure or component shall be defined a Threaded connection to vessel or support system.
as the critical buckling resistance of the element; that is, a b Minimum 20% elongation per the ASTM material specification.
c Minimum 15% elongation per the ASTM material specification.
factor of safety set equal to 1.0. d Based on material minimum specified yield strength.
e Based on material minimum specified tensile strength.
15.7.10.6 Welded Steel Water Storage Structures. Welded
steel elevated water storage structures shall be designed and de-
tailed in accordance with the seismic requirements of AWWA
D100 with the height limits imposed by Table 15.4-2. 15.3 or 15.4 are used with appropriate scaling of the force and
displacement requirements to the working stress design basis.
15.7.10.7 Concrete Pedestal (Composite) Tanks. Concrete
pedestal (composite) elevated water storage structures shall be 15.7.11.3 Attachments of Internal Equipment and
designed in accordance with the requirements of ACI 371R and Refractory. Attachments to the pressure boundary for in-
except that the design input forces shall be modified as follows: ternal and external ancillary components (refractory, cyclones,
trays, etc.) shall be designed to resist the seismic forces specified
In Eq. 4-8a of ACI 371R, in this standard to safeguard against rupture of the pressure
For Ts < T ≤ 2.5 s, replace the term 1.2Cv
RT 2/3
with boundary. Alternatively, the element attached is permitted to
be designed to fail prior to damaging the pressure boundary
S D1 provided that the consequences of the failure do not place the
(15.7-24)
T ( RI ) pressure boundary in jeopardy. For boilers or vessels containing
liquids, the effect of sloshing on the internal equipment shall
2.5Ca be considered if the equipment can damage the integrity of the
In Eq. 4-8b of ACI 371R, replace the term R
with
pressure boundary.
S DS
(15.7-25) 15.7.11.4 Coupling of Vessel and Support Structure. Where
( RI )
the mass of the operating vessel or vessels supported is greater
In Eq. 4-9 of ACI 371R, replace the term 0.5Ca with than 25 percent of the total mass of the combined structure, the
structure and vessel designs shall consider the effects of dynamic
0.2S DS (15.7-26) coupling between each other. Coupling with adjacent, connected
structures such as multiple towers shall be considered if the struc-
15.7.10.7.1 Analysis Procedures. The equivalent lateral
tures are interconnected with elements that will transfer loads
force procedure is permitted for all concrete pedestal tanks and
from one structure to the other.
shall be based on a fixed-base, single degree-of-freedom model.
All mass, including the liquid, shall be considered rigid unless 15.7.11.5 Effective Mass. Fluid-structure interaction (sloshing)
the sloshing mechanism (i.e., the percentage of convective mass shall be considered in determining the effective mass of the stored
and centroid) is determined for the specific configuration of the material providing sufficient liquid surface exists for sloshing
container by detailed fluid-structure interaction analysis or test- to occur and the Tc is greater than 3T . Changes to or varia-
ing. Soil-structure interaction is permitted to be included. A more tions in material density with pressure and temperature shall be
rigorous analysis is permitted. considered.
15.7.10.7.2 Structure Period. The fundamental period of vi- 15.7.11.6 Other Boilers and Pressure Vessels. Boilers and
bration of the structure shall be established using the uncracked pressure vessels designated Occupancy Category IV, but that are
structural properties and deformational characteristics of the re- not designed and constructed in accordance with the requirements
sisting elements in a properly substantiated analysis. The period of ASME BPVC, shall meet the following requirements:
used to calculate the seismic response coefficient shall not exceed
2.5 s. The seismic loads in combination with other service loads and
appropriate environmental effects shall not exceed the material
15.7.11 Boilers and Pressure Vessels. strength shown in Table 15.7-4.
15.7.11.1 General. Attachments to the pressure boundary, sup- Consideration shall be made to mitigate seismic impact loads
ports, and lateral force-resisting anchorage systems for boilers and for boiler or vessel components constructed of nonductile mate-
pressure vessels shall be designed to meet the force and displace- rials or vessels operated in such a way that material ductility is
ment requirements of Sections 15.3 or 15.4 and the additional reduced (e.g., low temperature applications).
requirements of this section. Boilers and pressure vessels cat-
egorized as Occupancy Categories III or IV shall be designed 15.7.11.7 Supports and Attachments for Boilers and Pressure
to meet the force and displacement requirements of Sections Vessels. Attachments to the pressure boundary and support for
15.3 or 15.4. boilers and pressure vessels shall meet the following require-
ments:
15.7.11.2 ASME Boilers and Pressure Vessels. Boilers or pres-
sure vessels designed and constructed in accordance with ASME a. Attachments and supports transferring seismic loads shall be
BPVC shall be deemed to meet the requirements of this section constructed of ductile materials suitable for the intended ap-
provided that the force and displacement requirements of Sections plication and environmental conditions.
172 ASCE 7-05

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b. Seismic anchorages embedded in concrete shall be ductile and e. For spheres storing liquids, bracing connections shall be de-
detailed for cyclic loads. signed and constructed to develop the minimum published
c. Seismic supports and attachments to structures shall be de- yield strength of the brace. For spheres storing gas vapors
signed and constructed so that the support or attachment re- only, bracing connection shall be designed for o times the
mains ductile throughout the range of reversing seismic lateral maximum design load in the brace. Lateral bracing connec-
loads and displacements. tions directly attached to the pressure or liquid boundary are
prohibited.
d. Vessel attachments shall consider the potential effect on the
vessel and the support for uneven vertical reactions based on 15.7.12.6 Skirt Supported. For skirt-supported spheres, the fol-
variations in relative stiffness of the support members, dis- lowing requirements shall apply:
similar details, nonuniform shimming, or irregular supports.
Uneven distribution of lateral forces shall consider the rela- a. The requirements of Section 15.7.10.5 shall also apply.
tive distribution of the resisting elements, the behavior of the b. The local buckling of the skirt under compressive membrane
connection details, and vessel shear distribution. forces due to axial load and bending moments shall be consid-
The requirements of Sections 15.4 and 15.7.10.5 shall also be ered.
applicable to this section. c. Penetration of the skirt support (manholes, piping, etc.) shall
be designed and constructed to maintain the strength of the
15.7.12 Liquid and Gas Spheres. skirt without penetrations.
15.7.12.1 General. Attachments to the pressure or liquid bound- 15.7.13 Refrigerated Gas Liquid Storage Tanks and Vessels.
ary, supports, and lateral force-resisting anchorage systems for
liquid and gas spheres shall be designed to meet the force and dis- 15.7.13.1 General. The seismic design of the tanks and facil-
placement requirements of Section 15.3 or 15.4 and the additional ities for the storage of liquefied hydrocarbons and refrigerated
requirements of this section. Spheres categorized as Occupancy liquids is beyond the scope of this section. The design of such
Category III or IV shall themselves be designed to meet the force tanks is addressed in part by various reference documents listed
and displacement requirements of Section 15.3 or 15.4. in Chapter 23.
15.7.12.2 ASME Spheres. Spheres designed and constructed in EXCEPTION: Low-pressure, welded steel storage tanks for liquefied
hydrocarbon gas (e.g., LPG, butane, etc.) and refrigerated liquids (e.g.,
accordance with Section VIII of ASME BPVC shall be deemed ammonia) shall be designed in accordance with the requirements of Sec-
to meet the requirements of this section providing the force and tion 15.7.8 and API 620.
displacement requirements of Section 15.3 or 15.4 are used with
appropriate scaling of the force and displacement requirements 15.7.14 Horizontal, Saddle Supported Vessels for Liquid or
to the working stress design basis. Vapor Storage.
15.7.12.3 Attachments of Internal Equipment and Refrac- 15.7.14.1 General. Horizontal vessels supported on saddles
tory. Attachments to the pressure or liquid boundary for internal (sometimes referred to as “blimps”) shall be designed to
and external ancillary components (refractory, cyclones, trays, meet the force and displacement requirements of Section 15.3
etc.) shall be designed to resist the seismic forces specified in or 15.4.
this standard to safeguard against rupture of the pressure bound- 15.7.14.2 Effective Mass. Changes to or variations in material
ary. Alternatively, the element attached to the sphere could be density shall be considered. The design of the supports, saddles,
designed to fail prior to damaging the pressure or liquid bound- anchorage, and foundation for seismic overturning shall assume
ary providing the consequences of the failure does not place the the material stored is a rigid mass acting at the volumetric center
pressure boundary in jeopardy. For spheres containing liquids, the of gravity.
effect of sloshing on the internal equipment shall be considered
if the equipment can damage the pressure boundary. 15.7.14.3 Vessel Design. Unless a more rigorous analysis is
performed
15.7.12.4 Effective Mass. Fluid-structure interaction (sloshing)
shall be considered in determining the effective mass of the stored a. Horizontal vessels with a length-to-diameter ratio of 6 or more
material providing sufficient liquid surface exists for sloshing to are permitted to be assumed to be a simply supported beam
occur and the Tc is greater than 3T . Changes to or variations in spanning between the saddles for determining the natural pe-
fluid density shall be considered. riod of vibration and global bending moment.
15.7.12.5 Post and Rod Supported. For post supported spheres b. Horizontal vessels with a length-to-diameter ratio of less
that are cross-braced: than 6, the effects of “deep beam shear” shall be consid-
ered where determining the fundamental period and stress
a. The requirements of Section 15.7.10.4 shall also be applicable distribution.
to this section.
c. Local bending and buckling of the vessel shell at the sad-
b. The stiffening effect of (reduction in lateral drift) from preten- dle supports due to seismic load shall be considered. The
sioning of the bracing shall be considered in determining the stabilizing effects of internal pressure shall not be considered
natural period. to increase the buckling resistance of the vessel shell.
c. The slenderness and local buckling of the posts shall be con- d. If the vessel is a combination of liquid and gas storage, the
sidered. vessel and supports shall be designed both with and without
d. Local buckling of the sphere shell at the post attachment shall gas pressure acting (assume piping has ruptured and pressure
be considered. does not exist).

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174
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Chapter 16
SEISMIC RESPONSE HISTORY PROCEDURES
16.1 LINEAR RESPONSE HISTORY PROCEDURE the scalar quantity RI where I is the importance factor determined
in accordance with Section 11.5.1 and R is the response modifi-
Where linear response history procedure is performed the require-
cation coefficient selected in accordance with Section 12.2.1. For
ments of this chapter shall be satisfied.
each ground motion i, where i is the designation assigned to each
16.1.1 Analysis Requirements. A linear response history anal- ground motion, the maximum value of the base shear, Vi , member
ysis shall consist of an analysis of a linear mathematical model of forces, Q Ei , and story drifts, i at each story, scaled as indicated
the structure to determine its response, through methods of numer- in the preceding text shall be determined. Where the maximum
ical integration, to suites of ground motion acceleration histories scaled base shear predicted by the analysis, Vi , is less than the
compatible with the design response spectrum for the site. The value of V determined using the minimum value of Cs set forth
analysis shall be performed in accordance with the requirements in Eq. 12.8-5 or when located where S1 is equal to or greater than
of this section. 0.6g, the minimum value of Cs set forth in Eq. 12.8-6, the scaled
member forces, Q Ei , shall be additionally multiplied by VVi where
16.1.2 Modeling. Mathematical models shall conform to the re- V is the minimum base shear that has been determined using the
quirements of Section 12.7. minimum value of Cs set forth in Eq. 12.8-5, or when located
16.1.3 Ground Motion. A suite of not less than three appropriate where S1 is equal to or greater than 0.6g, the minimum value of
ground motions shall be used in the analysis. Ground motion shall Cs set forth in Eq. 12.8-6.
conform to the requirements of this section. If at least seven ground motions are analyzed, the design mem-
16.1.3.1 Two-Dimensional Analysis. Where 2-D analyses are ber forces used in the load combinations of Section 12.4.2.1,
performed, each ground motion shall consist of a horizontal ac- and the design story drift used in the evaluation of drift in ac-
celeration history, selected from an actual recorded event. Ap- cordance with Section 12.12.1 is permitted to be taken respec-
propriate acceleration histories shall be obtained from records tively as the average of the scaled Q Ei and i values determined
of events having magnitudes, fault distance, and source mecha- from the analyses and scaled as indicated in the preceding text. If
nisms that are consistent with those that control the maximum fewer than seven ground motions are analyzed, the design mem-
considered earthquake. Where the required number of appropri- ber forces and the design story drift shall be taken as the maxi-
ate recorded ground motion records are not available, appropriate mum value of the scaled Q Ei and i values determined from the
simulated ground motion records shall be used to make up the analyses.
total number required. The ground motions shall be scaled such Where this standard requires the consideration of the load com-
that the average value of the 5 percent damped response spectra binations with overstrength factor of Section 12.4.3.2, the value of
for the suite of motions is not less than the design response spec- 0 Q E need not be taken larger than the maximum of the unscaled
trum for the site for periods ranging from 0.2T to 1.5T where T value, Q Ei , obtained from the analyses.
is the natural period of the structure in the fundamental mode for
the direction of response being analyzed.
16.1.3.2 Three-Dimensional Analysis. Where 3-D analysis is 16.2 NONLINEAR RESPONSE
performed, ground motions shall consist of pairs of appropriate HISTORY PROCEDURE
horizontal ground motion acceleration components that shall be Where nonlinear response history procedure is performed the re-
selected and scaled from individual recorded events. Appropriate quirements of Section 16.2 shall be satisfied.
ground motions shall be selected from events having magnitudes,
fault distance, and source mechanisms that are consistent with 16.2.1 Analysis Requirements. A nonlinear response history
those that control the maximum considered earthquake. Where analysis shall consist of an analysis of a mathematical model
the required number of recorded ground motion pairs are not of the structure that directly accounts for the nonlinear hysteretic
available, appropriate simulated ground motion pairs shall be used behavior of the structure’s components to determine its response
to make up the total number required. For each pair of horizontal through methods of numerical integration to suites of ground mo-
ground motion components, a square root of the sum of the squares tion acceleration histories compatible with the design response
(SRSS) spectrum shall be constructed by taking the SRSS of the spectrum for the site. The analysis shall be performed in accor-
5 percent-damped response spectra for the scaled components dance with this section. See Section 12.1.1 for limitations on the
(where an identical scale factor is applied to both components use of this procedure.
of a pair). Each pair of motions shall be scaled such that for
16.2.2 Modeling. A mathematical model of the structure shall
each period between 0.2T and 1.5T , the average of the SRSS
be constructed that represents the spatial distribution of mass
spectra from all horizontal component pairs does not fall below 1.3
throughout the structure. The hysteretic behavior of elements shall
times the corresponding ordinate of the design response spectrum,
be modeled consistent with suitable laboratory test data and shall
determined in accordance with Section 11.4.5 or 21.2, by more
account for all significant yielding, strength degradation, stiff-
than 10 percent.
ness degradation, and hysteretic pinching indicated by such test
16.1.4 Response Parameters. For each ground motion ana- data. Strength of elements shall be based on expected values con-
lyzed, the individual response parameters shall be multiplied by sidering material overstrength, strain hardening, and hysteretic

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strength degradation. Linear properties, consistent with the re- 16.2.4.1 Member Strength. The adequacy of members to re-
quirements of Section 12.7.3, are permitted to be used for those sist the combination of load effects of Section 12.4 need not be
elements demonstrated by the analysis to remain within their lin- evaluated.
ear range of response. The structure shall be assumed to have a EXCEPTION: Where this standard requires the consideration of the load
fixed-base, or alternatively, it is permitted to use realistic assump- combinations with overstrength factor of Section 12.4.3.2, the maximum
tions with regard to the stiffness and load-carrying characteristics value of Q Ei obtained from the suite of analyses shall be taken in place
of the foundations consistent with site-specific soils data and ra- of the quantity 0 Q E .
tional principles of engineering mechanics. 16.2.4.2 Member Deformation. The adequacy of individual
For regular structures with independent orthogonal seismic members and their connections to withstand the estimated de-
force−resisting systems, independent 2-D models are permitted sign deformation values, ψi , as predicted by the analyses shall be
to be constructed to represent each system. For structures hav- evaluated based on laboratory test data for similar components.
ing plan irregularities Types 1a, 1b, 4, or 5 of Table 12.3-1 or The effects of gravity and other loads on member deformation
structures without independent orthogonal systems, a 3-D model capacity shall be considered in these evaluations. Member defor-
incorporating a minimum of three dynamic degrees of freedom mation shall not exceed two-thirds of a value that results in loss
consisting of translation in two orthogonal plan directions and tor- of ability to carry gravity loads, or that results in deterioration of
sional rotation about the vertical axis at each level of the structure member strength to less than the 67 percent of the peak value.
shall be used. Where the diaphragms are not rigid compared to the 16.2.4.3 Story Drift. The design story drift, i , obtained from
vertical elements of the seismic force–resisting system, the model the analyses shall not exceed 125 percent of the drift limit specified
should include representation of the diaphragm’s flexibility and in Section 12.12.1.
such additional dynamic degrees of freedom as are required to
account for the participation of the diaphragm in the structure’s 16.2.5 Design Review. A design review of the seismic force–
dynamic response. resisting system and the structural analysis shall be performed
by an independent team of registered design professionals in the
16.2.3 Ground Motion and Other Loading. Ground motion appropriate disciplines and others experienced in seismic analy-
shall conform to the requirements of Section 16.1.3. The structure sis methods and the theory and application of nonlinear seismic
shall be analyzed for the effects of these ground motions simul- analysis and structural behavior under extreme cyclic loads. The
taneously with the effects of dead load in combination with not design review shall include, but need not be limited to, the fol-
less than 25 percent of the required live loads. lowing:
16.2.4 Response Parameters. For each ground motion ana- Review of any site-specific seismic criteria employed in the
lyzed, individual response parameters consisting of the maxi- analysis including the development of site-specific spectra and
mum value of the individual member forces, Q Ei , member in- ground motion time histories.
elastic deformations, ψi , and story drifts, i , at each story shall
be determined, where i is the designation assigned to each ground 1. Review of acceptance criteria used to demonstrate the ade-
motion. quacy of structural elements and systems to withstand the
calculated force and deformation demands, together with
If at least seven ground motions are analyzed, the design values that laboratory and other data used to substantiate these
of member forces, Q E , member inelastic deformations, ψ, and criteria.
story drift, , are permitted to be taken as the average of the Q Ei ,
ψ i , and i values determined from the analyses. If fewer than 2. Review of the preliminary design including the selection
seven ground motions are analyzed, the design member forces, of structural system and the configuration of structural
Q E , design member inelastic deformations, ψ, and the design elements.
story drift, , shall be taken as the maximum value of the Q Ei , 3. Review of the final design of the entire structural system
ψ i and i values determined from the analyses. and all supporting analyses.
176 ASCE 7-05

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Chapter 17
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SEISMICALLY ISOLATED STRUCTURES
17.1 GENERAL lateral deformations under design seismic load. An isolator unit
is permitted to be used either as part of, or in addition to, the
Every seismically isolated structure and every portion thereof
weight-supporting system of the structure.
shall be designed and constructed in accordance with the re-
quirements of this section and the applicable requirements of this MAXIMUM DISPLACEMENT: The maximum considered
standard. earthquake lateral displacement, excluding additional displace-
ment due to actual and accidental torsion.
17.1.1 Variations in Material Properties. The analysis of seis-
mically isolated structures, including the substructure, isolators, SCRAGGING: Cyclic loading or working of rubber products,
and superstructure, shall consider variations in seismic isolator including elastomeric isolators, to effect a reduction in stiffness
material properties over the projected life of the structure includ- properties, a portion of which will be recovered over time.
ing changes due to aging, contamination, environmental exposure, WIND-RESTRAINT SYSTEM: The collection of structural
loading rate, scragging, and temperature. elements that provides restraint of the seismic-isolated structure
for wind loads. The wind-restraint system is permitted to be either
17.1.2 Definitions. an integral part of isolator units or a separate device.
DISPLACEMENT:
17.1.3 Notation.
Design Displacement: The design earthquake lateral displace-
ment, excluding additional displacement due to actual and ac- B D = numerical coefficient as set forth in Table 17.5-1 for
cidental torsion, required for design of the isolation system. effective damping equal to β D
B M = numerical coefficient as set forth in Table 17.5-1 for
Total Design Displacement: The design earthquake lateral
effective damping equal to β M
displacement, including additional displacement due to actual
and accidental torsion, required for design of the isolation sys- b = shortest plan dimension of the structure, in ft (mm)
tem or an element thereof. measured perpendicular to d
Total Maximum Displacement: The maximum considered D D = design displacement, in in. (mm), at the center of rigid-
earthquake lateral displacement, including additional displace- ity of the isolation system in the direction under con-
ment due to actual and accidental torsion, required for verifica- sideration as prescribed by Eq. 17.5-1
tion of the stability of the isolation system or elements thereof, D D = design displacement, in in. (mm), at the center of rigid-
design of structure separations, and vertical load testing of ity of the isolation system in the direction under con-
isolator unit prototypes. sideration, as prescribed by Eq. 17.6-1
DISPLACEMENT RESTRAINT SYSTEM: A collection of D M = maximum displacement, in in. (mm), at the center of
structural elements that limits lateral displacement of seismically rigidity of the isolation system in the direction under
isolated structures due to the maximum considered earthquake. consideration, as prescribed by Eq. 17.5-3
D M = maximum displacement, in in. (mm), at the center of
EFFECTIVE DAMPING: The value of equivalent viscous rigidity of the isolation system in the direction under
damping corresponding to energy dissipated during cyclic re- consideration, as prescribed by Eq. 17.6-2
sponse of the isolation system.
EFFECTIVE STIFFNESS: The value of the lateral force in
the isolation system, or an element thereof, divided by the corre- TABLE 17.5-1 DAMPING COEFFICIENT, BD
sponding lateral displacement. OR BM
Effective Damping, β D BD or BM Factor
ISOLATION INTERFACE: The boundary between the upper or β M (percentage of critical)a,b
portion of the structure, which is isolated, and the lower portion ≤2 0.8
of the structure, which moves rigidly with the ground. 5 1.0
ISOLATION SYSTEM: The collection of structural elements 10 1.2
that includes all individual isolator units, all structural elements 20 1.5
that transfer force between elements of the isolation system, and 30 1.7
all connections to other structural elements. The isolation system 40 1.9
also includes the wind-restraint system, energy-dissipation de- ≥ 50 2.0
vices, and/or the displacement restraint system if such systems a The damping coefficient shall be based on the effective
and devices are used to meet the design requirements of this damping of the isolation system determined in accor-
chapter. dance with the requirements of Section 17.8.5.2.
b The damping coefficient shall be based on linear in-
ISOLATOR UNIT: A horizontally flexible and vertically stiff terpolation for effective damping values other than
structural element of the isolation system that permits large those given.

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DTD = total design displacement, in in. (mm), of an element Vs = total lateral seismic design force or shear on el-
of the isolation system including both translational ements above the isolation system as prescribed
displacement at the center of rigidity and the compo- by Eq. 17.5-8
nent of torsional displacement in the direction under y = distance, in ft (mm), between the center of rigid-
consideration as prescribed by Eq. 17.5-5 ity of the isolation system rigidity and the element
DTM = total maximum displacement, in in. (mm), of an ele- of interest measured perpendicular to the direc-
ment of the isolation system including both translation of seismic loading under consideration in
tional displacement at the center of rigidity and the Chapter 17
component of torsional displacement in the direction β D = effective damping of the isolation system at the
under consideration as prescribed by Eq. 17.5-6 design displacement as prescribed by Eq. 17.8-7
d = longest plan dimension of the structure, in ft (mm), in β M = effective damping of the isolation system at the
Chapter 17 maximum displacement as prescribed by Eq.
E loop = energy dissipated in kip-in. (kN-mm), in an isolator 17.8-8
unit during a full cycle of reversible load over a test βeff = effective damping of the isolation system as pre-
displacement range from + to − , as measured by scribed by Eq. 17.8-2
the area enclosed by the loop of the force-deflection
+ = maximum positive displacement of an isolator
curve
unit during each cycle of prototype testing
e = actual eccentricity, in ft (mm), measured in plan be-
− = maximum negative displacement of an isolator
tween the center of mass of the structure above the
unit during each cycle of prototype testing
isolation interface and the center of rigidity of the
isolation system, plus accidental eccentricity, in ft. E D = total energy dissipated, in kip-in. (kN-mm), in the
(mm), taken as 5 percent of the maximum building isolation system during a full cycle of response
dimension perpendicular to the direction of force un- at the design displacement, D D
der consideration E M = total energy dissipated, in kip-in. (kN-mm), in the
F − = maximum negative force in an isolator unit during isolation system during a full cycle of response
a single cycle of prototype testing at a displacement at the maximum displacement, D M
amplitude of − |FD+ |max = sum, for all isolator units, of the maximum ab-
+ solute value of force, in kips (kN), at a positive
F = positive force in kips (kN) in an isolator unit during
a single cycle of prototype testing at a displacement displacement equal to D D
amplitude of + +
|FD |min = sum, for all isolator units, of the minimum ab-
Fx = total force distributed over the height of the struc- solute value of force, in kips (kN), at a positive
ture above the isolation interface as prescribed by displacement equal to D D
Eq. 17.5-9 |FD− |max = sum, for all isolator units, of the maximum ab-
kDmax = maximum effective stiffness, in kips/in. (kN/mm), of solute value of force, in kips (kN), at a negative
the isolation system at the design displacement in the displacement equal to D D
−
horizontal direction under consideration as prescribed |FD |min = sum, for all isolator units, of the minimum ab-
by Eq. 17.8-3 solute value of force, in kips (kN), at a negative
kDmin = minimum effective stiffness, in kips/in. (kN/mm), of displacement equal to D D
the isolation system at the design displacement in the |FM+ |max = sum, for all isolator units, of the maximum ab-
horizontal direction under consideration as prescribed solute value of force, in kips (kN), at a positive
by Eq. 17.8-4 displacement equal to D M
kMmax = maximum effective stiffness, in kips/in. (kN/mm), of |FM+ |min = sum, for all isolator units, of the minimum ab-
the isolation system at the maximum displacement in solute value of force, in kips (kN), at a positive
the horizontal direction under consideration as pre- displacement equal to D M
scribed by Eq. 17.8-5 −
|FM |max = sum, for all isolator units, of the maximum ab-
kMmin = minimum effective stiffness, in kips/in. (kN/mm), of solute value of force, in kips (kN), at a negative
the isolation system at the maximum displacement in displacement equal to D M
the horizontal direction under consideration, as pre-
scribed by Eq. 17.8-6 |FM− |min = sum, for all isolator units, of the minimum ab-
solute value of force, in kips (kN), at a negative
keff = effective stiffness of an isolator unit, as prescribed by displacement equal to D M
Eq. 17.8-1
L = effect of live load in Chapter 17
TD = effective period, in s, of the seismically isolated struc- 17.2 GENERAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
ture at the design displacement in the direction under
17.2.1 Importance Factor. All portions of the structure, includ-
consideration as prescribed by Eq. 17.5-2
ing the structure above the isolation system, shall be assigned
TM = effective period, in s, of the seismically isolated struc- an occupancy category in accordance with Table 1-1. The im-
ture at the maximum displacement in direction under portance factor shall be taken as 1.0 for a seismically isolated
consideration as prescribed by Eq. 17.5-4 structure, regardless of its occupancy category assignment.
Vb = total lateral seismic design force or shear on elements
of the isolation system or elements below isolation 17.2.2 MCE Spectral Response Acceleration Parameters,
system as prescribed by Eq. 17.5-7 SMS and SM1 . The MCE spectral response acceleration
178 ASCE 7-05

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parameters SMS and S M1 shall be determined in accordance with 17.2.4.7 Overturning. The factor of safety against global struc-
Section 11.4.3. tural overturning at the isolation interface shall not be less than 1.0
for required load combinations. All gravity and seismic loading
17.2.3 Configuration. Each structure shall be designated as be- conditions shall be investigated. Seismic forces for overturning
ing regular or irregular on the basis of the structural configuration calculations shall be based on the maximum considered earth-
above the isolation system. quake and W shall be used for the vertical restoring force.
17.2.4 Isolation System. Local uplift of individual elements shall not be allowed unless
the resulting deflections do not cause overstress or instability of
17.2.4.1 Environmental Conditions. In addition to the require- the isolator units or other structure elements.
ments for vertical and lateral loads induced by wind and earth-
quake, the isolation system shall provide for other environmental 17.2.4.8 Inspection and Replacement.
conditions including aging effects, creep, fatigue, operating tem-
perature, and exposure to moisture or damaging substances. a. Access for inspection and replacement of all components of
the isolation system shall be provided.
17.2.4.2 Wind Forces. Isolated structures shall resist design b. A registered design professional shall complete a final series
wind loads at all levels above the isolation interface. At the isola- of inspections or observations of structure separation areas
tion interface, a wind-restraint system shall be provided to limit and components that cross the isolation interface prior to the
lateral displacement in the isolation system to a value equal to issuance of the certificate of occupancy for the seismically
that required between floors of the structure above the isolation isolated structure. Such inspections and observations shall in-
interface in accordance with Section 17.5.6. dicate that the conditions allow free and unhindered displace-
ment of the structure to maximum design levels and that all
17.2.4.3 Fire Resistance. Fire resistance for the isolation system components that cross the isolation interface as installed are
shall meet that required for the columns, walls, or other such able to accommodate the stipulated displacements.
gravity-bearing elements in the same area of the structure.
c. Seismically isolated structures shall have a periodic monitor-
17.2.4.4 Lateral Restoring Force. The isolation system shall be ing, inspection, and maintenance program for the isolation
configured to produce a restoring force such that the lateral force system established by the registered design professional re-
at the total design displacement is at least 0.025W greater than sponsible for the design of the system.
the lateral force at 50 percent of the total design displacement. d. Remodeling, repair, or retrofitting at the isolation system in-
terface, including that of components that cross the isolation
17.2.4.5 Displacement Restraint. The isolation system shall interface, shall be performed under the direction of a registered
not be configured to include a displacement restraint that lim- design professional.
its lateral displacement due to the maximum considered earth-
quake to less than the total maximum displacement unless the 17.2.4.9 Quality Control. A quality control testing program for
seismically isolated structure is designed in accordance with the isolator units shall be established by the registered design profes-
following criteria where more stringent than the requirements of sional responsible for the structural design.
Section 17.2:
17.2.5 Structural System.
1. Maximum considered earthquake response is calculated in
accordance with the dynamic analysis requirements of Sec- 17.2.5.1 Horizontal Distribution of Force. A horizontal di-
tion 17.6 explicitly considering the nonlinear characteristics aphragm or other structural elements shall provide continuity
of the isolation system and the structure above the isolation above the isolation interface and shall have adequate strength and
system. ductility to transmit forces (due to nonuniform ground motion)
2. The ultimate capacity of the isolation system and struc- from one part of the structure to another.
tural elements below the isolation system shall exceed the 17.2.5.2 Building Separations. Minimum separations between
strength and displacement demands of the maximum con- the isolated structure and surrounding retaining walls or other
sidered earthquake. fixed obstructions shall not be less than the total maximum dis-
3. The structure above the isolation system is checked for sta- placement.
bility and ductility demand of the maximum considered
earthquake. 17.2.5.3 Nonbuilding Structures. Nonbuilding structures shall
be designed and constructed in accordance with the requirements
4. The displacement restraint does not become effective at a of Chapter 15 using design displacements and forces calculated
displacement less than 0.75 times the total design displace- in accordance with Section 17.5 or 17.6.
ment unless it is demonstrated by analysis that earlier en-
gagement does not result in unsatisfactory performance. 17.2.6 Elements of Structures and Nonstructural Compo-
nents. Parts or portions of an isolated structure, permanent non-
17.2.4.6 Vertical-Load Stability. Each element of the isolation structural components and the attachments to them, and the at-
system shall be designed to be stable under the design vertical tachments for permanent equipment supported by a structure
load where subjected to a horizontal displacement equal to the shall be designed to resist seismic forces and displacements as
total maximum displacement. The design vertical load shall be prescribed by this section and the applicable requirements of
computed using load combination 5 of Section 2.3.2 for the max- Chapter 13.
imum vertical load and load combination 7 of Section 12.4.2.3
for the minimum vertical load where S DS in these equations is 17.2.6.1 Components at or above the Isolation Interface. El-
replaced by S M S . The vertical loads that result from application ements of seismically isolated structures and nonstructural com-
of horizontal seismic forces, Q E , shall be based on peak response ponents, or portions thereof, that are at or above the isolation
due to the maximum considered earthquake. interface shall be designed to resist a total lateral seismic force

P1: JsY
equal to the maximum dynamic response of the element or com- 3. The structure above the isolation interface is less than or
ponent under consideration. equal to four stories or 65 ft (19.8 m) in height.
EXCEPTION: Elements of seismically isolated structures and nonstruc- 4. The effective period of the isolated structure at the maximum
tural components or portions designed to resist seismic forces and dis-
displacement, TM , is less than or equal to 3.0 s.
placements as prescribed in Chapter 12 or 13 as appropriate.
5. The effective period of the isolated structure at the design
17.2.6.2 Components Crossing the Isolation Interface. Ele- displacement, TD , is greater than three times the elastic,
ments of seismically isolated structures and nonstructural com- fixed-base period of the structure above the isolation system
ponents, or portions thereof, that cross the isolation interface shall as determined by Eq. 12.8-7 or 12.8-8.
be designed to withstand the total maximum displacement.
6. The structure above the isolation system is of regular con-
17.2.6.3 Components below the Isolation Interface. Elements figuration.
of seismically isolated structure and nonstructural components,
or portions thereof, that are below the isolation interface shall be 7. The isolation system meets all of the following criteria:
designed and constructed in accordance with the requirements of a. The effective stiffness of the isolation system at the de-
Sections 12.1 and 13. sign displacement is greater than one-third of the effec-
tive stiffness at 20 percent of the design displacement.
17.3 GROUND MOTION FOR ISOLATED SYSTEMS b. The isolation system is capable of producing a restoring
force as specified in Section 17.2.4.4.
17.3.1 Design Spectra. The site-specific ground motion proce- c. The isolation system does not limit maximum considered
dures set forth in Chapter 21 are permitted to be used to determine earthquake displacement to less than the total maximum
ground motions for any structure. For structures on Site Class F displacement.
sites, site response analysis shall be performed in accordance with
Section 21.1. For seismically isolated structures on sites with S1 17.4.2 Dynamic Procedures. The dynamic procedures of Sec-
greater than or equal to 0.6, a ground motion hazard analysis shall tion 17.6 are permitted to be used as specified in this section.
be performed in accordance with Section 21.2. Structures that do
not require or use site-specific ground motion procedures shall
17.4.2.1 Response-Spectrum Procedure. Response spectrum
be analyzed using the design spectrum for the design earthquake
analysis shall not be used for design of a seismically isolated
developed in accordance with Section 11.4.5.
structure unless:
A design spectrum shall be constructed for the maximum con-
1. The structure is located on a site Class A, B, C, or D.
sidered earthquake. This design spectrum for the maximum con-
sidered earthquake shall not be taken as less than 1.5 times the 2. The isolation system meets the criteria of Item 7 of Section
design spectrum for the design earthquake. 17.4.1.
17.3.2 Ground Motion Histories. Where response history pro-
17.4.2.2 Response History Procedure. The response history
cedures are used, ground motions shall consist of pairs of ap-
procedure is permitted for design of any seismically isolated struc-
propriate horizontal ground motion acceleration components that
ture and shall be used for design of all seismically isolated struc-
shall be selected and scaled from individual recorded events. Ap-
tures not meeting the criteria of Section 17.4.2.1.
propriate ground motions shall be selected from events having
magnitudes, fault distance, and source mechanisms that are con-
sistent with those that control the maximum considered earth-
quake. Where the required number of recorded ground motion 17.5 EQUIVALENT LATERAL FORCE PROCEDURE
pairs are not available, appropriate simulated ground motion pairs 17.5.1 General. Where the equivalent lateral force procedure is
shall be used to make up the total number required. For each pair of used to design seismically isolated structures, the requirements
horizontal ground-motion components, a square root of the sum of this section shall apply.
of the squares (SRSS) spectrum shall be constructed by taking
the SRSS of the 5 percent damped response spectra for the scaled 17.5.2 Deformation Characteristics of the Isolation System.
components (where an identical scale factor is applied to both Minimum lateral earthquake design displacements and forces
components of a pair). Each pair of motions shall be scaled such on seismically isolated structures shall be based on the defor-
that for each period between 0.5TD and 1.25TM (where TD and mation characteristics of the isolation system. The deformation
TM are defined in Section 17.5.3) the average of the SRSS spectra characteristics of the isolation system shall explicitly include the
from all horizontal component pairs does not fall below 1.3 times effects of the wind-restraint system if such a system is used
the corresponding ordinate of the design response spectrum, deter- to meet the design requirements of this standard. The defor-
mined in accordance with Section 17.3.1, by more than 10 percent. mation characteristics of the isolation system shall be based
on properly substantiated tests performed in accordance with
17.4 ANALYSIS PROCEDURE SELECTION Section 17.8.
Seismically isolated structures except those defined in Section 17.5.3 Minimum Lateral Displacements.
17.4.1 shall be designed using the dynamic procedures of Section
17.6. 17.5.3.1 Design Displacement. The isolation system shall be de-
17.4.1 Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure. The equivalent signed and constructed to withstand minimum lateral earthquake
lateral force procedure of Section 17.5 is permitted to be used displacements, D D , that act in the direction of each of the main
for design of a seismically isolated structure provided that: horizontal axes of the structure in accordance with the following:
1. The structure is located at a site with S1 less than 0.60g. gS D1 TD

DD = (17.5-1)
2. The structure is located on a site Class A, B, C, or D. 4π 2 B D
180 ASCE 7-05

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where where
g = acceleration due to gravity. The units for g are in./s 2
W = effective seismic weight of the structure above the iso-
(mm/s2 ) if the units of the design displacement, D D , lation interface as defined in Section 12.7.2 (kip or kN)
are in. (mm) kMmin = minimum effective stiffness, in kips/in. (kN/mm), of the
S D1 = design 5 percent damped spectral acceleration parame- isolation system at the maximum displacement in the
ter at 1-s period in units of g-s, as determined in Section horizontal direction under consideration as prescribed
11.4.4 by Eq. 17.8-6
TD = effective period of seismically isolated structure in sec- g = the acceleration of gravity
onds, at the design displacement in the direction under
17.5.3.5 Total Displacement. The total design displacement,
consideration, as prescribed by Eq. 17.5-2
DT D , and the total maximum displacement, DT M , of elements
B D = numerical coefficient related to the effective damping
of the isolation system shall include additional displacement due
of the isolation system at the design displacement, β D ,
to actual and accidental torsion calculated from the spatial distri-
as set forth in Table 17.5-1
bution of the lateral stiffness of the isolation system and the most
disadvantageous location of eccentric mass.
17.5.3.2 Effective Period at Design Displacement. The effec-
The total design displacement, DT D , and the total maximum
tive period of the isolated structure at design displacement,
displacement, DT M , of elements of an isolation system with uni-
TD , shall be determined using the deformational characteris-
form spatial distribution of lateral stiffness shall not be taken as
tics of the isolation system in accordance with the following
less than that prescribed by the following equations:
equation:

12e
DT D = D D 1 + y (17.5-5)
W b + d2
2
TD = 2π (17.5-2)
k Dmin g 12e
DT M = D M 1 + y (17.5-6)
b2 + d 2
where
EXCEPTION: The total design displacement, DT D , and the total maxi-
W = effective seismic weight of the structure above the iso- mum displacement, DT M , are permitted to be taken as less than the value
lation interface as defined in Section 12.7.2 prescribed by Eqs. 17.5-5 and 17.5-6, respectively, but not less than 1.1
kDmin = minimum effective stiffness in kips/in. (kN/mm) of the times D D and D M , respectively, provided the isolation system is shown
by calculation to be configured to resist torsion accordingly.
isolation system at the design displacement in the hor-
izontal direction under consideration as prescribed by where
Eq. 17.8-4 D D = design displacement at the center of rigidity of the isolation
g = acceleration due to gravity system in the direction under consideration as prescribed
by Eq. 17.5-1
17.5.3.3 Maximum Displacement. The maximum displace- D M = maximum displacement at the center of rigidity of the
ment of the isolation system, D M , in the most critical direction isolation system in the direction under consideration as
of horizontal response shall be calculated in accordance with the prescribed by Eq. 17.5-3
formula: y = the distance between the centers of rigidity of the isolation
system and the element of interest measured perpendicular
gS M1 TM to the direction of seismic loading under consideration
DM = (17.5-3) e = the actual eccentricity measured in plan between the cen-
4π 2 B M ter of mass of the structure above the isolation interface
and the center of rigidity of the isolation system, plus ac-
where cidental eccentricity, in ft (mm), taken as 5 percent of the
g = acceleration of gravity longest plan dimension of the structure perpendicular to
S M1 = maximum considered 5 percent damped spectral accel- the direction of force under consideration
eration parameter at 1-s period, in units of g-s, as deter- b = the shortest plan dimension of the structure measured per-
mined in Section 11.4.3 pendicular to d
TM = effective period, in s, of seismic-isolated structure at the d = the longest plan dimension of the structure
maximum displacement in the direction under consider- 17.5.4 Minimum Lateral Forces.
ation as prescribed by Eq. 17.5-4
B M = numerical coefficient related to the effective damping of 17.5.4.1 Isolation System and Structural Elements below the
the isolation system at the maximum displacement, β M , Isolation System. The isolation system, the foundation, and all
as set forth in Table 17.5-1 structural elements below the isolation system shall be designed
and constructed to withstand a minimum lateral seismic force,
Vb , using all of the appropriate requirements for a nonisolated
17.5.3.4 Effective Period at Maximum Displacement. The ef- structure where
fective period of the isolated structure at maximum displacement,
TM , shall be determined using the deformational characteristics Vb = k Dmax D D (17.5-7)
of the isolation system in accordance with the equation: where
kDmax = maximum effective stiffness, in kips/in. (kN/mm), of the
W isolation system at the design displacement in the hori-
TM = 2π (17.5-4) zontal direction under consideration as prescribed by Eq.
k Mmin g
17.8-3

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D D = design displacement, in in. (mm), at the center of rigidity shall be calculated by Eq. 12.8-15 with the Cd factor of the isolated
of the isolation system in the direction under consideration structure equal to the R I factor defined in Section 17.5.4.2.
as prescribed by Eq. 17.5-1
Vb shall not be taken as less than the maximum force in the iso- 17.6 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS PROCEDURES
lation system at any displacement up to and including the design
displacement. 17.6.1 General. Where dynamic analysis is used to design seis-
mically isolated structures, the requirements of this section shall
17.5.4.2 Structural Elements above the Isolation System. The apply.
structure above the isolation system shall be designed and con-
structed to withstand a minimum shear force, Vs , using all of the 17.6.2 Modeling. The mathematical models of the isolated struc-
appropriate requirements for a nonisolated structure where ture including the isolation system, the seismic force–resisting
system, and other structural elements shall conform to Section
k Dmax D D
Vs = (17.5-8) 12.7.3 and to the requirements of Sections 17.6.2.1 and 17.6.2.2.
RI
17.6.2.1 Isolation System. The isolation system shall be mod-
where
eled using deformational characteristics developed and verified
kDmax = maximum effective stiffness, in kips/in. (kN/mm), of by test in accordance with the requirements of Section 17.5.2.
the isolation system at the design displacement in the The isolation system shall be modeled with sufficient detail to
horizontal direction under consideration
D D = design displacement, in in. (mm), at the center of rigidity a. Account for the spatial distribution of isolator units.
of the isolation system in the direction under considera- b. Calculate translation, in both horizontal directions, and torsion
tion as prescribed by Eq. 17.5-1 of the structure above the isolation interface considering the
R I = numerical coefficient related to the type of seismic most disadvantageous location of eccentric mass.
force−resisting system above the isolation system c. Assess overturning/uplift forces on individual isolator units.
The R I factor shall be based on the type of seismic force–resisting d. Account for the effects of vertical load, bilateral load, and/or
system used for the structure above the isolation system and shall the rate of loading if the force-deflection properties of the iso-
be three-eighths of the R value given in Table 12.2-1 with an lation system are dependent on one or more of these attributes.
upper-bound value not to exceed 2.0 and a lower-bound value not
to be less than 1.0. The total design displacement and total maximum displacement
across the isolation system shall be calculated using a model of
17.5.4.3 Limits on Vs . The value of Vs shall not be taken as less the isolated structure that incorporates the force-deflection char-
than the following: acteristics of nonlinear elements of the isolation system and the
1. The lateral seismic force required by Section 12.8 for a seismic force–resisting system.
fixed-base structure of the same effective seismic weight,
W , and a period equal to the isolated period, TD . 17.6.2.2 Isolated Structure.
2. The base shear corresponding to the factored design wind 17.6.2.2.1 Forces and Displacements in Key Elements. The
load. maximum displacement of each floor and design forces and dis-
placements in elements of the seismic force–resisting system are
3. The lateral seismic force required to fully activate the isola- permitted to be calculated using a linear elastic model of the iso-
tion system (e.g., the yield level of a softening system, the lated structure provided that
ultimate capacity of a sacrificial wind-restraint system, or
the break-away friction level of a sliding system) multiplied 1. Stiffness properties assumed for the nonlinear components
by 1.5. of the isolation system are based on the maximum effective
stiffness of the isolation system.
17.5.5 Vertical Distribution of Force. The shear force Vs shall
be distributed over the height of the structure above the isolation 2. All elements of the seismic force–resisting system of the
interface in accordance with the following equation: structure above the isolation system remain elastic for the
design earthquake.
Vs wx h x
Fx = n (17.5-9) Seismic force–resisting systems with elastic elements include,

wi h i but are not limited to, irregular structural systems designed for a
i=1 lateral force not less than 100 percent of Vs and regular structural
where systems designed for a lateral force not less than 80 percent of Vs ,
where Vs is determined in accordance with Section 17.5.4.2.
Vs = total lateral seismic design force or shear on elements above
the isolation system as prescribed by Eq. 17.5-8 17.6.3 Description of Procedures.
Wx = portion of W that is located at or assigned to Level i, n, or
x, respectively 17.6.3.1 General. Response spectrum and response history pro-
h x = height above the base Level i, n, or x, respectively cedures shall be performed in accordance with Section 12.9 and
wi = portion of W that is located at or assigned to Level i, n, or Chapter 16 and the requirements of this section.
x, respectively 17.6.3.2 Input Earthquake. The design earthquake shall be
h i = height above the base Level I , n, or x, respectively used to calculate the total design displacement of the isolation
At each level designated as x, the force, Fx , shall be applied over system and the lateral forces and displacements in the isolated
the area of the structure in accordance with the mass distribution structure. The maximum considered earthquake shall be used to
at the level. calculate the total maximum displacement of the isolation system.
17.5.6 Drift Limits. The maximum story drift of the structure 17.6.3.3 Response Spectrum Procedure. Response spectrum
above the isolation system shall not exceed 0.015h sx . The drift analysis shall be performed using a modal damping value for
182 ASCE 7-05

P1: JsY
the fundamental mode in the direction of interest not greater than where
the effective damping of the isolation system or 30 percent of crit-
D D = design displacement, in in. (mm), at the center of rigid-
ical, whichever is less. Modal damping values for higher modes
ity of the isolation system in the direction under con-
shall be selected consistent with those that would be appropriate
sideration as prescribed by Eq. 17.5-1
for response spectrum analysis of the structure above the isolation
D M = maximum displacement in in. (mm), at the center of
system assuming a fixed base.
rigidity of the isolation system in the direction under
Response spectrum analysis used to determine the total design consideration as prescribed by Eq. 17.5-3
displacement and the total maximum displacement shall include T = elastic, fixed-base period of the structure above the
simultaneous excitation of the model by 100 percent of the ground isolation system as determined by Section 12.8.2
motion in the critical direction and 30 percent of the ground mo- TD = effective period of seismically isolated structure in s,
tion in the perpendicular, horizontal direction. The maximum dis- at the design displacement in the direction under con-
placement of the isolation system shall be calculated as the vec- sideration as prescribed by Eq. 17.5-2
torial sum of the two orthogonal displacements. TM = effective period, in s, of the seismically isolated struc-
ture, at the maximum displacement in the direction
The design shear at any story shall not be less than the story
under consideration as prescribed by Eq. 17.5-4
shear resulting from application of the story forces calculated
using Eq. 17.5-9 and a value of Vs equal to the base shear obtained
from the response spectrum analysis in the direction of interest. 17.6.4.2 Structural Elements above the Isolation System.
Subject to the procedure-specific limits of this section, structural
elements above the isolation system shall be designed using the
17.6.3.4 Response History Procedure. Where a response his- appropriate requirements for a nonisolated structure and the forces
tory procedure is performed, a suite of not fewer than three ap- obtained from the dynamic analysis reduced by a factor of R I as
propriate ground motions shall be used in the analysis and the determined in accordance with Section 17.5.4.2. The design lat-
ground motion pairs shall be selected and scaled in accordance eral shear force on the structure above the isolation system, if
with Section 17.3.2. regular in configuration, shall not be taken as less than 80 percent
Each pair of ground motion components shall be applied si- of Vs , or less than the limits specified by Section 17.5.4.3.
multaneously to the model considering the most disadvantageous EXCEPTION: The design lateral shear force on the structure above the
location of eccentric mass. The maximum displacement of the isolation system, if regular in configuration, is permitted to be taken as
isolation system shall be calculated from the vectorial sum of the less than 80 percent, but shall not be less than 60 percent of Vs , where the
two orthogonal displacements at each time step. response history procedure is used for analysis of the seismically isolated
structure.
The parameters of interest shall be calculated for each ground The design lateral shear force on the structure above the iso-
motion used for the response-history analysis. If at least seven lation system, if irregular in configuration, shall not be taken as
ground motions are used for the response-history analysis, the less than Vs , or less than the limits specified by Section 17.5.4.3.
average value of the response parameter of interest is permitted
EXCEPTION: The design lateral shear force on the structure above the
to be used for design. If fewer than seven ground motions are an- isolation system, if irregular in configuration, is permitted to be taken as
alyzed, the maximum value of the response parameter of interest less than 100 percent, but shall not be less than 80 percent of Vs , where the
shall be used for design. response history procedure is used for analysis of the seismically isolated
structure.
17.6.4 Minimum Lateral Displacements and Forces.
17.6.4.3 Scaling of Results. Where the factored lateral shear
force on structural elements, determined using either response
17.6.4.1 Isolation System and Structural Elements below the spectrum or response history procedure, is less than the minimum
Isolation System. The isolation system, foundation, and all struc- values prescribed by Sections 17.6.4.1 and 17.6.4.2, all response
tural elements below the isolation system shall be designed using parameters, including member forces and moments, shall be ad-
all of the appropriate requirements for a nonisolated structure and justed upward proportionally.
the forces obtained from the dynamic analysis without reduction,
but the design lateral force shall not be taken less than 90 percent 17.6.4.4 Drift Limits. Maximum story drift corresponding to the
of Vb determined in accordance as prescribed by Eq. 17.5-7. design lateral force including displacement due to vertical defor-
The total design displacement of the isolation system shall not mation of the isolation system shall not exceed the following
be taken as less than 90 percent of DT D as specified by Section limits:
17.5.3.5. The total maximum displacement of the isolation system 1. The maximum story drift of the structure above the isolation
shall not be taken as less than 80 percent of DT M as prescribed system calculated by response spectrum analysis shall not
by Section 17.5.3.5. exceed 0.015h sx .
The limits on displacements specified by this section shall be 2. The maximum story drift of the structure above the isolation
evaluated using values of DT D and DT M determined in accor- system calculated by response history analysis based on the
dance with Section 17.5.5 except that D D is permitted to be used force-deflection characteristics of nonlinear elements of the
in lieu of D D and D M is permitted to be used in lieu of D M where lateral force-resisting system shall not exceed 0.020h sx .
DD Drift shall be calculated using Eq. 12.8-15 with the Cd factor

D D = (17.6-1) of the isolated structure equal to the R I factor defined in Section
1 + (T /TD )2 17.5.4.2.
The secondary effects of the maximum considered earthquake
DM lateral displacement of the structure above the isolation system
D M = (17.6-2) combined with gravity forces shall be investigated if the story
1 + (T /TM )2 drift ratio exceeds 0.010/R I .

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17.7 DESIGN REVIEW 4. 30S D1 / S DS B D , but not less than 10, fully reversed cycles of
loading at 1.0 times the total design displacement, 1.0DT D .
A design review of the isolation system and related test programs
shall be performed by an independent engineering team including If an isolator unit is also a vertical-load-carrying element, then
persons licensed in the appropriate disciplines and experienced item 2 of the sequence of cyclic tests specified in the preced-
in seismic analysis methods and the theory and application of ing text shall be performed for two additional vertical load cases
seismic isolation. Isolation system design review shall include, specified in Section 17.2.4.6. The load increment due to earth-
but not be limited to, the following: quake overturning, Q E , shall be equal to or greater than the peak
earthquake vertical force response corresponding to the test dis-
1. Review of site-specific seismic criteria including the devel- placement being evaluated. In these tests, the combined vertical
opment of site-specific spectra and ground motion histories load shall be taken as the typical or average downward force on
and all other design criteria developed specifically for the all isolator units of a common type and size.
project.
2. Review of the preliminary design including the determina- 17.8.2.3 Units Dependent on Loading Rates. If the force-
tion of the total design displacement, the total maximum deflection properties of the isolator units are dependent on the
displacement and the lateral force level. rate of loading, each set of tests specified in Section 17.8.2.2 shall
be performed dynamically at a frequency equal to the inverse of
3. Overview and observation of prototype testing (Section the effective period, TD .
17.8).
If reduced-scale prototype specimens are used to quantify rate-
4. Review of the final design of the entire structural system dependent properties of isolators, the reduced-scale prototype
and all supporting analyses. specimens shall be of the same type and material and be man-
5. Review of the isolation system quality control testing pro- ufactured with the same processes and quality as full-scale proto-
gram (Section 17.2.4.9). types and shall be tested at a frequency that represents full-scale
prototype loading rates.
The force-deflection properties of an isolator unit shall be con-
17.8 TESTING sidered to be dependent on the rate of loading if the measured
17.8.1 General. The deformation characteristics and damping property (effective stiffness or effective damping) at the design
values of the isolation system used in the design and analysis of displacement where tested at any frequency in the range of 0.1 to
seismically isolated structures shall be based on tests of a selected 2.0 times the inverse of TD is different from the property where
sample of the components prior to construction as described in tested at a frequency equal to the inverse of TD by more than
this section. 15 percent.
The isolation system components to be tested shall include the 17.8.2.4 Units Dependent on Bilateral Load. If the force-
wind-restraint system if such a system is used in the design. deflection properties of the isolator units are dependent on bi-
lateral load, the tests specified in Sections 13.6.1.2 and 13.6.1.3
The tests specified in this section are for establishing and vali- shall be augmented to include bilateral load at the following in-
dating the design properties of the isolation system and shall not crements of the total design displacement, DTD: 0.25 and 1.0, 0.5
be considered as satisfying the manufacturing quality control tests and 1.0, 0.75 and 1.0, and 1.0 and 1.0
of Section 17.2.4.9.
If reduced-scale prototype specimens are used to quantify
17.8.2 Prototype Tests. Prototype tests shall be performed sep- bilateral-load-dependent properties, the reduced-scale specimens
arately on two full-size specimens (or sets of specimens, as ap- shall be of the same type and material and manufactured with the
propriate) of each predominant type and size of isolator unit of same processes and quality as full-scale prototypes.
the isolation system. The test specimens shall include the wind- The force-deflection properties of an isolator unit shall be con-
restraint system as well as individual isolator units if such systems sidered to be dependent on bilateral load if the effective stiffness
are used in the design. Specimens tested shall not be used for con- where subjected to bilateral loading is different from the effec-
struction unless permitted by the registered design professional tive stiffness where subjected to unilateral loading by more than
and authority having jurisdiction. 15 percent.
17.8.2.1 Record. For each cycle of each test, the force-deflection 17.8.2.5 Maximum and Minimum Vertical Load. Isolator
and hysteretic behavior of the test specimen shall be recorded. units that carry vertical load shall be statically tested for maxi-
mum and minimum downward vertical load at the total maximum
17.8.2.2 Sequence and Cycles. The following sequence of tests displacement. In these tests, the combined vertical loads shall be
shall be performed for the prescribed number of cycles at a vertical taken as specified in Section 17.2.4.6 on any one isolator of a
load equal to the average dead load plus one-half the effects due common type and size. The dead load, D, and live load, L, are
to live load on all isolator units of a common type and size: specified in Section 12.4. The seismic load E is given by Eqs.
12.4-1 and 12.4-2 where S DS in these equations is replaced by
1. Twenty fully reversed cycles of loading at a lateral force
S M S and the vertical loads that result from application of horizon-
corresponding to the wind design force.
tal seismic forces, Q E , shall be based on the peak response due
2. Three fully reversed cycles of loading at each of the follow- to the maximum considered earthquake.
ing increments of the total design displacement—0.25D D ,
0.5D D , 1.0D D , and 1.0D M where D D and D M are as de- 17.8.2.6 Sacrificial Wind-Restraint Systems. If a sacrificial
termined in Sections 17.5.3.1 and 17.5.3.3, respectively, or wind-restraint system is to be utilized, its ultimate capacity shall
Section 17.6 as appropriate. be established by test.
3. Three fully reversed cycles of loading at the total maximum 17.8.2.7 Testing Similar Units. The prototype tests are not re-
displacement, 1.0DT M . quired if an isolator unit is of similar size and of the same type
184 ASCE 7-05

P1: JsY
and material as a prototype isolator unit that has been previously equations:
tested using the specified sequence of tests.
FD+ max + FD− max
17.8.3 Determination of Force-Deflection Characteristics. k Dmax = (17.8-3)
2D D
The force-deflection characteristics of the isolation system shall
be based on the cyclic load tests of prototype isolator specified in F +
D min + F −
D
Section 17.8.2. k Dmin = min
(17.8-4)
2D D
As required, the effective stiffness of an isolator unit, keff , shall At the maximum displacement, the maximum and minimum ef-
be calculated for each cycle of loading as follows: fective stiffness of the isolation system, kMmax and kMmin , shall
+ − be based on the cyclic tests of item 3 of Section 17.8.2.2 and
F + F calculated by the equations:
keff = (17.8-1) +
|+ | + |− | FM max + FM− max
k Mmax = (17.8-5)
where F + and F − are the positive and negative forces, at + and 2D M
− respectively. +
FM min + FM− min
k Mmin = (17.8-6)
As required, the effective damping, β e f f , of an isolator unit 2D M
shall be calculated for each cycle of loading by the equation:
The maximum effective stiffness of the isolation system, k Dmax
2 E loop (or kMmax ), shall be based on forces from the cycle of prototype
βeff = (17.8-2) testing at a test displacement equal to D D (or D M ) that produces
π keff (| | + |− |)2
+
the largest value of effective stiffness. Minimum effective stiff-
ness of the isolation system, kDmin (or kMmin ), shall be based on
where the energy dissipated per cycle of loading, E loop , and the forces from the cycle of prototype testing at a test displacement
effective stiffness, keff , shall be based on peak test displacements equal to D D (or D M ) that produces the smallest value of effective
of + and − . stiffness.
17.8.4 Test Specimen Adequacy. The performance of the test For isolator units that are found by the tests of Sections 17.8.2.2,
specimens shall be deemed adequate if the following conditions 17.8.2.3, and 17.8.2.4 to have force-deflection characteristics that
are satisfied: vary with vertical load, rate of loading, or bilateral load, re-
1. The force-deflection plots for all tests specified in Section spectively, the values of k Dmax and kMmax shall be increased
17.8.2 have a positive incremental force–resisting capacity. and the values of kDmin and kMmin shall be decreased, as nec-
essary, to bound the effects of measured variation in effective
2. For each increment of test displacement specified in item 2 stiffness.
of Section 17.8.2.2 and for each vertical load case specified
in Section 17.8.2.2, 17.8.5.2 Effective Damping. At the design displacement, the ef-
fective damping of the isolation system, β D , shall be based on the
a. For each test specimen, the difference between the effec-
cyclic tests of item 2 of Section 17.8.2.2 and calculated by the
tive stiffness at each of the three cycles of test and the
equation:
average value of effective stiffness is no greater than 15
percent. ED
βD = (17.8-7)
b. For each cycle of test, the difference between effective 2πk Dmax D 2D
stiffness of the two test specimens of a common type and
In Eq. 17.8-7, the total energy dissipated per cycle of design dis-
size of the isolator unit and the average effective stiffness
placement response, E D , shall be taken as the sum of the energy
is no greater than 15 percent.
dissipated per cycle in all isolator units measured at a test displace-
3. For each specimen there is no greater than a 20 percent ment equal to D D and shall be based on forces and deflections
change in the initial effective stiffness over the cycles of from the cycle of prototype testing at test displacement D D that
test specified in item 4 of Section 17.8.2.2. produces the smallest values of effective damping.
4. For each specimen there is no greater than a 20 percent At the maximum displacement, the effective damping of the
decrease in the initial effective damping over the cycles of isolation system, β M , shall be based on the cyclic tests of Item 2
test specified in item 4 of Section 17.8.2.2. of Section 17.8.2.2 and calculated by the equation:

5. All specimens of vertical-load-carrying elements of the iso- EM
lation system remain stable where tested in accordance with βM = (17.8-8)
2 π k Mmax D 2M
Section 17.8.2.5.
In Eq. 17.8-8, the total energy dissipated per cycle of design dis-
17.8.5 Design Properties of the Isolation System.
placement response, E M , shall be taken as the sum of the energy
17.8.5.1 Maximum and Minimum Effective Stiffness. At the dissipated per cycle in all isolator units measured at a test displace-
design displacement, the maximum and minimum effective stiff- ment equal to D M and shall be based on forces and deflections
ness of the isolated system, kDmax and kDmin , shall be based on from the cycle of prototype testing at test displacement D M that
the cyclic tests of item 2 of Section 17.8.2.2 and calculated by the produces the smallest value of effective damping.

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186
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Chapter 18
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURES WITH DAMPING SYSTEMS
18.1 GENERAL Bm M = numerical coefficient as set forth in Table 18.6-1 for

18.1.1 Scope. Every structure with a damping system and ev- effective damping equal to βm M and period of struc-
ery portion thereof shall be designed and constructed in accor- ture equal to Tm
dance with the requirements of this standard as modified by this B R = numerical coefficient as set forth in Table 18.6-1 for
section. Where damping devices are used across the isolation effective damping equal to β R and the period of struc-
interface of a seismically isolated structure, displacements, ve- ture equal to TR
locities, and accelerations shall be determined in accordance with BV +I = numerical coefficient as set forth in Table 18.6-1 for
Chapter 17. effective damping equal to the sum of viscous damp-
ing in the fundamental mode of vibration of the struc-
18.1.2 Definitions. The following definitions apply to the provi- ture in the direction of interest, βV m (m = 1), plus
sions of Chapter 18. inherent damping, βl , and period of structure equal to
T1
DAMPING DEVICE: A flexible structural element of the
damping system that dissipates energy due to relative motion of Cm F D = force coefficient as set forth in Table 18.7-1
each end of the device. Damping devices include all pins, bolts, Cm F V = force coefficient as set forth in Table 18.7-2
gusset plates, brace extensions, and other components required C S1 = seismic response coefficient of the fundamental mode
to connect damping devices to the other elements of the struc- of vibration of the structure in the direction of interest,
ture. Damping devices may be classified as either displacement- Section 18.4.2.4 or 18.5.2.4 (m = 1)
dependent or velocity-dependent, or a combination thereof, and
C Sm = seismic response coefficient of the m th mode of vibra-
may be configured to act in either a linear or nonlinear manner.
tion of the structure in the direction of interest, Section
DAMPING SYSTEM: The collection of structural elements 18.4.2.4 (m = 1) or Section 18.4.2.6 (m > 1)
that includes all the individual damping devices, all structural C S R = seismic response coefficient of the residual mode of
elements or bracing required to transfer forces from damping vibration of the structure in the direction of interest,
devices to the base of the structure, and the structural elements Section 18.5.2.8
required to transfer forces from damping devices to the seismic
D1D = fundamental mode design displacement at the center
force–resisting system.
rigidity of the roof level of structure in the direction
DISPLACEMENT-DEPENDENT DAMPING DEVICE: under consideration, Section 18.5.3.2
The force response of a displacement-dependent damping de- D1M = fundamental mode maximum displacement at the cen-
vice is primarily a function of the relative displacement, between ter of rigidity of the roof level of the structure in the
each end of the device. The response is substantially independent direction under consideration, Section 18.5.3.5
of the relative velocity between each of the devices, and/or the
Dm D = design displacement at the center of rigidity of the roof
excitation frequency.
level of the structure due to the m th mode of vibration
VELOCITY-DEPENDENT DAMPING DEVICE: The in the direction under consideration, Section 18.4.3.2
force-displacement relation for a velocity-dependent damping de- Dm M = maximum displacement at the center of rigidity of
vice is primarily a function of the relative velocity between each the roof level of the structure due to the m th mode of
end of the device, and could also be a function of the relative vibration in the direction under consideration, Section
displacement between each end of the device. 18.4.3.5
D R D = residual mode design displacement at the center of
18.1.3 Notation. The following notations apply to the provisions rigidity of the roof level of the structure in the direction
of this chapter. under consideration, Section 18.5.3.2
B1D = numerical coefficient as set forth in Table 18.6-1 for D R M = residual mode maximum displacement at the center
effective damping equal to βml (m = 1) and period of of rigidity of the roof level of the structure in the
structure equal to T1D direction under consideration, Section 18.5.3.5
B1E = numerical coefficient as set forth in Table 18.6-1 for DY = displacement at the center of rigidity of the roof level
the effective damping equal to β I + βV 1 and period of the structure at the effective yield point of the seis-
equal to T1 mic force–resisting system, Section 18.6.3
B1M = numerical coefficient as set forth in Table 18.6-1 for f i = lateral force at Level i of the structure distributed ap-
effective damping equal to βm M (m =1) and period of proximately in accordance with Section 12.8.3, Sec-
structure equal to T1M tion 18.5.2.3
Bm D = numerical coefficient as set forth in Table 18.6-1 for Fi1 = inertial force at Level i (or mass point i) in the fun-
effective damping equal to β ml and period of structure damental mode of vibration of the structure in the
equal to Tm direction of interest, Section 18.5.2.9

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Fim = inertial force at Level i (or mass point i) in the m th β H M = component of effective damping of the structure in the
mode of vibration of the structure in the direction direction of interest due to postyield hysteric behavior
of interest, Section 18.4.2.7 of the seismic force–resisting system and elements of
Fi R = inertial force at Level i (or mass point i) in the the damping system at effective ductility demand, µ M ,
residual mode of vibration of the structure in the Section 18.6.2.2
direction of interest, Section 18.5.2.9 β I = component of effective damping of the structure due
h r = height of the structure above the base to the roof to the inherent dissipation of energy by elements of the
level, Section 18.5.2.3 structure, at or just below the effective yield displace-
q H = hysteresis loop adjustment factor as determined in ment of the seismic force–resisting system, Section
Section 18.6.2.2.1 18.6.2.1
Q DS D = force in an element of the damping system required β R = total effective damping in the residual mode of vi-
to resist design seismic forces of displacement- bration of the structure in the direction of interest,
dependent damping devices, Section 18.7.2.5 calculated in accordance with Section 18.6.2 (using
µ D = 1.0 and µ M = 1.0)
Q m DSV = forces in an element of the damping system re-
quired to resist design seismic forces of velocity- βV m = component of effective damping of the m th mode of vi-
dependent damping devices due to the m th mode bration of the structure in the direction of interest due
of vibration of structure in the direction of interest, to viscous dissipation of energy by the damping sys-
Section 18.7.2.5 tem, at or just below the effective yield displacement
of the seismic force–resisting system, Section 18.6.2.3
Q m S F R S = force in an element of the damping system equal
to the design seismic force of the m th mode of vi- δi = elastic deflection of Level i of the structure due to ap-
bration of the seismic force resisting system in the plied lateral force, f i , Section 18.5.2.3
direction of interest, Section 18.7.2.5 δi1D = fundamental mode design earthquake deflection of
T1 = the fundamental period of the structure in the di- Level i at the center of rigidity of the structure in the
rection under consideration direction under consideration, Section 18.5.3.1
T1D = effective period, in seconds, of the fundamental δi D = total design earthquake deflection of Level i at the cen-
mode of vibration of the structure at the design ter of rigidity of the structure in the direction under
displacement in the direction under consideration, consideration, Section 18.5.3
as prescribed by Section 18.4.2.5 or 18.5.2.5 δi M = total maximum earthquake deflection of Level i at the
T1M = effective period, in seconds, of the fundamental center of rigidity of the structure in the direction under
mode of vibration of the structure at the maximum consideration, Section 18.5.3
displacement in the direction under consideration, δi R D = residual mode design earthquake deflection of Level i
as prescribed by Section 18.4.2.5 or 18.5.2.5 at the center of rigidity of the structure in the direction
TR = period, in seconds, of the residual mode of vibration under consideration, Section 18.5.3.1
of the structure in the direction under consideration, δim = deflection of Level i in the m th mode of vibration at
Section 18.5.2.7 the center of rigidity of the structure in the direction
Vm = design value of the seismic base shear of the m th under consideration, Section 18.6.2.3
mode of vibration of the structure in the direction 1D = design earthquake story drift due to the fundamental
of interest, Section 18.4.2.2 mode of vibration of the structure in the direction of
Vmin = minimum allowable value of base shear permitted interest, Section 18.5.3.3
for design of the seismic force–resisting system of D = total design earthquake story drift of the structure in
the structure in the direction of interest, Section the direction of interest, Section 18.5.3.3
18.2.2.1 M = total maximum earthquake story drift of the structure
VR = design value of the seismic base shear of the resid- in the direction of interest, Section 18.5.3
ual mode of vibration of the structure in a given m D = design earthquake story drift due to the m th mode of
direction, as determined in Section 18.5.2.6 vibration of the structure in the direction of interest,
W̄1 = effective fundamental mode seismic weight deter- Section 18.4.3.3
mined in accordance with Eq. 18.4-2b for m = 1 R D = design earthquake story drift due to the residual mode
W̄ R = effective residual mode seismic weight determined of vibration of the structure in the direction of interest,
in accordance with Eq. 18.5-13 Section 18.5.3.3
α = velocity exponent relating damping device force to µ = effective ductility demand on the seismic force–
damping device velocity resisting system in the direction of interest
βm D = total effective damping of the m th mode of vibration µ D = effective ductility demand on the seismic force–
of the structure in the direction of interest at the resisting system in the direction of interest due to the
design displacement, Section 18.6.2 design earthquake, Section 18.6.3
βm M = total effective damping of the m th mode of vibration µ M = effective ductility demand on the seismic force–
of the structure in the direction of interest at the resisting system in the direction of interest due to the
maximum displacement, Section 18.6.2 maximum considered earthquake, Section 18.6.3
β H D = component of effective damping of the structure in µmax = maximum allowable effective ductility demand on the
the direction of interest due to post-yield hysteric seismic force–resisting system due to design earth-
behavior of the seismic force–resisting system and quake, Section 18.6.4
elements of the damping system at effective ductil- φi1 = displacement amplitude at Level i of the fundamental
ity demand µ D , Section 18.6.2.2 mode of vibration of the structure in the direction of
188 ASCE 7-05

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interest, normalized to unity at the roof level, Section damping in the fundamental mode of vibration of the struc-
18.5.2.3 ture in the direction of interest, βV m (m = 1), plus inherent
φi R = displacement amplitude at Level i of the residual mode damping, β I , and period of structure equal to T1
of vibration of the structure in the direction of interest EXCEPTION: The seismic base shear used for design of the seismic
normalized to unity at the roof level, Section 18.5.2.7 force–resisting system shall not be taken as less than 1.0V, if either of
1 = participation factor of fundamental mode of vibration the following conditions apply:
of the structure in the direction of interest, Section a. In the direction of interest, the damping system has less
18.4.2.3 or 18.5.2.3 (m = 1) than two damping devices on each floor level, configured
m = participation factor on the m th mode of vibration of the to resist torsion.
structure in the direction of interest, Section 18.4.2.3 b. The seismic force–resisting system has horizontal irreg-
R = participation factor of the residual mode of vibration ularity Type 1b (Table 12.3-1) or vertical irregularity
of the structure in the direction of interest, Section Type 1b (Table 12.3-2).
18.5.2.7 2. Minimum strength requirements for elements of the seismic
∇1D = design earthquake story velocity due to the fundamen- force–resisting system that are also elements of the damp-
tal mode of vibration of the structure in the direction ing system or are otherwise required to resist forces from
of interest, Section 18.5.3.4 damping devices shall meet the additional requirements of
∇D = total design earthquake story velocity of the structure Section 18.7.2.
in the direction of interest, Section 18.4.3.4
18.2.2.2 Damping System. Elements of the damping system
∇M = total maximum earthquake story velocity of the struc- shall be designed to remain elastic for design loads including
ture in the direction of interest, Section 18.5.3 unreduced seismic forces of damping devices as required in Sec-
∇m D = design earthquake story velocity due to the m th mode tion 18.7.2.1, unless it is shown by analysis or test that inelastic
of vibration of the structure in the direction of interest, response of elements would not adversely affect damping system
Section 18.4.3.4 function and inelastic response is limited in accordance with the
requirements of Section 18.7.2.6.
18.2 GENERAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS 18.2.3 Ground Motion.
18.2.1 Seismic Design Category A. Seismic Design Category 18.2.3.1 Design Spectra. Spectra for the design earthquake and
A structures with a damping system shall be designed using the the maximum considered earthquake developed in accordance
design spectral response acceleration determined in accordance with Section 17.3.1 shall be used for the design and analysis of
with Section 11.4.4 and the analysis methods and design require- all structures with a damping system. Site-specific design spectra
ments for Seismic Design Category B structures. shall be developed and used for design of all structures with a
damping system if either of the following conditions apply:
18.2.2 System Requirements. Design of the structure shall con-
sider the basic requirements for the seismic force–resisting system 1. The structure is located on a Class F site.
and the damping system as defined in the following sections. The 2. The structure is located at a site with S1 greater than or equal
seismic force–resisting system shall have the required strength to 0.6.
to meet the forces defined in Section 18.2.2.1. The combination
of the seismic force–resisting system and the damping system is 18.2.3.2 Ground Motion Histories. Ground motion histories
permitted to be used to meet the drift requirement. for the design earthquake and the maximum considered earth-
quake developed in accordance with Section 17.3.2 shall be used
18.2.2.1 Seismic Force–Resisting System. Structures that con- for design and analysis of all structures with a damping system if
tain a damping system are required to have a seismic force– either of the following conditions apply:
resisting system that, in each lateral direction, conforms to one of 1. The structure is located at a site with S1 greater than or equal
the types indicated in Table 12.2-1. to 0.6.
The design of the seismic force–resisting system in each direc- 2. The damping system is explicitly modeled and analyzed
tion shall satisfy the requirements of Section 18.7 and the follow- using the response history analysis method.
ing:
18.2.4 Procedure Selection. All structures with a damping sys-
1. The seismic base shear used for design of the seismic force– tem shall be designed using linear procedures, nonlinear proce-
resisting system shall not be less than Vmin , where Vmin is dures, or a combination of linear and nonlinear procedures, as
determined as the greater of the values computed using Eqs. permitted in this section.
18.2-1 and 18.2-2 as follows:
Regardless of the analysis method used, the peak dynamic re-
V sponse of the structure and elements of the damping system shall
Vmin = (18.2-1) be confirmed by using the nonlinear response history procedure
BV +1 if the structure is located at a site with S1 greater than or equal
Vmin = 0.75V (18.2-2) to 0.6.
18.2.4.1 Nonlinear Procedures. The nonlinear procedures of
where Section 18.3 are permitted to be used for design of all structures
with damping systems.
V = seismic base shear in the direction of interest, de-
termined in accordance with Section 12.8 18.2.4.2 Response Spectrum Procedure. The response spec-
BV +1 = numerical coefficient as set forth in Table 18.6-1 trum procedure of Section 18.4 is permitted to be used for design
for effective damping equal to the sum of viscous of structures with damping systems provided that

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1. In the direction of interest, the damping system has at least 18.2.5.4 Quality Control. As part of the quality assurance plan
two damping devices in each story, configured to resist tor- developed in accordance with Section 11A.1.2, the registered de-
sion. sign professional responsible for the structural design shall estab-
lish a quality control plan for the manufacture of damping devices.
2. The total effective damping of the fundamental mode,
As a minimum, this plan shall include the testing requirements of
βm D (m = 1), of the structure in the direction of interest
Section 18.9.2.
is not greater than 35 percent of critical.
18.2.4.3 Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure. The equivalent 18.3 NONLINEAR PROCEDURES
lateral force procedure of Section 18.5 is permitted to be used for
design of structures with damping systems provided that The stiffness and damping properties of the damping devices used
in the models shall be based on or verified by testing of the damp-
1. In the direction of interest, the damping system has at least ing devices as specified in Section 18.9. The nonlinear force-
two damping devices in each story, configured to resist tor- deflection characteristics of damping devices shall be modeled,
sion. as required, to explicitly account for device dependence on fre-
2. The total effective damping of the fundamental mode, quency, amplitude, and duration of seismic loading.
β m D (m = 1), of the structure in the direction of interest
18.3.1 Nonlinear Response History Procedure. A nonlinear
is not greater than 35 percent of critical.
response history (time history) analysis shall utilize a mathemat-
3. The seismic force–resisting system does not have horizontal ical model of the structure and the damping system as provided
irregularity Type 1a or 1b (Table 12.3-1) or vertical irregu- in Section 16.2.2 and this section. The model shall directly ac-
larity Type 1a, 1b, 2, or 3 (Table 12.3-2). count for the nonlinear hysteretic behavior of elements of the
4. Floor diaphragms are rigid as defined in Section 12.3.1. structure and the damping devices to determine its response,
through methods of numerical integration, to suites of ground
5. The height of the structure above the base does not exceed motions compatible with the design response spectrum for the
100 ft (30 m). site.
18.2.5 Damping System. The analysis shall be performed in accordance with Sec-
tion 16.2 together with the requirements of this section. Inherent
18.2.5.1 Device Design. The design, construction, and installa- damping of the structure shall not be taken greater than 5 percent
tion of damping devices shall be based on maximum earthquake of critical unless test data consistent with levels of deformation
response and consideration of the following conditions: at or just below the effective yield displacement of the seismic
force–resisting system support higher values.
1. Low-cycle, large-displacement degradation due to seismic
loads. If the calculated force in an element of the seismic force–
resisting system does not exceed 1.5 times its nominal strength,
2. High-cycle, small-displacement degradation due to wind, that element is permitted to be modeled as linear.
thermal, or other cyclic loads.
18.3.1.1 Damping Device Modeling. Mathematical models of
3. Forces or displacements due to gravity loads.
displacement-dependent damping devices shall include the hys-
4. Adhesion of device parts due to corrosion or abrasion, teretic behavior of the devices consistent with test data and ac-
biodegradation, moisture, or chemical exposure. counting for all significant changes in strength, stiffness, and hys-
teretic loop shape. Mathematical models of velocity-dependent
5. Exposure to environmental conditions, including, but not
damping devices shall include the velocity coefficient consistent
limited to, temperature, humidity, moisture, radiation (e.g.,
with test data. If this coefficient changes with time and/or temper-
ultraviolet light), and reactive or corrosive substances (e.g.,
ature, such behavior shall be modeled explicitly. The elements of
salt water).
damping devices connecting damper units to the structure shall
Damping devices subject to failure by low-cycle fatigue shall be included in the model.
resist wind forces without slip, movement, or inelastic cycling. EXCEPTION: If the properties of the damping devices are expected
The design of damping devices shall incorporate the range of to change during the duration of the time history analysis, the dynamic
response is permitted to be enveloped by the upper and lower limits of
thermal conditions, device wear, manufacturing tolerances, and device properties. All these limit cases for variable device properties must
other effects that cause device properties to vary during the design satisfy the same conditions as if the time dependent behavior of the devices
life of the device. were explicitly modeled.
18.2.5.2 Multiaxis Movement. Connection points of damping 18.3.1.2 Response Parameters. In addition to the response pa-
devices shall provide sufficient articulation to accommodate si- rameters given in Section 16.2.4, for each ground motion used for
multaneous longitudinal, lateral, and vertical displacements of the response history analysis, individual response parameters consist-
damping system. ing of the maximum value of the discrete damping device forces,
displacements, and velocities, in the case of velocity-dependent
18.2.5.3 Inspection and Periodic Testing. Means of access for devices, shall be determined.
inspection and removal of all damping devices shall be provided.
If at least seven ground motions are used for response history
The registered design professional responsible for design of analysis, the design values of the damping device forces, displace-
the structure shall establish an appropriate inspection and testing ments, and velocities are permitted to be taken as the average of
schedule for each type of damping device to ensure that the de- the values determined by the analyses. If fewer than seven ground
vices respond in a dependable manner throughout the design life. motions are used for response history analysis, the design damp-
The degree of inspection and testing shall reflect the established ing device forces, displacements, and velocities shall be taken as
in-service history of the damping devices, and the likelihood of the maximum value determined by the analyses. A minimum of
change in properties over the design life of devices. three ground motions shall be used.
190 ASCE 7-05

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2
18.3.2 Nonlinear Static Procedure. The nonlinear modeling
n
described in Section 16.2.2 and the lateral loads described in Sec- wi φim
i=1
tion 16.2 shall be applied to the seismic force–resisting system. W̄m = (18.4-2b)
The resulting force-displacement curve shall be used in lieu of n
wi φim
2
the assumed effective yield displacement, DY , of Eq. 18.6-10 to i=1
calculate the effective ductility demand due to the design earth-
where
quake, µ D , and due to the maximum considered earthquake, µ M ,
in Eqs. 18.6-8 and 18.6-9, respectively. The value of (R/Cd ) shall Csm = seismic response coefficient of the m th mode of vibration
be taken as 1.0 in Eqs. 18.4-4, 18.4-5, 18.4-8, and 18.4-9 for the of the structure in the direction of interest as determined
response spectrum procedure, and in Eqs. 18.5-6, 18.5-7, and from Section 18.4.2.4 (m = 1) or Section 18.4.2.6 (m > 1)
18.5-15 for the equivalent lateral force procedure. W̄m = effective seismic weight of the m th mode of vibration of
the structure
18.4 RESPONSE SPECTRUM PROCEDURE 18.4.2.3 Modal Participation Factor. The modal participation
factor of the m th mode of vibration, m , of the structure in
Where the response spectrum procedure is used to analyze struc- the direction of interest shall be determined in accordance with
tures with a damping system, the requirements of this section shall Eq. 18.4-3 as follows:
apply.
W̄m
m = (18.4-3)
18.4.1 Modeling. A mathematical model of the seismic force–
n
resisting system and damping system shall be constructed that wi φim

i=1
represents the spatial distribution of mass, stiffness, and damp-
ing throughout the structure. The model and analysis shall com- where
ply with the requirements of Section 12.9 for the seismic force– φim = displacement amplitude at the i th level of the structure in
resisting system and to the requirements of this section for the the m th mode of vibration in the direction of interest, nor-
damping system. The stiffness and damping properties of the malized to unity at the roof level.
damping devices used in the models shall be based on or ver-
ified by testing of the damping devices as specified in Section 18.4.2.4 Fundamental Mode Seismic Response Coefficient.
18.9. The fundamental mode (m = 1) seismic response coefficient, C S1 ,
in the direction of interest shall be determined in accordance with
The elastic stiffness of elements of the damping system other Eqs. 18.4-4 and 18.4-5 as follows:
than damping devices shall be explicitly modeled. Stiffness of
damping devices shall be modeled depending on damping device For T1D < TS ,
type as follows:
R S DS
1. Displacement-dependent damping devices: Displacement- Cs1 = (18.4-4)
dependent damping devices shall be modeled with an ef- Cd 0 B1D
fective stiffness that represents damping device force at
For T1D ≥ TS ,
the response displacement of interest (e.g., design story
drift). Alternatively, the stiffness of hysteretic and friction
R S D1
damping devices is permitted to be excluded from response Cs1 = (18.4-5)
spectrum analysis provided design forces in displacement- Cd T1D (0 B1D )
dependent damping devices, Q DS D , are applied to the model
as external loads (Section 18.7.2.5). 18.4.2.5 Effective Fundamental Mode Period Determination.
The effective fundamental mode (m = 1) period at the design
2. Velocity-dependent damping devices: Velocity-dependent
earthquake, T1D , and at the maximum considered earthquake,
damping devices that have a stiffness component (e.g., vis-
T1M , shall be based either on explicit consideration of the post-
coelastic damping devices) shall be modeled with an effec-
yield nonlinear force deflection characteristics of the structure or
tive stiffness corresponding to the amplitude and frequency
determined in accordance with Eqs. 18.4-6 and 18.4-7 as follows:
of interest. √
T1D = T1 µ D (18.4-6)
18.4.2 Seismic Force–Resisting System.
√
T1M = T1 µ M (18.4-7)
18.4.2.1 Seismic Base Shear. The seismic base shear, V , of the
structure in a given direction shall be determined as the combina- 18.4.2.6 Higher Mode Seismic Response Coefficient. Higher
tion of modal components, Vm , subject to the limits of Eq. 18.4-1 mode (m > 1) seismic response coefficient, C Sm , of the m th mode
as follows: of vibration (m > 1) of the structure in the direction of interest
shall be determined in accordance with Eqs. 18.4-8 and 18.4-9 as
V ≥ Vmin (18.4-1) follows:
The seismic base shear, V , of the structure shall be determined by For Tm < TS ,
the sum of the square root method (SRSS) or complete quadratic
combination of modal base shear components, Vm . R S DS
C Sm = (18.4-8)
Cd 0 Bm D
th
18.4.2.2 Modal Base Shear. Modal base shear of the m mode
of vibration, Vm , of the structure in the direction of interest shall For Tm ≥ TS ,
be determined in accordance with Eq. 18.4-2 as follows:
R S D1
C Sm = (18.4-9)
Vm = Csm W̄m (18.4-2a) Cd Tm (0 Bm D )

P1: JsY
where be calculated in accordance with Section 12.8.6 using modal roof

displacements of Section 18.4.3.2.
Tm = period, in seconds, of the m mode of vibration of the
th
structure in the direction under consideration Total design earthquake story drift, D , shall be determined
Bm D = numerical coefficient as set forth in Table 18.6-1 for ef- by the SRSS or complete quadratic combination of modal design
fective damping equal to βm D and period of the structure earthquake drifts.
equal to Tm 18.4.3.4 Design Earthquake Story Velocity. Design earth-
18.4.2.7 Design Lateral Force. Design lateral force at Level i quake story velocity in the fundamental mode, ∇1D , and higher
due to m th mode of vibration, Fim , of the structure in the direction modes, ∇m D (m > 1), of the structure in the direction of interest
of interest shall be determined in accordance with Eq. 18.4-10 as shall be calculated in accordance with Eqs. 18.4-14 and 18.4-15
follows: as follows:
m 1D
Fim = wi φim Vm (18.4-10) For m = 1, ∇1D = 2π (18.4-14)
W̄m T1D
Design forces in elements of the seismic force–resisting system m D
For m > 1, ∇m D = 2π (18.4-15)
shall be determined by the SRSS or complete quadratic combina- Tm
tion of modal design forces. Total design earthquake story velocity, ∇ D , shall be determined
18.4.3 Damping System. Design forces in damping devices and by the SRSS or complete quadratic combination of modal design
other elements of the damping system shall be determined on the earthquake velocities.
basis of the floor deflection, story drift, and story velocity response 18.4.3.5 Maximum Earthquake Response. Total modal max-
parameters described in the following sections. imum earthquake floor deflection at Level i, design story drift
Displacements and velocities used to determine maximum values and design story velocity values shall be based on Sec-
forces in damping devices at each story shall account for the tions 18.4.3.1, 18.4.3.3, and 18.4.3.4, respectively, except de-
angle of orientation from horizontal and consider the effects of sign earthquake roof displacement shall be replaced by maxi-
increased response due to torsion required for design of the seis- mum earthquake roof displacement. Maximum earthquake roof
mic force–resisting system. displacement of the structure in the direction of interest shall be
calculated in accordance with Eqs. 18.4-16 and 18.4-17 as fol-
Floor deflections at Level i, δi D and δi M , design story drifts, D lows:
and M , and design story velocities, ∇ D and ∇ M , shall be calcu-
lated for both the design earthquake and the maximum considered For m = 1,
earthquake, respectively, in accordance with this section.
g S T2 g S T2
M S 1M MS 1
18.4.3.1 Design Earthquake Floor Deflection. The deflection D1M = 1 ≥ 1 , T1M < TS
of structure due to the design earthquake at Level i in the m th mode 4π 2 B1M 4π 2 B1E
of vibration, δ im D , of the structure in the direction of interest shall (18.4-16a)
be determined in accordance with Eq. 18.4-11 as follows: g S T g S T
M1 1M M1 1
δim D = Dm D φim (18.4-11) D1M = 2
1 ≥ 1 , T1M ≥ TS
4π B1M 4π 2 B1E
The total design earthquake deflection at each floor of the structure (18.4-16b)
shall be calculated by the SRSS or complete quadratic combina-
tion of modal design earthquake deflections. For m > 1,
18.4.3.2 Design Earthquake Roof Displacement. Fundamen- g S M1 Tm g S M S Tm2
tal (m = 1) and higher mode (m > 1) roof displacements due Dm M = m ≤ m (18.4-17)
to the design earthquake, D1D and Dm D , of the structure in 4π 2 Bm M 4π 2 Bm M
the direction of interest shall be determined in accordance with
Eqs. 18.4-12 and 18.4-13 as follows: where
For m = 1, Bm M = numerical coefficient as set forth in Table 18.6-1 for ef-
g S T2 g S T2 fective damping equal to β m M and period of the structure
D1D =
DS 1D
≥ 1
DS 1
, T1D < TS equal to Tm
1
4π 2 B1D 4π 2 B1E
(18.4-12a) 18.5 EQUIVALENT LATERAL FORCE PROCEDURE
g S T g S T Where the equivalent lateral force procedure is used to design
D1 1D D1 1
D1D = 2
1 ≥ 1 , T1D ≥ TS structures with a damping system, the requirements of this section
4π B1D 4π 2 B1E shall apply.
(18.4-12b) 18.5.1 Modeling. Elements of the seismic force–resisting sys-
tem shall be modeled in a manner consistent with the requirements
For m > 1,
of Section 12.8. For purposes of analysis, the structure shall be
g S D1 Tm g S DS Tm2 considered to be fixed at the base.
Dm D = m ≤ m (18.4-13)
4π 2 Bm D 4π 2 Bm D Elements of the damping system shall be modeled as required
to determine design forces transferred from damping devices to
18.4.3.3 Design Earthquake Story Drift. Design earthquake both the ground and the seismic force–resisting system. The ef-
story drift in the fundamental mode, 1D , and higher modes, fective stiffness of velocity-dependent damping devices shall be
m D (m > 1), of the structure in the direction of interest shall modeled.
192 ASCE 7-05

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Damping devices need not be explicitly modeled provided ef- where

fective damping is calculated in accordance with the procedures of
f i = lateral force at Level i of the structure distributed in accor-
Section 18.6 and used to modify response as required in Sections
dance with Section 12.8.3
18.5.2 and 18.5.3.
δi = elastic deflection at Level i of the structure due to applied
The stiffness and damping properties of the damping devices lateral forces f i
used in the models shall be based on or verified by testing of the 18.5.2.4 Fundamental Mode Seismic Response Coefficient.
damping devices as specified in Section 18.9. The fundamental mode seismic response coefficient, C S1 , shall
18.5.2 Seismic Force–Resisting System. be determined using Eq. 18.5-6 or 18.5-7 as follows:
18.5.2.1 Seismic Base Shear. The seismic base shear, V , of the For T1D < TS ,
seismic force–resisting system in a given direction shall be deter-
mined as the combination of the two modal components, V1 and R S D1
C S1 = (18.5-6)
VR , in accordance with the following equation: Cd 0 B1D

V = V12 + VR2 ≥ Vmin (18.5-1) For T1D ≥ TS ,

where R S D1
C S1 = (18.5-7)
V1 = design value of the seismic base shear of the fundamental Cd T1D (0 B1D )
mode in a given direction of response, as determined in where
Section 18.5.2.2
VR = design value of the seismic base shear of the residual mode S DS = the design spectral response acceleration parameter in the
in a given direction, as determined in Section 18.5.2.6 short period range
Vmin = minimum allowable value of base shear permitted for de- S D1 = the design spectral response acceleration parameter at a
sign of the seismic force–resisting system of the struc- period of 1 s
ture in direction of the interest, as determined in Section B1D = numerical coefficient as set forth in Table 18.6-1 for ef-
18.2.2.1 fective damping equal to βm D (m = 1) and period of the
structure equal to T1D
18.5.2.2 Fundamental Mode Base Shear. The fundamental
mode base shear, V1 , shall be determined in accordance with the 18.5.2.5 Effective Fundamental Mode Period Determination.
following equation: The effective fundamental mode period at the design earthquake,
T1D , and at the maximum considered earthquake, T1M , shall be
V1 = C S1 W̄1 (18.5-2) based on explicit consideration of the post-yield force deflec-
where tion characteristics of the structure or shall be calculated using
C S1 = the fundamental mode seismic response coefficient, as de- Eqs. 18.5-8 and 18.5-9 as follows:
√
termined in Section 18.5.2.4 T1D = T1 µ D (18.5-8)
W̄1 = the effective fundamental mode seismic weight including √
portions of the live load as defined by Eq. 18.4-2b for T1M = T1 µ M (18.5-9)
m=1
18.5.2.6 Residual Mode Base Shear. Residual mode base shear,
18.5.2.3 Fundamental Mode Properties. The fundamental VR , shall be determined in accordance with Eq. 18.5-10 as follows:
mode shape, φi1 , and participation factor, 1 , shall be determined
by either dynamic analysis using the elastic structural properties VR = C S R W̄ R (18.5-10)
and deformational characteristics of the resisting elements or us- where
ing Eqs. 18.5-3 and 18.5-4 as follows:
C S R = the residual mode seismic response coefficient as deter-
hi mined in Section 18.5.2.8
φi1 = (18.5-3)
hr W̄ R = the effective residual mode effective weight of the struc-
ture determined using Eq. 18.5-13
W̄1
1 = (18.5-4) 18.5.2.7 Residual Mode Properties. Residual mode shape, φi R ,

n
wi φi1 participation factor, R , effective residual mode seismic weight
i=1 of the structure, W̄ R , and effective period, TR , shall be determined
where using Eqs. 18.5-11 through 18.5-14 as follows:
h i = the height of the structure above the base to Level i 1 − 1 φi1
h r = the height of the structure above the base to the roof level φi R = (18.5-11)
1 − 1
wi = the portion of the total effective seismic weight, W , located
at or assigned to Level i R = 1 − 1 (18.5-12)
The fundamental period, T1 , shall be determined either by dy- W̄ R = W − W̄1 (18.5-13)
namic analysis using the elastic structural properties and defor- TR = 0.4T1 (18.5-14)
mational characteristics of the resisting elements, or using Eq.
18.5-5 as follows: 18.5.2.8 Residual Mode Seismic Response Coefficient. The

n residual mode seismic response coefficient, C S R , shall be deter-
wi δi2
mined in accordance with the following equation:
i=1
T1 = 2π n (18.5-5)
CS R =
R S DS
(18.5-15)
g f i δi C d 0 B R
i=1

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where g S T g S T
D1 1D D1 1
D1D = 1 ≥ 1 , T1D ≥ TS
B R = numerical coefficient as set forth in Table 18.6-1 for effec- 4π 2 B1D 4π 2 B1E
tive damping equal to β R , and period of the structure equal (18.5-20b)
to TR
g S D1 TR g S DS TR2
18.5.2.9 Design Lateral Force. The design lateral force in ele-
DR D = R ≤ R (18.5-21)
ments of the seismic force–resisting system at Level i due to fun- 4π 2 BR 4π 2 BR
damental mode response, Fi1 , and residual mode response, Fi R ,
of the structure in the direction of interest shall be determined in 18.5.3.3 Design Earthquake Story Drift. Design earthquake
accordance with Eqs. 18.5-16 and 18.5-17 as follows: story drifts, D , in the direction of interest shall be calculated
using Eq. 18.5-22 as follows:
1
Fi1 = wi φi1 V1 (18.5-16)
W̄1 D = 21D + 2R D (18.5-22)
R where
Fi R = wi φi R VR (18.5-17)
W̄ R 1D = design earthquake story drift due to the fundamental mode
Design forces in elements of the seismic force–resisting system of vibration of the structure in the direction of interest
shall be determined by taking the SRSS of the forces due to fun- R D = design earthquake story drift due to the residual mode of
damental and residual modes. vibration of the structure in the direction of interest
18.5.3 Damping System. Design forces in damping devices and Modal design earthquake story drifts, 1D and R D , shall be
other elements of the damping system shall be determined on the determined as the difference of the deflections at the top and
basis of the floor deflection, story drift, and story velocity response bottom of the story under consideration using the floor deflections
parameters described in the following sections. of Section 18.5.3.1.
Displacements and velocities used to determine maximum 18.5.3.4 Design Earthquake Story Velocity. Design earth-
forces in damping devices at each story shall account for the quake story velocities, ∇ D , in the direction of interest shall be
angle of orientation from horizontal and consider the effects of calculated in accordance with Eqs. 18.5-23 through 18.5-25 as
increased response due to torsion required for design of the seis- follows:
mic force–resisting system.
Floor deflections at Level i, δi D and δi M , design story drifts, ∇ D = ∇1D 2
+ ∇ R2 D (18.5-23)
D and M , and design story velocities, ∇ D and ∇ M , shall be 1D
calculated for both the design earthquake and the maximum con- ∇1D = 2π (18.5-24)
sidered earthquake, respectively, in accordance with the following T1D
sections. R D
∇ R D = 2π (18.5-25)
18.5.3.1 Design Earthquake Floor Deflection. The total design TR
earthquake deflection at each floor of the structure in the direction
of interest shall be calculated as the SRSS of the fundamental and where
residual mode floor deflections. The fundamental and residual
mode deflections due to the design earthquake, δi1D and δi R D , at ∇1D = design earthquake story velocity due to the fundamen-
the center of rigidity of Level i of the structure in the direction tal mode of vibration of the structure in the direction of
of interest shall be determined using Eqs. 18.5-18 and 18.5-19 as interest
follows: ∇ R D = design earthquake story velocity due to the residual mode
of vibration of the structure in the direction of interest
δi1D = D1D φi1 (18.5-18)
18.5.3.5 Maximum Earthquake Response. Total and modal
δi R D = D R D φi R (18.5-19) maximum earthquake floor deflections at Level i, design story
drifts, and design story velocities shall be based on the equa-
where tions in Sections 18.5.3.1, 18.5.3.3, and 18.5.3.4, respectively, ex-
D1D = fundamental mode design displacement at the center of cept that design earthquake roof displacements shall be replaced
rigidity of the roof level of the structure in the direction by maximum earthquake roof displacements. Maximum earth-
under consideration, Section 18.5.3.2 quake roof displacements shall be calculated in accordance with
D R D = residual mode design displacement at the center of rigidity Eqs. 18.5-26 and 18.5-27 as follows:
of the roof level of the structure in the direction under g S T2 g S T2
consideration, Section 18.5.3.2 D1M = 1
M S 1M
≥ 1
MS 1
, T1M < TS
4π 2 B1M 4π 2 B1E
18.5.3.2 Design Earthquake Roof Displacement. Fundamen-
tal and residual mode displacements due to the design earthquake, (18.5-26a)
D1D and D1R , at the center of rigidity of the roof level of the
structure in the direction of interest shall be determined using g S T g S T
M1 1M M1 1
Eqs. 18.5-20 and 18.5-21 as follows: D1M = 1 ≥ 1 , T1M ≥ TS
4π 2 B1M 4π 2 B1E
g S T2 g S T2 (18.5-26b)
DS 1D DS 1
D1D = 1 ≥ 1 , T1D < TS g g
4π 2 B1D 4π 2 B1E S M1 TR S M S TR2
DR M = 2
R ≤ 2
R (18.5-27)
(18.5-20a) 4π BR 4π BR
194 ASCE 7-05

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TABLE 18.6-1 DAMPING COEFFICIENT, βV m = component of effective damping of the m th mode of

BV+I , B1D , BR, B1M , BmD , OR BmM
vibration of the structure in the direction of interest due
Effective Damping, BV+I , B 1D , BR , B 1M , BmD , or BmM
β (percentage of critical) (where period of the structure ≥ T0 )
to viscous dissipation of energy by the damping system,
≤2 0.8
at or just below the effective yield displacement of the
seismic force–resisting system
5 1.0
µ D = effective ductility demand on the seismic force–
10 1.2 resisting system in the direction of interest due to the
20 1.5 design earthquake
30 1.8 µ M = effective ductility demand on the seismic force–
40 2.1 resisting system in the direction of interest due to the
50 2.4 maximum considered earthquake
60 2.7 Unless analysis or test data supports other values, the effective
70 3.0 ductility demand of higher modes of vibration in the direction of
80 3.3 interest shall be taken as 1.0.
90 3.6
18.6.2.1 Inherent Damping. Inherent damping, β I , shall be
≥100 4.0
based on the material type, configuration, and behavior of the
structure and nonstructural components responding dynamically
where at or just below yield of the seismic force–resisting system. Un-
less analysis or test data supports other values, inherent damping
S M1 = the maximum considered earthquake, 5 percent-damped, shall be taken as not greater than 5 percent of critical for all modes
spectral response acceleration at a period of 1 s, deter- of vibration.
mined in accordance with Section 11.4.3
S M S = the maximum considered earthquake, 5 percent-damped, 18.6.2.2 Hysteretic Damping. Hysteretic damping of the seis-
spectral response acceleration at short periods, determined mic force–resisting system and elements of the damping system
in accordance with Section 11.4.3 shall be based either on test or analysis, or shall be calculated
B1M = numerical coefficient as set forth in Table 18.6-1 for effec- using Eqs. 18.6-3 and 18.6-4 as follows:
tive damping equal to β m M (m = 1) and period of structure
1
equal to T1M β H D = q H (0.64 − β I ) 1 − (18.6-3)
µD

18.6 DAMPED RESPONSE MODIFICATION 1
β H M = q H (0.64 − β I ) 1 − (18.6-4)
As required in Sections 18.4 and 18.5, response of the structure µM
shall be modified for the effects of the damping system.
where
18.6.1 Damping Coefficient. Where the period of the structure q H = hysteresis loop adjustment factor, as defined in Section
is greater than or equal to T0 , the damping coefficient shall be as 18.6.2.2.1
prescribed in Table 18.6-1. Where the period of the structure is µ D = effective ductility demand on the seismic force–resisting
less than T0 , the damping coefficient shall be linearly interpolated system in the direction of interest due to the design earth-
between a value of 1.0 at a 0-s period for all values of effective quake, as defined in Section 18.6.3
damping and the value at period T0 as indicated in Table 18.6-1. µ M = effective ductility demand on the seismic force–resisting
18.6.2 Effective Damping. The effective damping at the design system in the direction of interest due to the maximum
displacement, β m D , and at the maximum displacement, β m M , of considered earthquake, as defined in Section 18.6.3
the m th mode of vibration of the structure in the direction under Unless analysis or test data supports other values, the hysteretic
consideration shall be calculated using Eqs. 18.6-1 and 18.6-2 as damping of higher modes of vibration in the direction of interest
follows: shall be taken as zero.
√ 18.6.2.2.1 Hysteresis Loop Adjustment Factor. The calcu-
βm D = β I + βV m µ D + β H D (18.6-1)
lation of hysteretic damping of the seismic force–resisting system
√ and elements of the damping system shall consider pinching and
βm M = β I + β V m µ M + β H M (18.6-2)
other effects that reduce the area of the hysteresis loop during re-
peated cycles of earthquake demand. Unless analysis or test data
where support other values, the fraction of full hysteretic loop area of
β H D = component of effective damping of the structure in the the seismic force–resisting system used for design shall be taken
direction of interest due to postyield hysteretic behavior as equal to the factor, q H , using Eq. 18.6-5 as follows:
of the seismic force–resisting system and elements of the TS
damping system at effective ductility demand, µ D q H = 0.67 (18.6-5)
T1
β H M = component of effective damping of the structure in the
direction of interest due to postyield hysteretic behavior where
of the seismic force–resisting system and elements of the
TS = period defined by the ratio, S D1 /S DS
damping system at effective ductility demand, µ M
T1 = period of the fundamental mode of vibration of the structure
β I = component of effective damping of the structure due to the
in the direction of the interest
inherent dissipation of energy by elements of the struc-
ture, at or just below the effective yield displacement of The value of q H shall not be taken as greater than 1.0, and need
the seismic force–resisting system not be taken as less than 0.5.

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18.6.2.3 Viscous Damping. Viscous damping of the m th mode C S1 = seismic response coefficient of the fundamental mode
of vibration of the structure, β V m , shall be calculated using Eqs. of vibration of the structure in the direction of interest,
18.6-6 and 18.6-7 as follows: Section 18.4.2.4 or 18.5.2.4 (m = 1)
T1 = period of the fundamental mode of vibration of the
Wm j structure in the direction of interest
j
βV m = (18.6-6)
4π Wm The design earthquake ductility demand, µ D , shall not exceed
the maximum value of effective ductility demand, µmax , given in
1
Section 18.6.4.
Wm = Fim δim (18.6-7)
2 i 18.6.4 Maximum Effective Ductility Demand. For determina-
tion of the hysteresis loop adjustment factor, hysteretic damping,
where and other parameters, the maximum value of effective ductility
Wm j = work done by j th damping device in one complete cycle demand, µmax , shall be calculated using Eqs. 18.6-11 and 18.6-12
of dynamic response corresponding to the m th mode of vi- as follows:
bration of the structure in the direction of interest at modal For TI D ≤ TS ,
displacements, δ im

Wm = maximum strain energy in the m th mode of vibration of the 1 R 2
structure in the direction of interest at modal displacements, µmax = +1 (18.6-11)
2 0 I
δ im
Fim = m th mode inertial force at Level i For T1 ≥ TS ,
δim = deflection of Level i in the m th mode of vibration at the
R
center of rigidity of the structure in the direction under con- µmax = (18.6-12)
sideration 0 I
Viscous modal damping of displacement-dependent damping For T1 < TS < T1D , µmax shall be determined by linear inter-
devices shall be based on a response amplitude equal to the effec- polation between the values of Eqs.
tive yield displacement of the structure. 18.6-11 and 18.6-12
The calculation of the work done by individual damping de- where
vices shall consider orientation and participation of each device I = the occupancy importance factor determined in accor-
with respect to the mode of vibration of interest. The work done dance with Section 11.5.1
by individual damping devices shall be reduced as required to T1D = effective period of the fundamental mode of vibration of
account for the flexibility of elements, including pins, bolts, gus- the structure at the design displacement in the direction
set plates, brace extensions, and other components that connect under consideration
damping devices to other elements of the structure.
18.6.3 Effective Ductility Demand. The effective ductility de- 18.7 SEISMIC LOAD CONDITIONS
mand on the seismic force–resisting system due to the design AND ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
earthquake, µ D , and due to the maximum considered earthquake, For the nonlinear procedures of Section 18.3, the seismic force–
µ M , shall be calculated using Eqs. 18.6-8, 18.6-9, and 18.6-10 as resisting system, damping system, loading conditions, and ac-
follows: ceptance criteria for response parameters of interest shall conform
D1D with Section 18.7.1. Design forces and displacements determined
µD = ≥ 1.0 (18.6-8) in accordance with the response spectrum procedure of Section
DY 18.4 or the equivalent lateral force procedure of Section 18.5 shall
D1M be checked using the strength design criteria of this standard and
µM = ≥ 1.0 (18.6-9) the seismic loading conditions of Section 18.7.1 and 18.7.2.
DY
18.7.1 Nonlinear Procedures. Where nonlinear procedures are
g C used in analysis, the seismic force–resisting system, damping sys-
0 d
DY = 1 C S1 T12 (18.6-10) tem, seismic loading conditions, and acceptance criteria shall con-
4π 2 R
form to the following subsections.
where
18.7.1.1 Seismic Force–Resisting System. The seismic force–
D1D = fundamental mode design displacement at the center of resisting system shall satisfy the strength requirements of Section
rigidity of the roof level of the structure in the direction 12.2.1 using the seismic base shear, Vmin , as given by Section
under consideration, Section 18.4.3.2 or 18.5.3.2 18.2.2.1. The story drift shall be determined using the design
D1M = fundamental mode maximum displacement at the center earthquake.
of rigidity of the roof level of structure in the direction 18.7.1.2 Damping Systems. The damping devices and their con-
under consideration, Section 18.4.3.5 or 18.5.3.5 nections shall be sized to resist the forces, displacements, and
DY = displacement at the center of rigidity of the roof level of velocities from the maximum considered earthquake.
the structure at the effective yield point of the seismic
force–resisting system 18.7.1.3 Combination of Load Effects. The effects on the
R = response modification coefficient from Table 12.2-1 damping system due to gravity loads and seismic forces shall
Cd = deflection amplification factor from Table 12.2-1 be combined in accordance with Section 12.4 using the effect of
o = system overstrength factor from Table 12.2-1 horizontal seismic forces, Q E , determined in accordance with the
1 = participation factor of the fundamental mode of vibration analysis. The redundancy factor, ρ, shall be taken equal to 1.0 in
of the structure in the direction of interest, Section 18.4.2.3 all cases and the seismic load effect with overstrength of Section
or 18.5.2.3 (m = 1) 12.4.3 need not apply to the design of the damping system.
196 ASCE 7-05

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18.7.1.4 Acceptance Criteria for the Response Parameters of 1. Stage of maximum displacement: Seismic design force at
Interest. The damping system components shall be evaluated the stage of maximum displacement shall be calculated in
using the strength design criteria of this standard using the seis- accordance with Eq. 18.7-1 as follows:
mic forces and seismic loading conditions determined from the
nonlinear procedures and φ = 1.0. The members of the seismic Q E = o (Q m S F RS )2 ± Q DS D (18.7-1)

force–resisting system need not be evaluated where using the non- m
linear procedure forces. where
18.7.2 Response Spectrum and Equivalent Lateral Force Pro- Q m S F RS = force in an element of the damping system equal
cedures. Where response spectrum and equivalent lateral force to the design seismic force of the m th mode of
procedures are used in analysis, the seismic force–resisting sys- vibration of the seismic force–resisting system
tem, damping system, seismic loading conditions, and acceptance in the direction of interest
criteria shall conform to the following subsections. Q DS D = force in an element of the damping system
required to resist design seismic forces of
18.7.2.1 Seismic Force–Resisting System. The seismic force– displacement-dependent damping devices
resisting system shall satisfy the requirements of Section 12.2.1
using seismic base shear and design forces determined in accor- Seismic forces in elements of the damping system,
dance with Section 18.4.2 or 18.5.2. Q DS D , shall be calculated by imposing design forces of
The design earthquake story drift, D , as determined in either displacement-dependent damping devices on the damping
Section 18.4.3.3 or 18.5.3.3 shall not exceed (R/Cd ) times the system as pseudostatic forces. Design seismic forces of
allowable story drift, as obtained from Table 12.12-1, considering displacement-dependent damping devices shall be applied
the effects of torsion as required in Section 12.12.1. in both positive and negative directions at peak displacement
of the structure.
18.7.2.2 Damping System. The damping system shall satisfy 2. Stage of maximum velocity: Seismic design force at the
the requirements of Section 12.2.1 for seismic design forces and stage of maximum velocity shall be calculated in accordance
seismic loading conditions determined in accordance with this with Eq. 18.7-2 as follows:
section.
QE = (Q m DSV )2 (18.7-2)
18.7.2.3 Combination of Load Effects. The effects on the
m
damping system and its components due to gravity loads and
seismic forces shall be combined in accordance with Section 12.4 where
using the effect of horizontal seismic forces, Q E , determined in Q m DSV = force in an element of the damping system re-
accordance with Section 18.7.2.5. The redundancy factor, ρ, shall quired to resist design seismic forces of velocity-
be taken equal to 1.0 in all cases and the seismic load effect with dependent damping devices due to the m th mode
overstrength of Section 12.4.3 need not apply to the design of the of vibration of structure in the direction of
damping system. interest
18.7.2.4 Modal Damping System Design Forces. Modal damp-
Modal seismic design forces in elements of the damping sys-
ing system design forces shall be calculated on the basis of the
tem, Q m DSV , shall be calculated by imposing modal design
type of damping devices and the modal design story displacements
forces of velocity-dependent devices on the nondeformed
and velocities determined in accordance with either Section 18.4.3
damping system as pseudostatic forces. Modal seismic de-
or 18.5.3.
sign forces shall be applied in directions consistent with the
Modal design story displacements and velocities shall be in- deformed shape of the mode of interest. Horizontal restraint
creased as required to envelop the total design story displacements forces shall be applied at each floor Level i of the nonde-
and velocities determined in accordance with Section 18.3 where formed damping system concurrent with the design forces
peak response is required to be confirmed by response history in velocity-dependent damping devices such that the hori-
analysis. zontal displacement at each level of the structure is zero. At
1. Displacement-dependent damping devices: Design seismic each floor Level i, restraint forces shall be proportional to
force in displacement-dependent damping devices shall be and applied at the location of each mass point.
based on the maximum force in the device at displacements 3. Stage of maximum acceleration: Seismic design force at
up to and including the design earthquake story drift, D . the stage of maximum acceleration shall be calculated in
2. Velocity-dependent damping devices: Design seismic force accordance with Eq. 18.7-3 as follows:
in each mode of vibration in velocity-dependent damping
devices shall be based on the maximum force in the device QE = (Cm F D o Q m S F RS + Cm F V Q m DSV )2
at velocities up to and including the design earthquake story m
velocity for the mode of interest. ± Q DS D (18.7-3)
Displacements and velocities used to determine design forces
in damping devices at each story shall account for the angle of The force coefficients, Cm F D and Cm F V , shall be determined
orientation of the damping device from horizontal and consider from Tables 18.7-1 and 18.7-2, respectively, using values of
the effects of increased floor response due to torsional motions. effective damping determined in accordance with the fol-
lowing requirements:
18.7.2.5 Seismic Load Conditions and Combination of Modal For fundamental-mode response (m = 1) in the direc-
Responses. Seismic design force, Q E , in each element of the tion of interest, the coefficients, C1F D and C1F V , shall be
damping system due to horizontal earthquake load shall be taken based on the velocity exponent, α, that relates device force to
as the maximum force of the following three loading conditions: damping device velocity. The effective fundamental-mode

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TABLE 18.7-1 FORCE COEFFICIENT, CmF D a,b 18.8 DESIGN REVIEW

Effective µ ≤ 1.0 Cm F D = 1.0c A design review of the damping system and related test programs
Damping α ≤ 0.25 α = 0.5 α = 0.75 α ≥ 1.0
shall be performed by an independent team of registered design
≤ 0.05 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 µ ≥1.0
professionals in the appropriate disciplines and others experi-
0.1 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 µ ≥1.0 enced in seismic analysis methods and the theory and application
0.2 1.00 0.95 0.94 0.93 µ ≥1.1 of energy dissipation systems.
0.3 1.00 0.92 0.88 0.86 µ ≥1.2
The design review shall include, but need not be limited to, the
0.4 1.00 0.88 0.81 0.78 µ ≥1.3
following:
0.5 1.00 0.84 0.73 0.71 µ ≥1.4
0.6 1.00 0.79 0.64 0.64 µ ≥1.6 1. Review of site-specific seismic criteria including the de-
0.7 1.00 0.75 0.55 0.58 µ ≥1.7
velopment of the site-specific spectra and ground motion
histories and all other project specific design criteria.
0.8 1.00 0.70 0.50 0.53 µ ≥1.9
0.9 1.00 0.66 0.50 0.50 µ ≥2.1 2. Review of the preliminary design of the seismic force–
≥1.0 1.00 0.62 0.50 0.50 µ ≥2.2 resisting system and the damping system, including design
a Unless analysis or test data support other values, the force coefficient C parameters of damping devices.
mFD
for viscoelastic systems shall be taken as 1.0. 3. Review of the final design of the seismic force–resisting
b Interpolation shall be used for intermediate values of velocity exponent, α,
and ductility demand, µ. system and the damping system and all supporting analyses.
m F D shall be taken equal to 1.0 for values of ductility demand, µ, greater
cC
than or equal to the values shown. 4. Review of damping device test requirements, device man-
ufacturing quality control and assurance, and scheduled
maintenance and inspection requirements.
damping, shall be taken equal to the total effective damping
of the fundamental mode less the hysteretic component of 18.9 TESTING
damping (β1D − β H D or β1M − β H M ) at the response level The force-velocity displacement and damping properties used for
of interest (µ = µ D or µ = µ M ). the design of the damping system shall be based on the prototype
For higher-mode (m > 1) or residual-mode response in tests as specified in this section.
the direction of interest, the coefficients, Cm F D and Cm F V ,
shall be based on a value of α equal to 1.0. The effective The fabrication and quality control procedures used for all pro-
modal damping shall be taken equal to the total effective totype and production damping devices shall be identical.
damping of the mode of interest (β m D or β m M ). For deter- 18.9.1 Prototype Tests. The following tests shall be performed
mination of the coefficient Cm F D , the ductility demand shall separately on two full-size damping devices of each type and size
be taken equal to that of the fundamental mode (µ = µ D or used in the design, in the order listed as follows.
µ = µ M ).
Representative sizes of each type of device are permitted to be
18.7.2.6 Inelastic Response Limits. Elements of the damping used for prototype testing, provided both of the following condi-
system are permitted to exceed strength limits for design loads tions are met:
provided it is shown by analysis or test that
1. Fabrication and quality control procedures are identical for
1. Inelastic response does not adversely affect damping system each type and size of devices used in the structure.
function.
2. Prototype testing of representative sizes is accepted by the
2. Element forces calculated in accordance with Section registered design professional responsible for design of the
18.7.2.5, using a value of 0 , taken equal to 1.0, do not structure.
exceed the strength required to satisfy the load combina-
Test specimens shall not be used for construction, unless they
tions of Section 12.4.
are accepted by the registered design professional responsible for
design of the structure and meet the requirements for prototype
TABLE 18.7-2 FORCE COEFFICIENT, CmF V a,b and production tests.
Effective 18.9.1.1 Data Recording. The force-deflection relationship for
Damping α ≤ 0.25 α = 0.5 α = 0.75 α ≥ 1.0
each cycle of each test shall be recorded.
≤ 0.05 1.00 0.35 0.20 0.10
0.1 1.00 0.44 0.31 0.20 18.9.1.2 Sequence and Cycles of Testing. For the following test
0.2 1.00 0.56 0.46 0.37
sequences, each damping device shall be subjected to gravity load
effects and thermal environments representative of the installed
0.3 1.00 0.64 0.58 0.51
condition. For seismic testing, the displacement in the devices
0.4 1.00 0.70 0.69 0.62
calculated for the maximum considered earthquake, termed herein
0.5 1.00 0.75 0.77 0.71 as the maximum earthquake device displacement, shall be used.
0.6 1.00 0.80 0.84 0.77
1. Each damping device shall be subjected to the number of
0.7 1.00 0.83 0.90 0.81
cycles expected in the design windstorm, but not less than
0.8 1.00 0.90 0.94 0.90
2,000 continuous fully reversed cycles of wind load. Wind
0.9 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 load shall be at amplitudes expected in the design wind
≥1.0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 storm, and applied at a frequency equal to the inverse of the
a Unless analysis or test data support other values, the force
fundamental period of the building ( f 1 = 1/T1 ).
coefficient Cm F D for viscoelastic systems shall be taken as
1.0. EXCEPTION: Damping devices need not be subjected to these
b Interpolation shall be used for intermediate values of velocity tests if they are not subject to wind-induced forces or displacements,
exponent, α. or if the design wind force is less than the device yield or slip force.
198 ASCE 7-05

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2. Each damping device shall be loaded with five fully re- does not differ by more than 15 percent from the average
versed, sinusoidal cycles at the maximum earthquake device maximum and minimum forces at zero displacement as cal-
displacement at a frequency equal to 1/T1M as calculated in culated from all cycles in that test at a specific frequency
Section 18.4.2.5. Where the damping device characteris- and temperature.
tics vary with operating temperature, these tests shall be
3. For Tests 2 and 3, the maximum force and minimum force
conducted at a minimum of three temperatures (minimum,
at maximum earthquake device displacement for a damping
ambient, and maximum) that bracket the range of operating
device for any one cycle does not differ by more than 15
temperatures.
percent from the average maximum and minimum forces
EXCEPTION: Damping devices are permitted to be tested by alter- at the maximum earthquake device displacement as calcu-
native methods provided all of the following conditions are met: lated from all cycles in that test at a specific frequency and
a. Alternative methods of testing are equivalent to the cyclic testing temperature.
requirements of this section. 4. For Tests 2 and 3, the area of hysteresis loop (E loop ) of a
b. Alternative methods capture the dependence of the damping de- damping device for any one cycle does not differ by more
vice response on ambient temperature, frequency of loading, and than 15 percent from the average area of the hysteresis loop
temperature rise during testing.
as calculated from all cycles in that test at a specific fre-
c. Alternative methods are accepted by the registered design profes-
sional responsible for the design of the structure.
quency and temperature.
3. If the force-deformation properties of the damping device at 5. The average maximum and minimum forces at zero dis-
any displacement less than or equal to the maximum earth- placement and maximum earthquake displacement, and the
quake device displacement change by more than 15 percent average area of the hysteresis loop (E loop ), calculated for
for changes in testing frequency from 1/T1M to 2.5/T1 , then each test in the sequence of Tests 2 and 3, shall not differ by
the preceding tests shall also be performed at frequencies more than 15 percent from the target values specified by the
equal to 1/T1 and 2.5/T1 . registered design professional responsible for the design of
If reduced-scale prototypes are used to qualify the rate de- the structure.
pendent properties of damping devices, the reduced-scale 18.9.1.5.2 Velocity-Dependent Damping Devices. The per-
prototypes should be of the same type and materials, and formance of the prototype velocity-dependent damping devices
manufactured with the same processes and quality con- shall be deemed adequate if the following conditions, based on
trol procedures, as full-scale prototypes, and tested at a tests specified in Section 18.9.1.2, are satisfied:
similitude-scaled frequency that represents the full-scale
1. For Test 1, no signs of damage including leakage, yielding,
loading rates.
or breakage.
18.9.1.3 Testing Similar Devices. Damping devices need not be
2. For velocity-dependent damping devices with stiffness, the
prototype tested provided that both of the following conditions are
effective stiffness of a damping device in any one cycle of
met:
Tests 2 and 3 does not differ by more than 15 percent from
1. All pertinent testing and other damping device data are made the average effective stiffness as calculated from all cycles
available to, and are accepted by the registered design pro- in that test at a specific frequency and temperature.
fessional responsible for the design of the structure.
3. For Tests 2 and 3, the maximum force and minimum force
2. The registered design professional substantiates the similar- at zero displacement for a damping device for any one cycle
ity of the damping device to previously tested devices. does not differ by more than 15 percent from the average
18.9.1.4 Determination of Force-Velocity-Displacement Char- maximum and minimum forces at zero displacement as cal-
acteristics. The force-velocity-displacement characteristics of a culated from all cycles in that test at a specific frequency
damping device shall be based on the cyclic load and displace- and temperature.
ment tests of prototype devices specified in the preceding text. 4. For Tests 2 and 3, the area of hysteresis loop (E loop ) of a
Effective stiffness of a damping device shall be calculated for damping device for any one cycle does not differ by more
each cycle of deformation using Eq. 17.8-1. than 15 percent from the average area of the hysteresis loop
18.9.1.5 Device Adequacy. The performance of a prototype as calculated from all cycles in that test at a specific fre-
damping device shall be deemed adequate if all of the condi- quency and temperature.
tions listed below are satisfied. The 15 percent limits specified in 5. The average maximum and minimum forces at zero dis-
the following text are permitted to be increased by the registered placement, effective stiffness (for damping devices with
design professional responsible for the design of the structure pro- stiffness only), and average area of the hysteresis loop
vided that the increased limit has been demonstrated by analysis (E loop ) calculated for each test in the sequence of Tests 2
not to have a deleterious effect on the response of the structure. and 3, does not differ by more than 15 percent from the
18.9.1.5.1 Displacement-Dependent Damping Devices. The target values specified by the registered design professional
performance of the prototype displacement-dependent damping responsible for the design of the structure.
devices shall be deemed adequate if the following conditions, 18.9.2 Production Testing. Prior to installation in a building,
based on tests specified in Section 18.9.1.2, are satisfied: damping devices shall be tested to ensure that their force-velocity-
1. For Test 1, no signs of damage including leakage, yielding, displacement characteristics fall within the limits set by the reg-
or breakage. istered design professional responsible for the design of the
structure. The scope and frequency of the production-testing pro-
2. For Tests 2 and 3, the maximum force and minimum force gram shall be determined by the registered design professional
at zero displacement for a damping device for any one cycle responsible for the design of the structure.

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200
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Chapter 19
SOIL STRUCTURE INTERACTION FOR SEISMIC DESIGN
19.1 GENERAL where

If the option to incorporate the effects of soil-structure interaction T = the fundamental period of the structure as determined in
is exercised, the requirements of this section are permitted to be Section 12.8.2
used in the determination of the design earthquake forces and the k̄ = the stiffness of the structure where fixed at the base, defined
corresponding displacements of the structure if the model used by the following:
for structural response analysis does not directly incorporate the
W̄
effects of foundation flexibility (i.e., the model corresponds to a k̄ = 4π 2 (19.2-4)
fixed-based condition with no foundation springs). The provisions gT 2
in this section shall not be used if a flexible-base foundation is where
included in the structural response model.
h̄ = the effective height of the structure, which shall be taken as
The provisions for use with the equivalent lateral force proce- 0.7 times the total height (h n ), except for structures where
dure are given in Section 19.2 and those for use with the modal the gravity load is effectively concentrated at a single level,
analysis procedure are given in Section 19.3. the effective height of the structure shall be taken as the
height to that level
K y = the lateral stiffness of the foundation defined as the hor-
19.2 EQUIVALENT LATERAL FORCE PROCEDURE izontal force at the level of the foundation necessary to
produce a unit deflection at that level, the force and the
The following requirements are supplementary to those presented
deflection being measured in the direction in which the
in Section 12.8.
structure is analyzed
K θ = the rocking stiffness of the foundation defined as the mo-
19.2.1 Base Shear. To account for the effects of soil-structure
ment necessary to produce a unit average rotation of the
interaction, the base shear (V ) determined from Eq. 12.8-1 shall
foundation, the moment and rotation being measured in
be reduced to
the direction in which the structure is analyzed
g = the acceleration of gravity
Ṽ = V − V (19.2-1)
The foundation stiffnesses (K y and K θ ) shall be computed by
The reduction (V ) shall be computed as follows and shall not established principles of foundation mechanics using soil proper-
exceed 0.3V : ties that are compatible with the soil strain levels associated with
the design earthquake motion. The average shear modulus (G)

0.05 0.4 for the soils beneath the foundation at large strain levels and the
V = Cs − C̃s W̄ ≤ 0.3V (19.2-2) associated shear wave velocity (vs ) needed in these computations
β̃ shall be determined from Table 19.2-1 where
where vso = the average shear wave velocity for the soils beneath the
foundation at small strain levels (10−3 percent or less)
Cs = the seismic design coefficient computed from Eqs. 12.8-2, G o = γ vso
2
/g = the average shear modulus for the soils beneath
12.8-3, and 12.8-4 using the fundamental natural period the foundation at small strain levels
of the fixed-base structure (T or Ta ) as specified in Section γ = the average unit weight of the soils
12.8.2
C̃s = the value of Cs computed from Eqs. 12.8-2, 12.8-3, and Alternatively, for structures supported on mat foundations that
12.8-4 using the fundamental natural period of the flexibly rest at or near the ground surface or are embedded in such a way
supported structure (T̃ ) defined in Section 19.2.1.1 that the side wall contact with the soil is not considered to remain
β̃ = the fraction of critical damping for the structure- effective during the design ground motion, the effective period of
foundation system determined in Section 19.2.1.2 the structure is permitted to be determined from
W̄ = the effective seismic weight of the structure, which shall

be taken as 0.7W , except for structures where the effective 25α ra h̄ 1.12 ra h̄ 2
T̃ = T 1 + 2 2 1+ (19.2-5)
seismic weight is concentrated at a single level, it shall be vs T αθ rm3
taken equal to W
19.2.1.1 Effective Building Period. The effective period (T̃ )

TABLE 19.2-1 VALUES OF G/Go AND vs/vso
shall be determined as follows:

Spectral Response Acceleration, SD1

k̄ K y h̄
2 ≤ 0.10 ≤ 0.15 ≤ 0.20 ≥ 0.30

T̃ = T 1 + 1+ (19.2-3) Value of G/G o 0.81 0.64 0.49 0.42
Ky Kθ Value of vs /vso 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.65

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TABLE 19.2-2 VALUES OF αθ follows:

rm/vsT αθ 0.05
< 0.05 1.0 β̃ = βo + 3 (19.2-9)
0.15 0.85
T̃
0.35 0.7 T
0.5 0.6 where
βo = the foundation damping factor as specified in Fig. 19.2-1
For values of S2.5
DS
between 0.10 and 0.20 the values of βo shall
where be determined by linear interpolation between the solid lines and
α = the relative weight density of the structure and the the dashed lines of Fig. 19.2-1.
soil defined by The quantity r in Fig. 19.2-1 is a characteristic foundation
W̄ length that shall be determined as follows:
α= (19.2-6)
γ Ao h̄ For
h̄
≤ 0.5, r = ra (19.2-10)
L0
ra and rm = characteristic foundation lengths defined by:
h̄
Ao For ≥ 1, r = rm (19.2-11)
ra = (19.2-7) L0
π where
and
L o = the overall length of the side of the foundation in the
4 4 Io direction being analyzed
rm = (19.2-8) ra and rm = characteristic foundation lengths defined in Eqs.
π
where 19.2-7 and 19.2-8, respectively
h̄
Ao = the area of the load-carrying foundation For intermediate values of L0
, the value of r shall be determined
Io = the static moment of inertia of the load-carrying foundation by linear interpolation.
about a horizontal centroidal axis normal to the direction in EXCEPTION: For structures supported on point-bearing piles and in all
which the structure is analyzed other cases where the foundation soil consists of a soft stratum of rea-
αθ = dynamic foundation stiffness modifier for rocking as deter- sonably uniform properties underlain by a much stiffer, rock-like deposit
mined from Table 19.2-2 with an abrupt increase in stiffness, the factor β o in Eq. 19.2-9 shall be

replaced by β0 if 4Ds
vs T̃
< 1 where Ds is the total depth of the stratum. β0
where shall be determined as follows:
rm = characteristic foundation length as determined by Eq. 19.2-8 2
4Ds
vs = shear wave velocity βo = βo (19.2-12)
vs T̃
T = fundamental period as determined in Section 12.8.2
19.2.1.2 Effective Damping. The effective damping factor for The value of β̃ computed from Eq. 19.2-9, both with or without
the structure-foundation system (β̃) shall be computed as the adjustment represented by Eq. 19.2-12, shall in no case be
taken as less than β̃ = 0.05 or greater than β̃ = 0.20.
19.2.2 Vertical Distribution of Seismic Forces. The distribu-
tion over the height of the structure of the reduced total seismic
force (Ṽ ) shall be considered to be the same as for the structure
without interaction.
19.2.3 Other Effects. The modified story shears, overturning
moments, and torsional effects about a vertical axis shall be de-
termined as for structures without interaction using the reduced
lateral forces.
The modified deflections (δ̃) shall be determined as follows:

Ṽ Mo h x
δx =
˜ + δx (19.2-13)
V Kθ
where
Mo = the overturning moment at the base using the unmodified
seismic forces and not including the reduction permitted in
the design of the foundation
h x = the height above the base to the level under consideration
δx = the deflections of the fixed-base structure as determined in
Section 12.8.6 using the unmodified seismic forces
The modified story drifts and P-delta effects shall be evaluated
in accordance with the provisions of Sections 12.8.6 and 12.8.7
using the modified story shears and deflections determined in this
FIGURE 19.2-1 FOUNDATION DAMPING FACTOR section.
202 ASCE 7-05

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19.3 MODAL ANALYSIS PROCEDURE contributed by the higher modes of vibration. The reduced base
shear (Ṽ1 ) shall in no case be taken less than 0.7V1 .
The following provisions are supplementary to those presented in
Section 12.9. 19.3.2 Other Modal Effects. The modified modal seismic
forces, story shears, and overturning moments shall be determined
19.3.1 Modal Base Shears. To account for the effects of soil- as for structures without interaction using the modified base shear
structure interaction, the base shear corresponding to the funda- (Ṽ1 ) instead of V1 . The modified modal deflections (δ̃xm ) shall be
mental mode of vibration (V1 ) shall be reduced to: determined as follows:
Ṽ1 = V1 − V1 (19.3-1)
Ṽ1 Mo1 h x
δ̃x1 = + δx1 (19.3-3)
The reduction (V1 ) shall be computed in accordance with V1 Kθ
Eq. 19.2-2 with W̄ taken as equal to the effective seismic weight and
of the fundamental period of vibration, W̄1 , and Cs computed δ̃xm = δxm for m = 2, 3, . . . (19.3-4)
in accordance with Eq. 12.8-1, except that S DS shall be re-
placed by design spectral response acceleration of the design where
response spectra at the fundamental period of the fixed-base Mo1 = the overturning base moment for the fundamental mode of
structure (T1 ). the fixed-base structure using the unmodified modal base
The period T̃ shall be determined from Eq. 19.2-3, or from shear V1
Eq. 19.2-5 where applicable, taking T = T1 , evaluating k̄ from δxm = the modal deflections at Level x of the fixed-base structure
Eq. 19.2-4 with W̄ = W̄1 , and computing h̄ as follows: using the unmodified modal shears, Vm

n The modified modal drift in a story ( ˜ m ) shall be computed as
wi ϕi 1 h i the difference of the deflections (δ̃xm ) at the top and bottom of the
i=1
h̄ = (19.3-2) story under consideration.
n
wi ϕi 1 19.3.3 Design Values. The design values of the modified shears,
i=1
moments, deflections, and story drifts shall be determined as for
where structures without interaction by taking the square root of the sum
of the squares (SRSS) of the respective modal contributions. In the
wi = the portion of the total gravity load of the structure at design of the foundation, it is permitted to reduce the overturning
Level i moment at the foundation-soil interface determined in this manner
ϕi1 = the displacement amplitude at the i th level of the structure by 10 percent as for structures without interaction.
when vibrating in its fundamental mode
h i = the height above the base Level i The effects of torsion about a vertical axis shall be evalu-
ated in accordance with the provisions of Section 12.8.4 and the
The preceding designated values of W̄ , h̄, T , and T̃ also shall be P-delta effects shall be evaluated in accordance with the provi-
used to evaluate the factor α from Eq. 19.2-6 and factor βo from sions of Section 12.8.7 using the story shears and drifts determined
Fig. 19.2-1. No reduction shall be made in the shear components in Section 19.3.2.

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204
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Chapter 20
SITE CLASSIFICATION PROCEDURE FOR SEISMIC DESIGN
20.1 SITE CLASSIFICATION 2. Peats and/or highly organic clays [H > 10 ft (3 m)] of peat
and/or highly organic clay where H = thickness of soil.
The site soil shall be classified in accordance with Table 20.3-1
and Section 20.3 based on the upper 100 ft (30 m) of the site pro- 3. Very high plasticity clays [H > 25 ft (7.6 m) with PI >
file. Where site-specific data are not available to a depth of 100 75].
ft, appropriate soil properties are permitted to be estimated by 4. Very thick soft/medium stiff clays [H > 120 ft (37 m)] with
the registered design professional preparing the soil investigation su < 1000 psf (50 kPa).
report based on known geologic conditions. Where the soil prop-
erties are not known in sufficient detail to determine the site class, 20.3.2 Soft Clay Site Class E. Where a site does not qualify
Site Class D shall be used unless the authority having jurisdiction under the criteria for Site Class F, and there is a total thickness of
or geotechnical data determines Site Class E or F soils are present soft clay greater than 10 ft (3 m) where a soft clay layer is defined
at the site. Site Classes A and B shall not be assigned to a site if by su < 500 psf (25 kPa), w ≥ 40 percent, and PI > 20, it shall
there is more than 10 ft of soil between the rock surface and the be classified as Site Class E.
bottom of the spread footing or mat foundation.
20.3.3 Site Classes C, D, and E. The existence of Site Class C,
D, and E soils shall be classified by using one of the following
20.2 SITE RESPONSE ANALYSIS FOR SITE CLASS three methods with v̄s , N̄ , and s̄u computed in all cases as specified
F SOIL in Section 20.4:
A site-response analysis in accordance with Section 21.1 shall be 1. v̄s for the top 100 ft (30 m) (v̄s method).
provided for Site Class F soils, unless the exception to Section
20.3.1 is applicable. 2. N̄ for the top 100 ft (30 m) ( N̄ method).
3. N̄ch for cohesionless soil layers (PI < 20) in the top 100 ft
20.3 SITE CLASS DEFINITIONS (30 m) and s̄u for cohesive soil layers (PI > 20) in the top
100 ft (30 m) (s̄u method). Where the N̄ch and s̄u criteria
Site class types shall be assigned in accordance with the defini- differ, the site shall be assigned to the category with the
tions provided in Table 20.3-1 and this section. softer soil.
20.3.1 Site Class F. Where any of the following conditions is sat- 20.3.4 Shear Wave Velocity for Site Class B. The shear wave
isfied, the site shall be classified as Site Class F and a site response velocity for rock, Site Class B, shall be either measured on site
analysis in accordance with Section 21.1 shall be performed. or estimated by a geotechnical engineer, engineering geologist,
1. Soils vulnerable to potential failure or collapse under seis- or seismologist for competent rock with moderate fracturing and
mic loading, such as liquefiable soils, quick and highly sen- weathering. Softer and more highly fractured and weathered rock
sitive clays, and collapsible weakly cemented soils. shall either be measured on site for shear wave velocity or classi-
EXCEPTION: For structures having fundamental periods of vibration fied as Site Class C.
equal to or less than 0.5 s, site-response analysis is not required to
determine spectral accelerations for liquefiable soils. Rather, a site class
20.3.5 Shear Wave Velocity for Site Class A. The hard rock,
is permitted to be determined in accordance with Section 20.3 and the Site Class A, category shall be supported by shear wave velocity
corresponding values of Fa and Fv determined from Tables 11.4-1 and measurement either on site or on profiles of the same rock type in
11.4-2. the same formation with an equal or greater degree of weathering
TABLE 20.3-1 SITE CLASSIFICATION

Site Class v̄s N̄ or N̄ch s̄u
A. Hard rock >5,000 ft/s NA NA
B. Rock 2,500 to 5,000 ft/s NA NA
C. Very dense soil and soft rock 1,200 to 2,500 ft/s >50 >2,000 psf
D. Stiff soil 600 to 1,200 ft/s 15 to 50 1,000 to 2,000 psf
E. Soft clay soil <600 ft/s <15 <1,000 psf
Any profile with more than 10 ft of soil having the following characteristics:
- Plasticity index PI > 20,
- Moisture content w ≥ 40%, and
- Undrained shear strength s̄u < 500 psf
F. Soils requiring site response analysis See Section 20.3.1
in accordance with Section 21.1
For SI: 1 ft/s = 0.3048 m/s 1 lb/ft2 = 0.0479 kN/m2

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and fracturing. Where hard rock conditions are known to be con- where Ni and di in Eq. 20.4-2 are for cohesionless soil, cohesive
tinuous to a depth of 100 ft (30 m), surficial shear wave velocity soil, and rock layers.
measurements are permitted to be extrapolated to assess v̄s . ds
N̄ch = (20.4-3)
m d
i
20.4 DEFINITIONS OF SITE CLASS PARAMETERS
N
i=1 i
The definitions presented in this section shall apply to the upper
100 ft (30 m) of the site profile. Profiles containing distinct soil where Ni and di in Eq. 20.4-3 are for cohesionless soil layers only

m
and rock layers shall be subdivided into those layers designated and di = ds where ds is the total thickness of cohesionless soil
by a number that ranges from 1 to n at the bottom where there are i=1
a total of n distinct layers in the upper 100 ft (30 m). Where some layers in the top 100 ft (30 m). Ni is the standard penetration resis-
of the n layers are cohesive and others are not, k is the number of tance (ASTM D1586) not to exceed 100 blows/ft (328 blows/m)
cohesive layers and m is the number of cohesionless layers. The as directly measured in the field without corrections. Where re-
symbol i refers to any one of the layers between 1 and n. fusal is met for a rock layer, Ni shall be taken as 100 blows/ft
(328 blows/m).
20.4.1 v̄ s , Average Shear Wave Velocity. v̄s shall be determined
in accordance with the following formula: 20.4.3 s̄u , Average Undrained Shear Strength. s̄u shall be de-
termined in accordance with the following formula:
n
di dc
i=1 s̄u = (20.4-4)
v̄s = n (20.4-1) k d
di i
i=1 sui
i=1 vsi
di is the thickness of any layer between 0 and 100 ft (30 m). where

k
vsi is the shear wave velocity in ft/s (m/s). di = dc and
n i=1
dc = the total thickness of cohesive soil layers in the top
whereby di is equal to 100 ft (30 m).
i=1 100 ft (30 m)
PI = the plasticity index as determined in accordance with
20.4.2 N̄, Average Field Standard Penetration Resistance and
ASTM D4318
N̄ch , Average Standard Penetration Resistance for Cohesion-
w = the moisture content in percent as determined in accor-
less Soil Layers. N̄ and N̄ch shall be determined in accordance
dance with ASTM D2216
with the following formulas:
sui = the undrained shear strength in psf (kPa), not to exceed
n
5,000 psf (240 kPa) as determined in accordance with
di
i=1
ASTM D2166 or ASTM D2850
N̄ = n (20.4-2)
di
i=1 Ni
206 ASCE 7-05

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Chapter 21
SITE-SPECIFIC GROUND MOTION PROCEDURES FOR SEISMIC DESIGN
21.1 SITE RESPONSE ANALYSIS 21.2 GROUND MOTION HAZARD ANALYSIS

The requirements of Section 21.1 shall be satisfied where site The requirements of Section 21.2 shall be satisfied where a ground
response analysis is performed or required by Section 11.4.7. motion hazard analysis is performed or required by Section 11.4.7.
The analysis shall be documented in a report. The ground motion hazard analysis shall account for the regional
tectonic setting, geology, and seismicity, the expected recurrence
21.1.1 Base Ground Motions. A maximum considered earth- rates and maximum magnitudes of earthquakes on known faults
quake (MCE) response spectrum shall be developed for bedrock, and source zones, the characteristics of ground motion attenua-
using the procedure of Sections 11.4.6 or 21.2. Unless a site- tion, near source effects, if any, on ground motions, and the effects
specific ground motion hazard analysis described in Section 21.2 of subsurface site conditions on ground motions. The characteris-
is carried out, the MCE rock response spectrum shall be devel- tics of subsurface site conditions shall be considered either using
oped using the procedure of Section 11.4.6 assuming Site Class attenuation relations that represent regional and local geology or
B. If bedrock consists of Site Class A, the spectrum shall be ad- in accordance with Section 21.1. The analysis shall incorporate
justed using the site coefficients in Section 11.4.3 unless other site current seismic interpretations, including uncertainties for mod-
coefficients can be justified. At least five recorded or simulated els and parameter values for seismic sources and ground motions.
horizontal ground motion acceleration time histories shall be se- The analysis shall be documented in a report.
lected from events having magnitudes and fault distances that are
consistent with those that control the MCE. Each selected time 21.2.1 Probabilistic MCE. The probabilistic MCE spectral re-
history shall be scaled so that its response spectrum is, on average, sponse accelerations shall be taken as the spectral response accel-
approximately at the level of the MCE rock response spectrum erations represented by a 5 percent damped acceleration response
over the period range of significance to structural response. spectrum having a 2 percent probability of exceedance within a
50-yr. period.
21.1.2 Site Condition Modeling. A site response model based 21.2.2 Deterministic MCE. The deterministic MCE response
on low-strain shear wave velocities, nonlinear or equivalent linear acceleration at each period shall be calculated as 150 percent of
shear stress-strain relationships, and unit weights shall be devel- the largest median 5 percent damped spectral response acceler-
oped. Low-strain shear wave velocities shall be determined from ation computed at that period for characteristic earthquakes on
field measurements at the site or from measurements from simi- all known active faults within the region. For the purposes of
lar soils in the site vicinity. Nonlinear or equivalent linear shear this standard, the ordinates of the deterministic MCE ground mo-
stress-strain relationships and unit weights shall be selected on tion response spectrum shall not be taken lower than the corre-
the basis of laboratory tests or published relationships for simi- sponding ordinates of the response spectrum determined in ac-
lar soils. The uncertainties in soil properties shall be estimated. cordance with Fig. 21.2-1, where Fa and Fv are determined using
Where very deep soil profiles make the development of a soil Tables 11.4-1 and 11.4-2, respectively, with the value of SS taken
model to bedrock impractical, the model is permitted to be ter- as 1.5 and the value of S1 taken as 0.6.
minated where the soil stiffness is at least as great as the values
used to define Site Class D in Chapter 20. In such cases, the MCE 21.2.3 Site-Specific MCE. The site-specific MCE spectral re-
response spectrum and acceleration time histories of the base mo- sponse acceleration at any period, Sa M , shall be taken as the
tion developed in Section 21.1.1 shall be adjusted upward using
site coefficients in Section 11.4.3 consistent with the classification
of the soils at the profile base. SaM = 1.5Fa
Spectral Response Acceleration, Sa (g)
21.1.3 Site Response Analysis and Computed Results. Base

ground motion time histories shall be input to the soil pro-
file as outcropping motions. Using appropriate computational Fv
techniques that treat nonlinear soil properties in a nonlinear or S aM = 0.6
T
equivalent-linear manner, the response of the soil profile shall be
determined and surface ground motion time histories shall be cal-
culated. Ratios of 5 percent damped response spectra of surface
ground motions to input base ground motions shall be calculated.
The recommended surface MCE ground motion response spec-
trum shall not be lower than the MCE response spectrum of the
base motion multiplied by the average surface-to-base response
spectral ratios (calculated period by period) obtained from the
site response analyses. The recommended surface ground mo- Period, T1 (sec)
tions that result from the analysis shall reflect consideration of
sensitivity of response to uncertainty in soil properties, depth of FIGURE 21.2-1 DETERMINISTIC LOWER LIMIT ON MCE
soil model, and input motions. RESPONSE SPECTRUM

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lesser of the spectral response accelerations from the proba- period shall not be taken less than 80 percent of Sa determined
bilistic MCE of Section 21.2.1 and the deterministic MCE of for Site Class E in accordance with Section 11.4.5.
Section 21.2.2.
21.4 DESIGN ACCELERATION PARAMETERS
21.3 DESIGN RESPONSE SPECTRUM Where the site-specific procedure is used to determine the design
The design spectral response acceleration at any period shall be ground motion in accordance with Section 21.3, the parameter
determined from Eq. 21.3-1: S DS shall be taken as the spectral acceleration, Sa , obtained from
the site-specific spectra at a period of 0.2 s, except that it shall not
2
Sa = Sa M (21.3-1) be taken less than 90 percent of the peak spectral acceleration,
3 Sa , at any period larger than 0.2 s. The parameter S D1 shall be
where Sa M is the MCE spectral response acceleration obtained taken as the greater of the spectral acceleration, Sa , at a period of
from Section 21.1 or 21.2. The design spectral response acceler- 1 s or two times the spectral acceleration, Sa , at a period of 2 sec.
ation at any period shall not be taken less than 80 percent of Sa The parameters S M S and S M1 shall be taken as 1.5 times S DS and
determined in accordance with Section 11.4.5. For sites classified S D1 , respectively. The values so obtained shall not be less than
as Site Class F requiring site response analysis in accordance with 80 percent of the values determined in accordance with Section
Section 11.4.7, the design spectral response acceleration at any 11.4.3 for S M S and S M1 and Section 11.4.4 for S DS and S D1 .
208 ASCE 7-05

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Chapter 22
SEISMIC GROUND MOTION AND LONG-PERIOD TRANSITION MAPS
Contained in this chapter are Figs. 22-1 through 22-20, which MCE Ground Motion, 5 percent damped spectral response accel-
provide the mapped Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE) eration parameter at a period of 1 sec as defined in Section 11.4.1.
Ground Motion parameters SS and S1 for use in applying the
These maps were developed by the United States Geological
seismic provisions of this standard. SS is the mapped MCE Ground
Survey (USGS) and have been updated for the 2005 edition. The
Motion, 5 percent damped, spectral response acceleration para-
following is the list of figures contained in this chapter:
meter at short periods as defined in Section 11.4.1. S1 is the mapped
Figure 22-1 Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion for Hawaii of 0.2 and 1.0 sec Spectral Response Acceleration (5%
For The Conterminous United States of 0.2 sec Spectral Response of Critical Damping), Site Class B
Acceleration (5% of Critical Damping), Site Class B
Figure 22-11 Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion
Figure 22-2 Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion for Alaska of 0.2 sec Spectral Response Acceleration (5% of
for the Conterminous United States of 1.0 sec Spectral Response Critical Damping), Site Class B
Acceleration (5% of Critical Damping), Site Class B
Figure 22-3 Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion for Alaska of 1.0 sec Spectral Response Acceleration (5% of
for Region 1 of 0.2 sec Spectral Response Acceleration (5% of Critical Damping), Site Class B
Critical Damping), Site Class B
Figure 22-4 Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion for Puerto Rico, Culebra, Vieques, St. Thomas, St. John, and
for Region 1 of 1.0 sec Spectral Response Acceleration (5% of St. Croix of 0.2 and 1.0 sec Spectral Response Acceleration
Critical Damping), Site Class B (5% of Critical Damping), Site Class B
Figure 22-5 Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion Figure 22-14 Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion
for Region 2 of 0.2 sec Spectral Response Acceleration (5% of for Guam and Tutilla of 0.2 and 1.0 sec Spectral Response Ac-
Critical Damping), Site Class B celeration (5% of Critical Damping), Site Class B
Figure 22-6 Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion Figure 22-15 Long-Period Transition Period, TL (sec), for the
for Region 2 of 1.0 sec Spectral Response Acceleration (5% of Conterminous United States
Critical Damping), Site Class B
Figure 22-16 Long-Period Transition Period, TL (sec), for
Figure 22-7 Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion Region 1
for Region 3 of 0.2 sec Spectral Response Acceleration (5% of
Critical Damping), Site Class B Figure 22-17 Long-Period Transition Period, TL (sec), for
Alaska
for Region 3 of 1.0 sec Spectral Response Acceleration (5% of Figure 22-18 Long-Period Transition Period, TL (sec), for
Critical Damping), Site Class B Hawaii
Figure 22-9 Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion Figure 22-19 Long-Period Transition Period, TL (sec), for Puerto
for Region 4 of 0.2 and 1.0 sec Spectral Response Acceleration Rico, Culebra, Vieques, St. Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix
(5% of Critical Damping), Site Class B Figure 22-20 Long-Period Transition Period, TL (sec), for Guam
Figure 22-10 Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motion and Tutuila

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FIGURE 22-1 MAXIMUM CONSIDERED EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTION FOR THE CONTERMINOUS UNITED STATES OF
0.2 SEC SPECTRAL RESPONSE ACCELERATION (5% OF CRITICAL DAMPING), SITE CLASS B
210 ASCE 7-05

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MAXIMUM CONSIDERED EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTION FOR THE CONTERMINOUS UNITED STATES OF 0.2 SEC
SPECTRAL RESPONSE ACCELERATION (5% OF CRITICAL DAMPING), SITE CLASS B

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FIGURE 22-2 MAXIMUM CONSIDERED EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTION FOR THE CONTERMINOUS UNITED STATES OF
1.0 SEC SPECTRAL RESPONSE ACCELERATION (5% OF CRITICAL DAMPING), SITE CLASS B
212 ASCE 7-05

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MAXIMUM CONSIDERED EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTION FOR THE CONTERMINOUS UNITED STATES OF 1.0 SEC

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214 ASCE 7-05

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ASCE003-22.tex
ASCE003/SIE-v1.cls
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures

FIGURE 22-3 MAXIMUM CONSIDERED EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTION FOR REGION 1 OF 0.2 SEC SPECTRAL RESPONSE ACCELERATION (5% OF
CRITICAL DAMPING), SITE CLASS B
215
October 11, 2005
17:49
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216 ASCE 7-05

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ASCE003-22.tex
ASCE003/SIE-v1.cls

217
October 11, 2005
17:49
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ASCE003-22.tex
218
ASCE003/SIE-v1.cls
ASCE 7-05
October 11, 2005
17:49
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ASCE003-22.tex
ASCE003/SIE-v1.cls

219
October 11, 2005
17:49
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ASCE003-22.tex
220
ASCE003/SIE-v1.cls
ASCE 7-05
October 11, 2005
17:49
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ASCE003-22.tex
ASCE003/SIE-v1.cls

221
October 11, 2005
17:49
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FIGURE 22-9 MAXIMUM CONSIDERED EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTION FOR REGION 4

OF 0.2 AND 1.0 SEC SPECTRAL RESPONSE ACCELERATION (5% OF CRITICAL
DAMPING), SITE CLASS B
222 ASCE 7-05

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FIGURE 22-10 MAXIMUM CONSIDERED EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTION FOR HAWAII OF 0.2 AND 1.0
SEC SPECTRAL RESPONSE ACCELERATION (5% OF CRITICAL DAMPING), SITE CLASS B

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ASCE003-22.tex
224
ASCE003/SIE-v1.cls
FIGURE 22-11 MAXIMUM CONSIDERED EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTION FOR ALASKA OF 0.2 SEC SPECTRAL RESPONSE ACCELERATION (5% OF
ASCE 7-05
October 11, 2005
17:49
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ASCE003-22.tex
ASCE003/SIE-v1.cls

FIGURE 22-12 MAXIMUM CONSIDERED EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTION FOR ALASKA OF 1.0 SEC SPECTRAL RESPONSE ACCELERATION (5% OF
225
October 11, 2005
17:49
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FIGURE 22-13 MAXIMUM CONSIDERED EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTION FOR PUERTO RICO,
CULEBRA, VIEQUES, ST. THOMAS, ST. JOHN, AND ST. CROIX OF 0.2 AND 1.0 SEC SPECTRAL
RESPONSE ACCELERATION (5% OF CRITICAL DAMPING), SITE CLASS B
226 ASCE 7-05

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FIGURE 22-14 MAXIMUM CONSIDERED EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTION FOR GUAM AND TUTILLA OF 0.2 AND 1.0 SEC

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FIGURE 22-15 LONG-PERIOD TRANSITION PERIOD, TL (SEC), FOR THE CONTERMINOUS UNITED STATES
228 ASCE 7-05

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LONG-PERIOD TRANSITION PERIOD, TL (SEC), FOR THE CONTERMINOUS UNITED STATES

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FIGURE 22-16 LONG-PERIOD TRANSITION PERIOD, TL (SEC), FOR REGION 1
230 ASCE 7-05

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FIGURE 22-17 LONG-PERIOD TRANSITION PERIOD, TL (SEC), FOR ALASKA

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FIGURE 22-18 LONG-PERIOD TRANSITION PERIOD, TL (SEC), FOR HAWAII
232 ASCE 7-05

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FIGURE 22-19 LONG-PERIOD TRANSITION PERIOD, TL (SEC), FOR PUERTO RICO, CULEBRA,
VIEQUES, ST. THOMAS, ST. JOHN, AND ST. CROIX
FIGURE 22-20 LONG-PERIOD TRANSITION PERIOD, TL (SEC), FOR GUAM AND TUTUILA

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234
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Chapter 23
SEISMIC DESIGN REFERENCE DOCUMENTS
23.1 CONSENSUS STANDARDS AND OTHER Standard Practice for the Design and Construction of Concrete
REFERENCE DOCUMENTS Silos and Stacking Tubes for Storing Granular Materials, 1997
∗
This section lists the reference documents that are referenced in ACI 371R
Sections 11 through 22. The reference documents are listed herein Section 15.7.10.7
by the promulgating agency of the reference document, the refer- Guide to the Analysis, Design, and Construction of Concrete-
ence document identification, the section(s), and tables of ASCE Pedestal Water Towers, 1998
7 that cite the reference document, the title, and effective date. ACI 350.3
Unless identified by an asterisk, the following reference docu- Sections 15.7.6.1.1, 15.7.7.3
ments are consensus standards and are to be considered part of Standard Practice for the Seismic Design of Liquid-Containing
this standard to the extent referenced to in the specified section. Concrete Structures, 2001
Those reference documents identified by an asterisk (∗ ) are doc-
uments developed within the industry and represent acceptable
procedures for design and construction to the extent referred to in AF&PA
the specified section. American Forest and Paper Association
1111 19th St. NW
Suite 800
AAMA Washington, DC 20036
American Architectural Manufacturers Association
1827 Waldon Office Square AF&PA NDS
Suite 104 Sections 12.4.3.3, 12.14.2.2.2.3, 14.5.1
Schaumburg, IL 60173 National Design Specification for Wood Construction, Including
∗ Supplements, AF&PA NDS-05, 2005
AAMA 501.6
Section 13.5.9.2 AF&PA SDPWS
Recommended Dynamic Test Method for Determining the Seismic Sections 12.14.6.2, 14.5.1, 14.5.3, 14.5.3.1
Drift Causing Glass Fallout from a Wall System, 2001 AF&PA Supplement, Special Design Provisions for Wind and
Seismic, 2005
ACI
American Concrete Institute AISC
P.O. Box 9094 American Institute of Steel Construction
Farmington Hills, MI 48333-9094 One East Wacker Drive
Suite 700
ACI 318
Chicago, IL 60601-2001
Sections 14.4.2.2, 14.4.2.2.1, 14.4.2.2.2, 14.4.2.2.3, 14.4.2.2.4,
14.4.2.2.5, 14.4.2.2.6, 14.4.2.2.7, 14.4.2.2.8, 14.4.2.2.9, ANSI/AISC 360
14.4.2.2.10, 14.4.2.2.11, 14.4.2.2.12, 14.4.2.2.13, 14.4.2.2.14, Sections 14.1.1, 11A.1.3.6.2
14.4.2.2.15, 14.4.2.2.16, 14.4.2.2.17, 14.4.2.2.18, 14.2.3, Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, 2005
14.2.3.1.1, 14.2.3.2.1, 14.2.3.2.2, 14.2.3.2.3, 14.2.3.2.5, ANSI/AISC 341
14.2.3.2.6, 14.3.1, 14.4.6.2.2, 14.4.7.2 Sections 14.1.1, 14.1.2, 14.1.3, 11A.2.4
Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, 2005 Seismic Provisions for Structural Steel Buildings, 2005
ACI 355.2
Section 13.4.2 AISI
Evaluating the Performance of Post-Installed Mechanical American Iron and Steel Institute
Anchors in Concrete and Commentary, 2001 1140 Connecticut Avenue
ACI 530 Suite 705
Sections 14.4.1, 14.4.2, 14.4.4, 14.4.5, 14.4.5.1, 14.4.5.2, 14.4.6, Washington, DC 20036
14.4.6.1, 14.4.6.2.2, 14.4.7, 14.4.7.1, 14.4.7.2, 14.4.7.3, 14.4.7.4, ANSI/AISI-GP
14.4.7.5, 14.4.7.6, 14.4.7.7, 14.4.7.8, 14.4.8, 14.4.8.1 Sections 14.1.1, 14.1.4.1
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, 2005 Standard for Cold-Formed Steel Framing—General Provisions,
ACI 530.1 2004
Sections 14.4.1, 14.4.2, 14.4.9, 14.4.9.1 ANSI/AISI NAS
Specification for Masonry Structures, 2005 Sections 14.1.1, 14.1.4.1, 14.1.6.1
ACI 313 North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed
Sections 15.7.9.3.3, 15.7.9.6, 15.7.9.7 Steel Structural Members, 2001, including 2004 Supplement

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ANSI/AISI-PM ASME
Sections 14.1.1, 14.1.5 American Society of Mechanical Engineers
American Iron and Steel Institute, Standard for Cold-Formed Three Park Avenue
Steel Framing—Prescriptive Method for One and Two-Family New York, NY 10016-5900
Dwellings, 2001, including 2004 Supplement
ASME A17.1
ANSI/AISI Lateral Sections 13.6.10, 13.6.10.3
Sections 14.1.1, 14.1.3, 14.1.4.1 Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators, 2004
Standard for the Design of Cold Formed Steel Framing, Lateral
Design, 2004 ASME B31 (consists of the following listed standards)
Sections 13.6.5.1, 13.6.8.1, 13.6.8.4
ANSI/AISI WSD Table 13.6-1
Sections 14.1.1, 14.1.4.1 Power Piping, ASME B31.1, 2001
Standard for the Design of Cold Formed Steel Framing, Wall Stud Process Piping, ASME B31.3, 2002
Design, 2004 Liquid Transportation Systems for Hydrocarbons, Liquid
Petroleum Gas, Anhydrous Ammonia, and Alcohols, ASME
API B31.4, 2002
American Petroleum Institute Refrigeration Piping, ASME B31.5, 2001
1220 L Street Building Services Piping, ASME B31.9, 1996
Washington, DC 20005-4070 Slurry Transportation Piping Systems, ASME B31.11, 2002
Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems, ASME B31.8,
API 12B 1999
Section 15.7.8.2
Bolted Tanks for Storage of Production Liquids, Specification ASME BPVC-01
12B, 14th edition,1995 Sections 13.6.9, 13.6.11, 15.7.11.2, 15.7.11.6, 15.7.12.2
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, 2004 excluding Section III,
API 620 Nuclear Components, and Section XI, In-Service Inspection of
Sections 15.4.1, 15.7.8.1, 15.7.13.1 Nuclear Components
Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low Pressure Storage
Tanks, 10th edition, 2002 ASTM
API 650 ASTM International
Sections 15.4.1, 15.7.8.1, 15.7.9.4 100 Barr Harbor Drive
Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage, 10th Edition, Addendum 4, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959
2005 ASTM A 421/A421 M
API 653 Section 14.2.2.4
Section 15.7.6.1.9 Standard Specification for Uncoated Stress-Relieved Steel Wire
Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Reconstruction, 3rd for Prestressed Concrete, 2002
edition, 2001 ASTM A 435
Section 11A.2.5
ASCE/SEI Specification for Straight Beam Ultrasound Examination of Steel
American Society of Civil Engineers Plates, 2001
Structural Engineering Institute
ASTM A 615/A615M
1801 Alexander Bell Drive
Section 14.2.2.4
Reston, VA 20191-4400
Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel Bars
ASCE 4 for Concrete Reinforcement, 2004b
Section 12.9.3
Seismic Analysis of Safety-Related Nuclear Structures, 1986 ASTM A 706/A706M
Sections 14.2.2.4, 14.4.9
ASCE 5 Standard Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Deformed and Plain
Sections 14.4.1, 14.4.2, 14.4.4, 14.4.5, 14.4.5.1, 14.4.5.2, 14.4.6, Bars for Concrete Reinforcement, 2004b
14.4.6.1, 14.4.6.2.2, 14.4.7, 14.4.7.1, 14.4.7.2, 14.4.7.3, 14.4.7.4,
14.4.7.5, 14.4.7.6, 14.4.7.7, 14.4.7.8, 14.4.8, 14.4.8.1 ASTM A 722 /A722M
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, 2005 Section 14.2.2.4
Standard Specification for Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bars for
ASCE 6 Prestressing Concrete, 2003
Sections 14.4.1, 14.4.2, 14.4.9, 14.4.9.1
Specification for Masonry Structures, 2005 ASTM A 898/A898M
Section 11A.2.5
ASCE 8 Specification for Straight Beam Ultrasound Examination for
Sections 14.1.1, 14.1.4, 14.1.4.2, 14.1.6 Rolled Steel Shapes, 2001
Specification for the Design of Cold Formed Stainless Steel Struc-
tural Members, 2002 ASTM C 635
Section 13.5.6.2.2
ASCE 19 Standard Specification for the Manufacture, Performance, and
Sections 14.1.1, 14.1.7 Testing of Metal Suspension Systems for Acoustical Tile and
Structural Applications for Steel Cables for Buildings, 2002 Lay-in Panel Ceilings, 2004
236 ASCE 7-05

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ASTM C 636 ICC

Section 13.5.6.2.2 International Code Council
Standard Practice for Installation of Metal Ceiling Suspension 5203 Leesburg Pike
Systems for Acoustical Tile and Lay-in Panels, 2004 Suite 600
Falls Church, VA 22041
ASTM D 1586
∗
Sections 11.3, 20.4.2 2003 IRC
Standard Test Method for Penetration Test and Split-Barrell Section 11.1.2
Sampling of Soils, 2004 International Code Council (ICC), 2003 International Residential
Code, 2003
ASTM D 2166
Sections 11.3, 20.4.3
Standard Test Method for Unconfined Compressive Strength of ICC-ES
Cohesive Soil, 2000 International Code Council Evaluation Service
5360 Workman Mill Rd.
ASTM D 2216 Whittier, CA 90601
Sections 11.3, 20.4.3
∗
Standard Test Method for Laboratory Determination of Water ICC-ES AC 156-04
(Moisture) Content of Soil and Rock by Mass, 1998 Section 13.2.5
Acceptance Criteria for Seismic Qualification Testing of Non-
ASTM D 2850 structural Components, 2000
Sections 11.3, 20.4.3
Standard Test Method for Unconsolidated-Undrained Triaxial
Compression Test on Cohesive Soils, 2003a MSS
Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve and
ASTM D 4318 Fitting Industry
Sections 11.3, 20.4.3 127 Park St. NE
Method for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Vienna, VA 22180
Soils, 2000 ∗
MSS SP-58
Section 13.6.5.1
AWWA Pipe Hangers and Supports—Materials, Design, and Manufac-
American Water Works Association ture, 2002
6666 W. Quincy Ave.
Denver, CO 80235
NFPA
AWWA D100 National Fire Protection Association
Sections 15.4.1, 15.7.7.1, 15.7.9.4, 15.7.10.6, 15.7.10.6.2 1 Batterymarch Park
Welded Steel Tanks for Water Storage, 2005 Quincy, MA 02269-9101
AWWA D103 NFPA 13
Sections 15.4.1, 15.7.7.2, 15.7.9.5 Sections 13.6.5.1, 13.6.8, 13.6.8.2, 13.6.8.3, 13.6.8.4
Factory-Coated Bolted Steel Tanks for Water Storage, 1997 Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems, including
AWWA D110 TIA 02-1 (NFPA 13) (SC 03-7-8/Log No. 748), 2002
Section 15.7.7.3 NFPA 59A
Wire- and Strand-Wound Circular Prestressed Concrete Water Section 15.4.8
Tanks, 1995 Production, Storage, and Handling of Liquefied Natural Gas
(LNG), 2005
AWWA D115
Section 15.7.7.3
Circular Pre-stressed Concrete Tanks with Circumferential Ten- RMI
dons, 1995 Rack Manufacturers Institute
8720 Red Oak Boulevard
CISCA Suite 201
Ceilings and Interior Systems Construction Association Charlotte, NC 28217
1500 Lincoln Highway
Suite 202 RMI
St. Charles, Illinois 60174 Section 15.5.3
∗
CISCA-04 for Seismic Zones 0-2 Specification for the Design, Testing, and Utilization of Industrial
Section 13.5.6.2.1 Steel Storage Racks, 1997, reaffirmed 2002
Recommendations for Direct-Hung Acoustical Tile and Lay-In
Panel Ceilings, Seismic Zones 0-2, 2004
∗
CISCA-04 for Seismic Zones 3-4
Section 13.5.6.2.2
Recommendations for Direct-Hung Acoustical Tile and Lay-In
Panel Ceilings, Seismic Zones 3-4, 2004

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SJI TMS
Steel Joist Institute The Masonry Society
3127 10th Avenue, North 3970 Broadway
Myrtle Beach, SC 29577-6760 Unit 201-D
Boulder, CO 80304-1135
SJI Tables
Section 14.1.1 TMS 402
Load Tables and Weight Tables for Steel Joists and Joist Girders Sections 14.4.1, 14.4.2, 14.4.4, 14.4.5, 14.4.5.1, 14.4.5.2, 14.4.6,
Standard Specification, 2005 14.4.6.1, 14.4.6.2.2, 14.4.7, 14.4.7.1, 14.4.7.2, 14.4.7.3, 14.4.7.4,
14.4.7.5, 14.4.7.6, 14.4.7.7, 14.4.7.8, 14.4.8, 14.4.8.1
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, 2005
TMS 602
Sections 14.4.1, 14.4.2, 14.4.9, 14.4.9.1
Specification for Masonry Structures, 2005
238 ASCE 7-05

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Appendix 11A
QUALITY ASSURANCE PROVISIONS
11A.1 QUALITY ASSURANCE system. The special inspections and special tests needed to es-
tablish that the construction is in conformance with this standard
This section provides minimum requirements for quality assur-
shall be included in the portion of the quality assurance plan ap-
ance for seismic force–resisting systems and other designated
plicable to the designated seismic system. The quality assurance
seismic systems. These requirements are not directly related to
plan shall include
computation of earthquake loads, but they are deemed essential
for satisfactory performance in an earthquake where designing a. The seismic force–resisting systems and designated seismic
with the loads determined in accordance with this standard, due systems in accordance with this chapter that are subject to
to the substantial cyclic inelastic strain capacity assumed to exist quality assurance.
by the load procedures in this standard. These requirements sup-
b. The special inspections and testing to be provided as re-
plement the testing and inspection requirements contained in the
quired by this standard and the reference documents in
reference documents given in Chapters 13 and 14. These require-
Chapter 23.
ments form an integral part of Chapters 11 through 23.
c. The type and frequency of testing.
11A.1.1 Scope. As a minimum, the quality assurance provisions
d. The type and frequency of special inspections.
apply to the following:
e. The frequency and distribution of testing and special inspec-
1. The seismic force–resisting systems in structures assigned tion reports.
to Seismic Design Categories C, D, E, or F.
f. The structural observations to be performed.
2. Mechanical and electrical components as specified in Sec- g. The frequency and distribution of structural observation re-
tion 11A.1.3.10. ports.
3. Designated seismic systems in structures assigned to Seis-
mic Design Categories D, E, or F. 11A.1.2.2 Contractor Responsibility. Each contractor respon-
sible for the construction of a seismic force–resisting system,
EXCEPTIONS: Structures that comply with the following criteria
designated seismic system, or component listed in the quality
are exempt from the preparation of a quality assurance plan, but those
structures are not exempt from special inspection(s) or testing require- assurance plan shall submit a written contractor’s statement of
ments: responsibility to the regulatory authority having jurisdiction and
to the owner prior to the commencement of work on the system
i. The structure is constructed of light wood framing or light-gauge
cold-formed steel framing, S DS does not exceed 0.50, the height of
or component. The contractor’s statement of responsibility shall
the structure does not exceed 35 ft above grade, and the structure contain the following:
meets the requirements in items iii and iv in the following text. 1. Acknowledgment of awareness of the special requirements
or
contained in the quality assurance plan.
ii. The structure is constructed using a reinforced masonry structural
system or reinforced concrete structural system, S DS does not ex- 2. Acknowledgment that control will be exercised to obtain
ceed 0.50, the height of the structure does not exceed 25 ft above conformance with the design documents approved by the
grade, and the structure meets the requirements in items iii and iv authority having jurisdiction.
in the following text.
iii. The structure is classified as Occupancy Category I or II. 3. Procedures for exercising control within the contractor’s
iv. The structure does not have any of the following irregularities as organization, the method and frequency of reporting, and
defined in Table 12.3-1 or 12.3-2: the distribution of the reports.
(1) Torsional irregularity 4. Identification and qualifications of the person(s) exercising
(2) Extreme torsional irregularity such control and their position(s) in the organization.
(3) Nonparallel systems irregularity
(4) Stiffness—soft story irregularity 11A.1.3 Special Inspection and Testing. The building owner
(5) Stiffness—extreme soft story irregularity shall employ a special inspector(s) to observe the construction
(6) Discontinuity in lateral strength—weak story irregularity of all designated seismic systems in accordance with the quality
(7) Discontinuity in lateral strength—extreme weak story
assurance plan for the following construction work. The authority
11A.1.2 Quality Assurance Plan. A quality assurance plan having jurisdiction shall have the option to approve the quality
shall be submitted to the authority having jurisdiction. assurance personnel of a fabricator as a special inspector. The
person in charge of the special inspector(s) and the testing services
11A.1.2.1 Details of Quality Assurance Plan. The quality as- shall be a registered design professional.
surance plan shall specify the designated seismic systems or seis-
mic force–resisting system in accordance with Section 11A.1.1 11A.1.3.1 Foundations. Periodic special inspection is required
that are subject to quality assurance. The registered design pro- during the
fessional in responsible charge of the design of a seismic force–
resisting system and a designated seismic system shall be respon- a. Driving of piles.
sible for the portion of the quality assurance plan applicable to that b. Construction of drilled piles, piers, and caissons.

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c. Placement of reinforcing steel in piers, piles, caissons, and 11A.1.3.7.3 Periodic Special Inspection for Wood Sheath-
shallow foundations. ing. Periodic special inspections for nailing and other fastening
d. Placement of concrete in piers, piles, caissons, and shallow of wood sheathing used for wood shear walls, shear panels, and
foundations. diaphragms where the required fastener spacing is 4 in. or less,
and that are included in the seismic force–resisting system.
11A.1.3.2 Reinforcing Steel.
11A.1.3.8 Cold-Formed Steel Framing
11A.1.3.2.1 Periodic Special Inspection. Periodic special in-
spection during and upon completion of the placement of reinforc- 11A.1.3.8.1 Periodic Special Inspection for Welding. Peri-
ing steel in intermediate and special moment frames of concrete odic special inspection is required during all welding operations
and concrete shear walls. of elements of the seismic force–resisting system.
11A.1.3.2.2 Continuous Special Inspection. Continuous
special inspection is required during the welding of reinforcing 11A.1.3.8.2 Periodic Special Inspection for Components.
steel resisting flexural and axial forces in intermediate and spe- Periodic special inspection is required for screw attachment, bolt-
cial moment frames of concrete, in boundary members of concrete ing, anchoring, and other fastening of components within the
shear walls, and welding of shear reinforcement. seismic force–resisting system, including struts, braces, and hold-
downs.
11A.1.3.3 Structural Concrete. Periodic special inspection is
required during and on completion of the placement of concrete in 11A.1.3.9 Architectural Components. Special inspection for
intermediate and special moment frames, and in boundary mem- architectural components shall be as follows:
bers of concrete shear walls.
1. Periodic special inspection during the erection and fastening
11A.1.3.4 Prestressed Concrete. Periodic special inspection of exterior cladding, interior and exterior nonbearing walls,
during the placement and after the completion of placement of and interior and exterior veneer in structures assigned to
prestressing steel and continuous special inspection is required Seismic Design Categories D, E, or F.
during all stressing and grouting operations and during the place- EXCEPTIONS:
ment of concrete.
a. Architectural components less than 30 ft (9 m) above grade or walk-
11A.1.3.5 Structural Masonry. ing surface.
b. Cladding and veneer weighing 5 lb/ft2 (239 N/m2 ) or less.
11A.1.3.5.1 Periodic Special Inspection. Periodic special in- c. Interior nonbearing walls weighing 15 lb/ft2 (718 N/m2 ) or less.
spection is required during the preparation of mortar, the laying
of masonry units, and placement of reinforcement; and prior to 2. Periodic special inspection during the anchorage of access
placement of grout. floors and the installation of suspended ceiling grids, and
storage racks 8 ft (2.5 m) or greater in height in structures
11A.1.3.5.2 Continuous Special Inspection. Continuous assigned to Seismic Design Categories D, E, or F.
special inspection is required during welding of reinforcement,
grouting, consolidation, and reconsolidation, and placement of 3. Periodic special inspection during erection of glass 30 ft
bent-bar anchors as required by Section 14.4. (9 m) or more above an adjacent grade or walking surface in
glazed curtain walls, glazed storefronts, and interior glazed
11A.1.3.6 Structural Steel. partitions in structures assigned to Seismic Design Cate-
gories D, E, or F.
11A.1.3.6.1 Continuous Special Inspection. Continuous
special inspection is required for all structural welding.
11A.1.3.10 Mechanical and Electrical Components. Special
EXCEPTION: Periodic special inspection for single-pass fillet or re- inspection for mechanical and electrical components shall be as
sistance welds and welds loaded to less than 50 percent of their design follows:
strength shall be the minimum requirement, provided the qualifications of
the welder and the welding electrodes are inspected at the beginning of 1. Periodic special inspection during the anchorage of electri-
the work and all welds are inspected for compliance with the approved cal equipment for emergency or standby power systems in
construction documents at the completion of welding.
structures assigned to Seismic Design Categories C, D, E,
11A.1.3.6.2 Periodic Special Inspection. Periodic special in- or F.
spection is required in accordance with AISC LRFD or AISC ASD 2. Periodic special inspection during the installation of an-
for installation and tightening of fully tensioned high-strength chorage of all other electrical equipment in Seismic Design
bolts in slip-critical connections and in connections subject to Categories E or F.
direct tension. Bolts in connections identified as not being slip-
critical or subject to direct tension need not be inspected for bolt 3. Periodic special inspection during the installation for
tension other than to ensure that the plies of the connected ele- flammable, combustible, or highly toxic piping systems and
ments have been brought into snug contact. their associated mechanical units in Seismic Design Cate-
gories C, D, E, or F.
11A.1.3.7 Structural Wood.
4. Periodic special inspection during the installation of HVAC
11A.1.3.7.1 Continuous Special Inspection. Continuous ductwork that will contain hazardous materials in Seismic
special inspection is required during all field gluing operations Design Categories C, D, E, or F.
of elements of the seismic force–resisting system.
5. Periodic special inspection during the installation of vibra-
11A.1.3.7.2 Periodic Special Inspection for Components. tion isolation systems where the construction documents
Periodic special inspection is required for nailing, bolting, anchor- indicate a maximum clearance (air gap) between the equip-
ing, and other fastening of components within the seismic force– ment support frame and restraint less than or equal to 1/4
resisting system including drag struts, braces, and hold downs. in.
240 ASCE 7-05

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11A.1.3.11 Seismic Isolation System. Periodic special inspec- design professional(s) in responsible charge and the construction
tion is required during the fabrication and installation of isolator documents.
units and energy dissipation devices if used as part of the seismic
11A.2.6 Seismic-Isolated Structures. For required system
isolation system.
tests, see Section 17.8.
11A.2.7 Mechanical and Electrical Equipment. The special
11A.2 TESTING
inspector shall examine mechanical and electrical equipment that
The special inspector(s) shall be responsible for verifying that the are a designated seismic system and shall determine whether its
special test requirements are performed by an approved testing anchorages and label conform with the certificate of compliance.
agency for the types of work in designated seismic systems listed
in the following text. 11A.3 STRUCTURAL OBSERVATIONS
11A.2.1 Reinforcing and Prestressing Steel. Special testing of
Structural observations shall be provided for those structures in-
reinforcing and prestressing steel shall be as follows:
cluded in Seismic Design Categories D, E, or F where one or more
11A.2.1.1 Certified Mill Test Reports. Examine certified mill of the following conditions exist:
test reports for each shipment of reinforcing steel used to resist
1. The structure is included in Occupancy Category III or IV.
flexural and axial forces in reinforced concrete intermediate and
special moment frames and boundary members of reinforced con- 2. The height of the structure is greater than 75 ft above the
crete shear walls or reinforced masonry shear walls and determine base.
conformance with construction documents. 3. The structure is assigned to Seismic Design Category E and
11A.2.1.2 ASTM A615 Reinforcing Steel. Where ASTM A615 Occupancy Category I or II and is greater than two stories
reinforcing steel is used to resist earthquake-induced flexural and in height.
axial forces in special moment frames and in wall boundary el- Structural observations shall be performed by a registered de-
ements of shear walls in structures assigned to Seismic Design sign professional. Observed deficiencies shall be reported in writ-
Categories D, E, or F, verify that the requirements of Section ing to the owner and the authority having jurisdiction.
21.2.5.1 of ACI 318 have been satisfied.
11A.2.1.3 Welding of ASTM A615 Reinforcing Steel. Where 11A.4 REPORTING AND COMPLIANCE
ASTM A615 reinforcing steel is to be welded, verify that chemical PROCEDURES
tests have been performed to determine weld ability in accordance
with Section 3.5.2 of ACI 318. Each special inspector shall furnish to the authority having ju-
risdiction, registered design professional in responsible charge,
11A.2.2 Structural Concrete. Samples of structural concrete
the owner, the persons preparing the quality assurance plan, and
shall be obtained at the project site and tested in accordance with
the contractor copies of regular weekly progress reports of his or
requirements of Section 5.6 of ACI 318.
her observations, noting therein any uncorrected deficiencies and
11A.2.3 Structural Masonry. Quality assurance testing of corrections of previously reported deficiencies. All deficiencies
structural masonry shall be in accordance with the requirements shall be brought to the immediate attention of the contractor for
of ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402 or ACI 530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602. correction. At completion of construction, each special inspec-
tor shall submit a final report to the authority having jurisdiction
11A.2.4 Structural Steel. The testing needed to establish that
certifying that all inspected work was completed substantially in
the construction is in conformance with this standard shall be
accordance with approved construction documents. Work not in
included in a quality assurance plan. The minimum testing con-
compliance shall be described in the final report. At completion
tained in the quality assurance plan shall be as required in AISC
of construction, the building contractor shall submit a final report
Seismic and the following requirements:
to the authority having jurisdiction certifying that all construc-
11A.2.5 Base Metal Testing. Base metal thicker than 1.5 in. tion work incorporated into the seismic force–resisting system
(38 mm), where subject to through-thickness weld shrinkage and other designated seismic systems was constructed substan-
strains, shall be ultrasonically tested for discontinuities behind tially in accordance with the approved construction documents
and adjacent to such welds after joint completion. Any material and applicable workmanship requirements. Work not in compli-
discontinuities shall be accepted or rejected on the basis of ASTM ance shall be described in the final report. The contractor shall
A435, or ASTM A898, and criteria as established by the registered correct all deficiencies as required.

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Appendix 11B
EXISTING BUILDING PROVISIONS
11B.1 SCOPE design strength of any existing structural element to resist seis-
mic forces by more than 10 percent shall not be permitted unless
The provisions of this appendix shall apply to the design and
the entire seismic force–resisting system is determined to comply
construction of alterations and additions and to existing structures
with this standard for a new structure.
with a change in use.
EXCEPTIONS: Alterations to existing structural elements or additions
of new structural elements that are not required by this standard and are
11B.2 STRUCTURALLY INDEPENDENT ADDITIONS initiated for the purpose of increasing the strength or stiffness of the seismic
force–resisting system of an existing structure shall not be required to be
An addition that is structurally independent from an existing struc- designed for forces in accordance with this standard provided that an
ture shall be designed and constructed in accordance with the engineering analysis is submitted indicating the following:
seismic requirements for new structures. 1. The design strengths of existing structural elements required to resist
seismic forces are not reduced.
11B.3 STRUCTURALLY DEPENDENT ADDITIONS 2. The seismic force to required existing structural elements is not
increased beyond their design strength.
Where an addition is not structurally independent from an existing 3. New structural elements are detailed and connected to the existing
structure, the addition and alterations to the existing structure structural elements as required by this standard.
shall be designed and constructed such that the entire structure
4. New or relocated nonstructural elements are detailed and connected
conforms to the seismic force–resistance requirements for new
to existing or new structural elements as required by this standard.
structures.
5. The alteration does not create a structural irregularity or make an
EXCEPTIONS: The entire structure shall not be required to comply with
existing irregularity more severe.
the seismic force–resistance requirements for new structures where all of
the following conditions are met:
1. The addition complies with the requirements for new structures. 11B.5 CHANGE OF USE
2. The addition does not increase the seismic forces in any structural Where a change of use results in a structure being reclassified
element of the existing structure by more than 10 percent unless to a higher occupancy category as defined in Table 1-1 of this
the capacity of the element subject to the increased forces is still in
compliance with this standard.
standard, the structure shall conform to the seismic requirements
for new construction.
3. The addition does not decrease the seismic resistance of any struc-
tural element of the existing structure unless the reduced resistance EXCEPTIONS:
is equal to or greater than that required for new structures. 1. Where a change of use results in a structure being reclassified from
Occupancy Category I or II to Occupancy Category III and the struc-
ture is located in a seismic map area where S DS < 0.33, compliance
11B.4 ALTERATIONS with the seismic requirements of this standard is not required.
Alterations are permitted to be made to any structure without 2. Specific seismic detailing requirements of this standard for a new
structure need not be met where it can be shown that the level of
requiring the existing structure to comply with this standard pro- performance and seismic safety is equivalent to that of a new struc-
vided the alterations comply with the requirements for a new ture. Such analysis shall consider the regularity, overstrength, re-
structure. Alterations that increase the seismic force in any exist- dundancy, and ductility of the structure within the context of the
ing structural element by more than 10 percent or decrease the existing and retrofit (if any) detailing provided.

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Appendix C
SERVICEABILITY CONSIDERATIONS
C. SERVICEABILITY CONSIDERATIONS C.2 DESIGN FOR LONG-TERM DEFLECTION

This Appendix is not a mandatory part of the standard, but pro- Where required for acceptable building performance, members
vides guidance for design for serviceability in order to maintain and systems shall be designed to accommodate long-term irre-
the function of a building and the comfort of its occupants during versible deflections under sustained load.
normal usage. Serviceability limits (e.g., maximum static defor-
mations, accelerations, etc.) shall be chosen with due regard to
the intended function of the structure. C.3 CAMBER
Serviceability shall be checked using appropriate loads for the Special camber requirements that are necessary to bring a loaded
limit state being considered. member into proper relations with the work of other trades shall
be set forth in the design documents.
C.1 DEFLECTION, VIBRATION, AND DRIFT Beams detailed without specified camber shall be positioned
during erection so that any minor camber is upward. If camber
C.1.1 Vertical Deflections. Deformations of floor and roof involves the erection of any member under preload, this shall be
members and systems due to service loads shall not impair the noted in the design documents.
serviceability of the structure.
C.1.2 Drift of Walls and Frames. Lateral deflection or drift of C.4 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION
structures and deformation of horizontal diaphragms and bracing
systems due to wind effects shall not impair the serviceability of Dimensional changes in a structure and its elements due to vari-
the structure. ations in temperature, relative humidity, or other effects shall not
impair the serviceability of the structure.
C.1.3 Vibrations. Floor systems supporting large open areas
free of partitions or other sources of damping, where vibration Provision shall be made either to control crack widths or to
due to pedestrian traffic might be objectionable, shall be designed limit cracking by providing relief joints.
with due regard for such vibration.
Mechanical equipment that can produce objectionable vibra- C.5 DURABILITY
tions in any portion of an inhabited structure shall be isolated to Buildings and other structures shall be designed to tolerate long-
minimize the transmission of such vibrations to the structure. term environmental effects or shall be protected against such ef-
Building structural systems shall be designed so that wind- fects.
induced vibrations do not cause occupant discomfort or damage
to the building, its appurtenances or contents.

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COMMENTARY TO AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS/STRUCTURAL

ENGINEERING INSTITUTE STANDARD 7-05
This commentary is not a part of the ASCE Standard Minimum into effect. This commentary provides a place for supplying ma-
Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. It is included terial that can be used in these situations and is intended to create
for information purposes. a better understanding of the recommended requirements through
brief explanations of the reasoning employed in arriving at
This commentary consists of explanatory and supplementary
them.
material designed to assist local building code committees and
regulatory authorities in applying the recommended require- The sections of the commentary are numbered to correspond
ments. In some cases it will be necessary to adjust specific val- to the sections of the standard to which they refer. Because it is
ues in the standard to local conditions. In others, a considerable not necessary to have supplementary material for every section in
amount of detailed information is needed to put the provisions the standard, there are gaps in the numbering in the commentary.

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Chapter C1
GENERAL
C1.1 SCOPE foundation settlements and shears in bearing walls that support
concrete slabs that shrink. Unless provisions are made for self-
The minimum load requirements contained in this standard are
straining forces, stresses in structural elements, either alone or
derived from research and service performance of buildings and
in combination with stresses from external loads, can be high
other structures. The user of this standard, however, must exercise
enough to cause structural distress.
judgment when applying the requirements to “other structures.”
Loads for some structures other than buildings may be found In many cases, the magnitude of self-straining forces can be
in this standard and additional guidance may be found in the anticipated by analyses of expected shrinkage, temperature fluc-
commentary. tuations, foundation movement, and so forth. However, it is not al-
ways practical to calculate the magnitude of self-straining forces.
Both loads and load combinations are set forth in this document
Designers often provide for self-straining forces by specifying re-
with the intent that they be used together. If one were to use
lief joints, suitable framing systems, or other details to minimize
loads from some other source with the load combinations set
the effects of self-straining forces.
forth herein or vice versa, the reliability of the resulting design
may be affected. This section of the standard is not intended to require the de-
signer to provide for self-straining forces that cannot be antic-
Earthquake loads contained herein are developed for structures
ipated during design. An example is settlement resulting from
that possess certain qualities of ductility and postelastic energy
future adjacent excavation.
dissipation capability. For this reason, provisions for design, de-
tailing, and construction are provided in Appendix A. In some
cases, these provisions modify or add to provisions contained in C1.4 GENERAL STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY
design specifications.
Through accident, misuse, or sabotage, properly designed struc-
tures may be subject to conditions that could lead to either gen-
C1.3 BASIC REQUIREMENTS eral or local collapse. Except for specially designed protective
C1.3.1 Strength. Buildings and other structures must satisfy systems, it is usually impractical for a structure to be designed
strength limit states in which members are proportioned to carry to resist general collapse caused by gross misuse of a large part
the design loads safely to resist buckling, yielding, fracture, and so of the system or severe abnormal loads acting directly on a large
forth. It is expected that other standards produced under consen- portion of it. However, precautions can be taken in the design
sus procedures and intended for use in connection with building of structures to limit the effects of local collapse, and to prevent
code requirements will contain recommendations for resistance or minimize progressive collapse. Progressive collapse is defined
factors for strength design methods or allowable stresses (or safety as the spread of an initial local failure from element to element
factors) for allowable stress design methods. resulting, eventually, in the collapse of an entire structure or a
disproportionately large part of it.
C1.3.2 Serviceability. In addition to strength limit states, build-
Some authors have defined resistance to progressive collapse
ings and other structures must also satisfy serviceability limit
to be the ability of a structure to accommodate, with only local
states that define functional performance and behavior under load
failure, the notional removal of any single structural member.
and include such items as deflection and vibration. In the United
Aside from the possibility of further damage that uncontrolled
States, strength limit states have traditionally been specified in
debris from the failed member may cause, it appears prudent
building codes because they control the safety of the structure.
to consider whether the abnormal event will fail only a single
Serviceability limit states, on the other hand, are usually non-
member.
catastrophic, define a level of quality of the structure or element,
and are a matter of judgment as to their application. Serviceabil- Because accidents, misuse, and sabotage are normally unfore-
ity limit states involve the perceptions and expectations of the seeable events, they cannot be defined precisely. Likewise, gen-
owner or user and are a contractual matter between the owner eral structural integrity is a quality that cannot be stated in simple
or user and the designer and builder. It is for these reasons, and terms. It is the purpose of Section 1.4 and the commentary to direct
because the benefits are often subjective and difficult to define attention to the problem of local collapse, present guidelines for
or quantify, that serviceability limit states for the most part are handling it that will aid the design engineer, and promote consis-
not included within the model United States Building Codes. The tency of treatment in all types of structures and in all construction
fact that serviceability limit states are usually not codified should materials. ASCE does not intend, at this time, for this standard
not diminish their importance. Exceeding a serviceability limit to establish specific events to be considered during design, or for
state in a building or other structure usually means that its func- this standard to provide specific design criteria to minimize the
tion is disrupted or impaired because of local minor damage or risk of progressive collapse.
deterioration or because of occupant discomfort or annoyance.
Accidents, Misuse, Sabotage, and Their Consequences. In ad-
C1.3.3 Self-Straining Forces. Constrained structures that expe- dition to unintentional or willful misuse, some of the incidents
rience dimensional changes develop self-straining forces. Exam- that may cause local collapse are [Ref. C1-1]: explosions due
ples include moments in rigid frames that undergo differential to ignition of gas or industrial liquids; boiler failures; vehicle

P1: FBQ
impact; impact of falling objects; effects of adjacent excavations; There are a number of factors that contribute to the risk of
gross construction errors; very high winds such as tornadoes; and damage propagation in modern structures [Ref. C1-8]. Among
sabotage. Generally, such abnormal events would not be a part them:
of normal design considerations. The distinction between general
1. There is an apparent lack of general awareness among engi-
collapse and limited local collapse can best be made by example
neers that structural integrity against collapse is important
as follows.
enough to be regularly considered in design.
General Collapse. The immediate, deliberate demolition of an 2. To have more flexibility in floor plans and to keep costs
entire structure by phased explosives is an obvious instance of down, interior walls and partitions are often non-load-
general collapse. Also, the failure of one column in a one-, two-, bearing and hence may be unable to assist in containing
three-, or possibly even four-column structure could precipitate damage.
general collapse, because the local failed column is a significant
part of the total structural system at that level. Similarly, the fail- 3. In attempting to achieve economy in structure through
ure of a major bearing element in the bottom story of a two- or greater speed of erection and less site labor, systems may be
three-story structure might cause general collapse of the whole built with minimum continuity, ties between elements, and
structure. Such collapses are beyond the scope of the provisions joint rigidity.
discussed herein. There have been numerous instances of gen- 4. Unreinforced or lightly reinforced load-bearing walls in
eral collapse that have occurred as the result of such events as multistory structures may also have inadequate continuity,
bombing, landslides, and floods. ties, and joint rigidity.
Limited Local Collapse. An example of limited local collapse 5. In roof trusses and arches there may not be sufficient strength
would be the containment of damage to adjacent bays and stories to carry the extra loads or sufficient diaphragm action to
following the destruction of one or two neighboring columns in a maintain lateral stability of the adjacent members if one
multibay structure. The restriction of damage to portions of two collapses.
or three stories of a higher structure following the failure of a 6. In eliminating excessively large safety factors, code changes
section of bearing wall in one story is another example. over the past several decades have reduced the large mar-
Examples of General Collapse. gin of safety inherent in many older structures. The use of
higher-strength materials permitting more slender sections
Ronan Point. A prominent case of local collapse that progressed compounds the problem in that modern structures may be
to a disproportionate part of the whole building (and is thus an ex- more flexible and sensitive to load variations and, in addi-
ample of the type of failure of concern here) was the Ronan Point tion, may be more sensitive to construction errors.
disaster, which brought the attention of the profession to the matter
Experience has demonstrated that the principle of taking pre-
of general structural integrity in buildings. Ronan Point was 22-
cautions in design to limit the effects of local collapse is realistic
story apartment building of large, precast-concrete, load-bearing
and can be satisfied economically. From a public-safety viewpoint
panels in Canning Town, England. In March 1968, a gas explosion
it is reasonable to expect all multistory structures to possess gen-
in an 18-story apartment blew out a living room wall. The loss
eral structural integrity comparable to that of properly designed,
of the wall led to the collapse of the whole corner of the build-
conventional framed structures [Refs. C1-8, C1-9].
ing. The apartments above the 18th story, suddenly losing support
from below and being insufficiently tied and reinforced, collapsed Design Alternatives. There are a number of ways to obtain re-
one after the other. The falling debris ruptured successive floors sistance to progressive collapse. In [Ref. C1-10], a distinction is
and walls below the 18th story, and the failure progressed to the made between direct and indirect design, and the following ap-
ground. Better continuity and ductility might have reduced the proaches are defined:
amount of damage at Ronan Point.
Another example is the failure of a one-story parking garage Direct Design: Explicit consideration of resistance to progres-
reported in [Ref. C1-2]. Collapse of one transverse frame under a sive collapse during the design process through either:
concentration of snow led to the later progressive collapse of the
whole roof, which was supported by 20 transverse frames of the Alternate Path Method: A method that allows local failure
same type. Similar progressive collapses are mentioned in [Ref. to occur, but seeks to provide alternate load paths so that
C1-3]. the damage is absorbed and major collapse is averted.
Specific Local Resistance Method: A method that seeks to
Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building. [Refs. C1-4 through C1-7] provide sufficient strength to resist failure from accidents
On April 19, 1995 a truck containing approximately 4,000 lb of or misuse.
fertilizer-based explosive (ANFO) was parked near the sidewalk
next to the nine-story reinforced concrete office building. The
Indirect Design: Implicit consideration of resistance to progres-
side facing the blast had corner columns and four other perimeter
sive collapse during the design process through the provision of
columns. The blast shock wave disintegrated one of the 20 × 36 in.
minimum levels of strength, continuity, and ductility.
perimeter columns and caused brittle failures of two others. The
transfer girder at the third level above these columns failed, and The general structural integrity of a structure may be tested by
the upper-story floors collapsed in a progressive fashion. Approx- analysis to ascertain whether alternate paths around hypotheti-
imately 70 percent of the building experienced dramatic collapse. cally collapsed regions exist. Alternatively, alternate path studies
One hundred sixty-eight people died, many of them as a direct may be used as guides for developing rules for the minimum
result of progressive collapse. Damage might have been less had levels of continuity and ductility needed to apply the indirect de-
this structure not relied on transfer girders for support of upper sign approach to enhance general structural integrity. Specific
floors, if there had been better detailing for ductility and greater local resistance may be provided in regions of high risk, be-
redundancy, and if there had been better resistance for uplift loads cause it may be necessary for some element to have sufficient
on floor slabs. strength to resist abnormal loads in order for the structure as a
250 ASCE 7-05

P1: FBQ
whole to develop alternate paths. Specific suggestions for the im- beam with the slabs above and below acting as flanges [Ref.
plementation of each of the defined methods are contained in C1-12].
[Ref. C1-10].
8. Redundant Structural Systems. Provide a secondary load
Guidelines for the Provision of General Structural Integrity. path (e.g., an upper-level truss or transfer girder system that
Generally, connections between structural components should be allows the lower floors of a multistory building to hang
ductile and have a capacity for relatively large deformations and from the upper floors in an emergency) that allows framing
energy absorption under the effect of abnormal conditions. This to survive removal of key support elements.
criterion is met in many different ways, depending on the struc- 9. Ductile Detailing. Avoid low-ductility detailing in elements
tural system used. Details that are appropriate for resistance to that might be subject to dynamic loads or very large distor-
moderate wind loads and seismic loads often provide sufficient tions during localized failures (e.g., consider the implica-
ductility. In 1999, ASCE issued a state of practice report that is tions of shear failures in beams or supported slabs under the
a good introduction to the complex field of blast resistant design influence of building weights falling from above).
[Ref. C1-11]
10. Provide additional reinforcement to resist blast and load
Work with large precast panel structures [Refs. C1-12 through reversal when blast loads are considered in design [Ref.
C1-14] provides an example of how to cope with the problem of C1-17].
general structural integrity in a building system that is inherently
discontinuous. The provision of ties combined with careful detail- 11. Consider the use of compartmentalized construction in com-
ing of connections can overcome difficulties associated with such bination with special moment resisting frames [as defined
a system. The same kind of methodology and design philosophy in Ref. C1-18] in the design of new buildings when consid-
can be applied to other systems [Ref. C1-15]. The ACI Building ering blast protection.
Code Requirements for Structural Concrete [Ref. C1-16] includes While not directly adding structural integrity for the prevention
such requirements in Section 7.13. of progressive collapse, the use of special, nonfrangible glass for
There are a number of ways of designing for the required in- fenestration can greatly reduce risk to occupants during exterior
tegrity to carry loads around severely damaged walls, trusses, blasts [Ref. C1-17]. To the extent that nonfrangible glass isolates
beams, columns, and floors. A few examples of design concepts a building’s interior from blast shock waves, it can also reduce
and details are damage to interior framing elements (e.g., supported floor slabs
could be made to be less likely to fail due to uplift forces) for
1. Good Plan Layout. An important factor in achieving in- exterior blasts.
tegrity is the proper plan layout of walls and columns. In
bearing-wall structures there should be an arrangement of
interior longitudinal walls to support and reduce the span C1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF BUILDINGS
of long sections of crosswall, thus enhancing the stability AND OTHER STRUCTURES
of individual walls and of the structures as a whole. In the C1.5.1 Nature of Occupancy. The occupancy categories in Ta-
case of local failure, this will also decrease the length of ble 1-1 are used to relate the criteria for maximum environmental
wall likely to be affected. loads or distortions specified in this standard to the consequence
2. Provide an integrated system of ties among the principal el- of the loads being exceeded for the structure and its occupants.
ements of the structural system. These ties may be designed The occupancy category numbering is unchanged from that in
specifically as components of secondary load-carrying sys- the previous edition of the standard (ASCE 7-98). Classification
tems, which often must sustain very large deformations dur- continues to reflect a progression of the anticipated seriousness
ing catastrophic events. of the consequence of failure from lowest hazard to human life
(Occupancy Category I) to highest (Occupancy Category IV).
3. Returns on Walls. Returns on interior and exterior walls will
make them more stable. In Chapters 6, 7, 10, and 11, importance factors are presented
for the four occupancy categories identified. The specific impor-
4. Changing Directions of Span of Floor Slab. Where a one-
tance factors differ according to the statistical characteristics of
way floor slab is reinforced to span, with a low safety factor,
the environmental loads and the manner in which the structure
in its secondary direction if a load-bearing wall is removed,
responds to the loads. The principle of requiring more stringent
the collapse of the slab will be prevented and the debris
loading criteria for situations in which the consequence of failure
loading of other parts of the structure will be minimized.
may be severe has been recognized in previous versions of this
Often, shrinkage and temperature steel will be enough to
standard by the specification of mean recurrence interval maps
enable the slab to span in a new direction.
for wind speed and ground snow load.
5. Load-Bearing Interior Partitions. The interior walls must be
This section now recognizes that there may be situations when
capable of carrying enough load to achieve the change of
it is acceptable to assign multiple occupancy categories to a struc-
span direction in the floor slabs.
ture based on use and the type of load condition being evaluated.
6. Catenary Action of Floor Slab. Where the slab cannot For instance, there are circumstances when a structure should
change span direction, the span will increase if an inter- appropriately be designed for wind loads with importance fac-
mediate supporting wall is removed. In this case, if there is tors greater than one, but would be penalized unnecessarily if
enough reinforcement throughout the slab and enough con- designed for seismic loads with importance factors greater than
tinuity and restraint, the slab may be capable of carrying the one. An example would be a hurricane shelter in a low seismic
loads by catenary action, though very large deflections will area. The structure would be classified in Occupancy Category IV
result. for wind design and in Occupancy Category II for seismic design.
7. Beam Action of Walls. Walls may be assumed to be capable Occupancy Category I contains buildings and other structures
of spanning an opening if sufficient tying steel at the top that represent a low hazard to human life in the event of failure
and bottom of the walls allows them to act as the web of a either because they have a small number of occupants or have

P1: FBQ
a limited period of exposure to extreme environmental loadings. handle the interaction of multiple materials. Two materials may
Examples of agricultural structures that fall under Occupancy be exempt because neither pose a risk to the public by themselves
Category I are farm storage structures used exclusively for the but may form a deadly combination if combined in a release.
storage of farm machinery and equipment, grain bins, corn cribs, Therefore, an alternate and superior method of evaluating the risk
and general purpose barns for the temporary feeding of livestock to the public of a release of a material is by a hazard assessment
[Ref. C1-19]. Occupancy Category II contains all occupancies as part of an overall Risk Management Plan (RMP).
other than those in Occupancy Categories I, III, and IV and are
sometimes referred to as “ordinary” for the purpose of risk expo- Buildings and other structures containing toxic, highly toxic,
sure. Occupancy Category III contains those buildings and other or explosive substances may be classified as Occupancy Category
structures that have large numbers of occupants, are designed for II structures if it can be demonstrated that the risk to the public
public assembly, or in which physical restraint or other incapacity from a release of these materials is minimal. Companies that oper-
of occupants hinders their movement or evacuation. Buildings and ate industrial facilities typically perform Hazard and Operability
other structures in Occupancy Category III, therefore, represent (HAZOP) studies, conduct quantitative risk assessments, and de-
a substantial hazard to human life in the event of failure. velop risk management and emergency response plans. Federal
regulations and local laws mandate many of these studies and
Occupancy Category III also contains important infrastructure plans [Ref. C1-22]. Additionally, many industrial facilities are
structures that serve broad groups of civilians. While the failures located in areas remote from the public and have restricted ac-
of these structures do not always create unusual life-safety risks, cess, which further reduces the risk to the public.
such structures are included under the requirements of this occu-
pancy category because their failures can cause substantial eco- The intent of Section 1.5.2 is for the RMP and the facility’s
nomic impact and/or mass disruption of day-to-day civilian life. design features that are critical to the effective implementation of
Examples of conditions that justify classification as Occupancy the RMP to be maintained for the life of the facility. The RMP
Category III follow. and its associated critical design features must be reviewed on a
regular basis to ensure that the actual condition of the facility is
Failures of power plants that supply electricity on the national consistent with the plan. The RMP also should be reviewed when-
grid can cause substantial economic losses and disruption to civil- ever consideration is given to the alteration of facility features that
ian life when their failures can trigger other plants to go offline are critical to the effective implementation of the RMP.
in succession. The result can be massive and potentially extended
power outage/shortage that leads to huge economic losses be- The RMP generally deals with mitigating the risk to the general
cause of idled industries and a serious disruption of civilian life public. Risk to individuals outside the facility storing toxic, highly
because of inoperable subways, road traffic signals, and so forth. toxic, or explosive substances is emphasized because plant per-
One such event occurred in parts of Canada and the northeastern sonnel are not placed at as high a risk as the general public due to
United States in August 2003. the plant personnel’s training in the handling of the toxic, highly
toxic, or explosive substances and due to the safety procedures
Failures of water and sewage treatment facilities can cause implemented inside the facilities. When these elements (trained
disruption to civilian life because these failures can cause large- personnel and safety procedures) are not present in a facility, then
scale (but mostly non-life-threatening) public health risks caused the RMP must mitigate the risk to the plant personnel in the same
by the inability to treat sewage and to provide drinking water. manner as it mitigates the risk to the general public.
Failures of major telecommunication centers can cause dis- As the result of the prevention program portion of a RMP,
ruption to civilian life by depriving users of access to important buildings and other structures normally falling into Occupancy
emergency information (using radio, television, and phone com- Category III may be classified into Occupancy Category II if
munication) and by causing substantial economic losses associ- means (e.g., secondary containment) are provided to contain the
ated with widespread interruption of business. toxic, highly toxic, or explosive substances in the case of a release.
Occupancy Category IV contains buildings and other struc- To qualify, secondary containment systems must be designed,
tures that are designated as essential facilities and are intended to installed, and operated to prevent migration of harmful quantities
remain operational in the event of extreme environmental load- of toxic, highly toxic, or explosive substances out of the system
ings. Such occupancies include, but are not limited to, hospitals, to the air, soil, ground water, or surface water at any time during
fire, rescue, and other emergency response facilities. Ancillary the use of the structure. This requirement is not to be construed
structures required for the operation of Occupancy Category IV as requiring a secondary containment system to prevent a release
facilities during an emergency also are included in this occupancy of any toxic, highly toxic, or explosive substance into the air. By
category. When deciding whether an ancillary structure or a struc- recognizing that secondary containment shall not allow releases of
ture that supports such functions as fire suppression is Occupancy “harmful” quantities of contaminants, this standard acknowledges
Category IV, the design professional must decide whether failure that there are substances that might contaminate ground water but
of the subject structure will adversely affect the essential func- do not produce a sufficient concentration of toxic, highly toxic, or
tion of the facility. In addition to essential facilities, buildings and explosive substances during a vapor release to constitute a health
other structures containing extremely hazardous materials have or safety risk to the public. Because it represents the “last line of
been added to Occupancy Category IV to recognize the potential defense,” secondary containment does not qualify for the reduced
devastating effect a release of extremely hazardous materials may classification.
have on a population.
If the beneficial effect of secondary containment can be negated
C1.5.2 Toxic, Highly Toxic, and Explosive Substances. A by external forces, such as the overtopping of dike walls by flood
common method of categorizing structures storing toxic, highly waters or the loss of liquid containment of an earthen dike due
toxic, or explosive substances is by the use of a table of exempt to excessive ground displacement during a seismic event, then
amounts of these materials [Refs. C1-20, C1-21]. These refer- the buildings or other structures in question may not be classi-
ences, and others, are sources of guidance on the identification of fied into Occupancy Category II. If the secondary containment is
materials of these general classifications. A drawback to the use to contain a flammable substance, then implementation of a pro-
of tables of exempt amounts is the fact that the method cannot gram of emergency response and preparedness combined with an
252 ASCE 7-05

P1: FBQ
appropriate fire suppression system would be a prudent action 3. A chemical that has a median lethal concentration [LC(50)]
associated with an Occupancy Category II classification. In many in air of more than 200 parts per million but not more than
jurisdictions, such actions are required by local fire codes. 2,000 parts per million by volume of gas or vapor, or more
than 2 mg per liter but not more than 20 mg per liter of mist,
Also as the result of the prevention program portion of an RMP,
fume, or dust, when administered by continuous inhalation
buildings and other structures containing toxic, highly toxic, or
for 1 hr (or less if death occurs within 1 hr) to albino rats
explosive substances also could be classified as Occupancy Cate-
weighing between 200 and 300 g each.
gory II for hurricane wind loads when mandatory procedures are
used to reduce the risk of release of toxic, highly toxic, or explo-
sive substances during and immediately after these predictable C1.7 LOAD TESTS
extreme loadings. Examples of such procedures include draining No specific method of test for completed construction has been
hazardous fluids from a tank when a hurricane is predicted or, given in this standard, because it may be found advisable to vary
conversely, filling a tank with fluid to increase its buckling and the procedure according to conditions. Some codes require the
overturning resistance. As appropriate to minimize the risk of construction to sustain a superimposed load equal to a stated mul-
damage to structures containing toxic, highly toxic, or explosive tiple of the design load without evidence of serious damage. Oth-
substances, mandatory procedures necessary for the Occupancy ers specify that the superimposed load shall be equal to a stated
Category II classification should include preventative measures, multiple of the live load plus a portion of the dead load. Lim-
such as the removal of objects that might become airborne mis- its are set on maximum deflection under load and after removal
siles in the vicinity of the structure. of the load. Recovery of at least three-quarters of the maximum
In previous editions of ASCE 7, the definitions of “hazardous” deflection, within 24 hr after the load is removed, is a common
and “extremely hazardous” materials were not provided. There- requirement [Ref. C1-16].
fore, the determination of the distinction between hazardous and
extremely hazardous materials was left to the discretion of the REFERENCES
authority having jurisdiction. The change to the use of the terms [Ref. C1-1] Leyendecker, E.V., Breen, J.E., Somes, N.F., and Swatta, M.
“toxic” and “highly toxic” based on definitions from Federal (Jan. 1976). “Abnormal loading on buildings and progressive collapse—
law (29 CFR 1910.1200 Appendix A with Amendments as of An annotated bibliography.” U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Bureau of
Standards. NBS BSS 67, Washington, D.C.
February 1, 2000) has corrected this problem.
[Ref. C1-2] Granstrom, S., and Carlsson, M. (1974). “Byggfursknin-
Due to the highly quantitative nature of the definitions for toxic gen T3: Byggnaders beteende vid overpaverkningar (The behavior
and highly toxic found in 29 CFR 1910.1200 Appendix A [Ref. of buildings at excessive loadings).” Swedish Institute of Building
Research, Stockholm, Sweden.
C1-23], the General Provisions Task Committee felt that the defi- [Ref. C1-3] Seltz-Petrash, A. (Dec. 1979). “Winter roof collapses: Bad luck,
nitions found in federal law should be directly referenced instead bad construction, or bad design.” Civ. Engrg., 42–45.
of repeated in the body of ASCE 7. The definitions found in 29 [Ref. C1-4] Engineering News Record. (May 1, 1995).
CFR 1910.1200 Appendix A are repeated in the following text [Ref. C1-5] (1996). “The Oklahoma City Bombing: Improving building per-
for reference. formance through multihazard mitigation.” FEMA Rep. 277, American
Society of Civil Engineers and Federal Emergency Management Agency,
Washington, D.C.
Highly Toxic. A chemical falling within any of the following [Ref. C1-6] Weidlinger, P. (Nov. 1994). “Civilian structures: Taking the de-
categories: fensive.” Civ. Engrg., 48–49.
[Ref. C1-7] Longinow, A. (July 1995). “The threat of terrorism: Can buildings
1. A chemical that has a median lethal dose (LD[50]) of 50 be protected?” Building Operating Management, 46–53.
mg or less per kilogram of body weight when administered [Ref. C1-8] Breen, J.E., ed. (Sept. 1976). “Progressive collapse of building
orally to albino rats weighing between 200 and 300 g each. structures (summary report of a workshop held at the University of Texas at
Austin, Oct. 1975).” U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
2. A chemical that has a median lethal dose (LD[50]) of 200 mg Rep. PDR-182, Washington, D.C.
or less per kilogram of body weight when administered by [Ref. C1-9] Burnett, E.F.P. (Oct. 1975). “The avoidance of progressive
continuous contact for 24 hr (or less if death occurs within collapse: Regulatory approaches to the problem.” U.S. Department of
24 hr) with the bare skin of albino rabbits weighing between Commerce, National Bureau of Standards. NBS GCR 75-48, Wash-
2 and 3 kg each. ington, D.C. (available from National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, VA).
3. A chemical that has a median lethal concentration (LD[50]) [Ref. C1-10] Ellingwood, B.R., and Leyendecker, E.V. (1978). “Approaches
in air of 200 parts per million by volume or less of gas or for design against progressive collapse.” J. Struct. Div. (ASCE) 104(3),
vapor, or 2 mg per liter or less of mist, fume, or dust, when 413–423.
[Ref. C1-11] ASCE. (1999). “Structural design for physical security: State of
administered by continuous inhalation for 1 hr (or less if
the practice.” ASCE, Reston, VA.
death occurs within 1 hr) to albino rats weighing between [Ref. C1-12] Schultz, D.M., Burnett, E.F.P., and Fintel, M. (1977). “A de-
200 and 300 g each. sign approach to general structural integrity, design and construction of
large-panel concrete structures.” U.S. Department of Housing and Urban
Toxic. A chemical falling within any of the following categories: Development, Washington, D.C.
[Ref. C1-13] PCI Committee on Precast Bearing Walls. (March/April 1976).
1. A chemical that has a median lethal dose (LD[50]) of more “Considerations for the design of precast bearing-wall buildings to with-
than 50 mg per kg, but not more than 500 mg per kg of body stand abnormal loads.” J. Prestressed Concrete Institute, 21(2), 46–69.
weight when administered orally to albino rats weighing [Ref. C1-14] Fintel, M., and Schultz, D.M. (May 1979). “Structural integrity
of large-panel buildings.” J. Am. Concrete Inst. 76(5), 583–622.
between 200 and 300 g each.
[Ref. C1-15] Fintel, M., and Annamalai, G. (May 1979). “Philosophy of
2. A chemical that has a median lethal dose [LD(50)] of more structural integrity of multistory load-bearing concrete masonry structures.”
than 200 mg per kilogram, but not more than 1,000 mg per Concrete Int. 1(5), 27–35.
[Ref. C1-16] American Concrete Institute. (2002). “Building code require-
kilogram of body weight when administered by continuous ments for structural concrete.” ACI Standard 318-02, Detroit. 82–83.
contact for 24 hr (or less if death occurs within 24 hr) with [Ref. C1-17] ASCE Petrochemical Energy Committee, Task Committee on
the bare skin of albino rabbits weighing between 2 and 3 kg Blast Resistant Design. (1977). “Design of blast resistant buildings in petro-
each. chemical facilities.”

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[Ref. C1-18] FEMA. (1997 Ed.). “NEHRP recommended provisions for seis- [Ref. C1-21] EPA. (July 1999). “Emergency planning and notification–The
mic regulations for new buildings and other structures.” FEMA Rep. No. list of extremely hazardous substances and their threshold planning quan-
302/February 1998, Part 1–Provisions. tities.” 40 CFR Part 355, Appendix A, Environmental Protection Agency,
[Ref. C1-19] FEMA. (1993). “Wet floodproofing requirements for structures Washington, D.C.
located in special flood hazard areas in accordance with the national flood [Ref. C1-22] EPA. (July 1999). “Chemical accident prevention provisions.”
insurance program.” Technical Bulletin 7-93, Federal Emergency Manage- 40 CFR Part 68, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
ment Agency, Mitigation Directorate, Federal Insurance Administration, [Ref. C1-23] OSHA Standards for General Industry, 29 CFR (Code of Federal
Washington, D.C. Regulations) Part 1900 with Amendments as of February 1, 2000, United
[Ref. C1-20] 2000 International Building Code. (2000). Tables 307.7(1) and States Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administra-
307.7(2). International Code Council, Falls Church, VA. tion, Washington D.C.
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Chapter C2
COMBINATIONS OF LOADS
Loads in this standard are intended for use with design spec- combination scheme is that in addition to dead load, which is con-
ifications for conventional structural materials, including steel, sidered to be permanent, one of the variable loads takes on its max-
concrete, masonry, and timber. Some of these specifications are imum lifetime value while the other variable loads assume “arbi-
based on allowable stress design, while others employ strength trary point-in-time” values, the latter being loads that would be
(or limit states) design. In the case of allowable stress design, de- measured at any instant of time [Ref. C2-4]. This is consistent with
sign specifications define allowable stresses that may not be ex- the manner in which loads actually combine in situations in which
ceeded by load effects due to unfactored loads, that is, allowable strength limit states may be approached. However, nominal loads
stresses contain a factor of safety. In strength design, design spec- in this standard are substantially in excess of the arbitrary point-
ifications provide load factors and, in some instances, resistance in-time values. To avoid having to specify both a maximum and an
factors. Structural design specifications based on strength design arbitrary point-in-time value for each load type, some of the spec-
have been adopted by a number of specification-writing groups. ified load factors are less than unity in combinations 2 through 6.
Therefore, it is desirable to include herein common load factors
Load factors in Section 2.3.2 are based on a survey of reliabil-
that are applicable to these new specifications. It is intended that
ities inherent in existing design practice. The load factor on wind
these load factors be used by all material-based design speci-
load in combinations 4 and 6 was increased to 1.6 in ASCE 7-98
fications that adopt a strength design philosophy in conjunction
from the value of 1.3 appearing in ASCE 7-95. The reasons for
with nominal resistances and resistance factors developed by indi-
this increase are twofold.
vidual material-specification-writing groups. Load factors given
herein were developed using a first-order probabilistic analysis First, the previous wind load factor, 1.3, incorporated a factor
and a broad survey of the reliabilities inherent in contemporary of 0.85 to account for wind directionality, that is, the reduced
design practice. References [C2-1], [C2-2], and [C2-3] also pro- likelihood that the maximum wind speed occurs in a direction
vide guidelines for materials-specification-writing groups to aid that is most unfavorable for building response [Ref. C2-5]. This
them in developing resistance factors that are compatible, in terms directionality effect was not taken into account in allowable stress
of inherent reliability, with load factors and statistical information design. Recent wind engineering research has made it possible
specific to each structural material. to identify wind directionality factors explicitly for a number of
common structures. Accordingly, new wind directionality factors,
K d , are presented in Table 6-4 of this standard. These factors now
C2.2 SYMBOLS AND NOTATION are reflected in the nominal wind forces, W, used in both strength
Self-straining forces can be caused by differential settlement foun- design and allowable stress design. This change alone mandates
dations, creep in concrete members, shrinkage in members after an increase in the wind load factor to approximately 1.53.
placement, expansion of shrinkage-compensating concrete, and Second, the value in ASCE 7-95, 1.3, was based on a statisti-
changes in temperature of members during the service life of the cal analysis of wind forces on buildings at sites not exposed to
structure. In some cases, these forces may be a significant design hurricane winds [Ref. C2-5]. Studies have shown that, owing to
consideration. In concrete or masonry structures, the reduction in differences between statistical characteristics of wind forces in
stiffness that occurs upon cracking may relieve these self-straining hurricane-prone coastal areas of the United States [Refs. C2-6,
forces, and the assessment of loads should consider this reduced C2-7, C2-8] the probability of exceeding the factored (or design-
stiffness. basis) wind force, 1.3W is higher in hurricane-prone coastal areas
Some permanent loads, such as landscaping loads on plaza than in the interior regions. Two recent studies [Refs. C2-9, C2-
areas, may be more appropriately considered as live loads for 10] have shown that the wind load factor in hurricane-prone areas
purposes of design. should be increased to approximately 1.5 to 1.8 (depending on
site) to maintain comparable reliability.
C2.3 COMBINING FACTORED LOADS USING To move toward uniform risk in coastal and interior areas across
STRENGTH DESIGN the country, two steps were taken. First, the wind speed contours
in hurricane-prone areas were adjusted to take the differences
C2.3.1 Applicability. Load factors and load combinations given in extreme hurricane wind speed probability distributions into
in this section apply to limit states or strength design criteria account (as explained in Section C6.5.4); these differences pre-
(referred to as “load and resistance factor design” by the steel viously were accounted for in ASCE 7-95 by the “importance
and wood industries) and they should not be used with allowable factor.” Second, the wind load factor was increased from 1.3 to
stress design specifications. 1.6. This approach (a) reflects the removal of the directionality
factor, and (b) avoids having to specify separate load criteria for
C2.3.2 Basic Combinations. Unfactored loads to be used with
coastal and interior areas.
these load factors are the nominal loads of this standard. Load
factors are from NBS SP 577 with the exception of the factor 1.0 Exception (3) has been added to permit the companion load
for E, which is based on the more recent NEHRP research on S appearing in combinations (2), (4), and (5) to be the balanced
seismic-resistant design [Ref. C2-15]. The basic idea of the load snow load defined in Sections 7.3 for flat roofs and 7.4 for sloped

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roofs. Drifting and unbalanced snow loads, as principal loads, are loads were then obtained using established reliability methods
covered by combination (3). [Ref. C2-2], and achieve approximately the same level of reli-
ability as do combinations involving wind loads acting without
Load combinations 6 and 7 apply specifically to the case in
floods. The relatively high flood load factor stems from the high
which the structural actions due to lateral forces and gravity loads
variability in floods relative to other environmental loads. The
counteract one another.
presence of 2.0Fa in both combinations (4) and (6) in V Zones
Load factors given herein relate only to strength limit states. and Coastal A Zones is the result of high stochastic dependence
Serviceability limit states and associated load factors are covered between extreme wind and flood in hurricane-prone coastal zones.
in Appendix B of this standard. The 2.0Fa also applies in coastal areas subject to northeasters, ex-
This standard historically has provided specific procedures for tra tropical storms, or coastal storms other than hurricanes, where
determining magnitudes of dead, occupancy live, wind, snow, and a high correlation exists between extreme wind and flood.
earthquake loads. Other loads not traditionally considered by this Flood loads are unique in that they are initiated only after the
standard may also require consideration in design. Some of these water level exceeds the local ground elevation. As a result, the sta-
loads may be important in certain material specifications and are tistical characteristics of flood loads vary with ground elevation.
included in the load criteria to enable uniformity to be achieved in The load factor 2.0 is based on calculations (including hydro-
the load criteria for different materials. However, statistical data static, steady flow, and wave forces) with still-water flood depths
on these loads are limited or nonexistent, and the same procedures ranging from approximately 4 to 9 ft (average still-water flood
used to obtain load factors and load combinations in Section 2.3.2 depth of approximately 6 ft), and applies to a wide variety of
cannot be applied at the present time. Accordingly, load factors flood conditions. For lesser flood depths, load factors exceed 2.0
for fluid load (F), lateral pressure due to soil and water in soil because of the wide dispersion in flood loads relative to the nom-
(H), and self-straining forces and effects (T ) have been chosen inal flood load. As an example, load factors appropriate to water
to yield designs that would be similar to those obtained with depths slightly less than 4 ft equal 2.8 [Ref. C2-10]. However,
existing specifications, if appropriate adjustments consistent with in such circumstances, the flood load generally is small. Thus,
the load combinations in Section 2.3.2 were made to the resistance the load factor 2.0 is based on the recognition that flood loads of
factors. Further research is needed to develop more accurate load most importance to structural design occur in situations where the
factors because the load factors selected for H and Fa , are probably depth of flooding is greatest.
conservative.
C2.3.4 Load Combinations Including Atmospheric Ice
Fluid load, F, defines structural actions in structural supports, Loads. Load combinations 1 and 2 in Sections 2.3.4 and 2.4.3
framework, or foundations of a storage tank, vessel, or similar include the simultaneous effects of snow loads as defined in Chap-
container due to stored liquid products. The product in a storage ter 7 and Atmospheric Ice Loads as defined in Chapter 10. Load
tank shares characteristics of both dead and live loads. It is similar combinations 2 and 3 in Sections 2.3.4 and 2.4.3 introduce the
to a dead load in that its weight has a maximum calculated value, simultaneous effect of wind on the atmospheric ice. The wind
and the magnitude of the actual load may have a relatively small load on the atmospheric ice, Wi , corresponds to an event with
dispersion. However, it is not permanent; emptying and filling approximately a 500-year Mean Recurrence Interval (MRI). Ac-
causes fluctuating forces in the structure, the maximum load may cordingly, the load factors on Wi and Di are set equal to 1.0 and
be exceeded by overfilling; and densities of stored products in 0.7 in Sections 2.3.4 and 2.4.3, respectively. The rationale is ex-
a specific tank may vary. Adding F to combination 1 provides actly the same as that used to specify the earthquake force as 0.7E
additional conservatism for situations in which F is the dominant in the load combinations applied in working stress design. The
load. snow loads defined in Chapter 7 are based on measurements of
It should be emphasized that uncertainties in lateral forces from frozen precipitation accumulated on the ground, which includes
bulk materials, included in H, are higher than those in fluids, par- snow, ice due to freezing rain, and rain that falls onto snow and
ticularly when dynamic effects are introduced as the bulk material later freezes. Thus the effects of freezing rain are included in the
is set in motion by filling or emptying operations. Accordingly, snow loads for roofs, catwalks, and other surfaces to which snow
the load factor for such loads is set equal to 1.6. loads are normally applied. The atmospheric ice loads defined in
Chapter 10 are applied simultaneously to those portions of the
structure on which ice due to freezing rain, in-cloud icing, or
C2.3.3 Load Combinations Including Flood Load. The nom- snow accrete that are not subject to the snow loads in Chapter 7.
inal flood load, Fa , is based on the 100-year flood (Section 5.4). A trussed tower installed on the roof of a building is one exam-
The recommended flood load factor of 2.0 in V Zones and Coastal ple. The snow loads from Chapter 7 would be applied to the roof
A Zones is based on a statistical analysis of flood loads associated with the atmospheric ice loads from Chapter 10 applied to the
with hydrostatic pressures, pressures due to steady overland flow, trussed tower. If a trussed tower has working platforms, the snow
and hydrodynamic pressures due to waves, as specified in Section loads would be applied to the surface of the platforms with the
5.3.3. atmospheric ice loads applied to the tower. If a sign is mounted
The flood load criteria were derived from an analysis of on a roof, the snow loads would be applied to the roof and the
hurricane-generated storm tides produced along the United States atmospheric ice loads to the sign.
East and Gulf coasts [Ref. C2-10], where storm tide is defined
as the water level above mean sea level resulting from wind-
C2.4 COMBINING LOADS USING ALLOWABLE
generated storm surge added to randomly phased astronomical
STRESS DESIGN
tides. Hurricane wind speeds and storm tides were simulated at
11 coastal sites based on historical storm climatology and on ac- C2.4.1 Basic Combinations. The load combinations listed
cepted wind speed and storm surge models. The resulting wind cover those loads for which specific values are given in other
speed and storm tide data were then used to define probability dis- parts of this standard. However, these combinations are not all-
tributions of wind loads and flood loads using wind and flood load inclusive, and designers will need to exercise judgment in some
equations specified in Sections 6.5, 5.4, and in other publications situations. Design should be based on the load combination caus-
(United States Army Corps of Engineers). Load factors for these ing the most unfavorable effect. In some cases this may occur
256 ASCE 7-05

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when one or more loads are not acting. No safety factors have load combinations 3 and 4; the multiplier on Fa aligns allowable
been applied to these loads, because such factors depend on the stress design for flood load with strength design.
design philosophy adopted by the particular material specifica-
C2.4.3 Load Combinations Including Atmospheric Ice
tion.
Loads. See Section C2.3.4.
The exception has been added to permit the companion load S
appearing in combinations (4) and (6) to be the balanced snow
load defined in Sections 7.3 for flat roofs and 7.4 for sloped roofs. C2.5 LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR EXTRAORDINARY
Drifting and unbalanced snow loads, as principal loads, are cov- EVENTS
ered by combination (3). ASCE Standard 7 Section C1.4 recommends approaches to pro-
Wind and earthquake loads need not be assumed to act simulta- viding general structural integrity in building design and construc-
neously. However, the most unfavorable effects of each should be tion. Commentary C2.5 explains the basis for the load combina-
considered separately in design, where appropriate. In some in- tions that the designer should use if the Direct Design alternative
stances, forces due to wind might exceed those due to earthquake, in Section C1.4 is selected. If the authority having jurisdiction re-
while ductility requirements might be determined by earthquake quires the Indirect Design alternative, that authority may use these
loads. load requirements as one basis for determining minimum required
levels of strength, continuity, and ductility. Generally, extraordi-
Load combinations 7 and 8 were new to the 1998 edition of nary events with a probability of occurrence in the range 10−6
ASCE 7. They address the situation in which the effects of lateral through 10−4 /yr or greater should be identified, and measures
or uplift forces counteract the effect of gravity loads. This elimi- should be taken to ensure that the performance of key load-bearing
nates an inconsistency in the treatment of counteracting loads in structural systems and components is sufficient to withstand such
allowable stress design and strength design, and emphasizes the events.
importance of checking stability. The earthquake load effect is
multiplied by 0.7 to align allowable stress design for earthquake Extraordinary events arise from extraordinary service or envi-
effects with the definition of E in Section 12.4, which is based on ronmental conditions that traditionally are not considered explic-
strength principles. itly in design of ordinary buildings and structures. Such events
are characterized by a low probability of occurrence and usually
Most loads, other than dead loads, vary significantly with time. a short duration. Few buildings are ever exposed to such events
When these variable loads are combined with dead loads, their and statistical data to describe their magnitude and structural ef-
combined effect should be sufficient to reduce the risk of unsatis- fects are rarely available. Included in the category of extraordinary
factory performance to an acceptably low level. However, when events would be fire, explosions of volatile liquids or natural gas
more than one variable load is considered, it is extremely unlikely in building service systems, sabotage, vehicular impact, misuse
that they will all attain their maximum value at the same time. by building occupants, subsidence (not settlement) of subsoil, and
Accordingly, some reduction in the total of the combined load tornadoes. The occurrence of any of these events is likely to lead
effects is appropriate. This reduction is accomplished through the to structural damage or failure. If the structure is not properly
0.75 load combination factor. The 0.75 factor applies only to the designed and detailed, this local failure may initiate a chain re-
variable loads, not to the dead load. action of failures that propagates throughout a major portion of
Some material design standards that permit a one-third increase the structure and leads to a potentially catastrophic collapse. Ap-
in allowable stress for certain load combinations have justified that proximately 15 percent–20 percent of building collapses occur in
increase by this same concept. Where that is the case, simulta- this way [Ref. C2-11]. Although all buildings are susceptible to
neous use of both the one-third increase in allowable stress and progressive failures in varying degrees, types of construction that
the 25 percent reduction in combined loads is unsafe and is not lack inherent continuity and ductility are particularly vulnerable
permitted. In contrast, allowable stress increases that are based [Refs. C2-12, C2-13].
upon duration of load or loading rate effects, which are indepen- Good design practice requires that structures be robust and that
dent concepts, may be combined with the reduction factor for their safety and performance not be sensitive to uncertainties in
combining multiple variable loads. In such cases, the increase is loads, environmental influences, and other situations not explicitly
applied to the total stress; that is, the stress resulting from the considered in design. The structural system should be designed in
combination of all loads. Load combination reduction factors for such a way that if an extraordinary event occurs, the probability of
combined variable loads are different in that they apply only to damage disproportionate to the original event is sufficiently small
the variable loads, and they do not affect the permanent loads nor [Ref. C2-14]. The philosophy of designing to limit the spread of
the stresses caused by permanent loads. This explains why the damage rather than to prevent damage entirely is different from
0.75 factor applies only to the sum of the variable loads, not the the traditional approach to designing to withstand dead, live, snow,
dead load. and wind loads, but is similar to the philosophy adopted in modern
In addition, certain material design standards permit a one- earthquake-resistant design [Ref. C2-15].
third increase in allowable stress for load combinations with one In general, structural systems should be designed with suffi-
variable load where that variable is earthquake load. This standard cient continuity and ductility that alternate load paths can develop
handles allowable stress design for earthquake loads in a fashion to following individual member failure so that failure of the struc-
give results comparable to the strength design basis for earthquake ture as a whole does not ensue. At a simple level, continuity can
loads as explained in the Chapter 9 Commentary section titled be achieved by requiring development of a minimum tie force,
“Use of Allowable Stress Design Standards.” say 20 kN/m, between structural elements [C2-24]. Member fail-
ures may be controlled by protective measures that ensure that
no essential load-bearing member is made ineffective as a result
C2.4.2 Load Combinations Including Flood Load. The basis of an accident, although this approach may be more difficult to
for the load combinations involving flood load is presented in implement. Where member failure would inevitably result in a
detail in Section C2.3.3 on strength design. Consistent with the disproportionate collapse, the member should be designed for a
treatment of flood loads for strength design, Fa has been added to higher degree of reliability [Ref. C2-16]. In either approach, an

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enhanced quality assurance and maintenance program may be For checking the capacity of a structure or structural element
required. to withstand the effect of an extraordinary event, the following
load combinations should be used:
Design limit states include loss of equilibrium as a rigid body,
large deformations leading to significant second-order effects, 1.2D + Ak + (0.5L or 0.2S) (C2.5-3)
yielding or rupture of members of connections, formation of a
mechanism, and instability of members or the structure as a whole. (0.9 or 1.2)D + Ak + 0.2W (C2.5-4)
These limit states are the same as those considered for other load
events, but the load-resisting mechanisms in a damaged structure The value of the load or load effect resulting from extraordi-
may be different and sources of load-carrying capacity that nor- nary event A used in design is denoted Ak . Only limited data are
mally would not be considered in ordinary ultimate limit states available to define the frequency distribution of the load, and Ak
design, such as a membrane or catenary action, may be included. must be specified by the authority having jurisdiction [Ref. C2-
The use of elastic analysis vastly underestimates the load-carrying 21]. The uncertainty in the load due to the extraordinary event is
capacity of the structure. Materially or geometrically nonlinear or encompassed in the selection of a conservative Ak and thus the
plastic analyses may be used, depending on the response of the load factor on Ak is set equal to 1.0, as is done in the earthquake
structure to the actions. load combinations in Section 2.3. Load factors less than 1.0 on the
companion actions reflect the small probability of a joint occur-
Specific design provisions to control the effect of extraordinary rence of the extraordinary load and the design live, snow, or wind
loads and risk of progressive failure can be developed with a load. The companion action 0.5L corresponds, approximately, to
probabilistic basis [Refs. C2-17, C2-18]. One can either attempt the mean of the yearly maximum load [Ref. C2-22]. Companion
to reduce the likelihood of the extraordinary event or design the actions 0.2S and 0.2W are interpreted similarly. A similar set of
structure to withstand or absorb damage from the event if it occurs. load combinations for extraordinary events appears in [Ref. C2-
Let F be the event of failure and A be the event that a structurally 23]. The term 0.2W in these combinations is intended to ensure
damaging event occurs. The probability of failure due to event A that the lateral stability of the structure is checked. Some recent
is standards require the stability of the structure to be checked by
imposing a small notional lateral force equal in magnitude to
P f = P(F|A)P(A) (C2.5-1) 0.002P at each floor level, in which P is the cumulative grav-
ity force due to the summation of dead and live loads acting on
in which P(F|A) is the conditional probability of failure of a dam- the story above that level. If such a stability check is performed,
aged structure and P(A) is the probability of occurrence of event A. 0.2W need not be considered in combinations C2.5-2 and C2.5-4.
The separation of P(F|A) and P(A) allows one to focus on strate-
gies for reducing risk. P(A) depends on siting, controlling the use
of hazardous substances, limiting access, and other actions that are REFERENCES
essentially independent of structural design. In contrast, P(F|A) [Ref. C2-1] Ellingwood, B., Galambos, T.V., MacGregor, J.G., and Cornell,
depends on structural design measures ranging from minimum C.A. (1980). “Development of a probability-based load criterion for Amer-
provisions for continuity to a complete post-damage structural ican National Standard A58.” U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Bureau
evaluation. of Standards. NBS SP 577, Washington, D.C.
[Ref. C2-2] Ellingwood, B., Galambos, T.V., MacGregor, J.G., and Cornell,
The probability, P(A), depends on the specific hazard. Lim- C.A. (1982). “Probability-based load criteria: load factors and load combi-
ited data for severe fires, gas explosions, bomb explosions, and nations.” J. Str. Div. (ASCE), 108(5), 978–997.
[Ref. C2-3] Galambos, T.V., Ellingwood, B., MacGregor, J.G., and Cornell,
vehicular collisions indicate that the event probability depends
C.A. (1982). “Probability-based load criteria: assessment of current design
on building size, measured in dwelling units or square footage, practice.” J. Str. Div. (ASCE), 108(5), 959–977.
and ranges from about 0.23 × 10−6 /dwelling unit/year to about [Ref. C2-4] Turkstra, C.J., and Madsen, H. (1980). “Load combinations for
7.8 × 10−6 / dwelling unit/year [Refs. C2-19, C2-17]. Thus, the codified structural design.” J. Str. Div. (ASCE), 106(12), 2527–2543.
probability that a building structure is affected may depend on [Ref. C2-5] Ellingwood, B. (1981). “Wind and snow load statistics for prob-
the number of dwelling units (or square footage) in the build- abilistic design.” J. Struct. Engrg. (ASCE), 107(7), 1345–1349.
ing. If one were to set the conditional limit state probability, [Ref. C2-6] Peterka, J.A., and Shahid, S. (1998). “Design gust wind speeds
in the United States.” J. Struct. Engrg. (ASCE), 124(2), 207–214.
P(F|A) = 0.1 − 0.2/yr, however, the annual probability of struc- [Ref. C2-7] Vickery, P.J., and Twisdale, L.A. (1995). “Prediction of hurricane
tural failure from Eq. C2.5-1 would be on the order of 10-7 to 10-6 , wind speeds in the United States.” J. Struct. Engrg. (ASCE), 121(11), 1691–
placing the risk in the low-magnitude background along with risks 1699.
from rare accidents [Ref. C2-20]. [Ref. C2-8] Whalen, T. (1996). “Probabilistic estimates of design load factors
for wind-sensitive structures using the ‘peaks over threshold’ approach.”
Design requirements corresponding to this desired P(F|A) = NIST TN 1418, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithers-
0.1 − 0.2 can be developed using first-order reliability analysis burg, MD.
if the limit state function describing structural behavior is avail- [Ref. C2-9] Ellingwood, B., and Tekie, P.B. (1997). “Wind load statistics
able [Refs. C2-2, C2-3]. As an alternative, one can leave material for probability-based structural design.” J. Struct. Engrg. (ASCE), 125(4),
453–464.
and structural behavior considerations to the responsible material [Ref. C2-10] Mehta, K.C., et al. (1998). “An investigation of load factors for
specifications and consider only the load combination aspect of flood and combined wind and flood.” Report prepared for Federal Emer-
the safety check, which is more straightforward. gency Management Agency, Washington, D.C.
[Ref. C2-11] Allen, D.E., and Schriever, W. (1973). “Progressive collapse,
For checking a structure to determine its residual load-carrying abnormal loads and building codes.” In Structural Failures: Modes, Causes,
capacity following occurrence of a damaging extraordinary event, Responsibilities (ASCE). New York, 21–48.
selected load-bearing elements should be notionally removed and [Ref. C2-12] Breen, J.E., and Siess, C.P. (1979). “Progressive collapse—
the capacity of the remaining structure evaluated using the fol- symposium summary.” ACI J., 76(9), 997–1004.
lowing load combination: [Ref. C2-13] Taylor, D.A. (1975). “Progressive collapse.” Can. J. Civ. Engrg.,
2(4), 517–529.
[Ref. C2-14] Commentary C Structural Integrity. National Building Code
(0.9 or 1.2)D + (0.5L or 0.2S) + 0.2W (C2.5-2) of Canada. (1995). National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario.
258 ASCE 7-05

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[Ref. C2-15] FEMA. (2002). “NEHRP recommended provisions for the de- [Ref. C2-20] Wilson, R., and Crouch, E.A. (1987). “Risk assessment and
velopment of seismic regulations for new buildings and other structures.” comparisons: An introduction.” Science, 236, 267–270.
FEMA Rep. No. 368, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washing- [Ref. C2-21] Burnett, E.F.P. (1975). “The avoidance of progressive collapse:
ton, D.C. Regulatory approaches to the problem.” National Bureau of Standards
[Ref. C2-16] NKB, (1987). “Guidelines for loading and safety regulations for Rep. GCR 75-48, Washington, D.C. (available from NTIS, Springfield,
structural design.” NKB. (Nordic Committee on Building Regulations) Rep. VA).
No. 55E, Copenhagen, Denmark. [Ref. C2-22] Chalk, P.L., and Corotis, R.B. (1980). “Probability models for
[Ref. C2-17] Ellingwood, B., and Leyendecker, E.V. (1978). “Approaches design live loads.” J. Struct. Div. (ASCE), 106(10), 2017–2033.
for design against progressive collapse.” J. Struct. Div. (ASCE), 104(3), [Ref. C2-23] Eurocode No. 1. (1990). “Common unified rules for different
413–423. types of construction and material.” Commission of the European Commu-
[Ref. C2-18] Ellingwood, B., and Corotis, R.B. (1991). “Load combinations nities, Brussels.
for buildings exposed to fires.” Engrg. J. (ASIC), 28(1), 37–44. [Ref. C2-24] British Standard 6399. (1996). “Loading for buildings, Part 1:
[Ref. C2-19] CIB W14. (1983). “A conceptual approach towards a probability Code of practice for dead and imposed loads.” British Standards Institution,
based design guide on structural fire safety.” Fire Safety Journal, 6(1), 1–79. London, U.K.

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Chapter C3
DEAD LOADS, SOIL LOADS, AND HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
C3.1.2 WEIGHTS OF MATERIALS AND is a good possibility that such may be applied. Special con-
CONSTRUCTIONS sideration should be given to the likely types and position
of partitions, as insufficient provision for partitioning may
To establish uniform practice among designers, it is desirable to
reduce the future utility of the building.
present a list of materials generally used in building construction,
together with their proper weights. Many building codes prescribe Attention is directed also to the possibility of temporary
the minimum weights for only a few building materials, and in changes in the use of a building, as in the case of clearing a
other instances no guide whatsoever is furnished on this subject. dormitory for a dance or other recreational purpose.
In some cases the codes are so drawn up as to leave the question
of what weights to use to the discretion of the building official,
C3.2 SOIL LOADS AND HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
without providing any authoritative guide. This practice, as well as
the use of incomplete lists, has been subjected to much criticism. C3.2.1 Lateral Pressures. Table 3-2 includes high earth pres-
The solution chosen has been to present, in this commentary, an sures, 85 pcf (13.36 kN/m2 ) or more, to show that certain soils
extended list that will be useful to designer and official alike. are poor backfill material. In addition, when walls are unyielding
However, special cases will unavoidably arise, and authority is the earth pressure is increased from active pressure toward earth
therefore granted in the standard for the building official to deal pressure at rest, resulting in 60 pcf (9.43 kN/m2 ) for granular soils
with them. and 100 pcf (15.71 kN/m2 ) for silt and clay type soils [Ref. C3-1].
Examples of light floor systems supported on shallow basement
For ease of computation, most values are given in terms of
walls mentioned in Table 3-2 are floor systems with wood joists
pounds per square foot (lb/ft2 ) (kN/m2 ) of given thickness (see
and flooring, and cold-formed steel joists without a cast-in-place
Table C3-1). Pounds-per-cubic-foot (lb/ft3 ) (kN/m3 ) values, con-
concrete floor attached.
sistent with the pounds-per-square foot (kilonewtons per square
meter) values, are also presented in some cases (see Table C3-2). Expansive soils exist in many regions of the United States and
Some constructions for which a single figure is given actually may cause serious damage to basement walls unless special design
have a considerable range in weight. The average figure given considerations are provided. Expansive soils should not be used
is suitable for general use, but when there is reason to suspect as backfill because they can exert very high pressures against
a considerable deviation from this, the actual weight should be walls. Special soil testing is required to determine the magnitude
determined. of these pressures. It is preferable to excavate expansive soil and
backfill with non-expansive freely draining sands or gravels. The
Engineers, architects, and building owners are advised to con-
excavated back slope adjacent to the wall should be no steeper than
sider factors that result in differences between actual and calcu-
45◦ from the horizontal to minimize the transmission of swelling
lated loads.
pressure from the expansive soil through the new backfill. Other
Engineers and architects cannot be responsible for circum- special details are recommended, such as a cap of non-pervious
stances beyond their control. Experience has shown, however, soil on top of the backfill and provision of foundation drains.
that conditions are encountered which, if not considered in de- Refer to current reference books on geotechnical engineering for
sign, may reduce the future utility of a building or reduce its guidance.
margin of safety. Among them are
C3.2.2 Uplift on Floors and Foundations. If expansive soils are
1. Dead Loads. There have been numerous instances in which present under floors or footings, large pressures can be exerted and
the actual weights of members and construction materials must be resisted by special design. Alternatively, the expansive
have exceeded the values used in design. Care is advised in soil can be removed and replaced with non-expansive material.
the use of tabular values. Also, allowances should be made A geotechnical engineer should make recommendations in these
for such factors as the influence of formwork and support situations.
deflections on the actual thickness of a concrete slab of
prescribed nominal thickness.
REFERENCE
2. Future Installations. Allowance should be made for the Ref. C3-1 Terzaghi, K., and Peck, R.B. (1967). Soil Mechanics in Engineering
weight of future wearing or protective surfaces where there Practice. 2nd ed. Wiley, New York.

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ASCE003-Comm3.tex
ASCE003/SIE-v1.cls
TABLE C3-1 MINIMUM DESIGN DEAD LOADS∗

Component Load Component Load
(psf) (psf)
CEILINGS Decking, 2-in. wood (Douglas fir) 5

Acoustical Fiber Board 1 Decking, 3-in. wood (Douglas fir) 8
Gypsum board (per 1/8–in. thickness) 0.55 Fiberboard, 1/2-in. 0.75
Mechanical duct allowance 4 Gypsum sheathing, 1/2-in. 2
Plaster on tile or concrete 5 Insulation, roof boards (per inch thickness)
Plaster on wood lath 8 Cellular glass 0.7
Suspended steel channel system 2 Fibrous glass 1.1
Suspended metal lath and cement plaster 15 Fiberboard 1.5
Suspended metal lath and gypsum plaster 10 Perlite 0.8
Wood furring suspension system 2.5 Polystyrene foam 0.2
COVERINGS, ROOF, AND WALL Urethane foam with skin 0.5
Asbestos-cement shingles 4 Plywood (per 1/8-in. thickness) 0.4
Asphalt shingles 2 Rigid insulation, 1/2-in. 0.75
Cement tile 16 Skylight, metal frame, 3/8-in. wire glass 8
Clay tile (for mortar add 10 psf) Slate, 3/16-in. 7
Book tile, 2-in. 12 Slate, 1/4-in. 10
Book tile, 3-in. 20 Waterproofing membranes:
Ludowici 10 Bituminous, gravel-covered 5.5
Roman 12 Bituminous, smooth surface 1.5
Spanish 19 Liquid applied 1
Composition: Single-ply, sheet 0.7
Three-ply ready roofing 1 Wood sheathing (per inch thickness) 3
Four-ply felt and gravel 5.5 Wood shingles 3
Five-ply felt and gravel 6 FLOOR FILL
Copper or tin 1 Cinder concrete, per inch 9
Corrugated asbestos-cement roofing 4 Lightweight concrete, per inch 8
Deck, metal, 20 gage 2.5 Sand, per inch 8
Deck, metal, 18 gage 3 Stone concrete, per inch 12
∗ Weightsof masonry include mortar but not plaster. For plaster, add 5 lb/ft2 for each face plastered. Values given represent averages. In some cases there is a considerable range of weight for the same
construction.
(continued )
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ASCE003-Comm3.tex
TABLE C3-1 continued
MINIMUM DESIGN DEAD LOADS∗
(psf) (psf)
FLOORS AND FLOOR FINISHES Windows, glass, frame, and sash 8

Asphalt block (2-in.), 1/2-in. mortar 30 Clay brick wythes:
Cement finish (1-in.) on stone-concrete fill 32 4 in. 39
ASCE003/SIE-v1.cls
Ceramic or quarry tile (3/4-in.) on 1/2-in. mortar bed 16 8 in. 79

Ceramic or quarry tile (3/4-in.) on 1-in. mortar bed 23 12 in. 115
Concrete fill finish (per inch thickness) 12 16 in. 155
Hardwood flooring, 7/7-in. 4 Hollow concrete masonry unit wythes:
Linoleum or asphalt tile, 1/4-in. 1 Wythe thickness (in inches) 4 6 8 10 12
Marble and mortar on stone-concrete fill 33 Density of unit (105 pcf)
Slate (per mm thickness) 15 No grout 22 24 31 37 43
Solid flat tile on 1-in. mortar base 23 48 in. o.c. 29 38 47 55
Subflooring, 3/4-in. 3 40 in. o.c. grout 30 40 49 57
Terrazzo (1-1/2-in.) directly on slab 19 32 in. o.c. spacing 32 42 52 61
Terrazzo (1-in.) on stone-concrete fill 32 24 in. o.c. 34 46 57 67
Terrazzo (1-in.), 2-in. stone concrete 32 16 in. o.c. 40 53 66 79
Wood block (3-in.) on mastic, no fill 10 Full grout 55 75 95 115
Wood block (3-in.) on 1/2-in. mortar base 16 Density of unit (125 pcf)
FLOORS, WOOD-JOIST (NO PLASTER) No grout 26 28 36 44 50

DOUBLE WOOD FLOOR 48 in. o.c. 33 44 54 62
12-in. 16-in. 24-in. 40 in. o.c. grout 34 45 56 65
Joint sizes spacing spacing spacing 32 in. o.c. spacing 36 47 58 68
(in.) 2
(1b/ft ) 2
(1b/ft ) (1b/ft2 ) 24 in. o.c. 39 51 63 75
2×6 6 5 5 16 in. o.c. 44 59 73 87
2×8 6 6 5 Full grout 59 81 102 123
2 × 10 7 6 6 Density of unit (135 pcf)
2 × 12 8 7 6 No grout 29 30 39 47 54
FRAME PARTITIONS 48 in. o.c. 36 47 57 66
Movable steel partitions 4 40 in. o.c. grout 37 48 59 69
Wood or steel studs, 1/2-in. gypsum board each side 8 32 in. o.c. spacing 38 50 62 72
Wood studs, 2 × 4, unplastered 4 24 in. o.c. 41 54 67 78
Wood studs, 2 × 4, plastered one side 12 16 in. o.c. 46 61 76 90
Wood studs, 2 × 4, plastered two sides 20 Full grout 62 83 105 127
FRAME WALLS Solid concrete masonry unit wythes (incl. concrete brick):
Exterior stud walls: Wythe thickness (in mm) 4 6 8 10 12
2 × 4 @ 16-in., 5/8-in. gypsum, insulated, 3/8-in. siding 11 Density of unit (105 pcf) 32 51 69 87 105
2 × 6 @ 16-in., 5/8-in. gypsum, insulated, 3/8-in. siding 12 Density of unit (125 pcf) 38 60 81 102 124
Exterior stud walls with brick veneer 48 Density of unit (135 pcf) 41 64 87 110 133
construction.
(continued )
263
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264
ASCE003-Comm3.tex
ASCE003/SIE-v1.cls

(kN/m2 ) (kN/m2 )
CEILINGS Decking, 51 mm wood (Douglas fir) 0.24

Acoustical Fiber Board 0.05 Decking, 76 mm wood (Douglas fir) 0.38
Gypsum board (per mm thickness) 0.008 Fiberboard, 13 mm 0.04
Mechanical duct allowance 0.19 Gypsum sheathing, 13 mm 0.10
Plaster on tile or concrete 0.24 Insulation, roof boards (per mm thickness)
Plaster on wood lath 0.38 Cellular glass 0.0013
Suspended steel channel system 0.10 Fibrous glass 0.0021
Suspended metal lath and cement plaster 0.72 Fiberboard 0.0028
Suspended metal lath and gypsum plaster 0.48 Perlite 0.0015
Wood furring suspension system 0.12 Polystyrene foam 0.0004
COVERINGS, ROOF, AND WALL Urethane foam with skin 0.0009
Asbestos-cement shingles 0.19 Plywood (per mm thickness) 0.006
Asphalt shingles 0.10 Rigid insulation, 13 mm 0.04
Cement tile 0.77 Skylight, metal frame, 10 mm wire glass 0.38
Clay tile (for mortar add 0.48 kN/m2 ) Slate, 5 mm 0.34
Book tile, 51 mm 0.57 Slate, 6 mm 0.48
Book tile, 76 mm 0.96 Waterproofing membranes:
Ludowici 0.48 Bituminous, gravel-covered 0.26
Roman 0.57 Bituminous, smooth surface 0.07
Spanish 0.91 Liquid applied 0.05
Composition: Single-ply, sheet 0.03
Three-ply ready roofing 0.05 Wood sheathing (per mm thickness) 0.0057
Four-ply felt and gravel 0.26 Wood shingles 0.14
Five-ply felt and gravel 0.29 FLOOR FILL
Copper or tin 0.05 Cinder concrete, per mm 0.017
Corrugated asbestos-cement roofing 0.19 Lightweight concrete, per mm 0.015
Deck, metal, 20 gage 0.12 Sand, per mm 0.015
Deck, metal, 18 gage 0.14 Stone concrete, per mm 0.023
construction.
(continued )
ASCE 7-05
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ASCE003-Comm3.tex
(kN/m2 ) (kN/m2 )
FLOORS AND FLOOR FINISHES Windows, glass, frame, and sash 0.38
Asphalt block (51 mm), 13 mm mortar 1.44 Clay brick wythes:
ASCE003/SIE-v1.cls
Cement finish (25 mm) on stone-concrete fill 1.53 102 mm 1.87

Ceramic or quarry tile (19 mm) on 13 mm mortar bed 0.77 203 mm 3.78
Ceramic or quarry tile (19 mm) on 25 mm mortar bed 1.10 305 mm 5.51
Concrete fill finish (per mm thickness) 0.023 406 mm 7.42
Hardwood flooring, 22 mm 0.19 Hollow concrete masonry unit wythes:
Linoleum or asphalt tile, 6 mm 0.05 Wythe thickness (in mm) 102 152 203 254 305
Marble and mortar on stone-concrete fill 1.58 Density of unit (16.49 kN/m3 )
Slate (per mm thickness) 0.028 No grout 1.05 1.29 1.68 2.01 2.35
Solid flat tile on 25 mm mortar base 1.10 1219 mm 1.48 1.92 2.35 2.78
Subflooring, 19 mm 0.14 1016 mm grout 1.58 2.06 2.54 3.02
Terrazzo (38 mm) directly on slab 0.91 813 mm spacing 1.63 2.15 2.68 3.16
Terrazzo (25 mm) on stone-concrete fill 1.53 610 mm 1.77 2.35 2.92 3.45
Terrazzo (25 mm), 51 mm stone concrete 1.53 406 mm 2.01 2.68 3.35 4.02
Wood block (76 mm) on mastic, no fill 0.48 Full grout 2.73 3.69 4.69 5.70
Wood block (76 mm) on 13 mm mortar base 0.77 Density of unit (19.64 kN/m3 )

FLOORS, WOOD-JOIST (NO PLASTER) No grout 1.25 1.34 1.72 2.11 2.39
DOUBLE WOOD FLOOR 1219 mm 1.58 2.11 2.59 2.97
305 mm 406 mm 610 mm 1016 mm grout 1.63 2.15 2.68 3.11
Joist sizes spacing spacing spacing 813 mm spacing 1.72 2.25 2.78 3.26
(mm): (kN/m2 ) (kN/m2 ) (kN/m2 ) 610 mm 1.87 2.44 3.02 3.59
51 × 152 0.29 0.24 0.24 406 mm 2.11 2.78 3.50 4.17
51 × 203 0.29 0.29 0.24 Full grout 2.82 3.88 4.88 5.89
51 × 254 0.34 0.29 0.29 Density of unit (21.21 kN/m3 )
51 × 305 0.38 0.34 0.29 No grout 1.39 1.68 2.15 2.59 3.02
FRAME PARTITIONS 1219 mm 1.58 2.39 2.92 3.45
Movable steel partitions 0.19 1016 mm grout 1.72 2.54 3.11 3.69
Wood or steel studs, 13 mm gypsum board each side 0.38 813 mm spacing 1.82 2.63 3.26 3.83
Wood studs, 51 × 102, unplastered 0.19 610 mm 1.96 2.82 3.50 4.12
Wood studs, 51 × 102, plastered one side 0.57 406 mm 2.25 3.16 3.93 4.69
Wood studs, 51 × 102, plastered two sides 0.96 Full grout 3.06 4.17 5.27 6.37
FRAME WALLS Solid concrete masonry unit
Exterior stud walls: Wythe thickness (in mm) 102 152 203 254 305
51 mm × 102 mm @ 406 mm, 16 mm gypsum, insulated, 10 mm siding 0.53 Density of unit (16.49 kN/m3 ) 1.53 2.35 3.21 4.02 4.88
51 mm × 152 mm @ 406 mm, 16 mm gypsum, insulated, 10 mm siding 0.57 Density of unit (19.64 kN/m3 ) 1.82 2.82 3.78 4.79 5.79
Exterior stud walls with brick veneer 2.30 Density of unit (21.21 kN/m3 ) 1.96 3.02 4.12 5.17 6.27
∗ Weightsof masonry include mortar but not plaster. For plaster, add 0.24 kN/m2 for each face plastered. Values given represent averages. In some cases there is a considerable range of weight for the same
construction.
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TABLE C3-2 Minimum Densities for Design Loads from Materials

Material Density Material Density
(lb/ft3 ) (lb/ft3 )
Aluminum 170 Lime

Bituminous products Hydrated, loose 32
Asphaltum 81 Hydrated, compacted 45
Graphite 135 Masonry, ashlar stone
Paraffin 56 Granite 165
Petroleum, crude 55 Limestone, crystalline 165
Petroleum, refined 50 Limestone, oolitic 135
Petroleum, benzine 46 Marble 173
Petroleum, gasoline 42 Sandstone 144
Pitch 69 Masonry, brick
Tar 75 Hard (low absorbtion) 130
Brass 526 Medium (medium absorbtion) 115
Bronze 552 Soft (high absorbtion) 100
Cast-stone masonry (cement, stone, sand) 144 Masonry, concrete∗
Cement, portland, loose 90 Lightweight units 105
Ceramic tile 150 Medium weight units 125
Charcoal 12 Normal weight units 135
Cinder fill 57 Masonry grout 140
Cinders, dry, in bulk 45 Masonry, rubble stone
Coal Granite 153
Anthracite, piled 52 Limestone, crystalline 147
Bituminous, piled 47 Limestone, oolitic 138
Lignite, piled 47 Marble 156
Peat, dry, piled 23 Sandstone 137
Concrete, plain Mortar, cement or lime 130
Cinder 108 Particleboard 45
Expanded-slag aggregate 100 Plywood 36
Haydite (burned-clay aggregate) 90 Riprap (not submerged)
Slag 132 Limestone 83
Stone (including gravel) 144 Sandstone 90
Vermiculite and perlite aggregate, nonload-bearing 25–50 Sand
Other light aggregate, load-bearing 70–105 Clean and dry 90
Concrete, reinforced River, dry 106
Cinder 111 Slag
Slag 138 Bank 70
Stone (including gravel) 150 Bank screenings 108
Copper 556 Machine 96
Cork, compressed 14 Sand 52
Earth (not submerged) Slate 172
Clay, dry 63 Steel, cold-drawn 492
Clay, damp 110 Stone, quarried, piled
Clay and gravel, dry 100 Basalt, granite, gneiss 96
Silt, moist, loose 78 Limestone, marble, quartz 95
Silt, moist, packed 96 Sandstone 82
Silt, flowing 108 Shale 92
Sand and gravel, dry, loose 100 Greenstone, hornblende 107
Sand and gravel, dry, packed 110 Terra Cotta, architectural
Sand and gravel, wet 120 Voids filled 120
Earth (submerged) Voids unfilled 72
Clay 80 Tin 459
Soil 70 Water
River mud 90 Fresh 62
Sand or gravel 60 Sea 64
Sand or gravel and clay 65 Wood, seasoned
Glass 160 Ash, commercial white 41
Gravel, dry 104 Cypress, southern 34
Gypsum, loose 70 Fir, Douglas, coast region 34
Gypsum, wallboard 50 Hem fir 28
Ice 57 Oak, commercial reds and whites 47
Iron Pine, southern yellow 37
Cast 450 Redwood 28
Wrought 480 Spruce, red, white, and Stika 29
Lead 710 Western hemlock 32
Zinc, rolled sheet 449
∗ Tabulated values apply to solid masonry and to the solid portion of hollow masonry.
266 ASCE 7-05

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TABLE C3-2 Minimum Densities for Design Loads from Materials

Material Density Material Density
(kN/m3 ) (kN/m3 )
Aluminum 170 Lime

Bituminous products Hydrated, loose 5.0
Asphaltum 12.7 Hydrated, compacted 7.1
Graphite 21.2 Masonry, ashlar stone
Paraffin 8.8 Granite 25.9
Petroleum, crude 8.6 Limestone, crystalline 25.9
Petroleum, refined 7.9 Limestone, oolitic 21.2
Petroleum, benzine 7.2 Marble 27.2
Petroleum, gasoline 6.6 Sandstone 22.6
Pitch 10.8 Masonry, brick
Tar 11.8 Hard (low absorption) 20.4
Brass 82.6 Medium (medium absorption) 18.1
Bronze 86.7 Soft (high absorption) 15.7
Cast-stone masonry (cement, stone, sand) 22.6 Masonry, concrete∗
Cement, portland, loose 14.1 Lightweight units 16.5
Ceramic tile 23.6 Medium weight units 19.6
Charcoal 1.9 Normal weight units 21.2
Cinder fill 9.0 Masonry grout 22.0
Cinders, dry, in bulk 7.1 Masonry, rubble stone
Coal Granite 24.0
Anthracite, piled 8.2 Limestone, crystalline 23.1
Bituminous, piled 7.4 Limestone, oolitic 21.7
Lignite, piled 7.4 Marble 24.5
Peat, dry, piled 3.6 Sandstone 21.5
Concrete, plain Mortar, cement or lime 20.4
Cinder 17.0 Particleboard 7.1
Expanded-slag aggregate 15.7 Plywood 5.7
Haydite (burned-clay aggregate) 14.1 Riprap (not submerged)
Slag 20.7 Limestone 13.0
Stone (including gravel) 22.6 Sandstone 14.1
Vermiculite and perlite aggregate, nonload-bearing 3.9–7.9 Sand
Other light aggregate, load-bearing 11.0–16.5 Clean and dry 14.1
Concrete, reinforced River, dry 16.7
Cinder 17.4 Slag
Slag 21.7 Bank 11.0
Stone (including gravel) 23.6 Bank screenings 17.0
Copper 87.3 Machine 15.1
Cork, compressed 2.2 Sand 8.2
Earth (not submerged) Slate 27.0
Clay, dry 9.9 Steel, cold-drawn 77.3
Clay, damp 17.3 Stone, quarried, piled
Clay and gravel, dry 15.7 Basalt, granite, gneiss 15.1
Silt, moist, loose 12.3 Limestone, marble, quartz 14.9
Silt, moist, packed 15.1 Sandstone 12.9
Silt, flowing 17.0 Shale 14.5
Sand and gravel, dry, loose 15.7 Greenstone, hornblende 16.8
Sand and gravel, dry, packed 17.3 Terra Cotta, architectural
Sand and gravel, wet 18.9 Voids filled 18.9
Earth (submerged) Voids unfilled 11.3
Clay 12.6 Tin 72.1
Soil 11.0 Water
River mud 14.1 Fresh 9.7
Sand or gravel 9.4 Sea 10.1
Sand or gravel and clay 10.2 Wood, Seasoned
Glass 25.1 Ash, commercial white 6.4
Gravel, dry 16.3 Cypress, southern 5.3
Gypsum, loose 11.0 Fir, Douglas, coast region 5.3
Gypsum, wallboard 7.9 Hem fir 4.4
Ice 9.0 Oak, commercial reds and whites 7.4
Iron Pine, southern yellow 5.8
Cast 70.7 Redwood 4.4
Wrought 75.4 Spruce, red, white, and Stika 4.5
Lead 111.5 Western hemlock 5.0
Zinc, rolled sheet 70.5
∗ Tabulated values apply to solid masonry and to the solid portion of hollow masonry.

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268
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Chapter C4
LIVE LOADS
C4.2 UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOADS similar, in most cases, to the Table 4-1 values of minimum uni-
formly distributed live loads and, in general, is a suitable design
C4.2.1 Required Live Loads. A selected list of loads for occu-
value.
pancies and uses more commonly encountered is given in Section
4.2.1, and the authority having jurisdiction should approve on oc- For library stack rooms, the 150 psf (7.18 kN/m) uniform live
cupancies not mentioned. Tables C4-1 and C4-2 are offered as a load specified in Table 4-1 is intended to cover the range of or-
guide in the exercise of such authority. dinary library shelving. The most important variables that affect
the floor loading are the book stack unit height and the ratio of
In selecting the occupancy and use for the design of a building
the shelf depth to the aisle width. Common book stack units have
or a structure, the building owner should consider the possibil-
a nominal height of 90 in. (2,290 mm) or less, with shelf depths
ity of later changes of occupancy involving loads heavier than
in the range of 8 in. (203 mm) to 12 in. (305 mm). Book weights
originally contemplated. The lighter loading appropriate to the
vary, depending on their size and paper density, but there are
first occupancy should not necessarily be selected. The building
practical limits to what can be stored in any given space. Book
owner should ensure that a live load greater than that for which
stack weights also vary, but not by enough to significantly af-
a floor or roof is approved by the authority having jurisdiction is
fect the overall loading. Considering the practical combinations
not placed, or caused or permitted to be placed, on any floor or
of the relevant dimensions, weights, and other parameters, if par-
roof of a building or other structure.
allel rows of ordinary double-faced book stacks are separated by
To solicit specific informed opinion regarding the design loads aisles that are at least 36 in. (914 mm) wide, then the average floor
in Table 4-1, a panel of 25 distinguished structural engineers was loading is unlikely to exceed the specified 150 psf (7.18 kN/m2 ),
selected. A Delphi [Ref. C4-1] was conducted with this panel even after allowing for a nominal aisle floor loading of 20 to 40
in which design values and supporting reasons were requested psf (0.96 to 1.92 kN/m2 ).
for each occupancy type. The information was summarized and
The 150 psf floor loading is also applicable to typical file cab-
recirculated back to the panel members for a second round of
inet installations, provided that the 36-in. minimum aisle width
responses. Those occupancies, for which previous design loads
is maintained. Five-drawer lateral or conventional file cabinets,
were reaffirmed, as well as those for which there was consensus
even with two levels of book shelves stacked above them, are
for change, were included.
unlikely to exceed the 150 psf average floor loading unless all
It is well known that the floor loads measured in a live-load drawers and shelves are filled to capacity with maximum density
survey usually are well below present design values [Refs. C4- paper. Such a condition is essentially an upper-bound for which
2, C4-3, C4-4, C4-5]. However, buildings must be designed to the normal load factors and safety factors applied to the 150 psf
resist the maximum loads they are likely to be subjected to criterion should still provide a safe design.
during some reference period T, frequently taken as 50 years.
If a library shelving installation does not fall within the param-
Table C4-2 briefly summarizes how load survey data are com-
eter limits that are specified in footnote c of Table 4-1, then the
bined with a theoretical analysis of the load process for some
design should account for the actual conditions. For example, the
common occupancy types and illustrates how a design load might
floor loading for storage of medical X-ray film may easily exceed
be selected for an occupancy not specified in Table 4-1 [Ref. C4-
200 psf (2.92 kN/m2 ), mainly because of the increased depth of
6]. The floor load normally present for the intended functions of
the shelves. Mobile library shelving that rolls on rails should also
a given occupancy is referred to as the sustained load. This load
be designed to meet the actual requirements of the specific instal-
is modeled as constant until a change in tenant or occupancy type
lation, which may easily exceed 300 psf (14.4 kN/m2 ). The rail
occurs. A live-load survey provides the statistics of the sustained
support locations and deflection limits should be considered in
load. Table C4-2 gives the mean, m s , and standard deviation,
the design, and the engineer should work closely with the system
σx , for particular reference areas. In addition to the sustained
manufacturer to provide a serviceable structure.
load, a building is likely to be subjected to a number of relatively
short-duration, high-intensity, extraordinary, or transient loading The lateral loads of Table 4-1, footnote d, applies to “stadiums
events (due to crowding in special or emergency circumstances, and arenas,” and to “reviewing stands, grandstands, and bleach-
concentrations during remodeling, and the like). Limited survey ers.” However, it does not apply to “gymnasiums—main floors
information and theoretical considerations lead to the means, m t , and balconies.” Consideration should be given to treating gymna-
and standard deviations, σt , of single transient loads shown in sium balconies that have stepped floors for seating as arenas, and
Table C4-2. requiring the appropriate swaying forces.
Combination of the sustained load and transient load processes,
with due regard for the probabilities of occurrence, leads to statis- C4.2.2 Provision for Partitions. The 2005 version of the stan-
tics of the maximum total load during a specified reference period dard provides the minimum partition load for the first time, al-
T. The statistics of the maximum total load depend on the average though the requirement for the load has been included for many
duration of an individual tenancy, τ , the mean rate of occurrence years. Historically a value of 20 psf has been required by building
of the transient load, ve , and the reference period, T. Mean val- codes. This load, however, has sometimes been treated as a dead
ues are given in Table C4-2. The mean of the maximum load is load.

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If we assume that a normal partition would be a stud wall with C4.6 PARTIAL LOADING
1/2-in.gypsum board on each side (8 psf per Table C3-1), 10 ft
high, we end up with a wall load on the floor of 80 lb/ft. If the It is intended that the full intensity of the appropriately reduced
partitions are spaced throughout the floor area creating rooms on live load over portions of the structure or member be considered,
a grid 10 ft on center, which would be an extremely dense spacing as well as a live load of the same intensity over the full length of
over a whole bay, the average distributed load would be 16 psf. the structure or member.
A design value of 15 psf is judged to be reasonable in that the Partial-length loads on a simple beam or truss will produce
partitions are not likely to be spaced this closely over large areas. higher shear on a portion of the span than a full-length load.
Designers should consider a larger design load for partitions if a “Checkerboard” loadings on multistoried, multipanel bents will
high density of partitions is anticipated. produce higher positive moments than full loads, while loads on
either side of a support will produce greater negative moments.
Loads on the half span of arches and domes or on the two central
C4.3 CONCENTRATED LOADS quarters can be critical.
The provision in Table 4-1 regarding concentrated loads supported For roofs, all probable load patterns should be considered uni-
by roof trusses or other primary roof members is intended to form for roof live loads that are reduced to less than 20 lb/ft2 (0.96
provide for a common situation for which specific requirements kN/m2 ) using Section 4.9.1. Where the full value of the roof live
are generally lacking. load (L r ) is used without reduction, it is considered that there is a
low probability that the live load created by maintenance workers,
Primary roof members are main structural members such as equipment, and material could occur in a patterned arrangement.
roof trusses, girders, and frames, which are exposed to a work Where a uniform roof live load is caused by an occupancy, partial
floor below, where the failure of such a primary member resulting or pattern loading should be considered regardless of the magni-
from their use as attachment points for lifting or hoisting loads tude of the uniform load. Cantilevers must not rely on a possible
could lead to the collapse of the roof. Single roof purlins or rafters live load on the anchor span for equilibrium.
(where there are multiple such members placed side by side at
some reasonably small center-to-center spacing, and where the
failure of a single such member would not lead to the collapse of C4.7 IMPACT LOADS
the roof), are not considered to be primary roof members.
Grandstands, stadiums, and similar assembly structures may be
subjected to loads caused by crowds swaying in unison, jumping
to its feet, or stomping. Designers are cautioned that the possibility
C4.4 LOADS ON HANDRAILS, GUARDRAIL of such loads should be considered.
SYSTEMS, GRAB BAR SYSTEMS, VEHICLE
BARRIER SYSTEMS, AND FIXED LADDERS
C4.4.1 Loads on Handrails and Guardrail Systems. Loads C4.8 REDUCTION IN LIVE LOADS
that can be expected to occur on handrail and guardrail systems C4.8.1 General. The concept of, and methods for, determining
are highly dependent on the use and occupancy of the protected member live load reductions as a function of a loaded member’s
area. For cases in which extreme loads can be anticipated, such influence area, A I , was first introduced into this standard in 1982
as long straight runs of guardrail systems against which crowds and was the first such change since the concept of live load re-
can surge, appropriate increases in loading shall be considered. duction was introduced over 40 years ago. The revised formula
is a result of more extensive survey data and theoretical analysis
C4.4.2 Loads on Grab Bar Systems. When grab bars are pro- [Ref. C4-7]. The change in format to a reduction multiplier results
vided for use by persons with physical disabilities the design is in a formula that is simple and more convenient to use. The use
governed by CABO A117 Accessible and Usable Buildings and of influence area, now defined as a function of the tributary area,
Facilities. A T , in a single equation has been shown to give more consistent
reliability for the various structural effects. The influence area
C4.4.3 Loads on Vehicle Barrier Systems. Vehicle barrier sys- is defined as that floor area over which the influence surface for
tems may be subjected to horizontal loads from moving vehicles. structural effects is significantly different from zero.
These horizontal loads may be applied normal to the plane of the The factor K L L is the ratio of the influence area (A I ) of a mem-
barrier system, parallel to the plane of the barrier system, or at any ber to its tributary area (A T ), that is, K L L = A I /A T , and is used
intermediate angle. Loads in garages accommodating trucks and to better define the influence area of a member as a function of
buses may be obtained from the provisions contained in Stan- its tributary area. Figure C4-1 illustrates typical influence areas
dard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 1989, The American and tributary areas for a structure with regular bay spacings. Table
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. 4-2 has established K L L values (derived from calculated K L L val-
ues) to be used in Eq. 4-1 for a variety of structural members and
C4.4.4 Loads on Fixed Ladders. This provision was introduced configurations. Calculated K L L values vary for column and beam
to the standard in 1998 and is consistent with the provisions for members having adjacent cantilever construction, as is shown in
stairs. Fig. C4-1, and the Table 4-2 values have been set for these cases
to result in live load reductions that are slightly conservative. For
Side rail extensions of fixed ladders are often flexible and weak
unusual shapes, the concept of significant influence effect should
in the lateral direction. OSHA (CFR 1910) requires side rail ex-
be applied.
tensions, with specific geometric requirements only. The load pro-
vided was introduced to the standard in 1998, and has been deter- An example of a member without provisions for continuous
mined on the basis of a 250 lb person standing on a rung of the shear transfer normal to its span would be a precast T-beam or
ladder, and accounting for reasonable angles of pull on the rail double-T beam that may have an expansion joint along one or
extension. both flanges, or that may have only intermittent weld tabs along
270 ASCE 7-05

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the edges of the flanges. Such members do not have the ability C4.8.5 Limitations on One-Way Slabs. One-way slabs behave
to share loads located within their tributary areas with adjacent in a manner similar to two-way slabs, but do not benefit from
members, thus resulting in K L L , = 1 for these types of members. having a higher redundancy that results from two-way action. For
Reductions are permissible for two-way slabs and for beams, but this reason, it is appropriate to allow a live load reduction for
care should be taken in defining the appropriate influence area. one-way slabs, but restrict the tributary area, A T , to an area that is
For multiple floors, areas for members supporting more than one the product of the slab span times a width normal to the span not
floor are summed. greater than 1.5 times the span (thus resulting in an area with an
aspect ratio of 1.5). For one-way slabs with aspect ratios greater
The formula provides a continuous transition from unreduced
than 1.5, the effect will be to give a somewhat higher live load
to reduced loads. The smallest allowed value of the reduction
(where a reduction has been allowed) than for two-way slabs with
multiplier is 0.4 (providing a maximum 60 percent reduction),
the same ratio.
but there is a minimum of 0.5 (providing a 50 percent reduction)
for members with a contributory load from just one floor. Members, such as hollow-core slabs, that have grouted con-
tinuous shear keys along their edges and span in one direction
C4.8.2 Heavy Live Loads. In the case of occupancies involving only, are considered as one-way slabs for live load reduction even
relatively heavy basic live loads, such as storage buildings, several though they may have continuous shear transfer normal to their
adjacent floor panels may be fully loaded. However, data obtained span.
in actual buildings indicate that rarely is any story loaded with an
average actual live load of more than 80 percent of the average C4.9 REDUCTION IN ROOF LIVE LOADS
rated live load. It appears that the basic live load should not be
reduced for the floor-and-beam design, but that it could be reduced C4.9.1 Flat, Pitched, and Curved Roofs. The values specified
a flat 20 percent for the design of members supporting more than in Eq. 4-2 that act vertically upon the projected area have been
one floor. Accordingly, this principle has been incorporated in the selected as minimum roof live loads, even in localities where little
recommended requirement. or no snowfall occurs. This is because it is considered necessary
to provide for occasional loading due to the presence of workers
and materials during repair operations.
C4.8.3 Passenger Car Garages. Unlike live loads in office and
residential buildings, which are generally spatially random, park- C4.9.2 Special Purpose Roofs. Designers should consider any
ing garage loads are due to vehicles parked in regular patterns additional dead loads that may be imposed by saturated landscap-
and the garages are often full. The rationale behind the reduction ing materials in addition to the live load required in Table 4-1.
according to area for other live loads, therefore, does not apply. Occupancy related loads on roofs are live loads (L) normally as-
A load survey of vehicle weights was conducted at nine commer- sociated with the design of floors rather than roof live loads (L r ),
cial parking garages in four cities of different sizes [Ref. C4-8]. and are permitted to be reduced in accordance with the provisions
Statistical analyses of the maximum load effects on beams and for live loads in Section 4.8 rather than Section 4.9.
columns due to vehicle loads over the garage’s life were carried
out using the survey results. Dynamic effects on the deck due to
C4.10 CRANE LOADS
vehicle motions and on the ramp due to impact were investigated.
The equivalent uniformly distributed loads (EUDL) that would All support components of moving bridge cranes and monorail
produce the lifetime maximum column axial force and midspan cranes, including runway beams, brackets, bracing, and connec-
beam bending moment are conservatively estimated at 34.8 psf. tions, shall be designed to support the maximum wheel load of
The EUDL is not sensitive to bay-size variation. In view of the the crane and the vertical impact, lateral, and longitudinal forces
possible impact of very heavy vehicles in the future such as sport- induced by the moving crane. Also, the runway beams shall be
utility vehicles, however, a design load of 40 psf is recommended designed for crane stop forces. The methods for determining these
with no allowance for reduction according to bay area. loads vary depending on the type of crane system and support.
References C4-9 through C4-12 describe types of bridge cranes
Compared with the design live load of 50 psf given in previous
and monorail cranes. Cranes described in these references include
editions of the standard, the design load contained herein repre-
top running bridge cranes with top running trolley, underhung
sents a 20 percent reduction, but is still 33 percent higher than
bridge cranes, and underhung monorail cranes. Reference C4-13
the 30 psf one would obtain were an area-based reduction to be
gives more stringent requirements for crane runway designs that
applied to the 50 psf value for large bays as allowed in most stan-
are more appropriate for higher capacity or higher speed crane
dards. Also the variability of the maximum parking garage load
systems.
effect is found to be small with a coefficient of variation less than
5 percent in comparison with 20 percent to 30 percent for most
other live loads. The implication is that when a live load factor REFERENCES
of 1.6 is used in design, additional conservatism is built into it [Ref. C4-1] Corotis, R.B., Fox, R.R., and Harris, J.C. (June 1981). “Del-
such that the recommended value would also be sufficiently con- phi methods: Theory and design load application.” J. Struct. Div. (ASCE),
servative for special purpose parking (e.g., valet parking) where 107(ST6), 1095–1105.
vehicles may be more densely parked causing a higher load effect. [Ref. C4-2] Peir, J.C., and Cornell, C.A. (May 1973). “Spatial and temporal
Therefore, the 50 psf design value was felt to be overly conserva- variability of live loads.” J. Struct. Div. (ASCE), 99(ST5), 903–922.
[Ref. C4-3] McGuire, R.K., and Cornell, C.A. (July 1974). “Live load effects
tive, and it can be reduced to 40 psf without sacrificing structural
in office buildings.” J. Struct. Div. (ASCE), 100(ST7), 1351–1366.
integrity. [Ref. C4-4] Ellingwood, B.R., and Culver, C.G. (Aug. 1977). “Analysis of live
In view of the large load effect produced by a single heavy loads in office buildings.” J. Struct. Div. (ASCE), 103(ST8), 1551–1560.
[Ref. C4-5] Sentler, L. (1975). “A stochastic model for live loads on floors in
vehicle (up to 10,000 lb), the current concentrated load of 2,000 buildings.” Rep. No. 60, Lund Institute of Technology, Division of Building
lb should be increased to 3,000 lb acting on an area of 4.5 in. × Technology, Lund, Sweden.
4.5 in., which represents the load caused by a jack in changing [Ref. C4-6] Chalk, P.L., and Corotis, R.B. (Oct. 1980). “A probability model
tires. for design live loads.” J. Struct. Div. (ASCE), 106(ST10), 2017–2030.

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[Ref. C4-7] Harris, M.E., Corotis, R.B., and Bova, C.J. (May 1981). “Area- [Ref. C4-10] MHI. (1994). “Specifications for electric overhead traveling
dependent processes for structural live loads.” J. Struct. Div. (ASCE), cranes.” No. 70, Material Handling Industry, Charlotte, NC.
107(ST5), 857–872. [Ref. C4-11] MHI. (1994). “Specifications for top running and under running
[Ref. C4-8] Wen, Y.K., and Yeo, G.L. (Mar. 2001). “Design live loads for single girder electric overhead traveling cranes,” No. 74, Material Handling
passenger cars parking garages.” J. Struct. Engrg. (ASCE), 27(3). Based on Industry, Charlotte, NC.
a report titled “Design live loads for parking garages.” ASCE Structural [Ref. C4-12] Metal Building Manufacturers Association. (1986). “Low rise
Engineering Institute, Dec. 31, 1999. building systems manual.” MBMA, Inc., Cleveland, OH.
[Ref. C4-9] MHI. (1981). “Specifications for underhung cranes and monorail [Ref. C4-13] Association of Iron and Steel Engineers. (1979). Technical Rep.
systems,” ANSI MH 27.1, Material Handling Industry, Charlotte, NC. No. 13, Pittsburgh, PA.
272 ASCE 7-05

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FIGURE C4 TYPICAL TRIBUTARY AND INFLUENCE AREAS

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TABLE C4-1 MINIMUM UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LIVE LOADS

Live Load Live Load
Occupancy or use lb/ft2 (kN/m2 ) Occupancy or use lb/ft2 (kN/m2 )
Air-conditioning (machine space) 200a (9.58) Laboratories, scientific 100 (4.79)

Amusement park structure 100a (4.79) Laundries 150a (7.18)
Attic, nonresidential Libraries, corridors 80a (3.83)
Nonstorage 25 (1.20) Manufacturing, ice 300 (14.36)
Storage 80a (3.83) Morgue 125 (6.00)
Bakery 150 (7.18) Office Buildings
Exterior 100 (4.79) Business machine equipment 100a (4.79)
Interior (fixed seats) 60 (2.87) Files (see file room)
Interior (movable seats) 100 (4.79) Printing Plants
Boathouse, floors 100a (4.79) Composing rooms 100 (4.79)
Boiler room, framed 300a (14.36) Linotype rooms 100 (4.79)
Broadcasting studio 100 (4.79) Paper storage c
Catwalks 25 (1.20) Press rooms 150a (7.18)
Ceiling, accessible furred 10 f (0.48) Public rooms 100 (4.79)
Cold storage Railroad tracks d
No overhead system 250b (11.97) Ramps

Overhead system Driveway (see garages)
Floor 150 (7.18) Pedestrian (see sidewalks and corridors in Table 4-1)
Roof 250 (11.97) Seaplane (see hangars)
Computer equipment 150a (7.18) Rest rooms 60 (2.87)
Courtrooms 50–100 (2.40–4.79) Rinks
Dormitories Ice skating 250 (11.97)
Nonpartitioned 80 (3.83) Roller skating 100 (4.79)
Partitioned 40 (1.92) Storage, hay or grain 300a (14.36)
Elevator machine room 150a (7.18) Telephone exchange 150a (7.18)
Fan room 150a (7.18) Theaters:
File room Dressing rooms 40 (1.92)
Duplicating equipment 150a (7.18) Grid-iron floor or fly gallery:
Card 125a (6.00) Grating 60 (2.87)
Letter 80a (3.83) Well beams, 250 lb/ft per pair
Foundries 600a (28.73) Header beams, 1,000 lb/ft
Fuel rooms, framed 400 (19.15) Pin rail, 250 lb/ft
Garages—trucks c Projection room 100 (4.79)
Greenhouses 150 (7.18) Toilet rooms 60 (2.87)
Hangars 150c (7.18) Transformer rooms 200a (9.58)
Incinerator charging floor 100 (4.79) Vaults, in offices 250a (11.97)
Kitchens, other than domestic 150a (7.18)
a
Use weight of actual equipment or stored material when greater.
b
c
Plus 150 lb/ft2 (7.18 kN/m2 ) for trucks.
Use American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials lane loads. Also subject to not less than 100% maximum axle load.
d
e
Paper storage 50 lb/ft2 per foot of clear story height.
f
As required by railroad company.
Accessible ceilings normally are not designed to support persons. The value in this table is intended to account for occasional light storage or suspension of
items. If it may be necessary to support the weight of maintenance personnel, this shall be provided for.
TABLE C4-2 TYPICAL LIVE LOAD STATISTICS

Survey Load Transient Load Temporal Constants Mean
maximum
Occupancy ms σs a mt a σt a τs b ve c Td loada
or use lb/ft2 (kN/m2 ) lb/ft2 (kN/m2 ) lb/ft2 (kN/m2 ) lb/ft2 (kN/m2 ) (years) (per year) (years) lb/ft2 (kN/m2 )
Office buildings
offices 10.9 (0.52) 5.9 (0.28) 8.0 (0.38) 8.2 (0.39) 8 1 50 55 (2.63)
Residential
renter occupied 6.0 (0.29) 2.6 (0.12) 6.0 (0.29) 6.6 (0.32) 2 1 50 36 (1.72)
owner occupied 6.0 (0.29) 2.6 (0.12) 6.0 (0.29) 6.6 (0.32) 10 1 50 38 (1.82)
Hotels
guest rooms 4.5 (0.22) 1.2 (0.06) 6.0 (0.29) 5.8 (0.28) 5 20 50 46 (2.2)
Schools
classrooms 12.0 (0.57) 2.7 (0.13) 6.9 (0.33) 3.4 (0.16) 1 1 100 34 (1.63)
a
b
For 200 ft2 (18.58 m2 ) area, except 1000 ft2 (92.9 m2 ) for schools.
c
Duration of average sustained load occupancy.
d
Mean rate of occurrence of transient load.
Reference period.
274 ASCE 7-05

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Chapter C5
FLOOD LOADS
C5.1 GENERAL 7-95). In some instances, the design flood may exceed the base
flood in elevation or spatial extent this will occur where a com-
This section presents information for the design of buildings and
munity has designated a greater flood (lower frequency, higher
other structures in areas prone to flooding. Design profession-
return period) as the flood to which the community will regulate
als should be aware that there are important differences between
new construction.
flood characteristics, flood loads, and flood effects in riverine and
coastal areas (e.g., the potential for wave effects is much greater Many communities have elected to regulate to a flood standard
in coastal areas; the depth and duration of flooding can be much higher than the minimum requirements of the NFIP. Those com-
greater in riverine areas; the direction of flow in riverine areas munities may do so in a number of ways. For example, a com-
tends to be more predictable; and the nature and amount of flood- munity may require new construction to be elevated a specific
borne debris varies between riverine and coastal areas). vertical distance above the base flood elevation (this is referred to
as “freeboard”); a community may select a lower frequency flood
Much of the impetus for flood-resistant design has come
as its regulatory flood; a community may conduct hydrologic and
about from the federal government sponsored initiatives of flood-
hydraulic studies, upon which flood hazard maps are based, in a
damage mitigation and flood insurance, both through the work of
manner different from the Flood Insurance Study prepared by the
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the National Flood Insur-
NFIP (e.g., the community may complete flood hazard studies
ance Program (NFIP). The NFIP is based on an agreement be-
based upon development conditions at build-out, rather than fol-
tween the federal government and participating communities that
lowing the NFIP procedure, which uses conditions in existence at
have been identified as being flood-prone. The Federal Emergency
the time the studies are completed; the community may include
Management Agency (FEMA), through the Federal Insurance and
watersheds smaller than 1 mi2 (2.6 km2 ) in size in its analysis,
Mitigation Administration (FIMA), makes flood insurance avail- rather than following the NFIP procedure, which neglects water-
able to the residents of communities provided that the community sheds smaller than 1 mi2 ).
adopts and enforces adequate floodplain management regulations
that meet the minimum requirements. Included in the NFIP re- Use of the design flood concept will ensure that the require-
quirements, found under Title 44 of the U.S. Code of Federal ments of this standard are not less restrictive than a community’s
Regulations [Ref. C5-1], are minimum building design and con- requirements where that community has elected to exceed min-
struction standards for buildings and other structures located in imum NFIP requirements. In instances where a community has
Special Flood Hazard Areas (SFHA). adopted the NFIP minimum requirements, the design flood de-
scribed in this standard will default to the base flood.
Special Flood Hazards Areas are those identified by FEMA
as being subject to inundation during the 100-year flood. SFHA Second, this standard also uses the terms, “flood hazard area”
are shown on Flood Insurance Rate Maps (FIRM), which are and “flood hazard map,” to correspond to and show the areas af-
produced for flood-prone communities. SFHA are identified on fected by the design flood. Again, in instances where a community
FIRMs as zones A, A1-30, AE, AR, AO, and AH, and in coastal has adopted the minimum requirements of the NFIP, the flood haz-
high hazard areas as V1-30, V, and VE. The SFHA is the area in ard area defaults to the NFIP’s SFHA and the flood hazard map
which communities must enforce NFIP-complaint, flood damage- defaults to the FIRM.
resistant design and construction practices. Third, the concept of a Coastal A Zone is used to facilitate ap-
Prior to designing a structure in a flood-prone area, design pro- plication of load combinations contained in Section 2. Coastal A
fessionals should contact the local building official to determine if zones lie landward of V zones, or landward of an open coast shore-
the site in question is located in a SFHA or other flood-prone area line where V zones have not been mapped (e.g., the shorelines
that is regulated under the community’s floodplain management of the Great Lakes), Coastal A Zones are subject to the effects
regulations. If the proposed structure is located within the regula- of waves, high-velocity flows, and erosion, although not to the
tory floodplain, local building officials can explain the regulatory extent that V Zones are. Like V zones, flood forces in Coastal
requirements. A Zones will be highly correlated with coastal winds or coastal
seismic activity.
Answers to specific questions on flood-resistant design and
construction practices may be directed to the Mitigation Division Coastal A Zones are not delineated on flood hazard maps pre-
of each of FEMA’s regional offices. FEMA has regional offices pared by FEMA, but are zones where wave forces and erosion
that are available to assist design professionals. potential should be taken into consideration by designers. The
following guidance is offered to designers as help in determining
whether or not an A zone in a coastal area can be considered a
C5.2 DEFINITIONS Coastal A Zone.
Three new concepts were added with ASCE 7-98. First, the con- In order for a Coastal A Zone to be present, two conditions are
cept of the design flood was introduced. The design flood will, at required: (1) a stillwater flood depth greater than or equal to 2.0 ft
a minimum, be equivalent to the flood having a 1 percent chance (0.61 m); and (2) breaking wave heights greater than or equal
of being equaled or exceeded in any given year (i.e., the base to 1.5 ft (0.46 m). Note that the stillwater depth requirement is
flood or 100-year flood, which served as the load basis in ASCE necessary, but is not sufficient by itself, to render an area a Coastal

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A Zone. Many A Zones will have stillwater flood depths in excess often exceed 20 psf (0.96 kN/m2 ), breakaway walls may be de-
of 2.0 ft (0.61 m), but will not experience breaking wave heights signed for a higher loads, provided the designer certifies that the
greater than or equal to 1.5 ft (0.46 m), and therefore should not walls have been designed to break away before base flood condi-
be considered Coastal A Zones. Wave heights at a given site can tions are reached, without damaging the elevated building or its
be determined using procedures outlined in [Ref. C5-2] or similar foundation. A recent reference [Ref. C5-5] provides guidance on
references. how to meet the performance requirements for certification.
The 1.5 ft (0.46 m) breaking wave height criterion was devel- C5.4.1 Load Basis. Water loads are the loads or pressures on
oped from post-flood damage inspections, which show that wave surfaces of buildings and structures caused and induced by the
damage and erosion often occur in mapped A zones in coastal ar- presence of floodwaters. These loads are of two basic types: hy-
eas, and from laboratory tests on breakaway walls that show that drostatic and hydrodynamic. Impact loads result from objects
breaking waves 1.5 ft (0.46 m) in height are capable of causing transported by floodwaters striking against buildings and struc-
structural failures in wood-frame walls [Ref. C5-3]. tures or part thereof. Wave loads can be considered a special type
of hydrodynamic load.
C5.3 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS C5.4.2 Hydrostatic Loads. Hydrostatic loads are those caused
by water either above or below the ground surface, free or con-
Sections 5.3.4 (dealing with A-Zone design and construction) and
fined, which is either stagnant or moves at velocities less than
5.3.5 (dealing with V-zone design and construction) of ASCE 7-
5 ft/s (1.52 m/s). These loads are equal to the product of the water
98 were deleted in preparation of the 2002 edition of this standard.
pressure multiplied by the surface area on which the pressure acts.
These sections summarized basic principles of flood-resistant
design and construction (building elevation, anchorage, founda- Hydrostatic pressure at any point is equal in all directions and
tion, below Design Flood Elevation (DFE) enclosures, breakaway always acts perpendicular to the surface on which it is applied.
walls, etc.). Some of the information contained in these deleted Hydrostatic loads can be subdivided into vertical downward loads,
sections was included in Section 5.3, beginning with ASCE 7-02, lateral loads, and vertical upward loads (uplift or buoyancy). Hy-
and the design professional is also referred to ASCE/SEI Stan- drostatic loads acting on inclined, rounded, or irregular surfaces
dard 24 (Flood Resistant Design and Construction) for specific may be resolved into vertical downward or upward loads and
guidance. lateral loads based on the geometry of the surfaces and the distri-
bution of hydrostatic pressure.
C5.3.1 Design Loads. Wind loads and flood loads may act si-
multaneously at coastlines, particularly during hurricanes and C5.4.3 Hydrodynamic Loads. Hydrodynamic loads are those
coastal storms. This may also be true during severe storms at loads induced by the flow of water moving at moderate to high
the shorelines of large lakes and during riverine flooding of long velocity above the ground level. They are usually lateral loads
duration. caused by the impact of the moving mass of water and the drag
forces as the water flows around the obstruction. Hydrodynamic
C5.3.2 Erosion and Scour. The term “erosion” indicates a low- loads are computed by recognized engineering methods. In the
ering of the ground surface in response to a flood event, or in coastal high-hazard area the loads from high-velocity currents
response to the gradual recession of a shoreline. The term “scour” due to storm surge and overtopping are of particular importance.
indicates a localized lowering of the ground surface during a flood, Reference [C5-2] is one source of design information regarding
due to the interaction of currents and/or waves with a structural el- hydrodynamic loadings.
ement. Erosion and scour can affect the stability of foundations,
and can increase the local flood depth and flood loads acting Note that accurate estimates of flow velocities during flood
on buildings and other structures. For these reasons, erosion and conditions are very difficult to make, both in riverine and coastal
scour should be considered during load calculations and the design flood events. Potential sources of information regarding velocities
process. Design professionals often increase the depth of foun- of floodwaters include local, state, and federal government agen-
dation embedment to mitigate the effects of erosion and scour, cies and consulting engineers specializing in coastal engineering,
and often site buildings away from receding shorelines (building stream hydrology, or hydraulics.
setbacks). As interim guidance for coastal areas, [Ref. C5-3] gives a likely
range of flood velocities as
C5.3.3 Loads on Breakaway Walls. Floodplain management
regulations require buildings in coastal high hazard areas to be el- V = ds /(1 s) (C5-1)
evated to or above the design flood elevation by a pile or column
to
foundation. Space below the DFE must be free of obstructions in
order to allow the free passage of waves and high velocity wa- V = (gds )0.5 (C5-2)
ters beneath the building [Ref. C5-4]. Floodplain management where
regulations typically allow space below the DFE to be enclosed
by insect screening, open lattice, or breakaway walls. Local ex- V = average velocity of water in ft/s (m/s)
ceptions are made in certain instances for shearwalls, firewalls, ds = local stillwater depth in ft (m)
elevator shafts, and stairwells. Check with the authority having g = acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 ft/s/s (9.81 m/s2 )
jurisdiction for specific requirements related to obstructions, en-
Selection of the correct value of “a” in Eq. 5-1 will depend
closures, and breakaway walls.
upon the shape and roughness of the object exposed to flood flow,
Where breakaway walls are used, they must meet the prescrip- as well as the flow condition. As a general rule, the smoother
tive requirements of NFIP regulations or be certified by a regis- and more streamlined the object, the lower the drag coefficient
tered professional engineer or architect as having been designed (shape factor). Drag coefficients for elements common in build-
to meet the NFIP performance requirements. The prescriptive re- ings and structures (round or square piles, columns, and rectangu-
quirements call for breakaway wall designs that are intended to lar shapes) will range from approximately 1.0 to 2.0, depending
collapse at loads not less than 10 psf (0.48 kN/m2 ) and not more upon flow conditions. However, given the uncertainty surround-
than 20 psf (0.96 kN/m3 ). Inasmuch as wind or earthquake loads ing flow conditions at a particular site, ASCE 7-05 recommends a
276 ASCE 7-05

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minimum value of 1.25 be used. Fluid mechanics texts should be expected to follow the distribution described by the probabilities
consulted for more information on when to apply drag coefficients of exceedance in Table 5-2.
above 1.25.
This standard assigns values for C p according to building cate-
C5.4.4 Wave Loads. The magnitude of wave forces (lb/ft2 ) gory, with the most important buildings having the largest values
(kN/m2 ) acting against buildings or other structures can be 10 of C p . Category II buildings are assigned a value of C p corre-
or more times higher than wind forces and other forces under sponding to a 1 percent probability of exceedance, which is con-
design conditions. Thus, it should be readily apparent that ele- sistent with wave analysis procedures used by FEMA in mapping
vating above the wave crest elevation is crucial to the survival coastal flood hazard areas and in establishing minimum floor el-
of buildings and other structures. Even elevated structures, how- evations. Category I buildings are assigned a value of C p corre-
ever, must be designed for large wave forces that can act over sponding to a 50 percent probability of exceedance, but designers
a relatively small surface area of the foundation and supporting may wish to choose a higher value of C p . Category III build-
structure. ings are assigned a value of C p corresponding to a 0.2 percent
probability of exceedance, while Category IV buildings are as-
Wave load calculation procedures in Section 5.3.3.4 are taken signed a value of C p corresponding to a 0.1 percent probability
from Refs. [C5-2] and [C5-7]. The analytical procedures de- of exceedance.
scribed by Eqs. 5-2 through 5-9 should be used to calculate wave
heights and wave loads unless more advanced numerical or labo- Breaking wave loads on vertical walls reach a maximum when
ratory procedures permitted by this standard are used. the waves are normally incident (direction of wave approach per-
pendicular to the face of the wall; wave crests are parallel to the
Wave load calculations using the analytical procedures de- face of the wall). As guidance for designers of coastal buildings
scribed in this standard all depend upon the initial computation or other structures on normally dry land (i.e., flooded only during
of the wave height, which is determined using Eqs. 5-2 and 5- coastal storm or flood events), it can be assumed that the direc-
3. These equations result from the assumptions that the waves tion of wave approach will be approximately perpendicular to the
are depth-limited, and that waves propagating into shallow wa- shoreline. Therefore, the direction of wave approach relative to a
ter break when the wave height equals 78 percent of the local vertical wall will depend upon the orientation of the wall relative
stillwater depth and that 70 percent of the wave height lies above to the shoreline. Section 5.4.4.4 provides a method for reducing
the local stillwater level. These assumptions are identical to those breaking wave loads on vertical walls for waves not normally
used by FEMA in its mapping of coastal flood hazard areas on incident.
FIRMs.
Designers should be aware that wave heights at a particular C5.4.5 Impact Loads. Impact loads are those that result from
site can be less than depth-limited values in some cases (e.g., logs, ice floes, and other objects striking buildings, structures, or
when the wind speed, wind duration, or fetch is insufficient to parts thereof. Reference [C5-8] divides impact loads into three
generate waves large enough to be limited in size by water depth, categories: (1) normal impact loads, which result from the iso-
or when nearby objects dissipate wave energy and reduce wave lated impacts of normally encountered objects, (2) special impact
heights). If conditions during the design flood yield wave heights loads, which result from large objects, such as broken up ice floats
at a site less than depth-limited heights, Eq. 5-2 may overestimate and accumulations of debris, either striking or resting against a
the wave height and Eq. 5-3 may underestimate the stillwater building, structure, or parts thereof, and (3) extreme impact loads,
depth. Also, Eqs. 5-4 through 5-7 may overstate wave pressures which result from very large objects, such as boats, barges, or col-
and forces when wave heights are less than depth-limited heights. lapsed buildings, striking the building, structure, or component
More advanced numerical or laboratory procedures permitted by under consideration. Design for extreme impact loads is not prac-
this section may be used in such cases, in lieu of Eqs. 5-2 through tical for most buildings and structures. However, in cases where
5-7. there is a high probability that a Category III or IV structure (see
It should be pointed out that present NFIP mapping procedures Table 1-1) will be exposed to extreme impact loads during the de-
distinguish between A Zones and V Zones by the wave heights sign flood, and where the resulting damages will be very severe,
expected in each zone. Generally speaking, A Zones are desig- consideration of extreme impact loads may be justified. Unlike
nated where wave heights less than 3 ft (0.91 m) in height are extreme impact loads, design for special and normal impact loads
expected. V Zones are designated where wave heights equal to is practical for most buildings and structures.
or greater than 3 ft (0.91 m) are expected. Designers should pro- The recommended method for calculating normal impact loads
ceed cautiously, however. Large wave forces can be generated has been modified beginning with ASCE 7-02. Previous editions
in some A Zones, and wave force calculations should not be re- of ASCE 7 used a procedure contained in [Ref. C5-8] (the pro-
stricted to V Zones. Present NFIP mapping procedures do not cedure, which had been unchanged since at least 1972, relied on
designate V Zones in all areas where wave heights greater than 3 an impulse-momentum approach with a 1,000 lb (4.5 kN) ob-
ft (0.91 m) can occur during base flood conditions. Rather than ject striking the structure at the velocity of the floodwater and
rely exclusively on flood hazard maps, designers should investi- coming to rest in 1.0 s). Recent work [Refs. C5-6 and C5-9] has
gate historical flood damages near a site to determine whether or been conducted to evaluate this procedure, through a literature re-
not wave forces can be significant. view and laboratory tests. The literature review considered river-
ine and coastal debris, ice floes and impacts, ship berthing and
C5.4.4.2 Breaking Wave Loads on Vertical Walls. Equations
impact forces, and various methods for calculating debris loads
used to calculate breaking wave loads on vertical walls contain
(e.g., impulse-momentum, work-energy). The laboratory tests in-
a coefficient, C p . Reference [C5-7] provides recommended val-
cluded log sizes ranging from 380 lb (1.7 kN) to 730 lb (3.3 kN)
ues of the coefficient as a function of probability of exceedance.
traveling at up to 4 ft/s (1.2 m/s).
The probabilities given by [Ref. C5-7] are not annual probabil-
ities of exceedance, but probabilities associated with a distri- References [C5-6 and C5-9] conclude: (1) an impulse-
bution of breaking wave pressures measured during laboratory momentum approach is appropriate; (2) the 1,000 lb (4.5 kN)
wave tank tests. Note that the distribution is independent of water object is reasonable, although geographic and local conditions
depth. Thus, for any water depth, breaking wave pressures can be may affect the debris object size and weight; (3) the 1.0-s impact

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duration is not supported by the literature or by laboratory tests—a following text provides additional guidance. In riverine flood-
duration of impact of 0.03 s should be used instead; (4) a half-sine plains, large woody debris (trees and logs) predominates, with
curve represents the applied load and resulting displacement well; weights typically ranging from 1,000 lb (4.5 kN) to 2,000 lb (9.0
and (5) setting the debris velocity equivalent to the flood velocity kN). In the Pacific Northwest, larger tree and log sizes suggest a
is reasonable for all but the largest objects in shallow water or typical 4,000 lb (18.0 kN) debris weight. Debris weights in river-
obstructed conditions. ine areas subject to floating ice typically range from 1,000 lb (4.5
kN) to 4,000 lb (18.0 kN). In arid or semiarid regions, typical
Given the short-duration, impulsive loads generated by flood-
woody debris may be less than 1,000 lb (4.5 kN). In alluvial fan
borne debris, a dynamic analysis of the affected building or struc-
areas, nonwoody debris (stones and boulders) may present a much
ture may be appropriate. In some cases (e.g., when the natural
greater debris hazard. Debris weights in coastal areas generally
period of the building is much greater than 0.03 s), design profes-
fall into three classes: in the Pacific Northwest, a 4,000 lb (18.0
sionals may wish to treat the impact load as a static load applied
kn) debris weight due to large trees and logs can be considered
to the building or structure (this approach is similar to that used
typical; in other coastal areas where piers and large pilings are
by some following the procedure contained in Section C5.3.3.5
available locally, debris weights may range from 1,000 lb (4.5
of ASCE 7-98).
kN) to 2,000 lb (9.0 kN); and in other coastal areas where large
In either type of analysis—dynamic or static—Eq. C5-3 pro- logs and pilings are not expected, debris will likely be derived
vides a rational approach for calculating the magnitude of the from failed decks, steps and building components, and will likely
impact load. average less than 500 lb (2.3 kN) in weight.
π W Vb C I C O C D C B Rmax Debris Velocity. The velocity with which a piece of debris strikes
F= (C5-3)
2gg a building or structure will depend upon the nature of the debris
and the velocity of the floodwaters. Small pieces of floating de-
where bris, which are unlikely to cause damage to buildings or other
F = impact force, in lb (N) structures, will typically travel at the velocity of the floodwa-
W = debris weight in lb (N) ters, in both riverine and coastal flood situations. However, large
Vb = velocity of object (assume equal to velocity of water, V) debris, such as trees, logs, pier pilings, and other large debris ca-
in ft/s (m/s) pable of causing damage, will likely travel at something less than
the velocity of the floodwaters. This reduced velocity of large
g = acceleration due to gravity, = 32.2 ft/s2 (9.81 m/s2 )
debris objects is due in large part to debris dragging along the
t = impact duration (time to reduce object velocity to zero),
bottom and/or being slowed by prior collisions. Large riverine
in s
debris traveling along the floodway (the deepest part of the chan-
C I = importance coefficient (see Table C5-1)
nel that conducts the majority of the flood flow) is most likely to
C O = orientation coefficient, = 0.8
travel at speeds approaching that of the floodwaters. Large river-
C D = depth coefficient (see Table C5-2, Fig. C5-1)
ine debris traveling in the floodplain (the shallower area outside
C B = blockage coefficient (see Table C5-3, Fig. C5-2)
the floodway) is more likely to be traveling at speeds less than
Rmax = maximum response ratio for impulsive load (see Table
that of the floodwaters, for those reasons stated in the preceding
C5-4)
text. Large coastal debris is also likely to be traveling at speeds
The form of Eq. C5-3 and the parameters and coefficients are less than that of the floodwaters. Eq. C5-2 should be used with
discussed in the following text: the debris velocity equal to the flow velocity because the equation
Basic Equation. The equation is similar to the equation used in allows for reductions in debris velocities through application of a
ASCE 7-98, except for the π/2 factor (which results from the depth coefficient, C D , and an upstream blockage coefficient, C B .
half-sine form of the applied impulse load) and the coefficients Duration of Impact. A detailed review of the available literature
C I , C O , C D , C B , and Rmax . With the coefficients set equal to [Ref. C5-6], supplemented by laboratory testing, concluded the
1.0 the equation reduces to F = π W Vb /2gt, and calculates the previously suggested 1.0 s duration of impact is much too long
maximum static load from a head-on impact of a debris object. and is not realistic. Laboratory tests showed that measured im-
The coefficients have been added to allow design professionals pact durations (from initial impact to time of maximum force t)
to “calibrate” the resulting force to local flood, debris and build- varied from 0.01 s to 0.05 s [Ref. C5-6]. Results for one test, for
ing characteristics. The approach is similar to that employed by example, produced a maximum impact load of 8,300 lb (37,000
ASCE 7 in calculating wind, seismic, and other loads. A scientif- N) for a log weighing 730 lb (3,250 N), moving at 4 ft/s, and
ically based equation is used to match the physics, and the results impacting with a duration of 0.016 s. Over all the test conditions,
are modified by coefficients to calculate realistic load magnitudes. the impact duration averaged about 0.026 s. The recommended
However, unlike wind, seismic, and other loads, the body of work value for use in Eq. C5-2 is therefore 0.03 s.
associated with flood-borne debris impact loads does not yet ac-
count for the probability of impact. Coefficients C I , C O , C D , and C B . The coefficients are based in
part on the results of laboratory testing and in part on engineering
Debris Object Weight. A 1,000 lb object can be considered a rea- judgment. The values of the coefficients should be considered
sonable average for flood-borne debris (no change from ASCE 7- interim, until more experience is gained with them.
98). This represents a reasonable weight for trees, logs, and other
large woody debris that is the most common form of damaging de- The importance coefficient, C I , is generally used to adjust de-
bris nationwide. This weight corresponds to a log approximately sign loads for the structure category and hazard to human life
30 ft (9.1 m) long and just under 1 ft (0.3 m) in diameter. The 1,000 following ASCE 7-98 convention in Table 1-1. Recommended
lb object also represents a reasonable weight for other types of values given in Table C5-1 are based on a probability distribution
debris ranging from small ice floes, to boulders, to man-made of impact loads obtained from laboratory tests in [Ref. C5-9].
objects.
The Orientation Coefficient, C O , is used to reduce the load cal-
However, design professionals may wish to consider regional culated by Eq. C5-3 for impacts that are oblique, not head-on.
or local conditions before the final debris weight is selected. The During laboratory tests [Ref. C5-9] it was observed that, while
278 ASCE 7-05

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some debris impacts occurred as direct or head-on impacts that debris impact load, while those with natural periods below ap-
produced maximum impact loads, most impacts occurred as ec- proximately 0.11 s will see an increase.
centric or oblique impacts with reduced values of the impact force.
Recent shake table tests of conventional, one- to two-story
Based on these measurements, an orientation coefficient of C O =
wood-frame buildings have shown natural periods of ranging
0.8 has been adopted to reflect the general load reduction observed
from approximately 0.14 s (7 Hz) to 0.33 s (3 Hz), averaging
due to oblique impacts.
approximately 0.20 s (5 Hz). Elevating these types of structures
The depth coefficient, C D , is used to account for reduced debris for flood-resistant design purposes will act to increase these nat-
velocity in shallow water due to debris dragging along the bot- ural periods. For the purposes of flood-borne debris impact load
tom. Recommended values of this coefficient are based on typical calculations, a natural period of 0.5 to 1.0 s is recommended for
diameters of logs and trees, or on the anticipated diameter of the one- to three-story buildings elevated on timber piles. For one-
root mass from drifting trees that are likely to be encountered in a to three-story buildings elevated on masonry columns, a similar
flood hazard zone. Reference [C5-6] suggests that trees with typi- range of natural periods is recommended. For one- to three-story
cal root mass diameters will drag the bottom in depths of less than buildings elevated on concrete piles or columns, a natural period
5 ft, while most logs of concern will drag the bottom in depths of of 0.2 to 0.5 s is recommended. Finally, design professionals are
less than 1 ft. The recommended values for the depth coefficient referred to Section 12.8.2 of this standard where an approximate
are given in Table C5-2 and Fig. C5-1. No test data are available to natural period for one- to 12-story buildings (story height equal
fully validate the recommended values of this coefficient. When to or greater than 10 ft [3 m]), with concrete and steel moment-
better data are available, designers should use them in lieu of the resisting frames, can be approximated as 0.1 times the number of
values contained in Table C5-2 and Fig. C5-1. stories.
The blockage coefficient, C B , is used to account for the reduc- Special Impact Loads. Reference [C5-8] states that, absent a
tions in debris velocities expected due to screening and sheltering detailed analysis, special impact loads can be estimated as a uni-
provided by trees or other structures within about 10 log-lengths form load of 100 lb per ft (1.48 kN/m), acting over a 1 ft (0.31
(300 ft) upstream from the building or structure of interest. Refer- m) high horizontal strip at the design flood elevation or lower.
ence [C5-6] quotes other studies in which dense trees have been However, [Ref. C5-6] suggests that this load may be too small
shown to act as a screen to remove debris and shelter downstream for some large accumulations of debris, and suggests an alter-
structures. The effectiveness of the screening depends primarily native approach involving application of the standard drag force
on the spacing of the upstream obstructions relative to the design expression
log length of interest. For a 1,000 lb log, having a length of about
30 ft, it is therefore assumed that any blockage narrower than 30 ft F = (1/2)C D ρ AV 2 (C5-4)
would trap some or all of the transported debris. Likewise, typical
root mass diameters are on the order of 3 to 5 ft, and it is therefore where
assumed that blockages of this width would fully trap any trees
or long logs. Recommended values for the blockage coefficient F = drag force due to debris accumulation, in lb (N)
are given in Table C5-3 and Fig. C5-2 based on interpolation be- V = flow velocity upstream of debris accumulation, in ft/s (m/s)
tween these limits. No test data are available to fully validate the A = projected area of the debris accumulation into the flow,
recommended values of this coefficient. approximated by depth of accumulation times width of
accumulation perpendicular to flow, in ft2 (m2 )
The maximum response ratio, Rmax , is used to increase or de- ρ = density of water in slugs/ft3 (kg/m3 )
crease the computed load, depending on the degree of compliance C D = drag coefficient = 1
of the building or building component being struck by debris. Im-
pact loads are impulsive in nature, with the force rapidly increas- This expression produces loads similar to the 100 lb/ft guid-
ing from zero to the maximum value in time t, then decreasing ance from [Ref. C5-8] when the debris depth is assumed to be 1 ft
to zero as debris rebounds from structure. The actual load expe- and when the velocity of the floodwater is 10 ft/s. Other guidance
rienced by the structure or component will depend on the ratio of from Refs. [C5-6] and [C5-9] suggest that the depth of debris
the impact duration t relative to the natural period of the struc- accumulation is often much greater than 1 ft, and is only limited
ture or component, Tn . Stiff or rigid buildings and structures with by the water depth at the structure. Observations of debris accu-
natural periods similar to the impact duration will see an amplifi- mulations at bridge piers listed in these references show typical
cation of the impact load. More flexible buildings and structures depths of 5 to 10 ft, with horizontal widths spanning between
with natural periods greater than approximately four times the adjacent bridge piers whenever the spacing of the piers is less
impact duration will see a reduction of the impact load. Likewise, than the typical log length. If debris accumulation is of concern,
stiff or rigid components will see an amplification of the impact the design professional should specify the projected area of the
load; more flexible components will see a reduction of the impact debris accumulation based on local observations and experience,
load. Successful use of Eq. C5-3, then, depends on estimation of and apply the preceding equation to predict the debris load on
the natural period of the building or component being struck by buildings or other structures.
flood-borne debris. Calculating the natural period can be carried
out using established methods that take building mass, stiffness,
REFERENCES
and configuration into account. One useful reference is Appendix
C of ANSI/ACI 349 [Ref. C5-10]. Design professionals are also [Ref. C5-1] Federal Emergency Management Agency. (Oct. 1999 Ed.). Na-
referred to Chapter 9 of ASCE 7 for additional information. tional Flood Insurance Program, 44 CFR, ch. 1, parts 59 and 60.
[Ref. C5-2] U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. (2002). Coastal Engineering
Natural periods of buildings generally vary from approximately Manual, Coastal Hydraulics Laboratory, Waterways Experiment Station.
0.05 s to several seconds (for high-rise, moment frame structures). [Ref. C5-3] Federal Emergency Management Agency. (2000). Revised
For flood-borne debris impact loads with a duration of 0.03 s, the Coastal Construction Manual, FEMA-55. Mitigation Directorate.
[Ref. C5-4] Federal Emergency Management Agency. (1993). “Free-of-
critical period (above which loads are reduced) is approximately Obstruction Requirements for Buildings Located in Coastal High Hazard
0.11 s (see Table C5-4). Buildings and structures with natural Areas in Accordance with the National Flood Insurance Program.” Techni-
periods above approximately 0.11 s will see a reduction in the cal Bulletin 5-93. Mitigation Directorate.

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[Ref. C5-5] Federal Emergency Management Agency. (1999). “Design and TABLE C5-1 VALUES OF IMPORTANCE
Construction Guidance for Breakaway Walls Below Elevated Coastal COEFFICIENT, CI
Buildings in Accordance with the National Flood Insurance Program.” Building CI
Technical Bulletin 9-99. Mitigation Directorate. Category
[Ref. C5-6] Kriebel, D.L., Buss, L., and Rogers, S. (2000). “Impact Loads from I 0.6
Flood-Borne Debris.” Report to the American Society of Civil Engineers. II 1.0
[Ref. C5-7] Walton, T.L., Jr., Ahrens, J.P., Truitt, C.L., and Dean, R.G. (1989).
“Criteria for Evaluating Coastal Flood Protection Structures,” Technical III 1.2
Rep. CERC 89-15, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment IV 1.3
Station.
[Ref. C5-8] U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. (Dec. 1995). Office of the Chief
of Engineers, Flood Proofing Regulations, EP 1165-2-314.
[Ref. C5-9] Haehnel, R., and Daly, S. (2001). “Debris Impact Tests.” Report
prepared for the American Society of Civil Engineers by the U.S. Army TABLE C5-2 VALUES OF DEPTH COEFFICIENT, CD
Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, NH.
Building Location in Flood Hazard Zone and Water Depth CD
[Ref. C5-10] American Concrete Institute. (1985). Code Requirements for
Nuclear Safety Related Concrete Structures, ANSI/ACI 349. Floodway or V-Zone 1.0
[Ref. C5-11] Clough, R.W., and Penzien, J. (1993). Dynamics of Structures, A-Zone, Stillwater Depth > 5 ft 1.0
2nd Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York. A-Zone, Stillwater Depth = 4 ft 0.75
A-Zone, Stillwater Depth = 3 ft 0.5
A-Zone, Stillwater Depth = 2 ft 0.25
Any flood zone, Stillwater Depth < 1 ft 0.0
TABLE C5-3 VALUES OF BLOCKAGE COEFFICIENT, CB

Degree of Screening or Sheltering within 100 ft Upstream CB
No upstream screening, flow path wider than 30 ft 1.0
Limited upstream screening, flow path 20 ft wide 0.6
Moderate upstream screening, flow path 10 ft wide 0.2
Dense upstream screening, flow path less than 5 ft wide 0.0
FIGURE C5-1 DEPTH COEFFICIENT, CD

TABLE C5-4 VALUES OF RESPONSE RATIO FOR IMPULSIVE
LOADS, RM AX , ADAPTED FROM [REF. C5-11]
Ratio of Impact Duration to Rmax (Response Ratio for Half
Natural Period of Structure Sine Wave Impulsive Load)
0.00 0.0
0.10 0.4
0.20 0.8
0.30 1.1
0.40 1.4
0.50 1.5
0.60 1.7
0.70 1.8
0.80 1.8
0.90 1.8
1.00 1.7
1.10 1.7
1.20 1.6
1.30 1.6
FIGURE C5-2 BLOCKAGE COEFfiCIENT, CB
≥1.40 1.5
280 ASCE 7-05

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Chapter C6
WIND LOADS
Editorial note: For the purposes of this document, all figures and tables for this section are located at the end of the section.
C6.1 GENERAL trusses should also be designed for component and cladding loads
[Ref. C6-1]. Examples of cladding include wall coverings, curtain
The ASCE 7-05 version of the wind load standard provides three
walls, roof coverings, exterior windows (fixed and operable) and
methods from which the designer can choose. An expanded “sim-
doors, and overhead doors.
plified method” (Method 1) for which the designer can select
wind pressures directly without any calculation when the building Effective wind area is the area of the building surface used
meets all the requirements for application of the procedure; and to determine GC p . This area does not necessarily correspond to
two other methods (Analytical Method and Wind Tunnel Proce- the area of the building surface contributing to the force being
dure), which are essentially the same methods as previously given considered. Two cases arise. In the usual case, the effective wind
in the standard except for changes that are noted. area does correspond to the area tributary to the force component
being considered. For example, for a cladding panel, the effective
Temporary bracing should be provided to resist wind loading on
wind area may be equal to the total area of the panel. For a cladding
structural components and structural assemblages during erection
fastener, the effective wind area is the area of cladding secured
and construction phases.
by a single fastener. A mullion may receive wind from several
C6.1.4.1 Minimum Design Wind Loading on MWFRS. This cladding panels. In this case, the effective wind area is the area
section specifies a minimum wind load to be applied horizontally associated with the wind load that is transferred to the mullion.
on the entire vertical projection of the building as shown in Fig. The second case arises where components such as roofing pan-
C6-1. This load case is to be applied as a separate load case in els, wall studs, or roof trusses are spaced closely together. The
addition to the normal load cases specified in other portions of area served by the component may become long and narrow. To
Chapter 6. better approximate the actual load distribution in such cases, the
width of the effective wind area used to evaluate GC p need not be
C6.2 DEFINITIONS taken as less than one third the length of the area. This increase
Several important definitions given in the standard are discussed in effective wind area has the effect of reducing the average wind
in the following text. These terms are used throughout the standard pressure acting on the component. Note, however, that this effec-
and are provided to clarify application of the standard provisions. tive wind area should only be used in determining the GC p in
Figs. 6-5 through 6-8. The induced wind load should be applied
MAIN WIND-FORCE RESISTING SYSTEM: Can consist over the actual area tributary to the component being considered.
of a structural frame or an assemblage of structural elements that
work together to transfer wind loads acting on the entire struc- For membrane roof systems, the effective wind area is the area
ture to the ground. Structural elements such as cross-bracing, of an insulation board (or deck panel if insulation is not used) if the
shear walls, roof trusses, and roof diaphragms are part of the boards are fully adhered (or the membrane is adhered directly to
Main Wind-Force Resisting System (MWFRS) when they assist the deck). If the insulation boards or membrane are mechanically
in transferring overall loads [Ref. C6-1]. attached or partially adhered, the effective wind area is the area of
the board or membrane secured by a single fastener or individual
BUILDING, ENCLOSED, OPEN, PARTIALLY EN- spot or row of adhesive.
CLOSED: These definitions relate to the proper selection of in-
ternal pressure coefficients, GC pi . Building, open and building, For typical door and window systems supported on three or
partially enclosed are specifically defined. All other buildings are more sides, the effective wind area is the area of the door or win-
considered to be enclosed by definition, although there may be dow under consideration. For simple spanning doors (i.e., hor-
large openings in two or more walls. An example of this is a park- izontal spanning section doors or coiling doors), large specialty
ing garage through which the wind can pass. The internal pressure constructed doors (i.e., aircraft hangars doors), and specialty con-
coefficient for such a building would be ±0.18, and the internal structed glazing systems, the effective wind area of each structural
pressures would act on the solid areas of the walls and roof. component composing the door or window system should be used
in calculating the design wind pressure.
COMPONENTS AND CLADDING: Components receive
wind loads directly or from cladding and transfer the load to FLEXIBLE BUILDINGS AND OTHER STRUCTURES:
the MWFRS. Cladding receives wind loads directly. Examples of A building or other structure is considered flexible if it contains
components include fasteners, purlins, girts, studs, roof decking, a significant dynamic resonant response. Resonant response de-
and roof trusses. Components can be part of the MWFRS when pends on the gust structure contained in the approaching wind,
they act as shear walls or roof diaphragms, but they may also be on wind loading pressures generated by the wind flow about the
loaded as individual components. The engineer needs to use ap- building, and on the dynamic properties of the building or struc-
propriate loadings for design of components, which may require ture. Gust energy in the wind is smaller at frequencies above
certain components to be designed for more than one type of about 1 Hz. Therefore, the resonant response of most buildings
loading, for example, long-span roof trusses should be designed and structures with lowest natural frequency above 1 Hz will be
for loads associated with MWFRSs, and individual members of sufficiently small that resonant response can often be ignored.

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When buildings or other structures have a height exceeding four C6.3 SYMBOLS AND NOTATION
times the least horizontal dimension or when there is reason to
believe that the natural frequency is less than 1 Hz (natural period The following additional symbols and notation are used herein:
greater than 1 s), natural frequency for it should be investigated.
A useful calculation procedure for natural frequency or period for Aob = average area of open ground surrounding each obstruc-
various building types is contained in commentary Section C6.5.8. tion
n = reference period, in years
REGULAR-SHAPED BUILDINGS AND OTHER
STRUCTURES: Defining the limits of applicability of the Pa = annual probability of wind speed exceeding a given
analytical procedures within the standard is a difficult process, magnitude (see Eq. C6-2)
requiring a balance between the practical need to use the Pn = probability of exceeding design wind speed during
provisions past the range for which data has been obtained and n years (see Eq. C6-2)
restricting use of the provisions past the range of realistic appli- sob = average frontal area presented to the wind by each
cation. Wind load provisions are based primarily on wind-tunnel obstruction
tests on shapes shown in Figs. 6-6 through 6-17. Extensive wind- Vt = wind speed averaged over t seconds (see Fig. C6-4),
tunnel tests on actual structures under design show that relatively in mi/h (m/s)
large changes from these shapes can, in many cases, have minor
changes in wind load, while in other cases seemingly small V3600 = mean wind speed averaged over 1 h (see Fig. C6-4),
changes can have relatively large effects, particularly on cladding in mi/h (m/s)
pressures. Wind loads on complicated shapes are frequently β = structural damping coefficient (percentage of critical
smaller than those on the simpler shapes of Figs. 6-6 through damping)
6-17, and so wind loads determined from these provisions reason-
ably envelope most structure shapes. Buildings that are clearly
unusual should use the provisions of 6.4 for wind-tunnel tests.
C6.4 METHOD 1—SIMPLIFIED PROCEDURE
RIGID BUILDINGS AND OTHER STRUCTURES: The
defining criteria for rigid, in comparison to flexible, is that the Method 1 is for the relatively common low-rise (h ≤ 60 ft) regular-
natural frequency is greater than or equal to 1 Hz. A general shaped, simple diaphragm building case (see definitions for “sim-
guidance is that most rigid buildings and structures have height ple diaphragm building” and “regular-shaped building”) where
to minimum width less than 4. Where there is concern about pressures for the roof and walls can be selected directly from
whether or not a building or structure meets this requirement, the a table. Two figures are provided. Fig. 6-2 for the MWFRS and
provisions of commentary section C6.5.8 provide a method for Fig. 6-3 for components and cladding. Values are provided for en-
calculating natural frequency (period = 1/ natural frequency). closed buildings only (GC pi = ±0.18). Note that for the MWFRS
in a diaphragm building, the internal pressure cancels for loads
WIND-BORNE DEBRIS REGIONS: Some buildings lo- on the walls, but must be considered for the roof. This is true be-
cated in a wind-borne debris region may not be vulnerable to cause when wind forces are transferred by horizontal diaphragms
wind-borne debris. For example, an isolated building located a (e.g., floors and roofs) to the vertical elements of the MWFRS
substantial distance from natural and man-made debris sources (e.g., shear walls, X-bracing, or moment frames), the collection
would unlikely be impacted by debris, provided that building com- of wind forces from windward and leeward sides of the build-
ponents from the building were not blown off, and provided that ing occurs in the horizontal diaphragms. Once transferred into
refuge containers, lawn furniture, and other similar items where the horizontal diaphragms by the wall systems, the wind forces
not in the vicinity of the building. However, ASCE 7 does not become a net horizontal wind force that is delivered to the ver-
allow an exception for such buildings to be excluded from the re- tical elements. The equal and opposite internal pressures on the
quirements applicable to buildings in a wind-borne debris region. walls cancel each other in the horizontal diaphragm. Method 1
While wind-borne debris can occur in just about any condition, combines the windward and leeward pressures into a net horizon-
the level of risk in comparison to the postulated debris regions and tal wind pressure, with the internal pressures canceled. The user
impact criteria may be also be lower than that determined for the is cautioned to consider the precise application of windward and
purpose of standardization. This possibility also applies to the leeward wall loads to members of the roof diaphragm where open-
“transition zone” as described in the preceding text. For exam- ings may exist and where particular members, such as drag struts,
ple, individual buildings may be sited away from likely debris are designed. The design of the roof members of the MWFRS is
sources that would generate significant risk of impacts similar still influenced by internal pressures, but for simple diaphragm
in magnitude to pea gravel (i.e., as simulated by 2 g steel balls buildings with roof angles below 25◦ , it can be assumed that
in impact tests) or butt-on 2 × 4 impacts as required in impact the maximum uplift, produced by a positive internal pressure,
testing criteria. This situation describes a condition of low vul- is the controlling load case. From 25◦ to 45◦ , both positive and
nerability only as a result of limited debris sources within the negative internal pressure cases (Load Cases 1 and 2, respectively)
vicinity of the building. In other cases, potential sources of de- must be checked for the roof, because the windward roof external
bris may be present, but extenuating conditions can lower the pressure becomes positive at that point.
risk. These extenuating conditions include the type of materi- For the designer to use Method 1 for the design of the MWFRS,
als and surrounding construction, the level of protection offered the building must conform to all of the requirements listed in Sec-
by surrounding exposure conditions, and the design wind speed. tion 6.4.1.1; otherwise Method 2 or 3 must be used. Method 1 is
Therefore, the risk of impact may differ from those postulated as based on the low-rise procedure from Method 2, as shown in Fig.
a result of the conditions specifically enumerated in the standard 6.10, for a specific group of buildings (simple diaphragm build-
and the referenced impact standards. The committee recognizes ings). However, the torsional loading from Fig. 6-10 was deemed
that there are vastly differing opinions, even within the standards to be too complicated for a simplified method. As a result, the last
committee, regarding the significance of these parameters that are requirement in Section 6.4.1.1 was added to prevent the use of
not fully considered in developing standardized debris regions or Method 1 for buildings with lateral systems that are sensitive to
referenced impact criteria. torsional wind loading. There are building types listed in Note 5 of
282 ASCE 7-05

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Fig. 6-10 that are exempted from the torsional load requirements exposures and heights. The following values have been used in
because they are known not to be sensitive to torsion. In the case preparation of the figures:
of simple diaphragm buildings, here are several other concepts
that will aid the user in determining if item 10 of Section 6.4.1.1 h = 30 ft Exposure B K z = 0.70
has been met. Generally buildings with a MWFRS in each prin- K d = 0.85 K zt = 1.0 I = 1.0
cipal direction consisting of one of the following would not be GC pi = ± 0.18 (enclosed building)
torsionally sensitive:
Pressure coefficients are from Fig. 6-10.
r Flexible roof and floor diaphragms distributing lateral force Wall elements resisting two or more simultaneous wind-
to the vertical elements of the MWFRS. Buildings with flex- induced structural actions (e.g., bending, uplift, or shear) should
ible diaphragms are not sensitive to torsion because the di- be designed for the interaction of the wind loads as part of the
aphragms are incapable of transferring the torsional mo- MWFRS. The horizontal loads in Fig. 6-2 are the sum of the wind-
ments.
r Rigid roof and floor diaphragms distributing lateral force to
ward and leeward pressures, and are therefore not applicable as
individual wall pressures for the interaction load cases. Design
two shear walls, braced frames, or moment frames of ap- wind pressures, ps for zones A and C should be multiplied by
proximately equal stiffness that are spaced apart a distance +0.85 for use on windward walls and by −0.70 for use on lee-
not less than 50 percent of the width of the building nor- ward walls (the plus sign signifies pressures acting toward the
mal to the principal axis. When the pair of walls/frames are wall surface). For side walls, ps for zone C multiplied by −0.65
concentrated in the center of the building the torsional load should be used. These wall elements must also be checked for
case controls the design because of the short moment arm the various separately acting (not simultaneous) component and
between the points of resistance.
r Rigid roof and floor diaphragms distributing lateral force to
cladding load cases.
any number of vertical MWFRS elements of various stiff- Main wind-force resisting roof members spanning at least from
ness, each of which meets the following at each level of the the eave to the ridge or supporting members spanning at least from
building: eave to ridge are not required to be designed for the higher end
n zone loads. The interior zone loads should be applied. This is due
5 ki di2 to the enveloped nature of the loads for roof members.
i=1
dx ≤ (C6-1) The component and cladding tables in Fig. 6-3 are not related
n
B ki to the simple diaphragm methodology, but are a tabulation of the
i=1 pressures on an enclosed, regular, 30-ft-high building with a roof
where as described. The pressures can be modified to a different expo-
sure and height with the same adjustment factors as the MWFRS
dx = effective distance from the centroid of a MWFRS ele- pressures. For the designer to use Method 1 for the design of the
ment to the center of rigidity of all the MWFRSs, be- components and cladding, the building must conform to all five
yond which torsion in the vertical MWFRS element requirements in Section 6.4.1.2 otherwise Method 2 or 3 must be
will control used. A building may qualify for use of Method 1 for its com-
di = distance from the centroid of the vertical element to the ponents and cladding only, in which case, its MWFRS should be
center of rigidity of the MWFRS designed using Method 2 or 3.
k = lateral stiffness of the vertical element
n = number of vertical elements in the MWFRS
B = horizontal dimension of the building measured normal
to the wind direction C6.5 METHOD 2—ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE
C6.5.1 Scope. The analytical procedure provides wind pressures
of rigidity (xo , yo ) is defined as xo = ( xi ki )/xi and
The center
and forces for the design of MWFRSs and for the design of com-
yo = ( yi ki )/yi .
ponents and cladding of buildings and other structures. The pro-
The torsional sensitivity of lateral systems with more dis- cedure involves the determination of wind directionality and a
tributed stiffness is difficult to determine, however Eq. C6-1 was velocity pressure, the selection or determination of an appropri-
developed as a check to determine if the distribution of lateral ate gust effect factor, and the selection of appropriate pressure
forces is such that torsion will not control the design. This equa- or force coefficients. The procedure allows for the level of struc-
tion was derived based on the polar moment of inertia and rel- tural reliability required, the effects of differing wind exposures,
ative stiffnesses of the lateral elements for a building. It can be the speed-up effects of certain topographic features such as hills
shown that when more than two walls/frame brace a building lat- and escarpments, and the size and geometry of the building or
erally, and if one or more get too far from the center of rigidity, other structure under consideration. The procedure differentiates
it will attract so much torsion load that the torsion load case will between rigid and flexible buildings and other structures, and the
control its design. In the case of two walls/frames, it becomes a results generally envelope the most critical load conditions for the
simply supported arrangement, and the key is to be far enough design of MWFRSs as well as components and cladding.
from the center that the moment arm between the two causes the
The standard in Section 6.5.4 requires that a structure be de-
force in the walls to decrease. Although it appears complex, this
signed for winds from all directions. A rational procedure to deter-
solution is actually very simple for most buildings covered by
mine directional wind loads is as follows. Wind load for buildings
Method 1. The equation is derived from the traditional analysis
using Section 6.5.12.2.1 and Fig. 6-6 or 6-7 are determined for
of the distribution of lateral loads to walls in a masonry bear-
eight wind directions at 45◦ intervals, with four falling along pri-
ing wall building. Fig. C6-2 illustrates the geometry involved in
mary building axes as shown in Fig. C6-3. For each of the eight
Eq. C6-1.
directions, upwind exposure is determined for each of two 45◦
Values are tabulated for Exposure B at an h = 30 ft, I = sectors, one on each side of the wind direction axis. The sector
1.0, and K zt = 1.0. Multiplying factors are provided for other with the exposure giving highest loads will be used to define wind

P1: JsY
loads for that direction. For example, for winds from the north, C6.5.2.2 Air-Permeable Cladding. Air-permeable roof or wall
the exposure from sector one or eight, whichever gives the highest claddings allow partial air pressure equalization between their
load, is used. For wind from the east, the exposure from sector exterior and interior surfaces. Examples include siding, pressure-
two or three, whichever gives the highest load, is used. For wind equalized rain screen walls, shingles, tiles, concrete roof pavers,
coming from the northeast, the most exposed of sectors one or two and aggregate roof surfacing.
is used to determine full x and y loading individually, and then 75
The design wind pressures derived from Section 6.5 represent
percent of these loads are to be applied in each direction at the
the pressure differential between the exterior and interior surfaces
same time according to the requirements of Section 6.5.12.3 and
of the exterior envelope (wall or roof system). Because of partial
Fig. 6-9. See Section C6.5.6 for further discussion of exposures.
air-pressure equalization provided by air permeable claddings, the
The procedure defined in this section for determining wind loads
pressures derived from Section 6.5 can overestimate the load on
in each design direction is not to be confused with the determi-
air-permeable cladding elements. The designer may elect either
nation of the wind directionality factor kd in Eq. 6-15. The kd
to use the loads derived from Section 6.5, or to use loads de-
factor determined from Section 6.5.4 and Table 6-4 applies for all
rived by an approved alternative method. If the designer desires
design wind directions. See Section C6.5.4.4.
to determine the pressure differential across the air-permeable
Wind loads for cladding elements are determined using the cladding element, appropriate full-scale pressure measurements
upwind exposure for the single surface roughness in one of the should be made on the applicable cladding element, or reference
eight sectors of Fig. C6-3 gives the highest cladding pressures. be made to recognized literature [Refs. C6-2, C6-3, C6-4, C6-5]
for documentation pertaining to wind loads.
C6.5.2 Limitations. The provisions given under Section 6.5.2
apply to the majority of site locations and buildings and structures, C6.5.4 Basic Wind Speed. The ASCE 7 wind map included in
but for some locations, these provisions may be inadequate. Ex- the 1998 standard and again for the 2002 edition has been up-
amples of site locations and buildings and structures (or portions dated from the map in ASCE 7-95 based on a new and more
thereof) that require use of recognized literature for documen- complete analysis of hurricane wind speeds [Refs. C6-6, C6-7].
tation pertaining to wind effects, or the use of the wind tunnel This new hurricane analysis yields predictions of 50- and 100-
procedure of Section 6.6 include year return period peak gust wind speeds along the coast that are
generally similar to those given in [Refs. C6-8 and C6-9]. The
1. Site locations that have channeling effects or wakes from up- decision within the Task Committee on Wind Loads to update
wind obstructions. Channeling effects can be caused by to- the map relied on several factors important to an accurate wind
pographic features (e.g., mountain gorge) or buildings (e.g., specification:
a cluster of tall buildings). Wakes can be caused by hills or
by buildings or other structures. 1. The new hurricane results include many more predictions
for sites away from the coast than have been available in the
2. Buildings with unusual or irregular geometric shape, includ- past. It is desirable to include the best available decrease in
ing barrel vaults, and other buildings whose shape (in plan speeds with inland distance. Significant reductions in wind
or profile) differs significantly from a uniform or series of speeds occur in inland Florida for the new analysis.
superimposed prisms similar to those indicated in Figs. 6-6
through 6-17. Unusual or irregular geometric shapes include 2. The distance inland to which hurricanes can influence wind
buildings with multiple setbacks, curved facades, irregular speed increases with the return period. It is desirable to
plan resulting from significant indentations or projections, include this distance in the map for design of ultimate events
openings through the building, or multitower buildings con- (working stress multiplied by an appropriate load factor).
nected by bridges. 3. A hurricane coast importance factor of 1.05 acting on wind
3. Buildings with unusual response characteristics that result in speed was included explicitly in past ASCE 7 standards
across-wind and/or dynamic torsional loads, loads caused (1993 and earlier) to account for the more rapid increase
by vortex shedding, or loads resulting from instabilities, of hurricane speeds with return period in comparison to
such as flutter or galloping. Examples of buildings and struc- nonhurricane winds. The hurricane coast importance factor
tures that may have unusual response characteristics include actually varies in magnitude and position along the coast
flexible buildings with natural frequencies normally below and with distance inland. To produce a more uniform risk of
1 Hz, tall slender buildings (building height-to-width ratio failure, it is desirable to include the effect of the importance
exceeds 4), and cylindrical buildings or structures. Note: factor in the map by first mapping an ultimate event and
Vortex shedding occurs when wind blows across a slender then reducing the event to a design basis.
prismatic or cylindrical body. Vortices are alternately shed The Task Committee on Wind Loads chose to use a map that
from one side of the body and then the other side, which re- includes the hurricane importance factor in the map contours.
sults in a fluctuating force acting at right angles to the wind The map is specified so that the loads calculated from the stan-
direction (across-wind) along the length of the body. dard, after multiplication by the load factor, represent an ultimate
4. Bridges, cranes, electrical transmission lines, guyed masts, load having approximately the same return period as loads for
telecommunication towers, and flagpoles. nonhurricane winds. (An alternative not selected was to use an
ultimate wind speed map directly in the standard, with a load
factor of 1.0.)
C6.5.2.1 Shielding. Due to the lack of reliable analytical proce-
dures for predicting the effects of shielding provided by build- The approach required selection of an ultimate return period.
ings and other structures or by topographic features, reductions A return period of about 500 years has been used previously
in velocity pressure due to shielding are not permitted under the for earthquake loads. This return period can be derived from the
provisions of Section 6.5. However, this does not preclude the nonhurricane speeds in ASCE 7-95. A factor of 0.85 is included
determination of shielding effects and the corresponding reduc- in the load factor of ASCE 7-95 to account for wind and pressure
tions in velocity pressure by means of the wind tunnel procedure coefficient directionality [Ref. C6-10]. Removing this from the
in Section 6.6. load factor gives an effective load factor F of 1.30/0.85 = 1.529
284 ASCE 7-05

P1: JsY
(round to 1.5). Of the uncertainties affecting the wind load factor, This data is expected to follow the gust factor curve of Fig. C6-4
the variability in wind speed has the strongest influence [Ref. [Ref. C6-19].
C6-11], such that changes in the coefficient of variation in all
Limited data were available on the Washington and Oregon
other factors by 25 percent gives less than a 5 percent change in
coast. In this region, existing fastest-mile wind speed data were
load factor. The nonhurricane multiplier of 50-year wind speed
converted to peak gust speeds using open-country gust factors
for various return periods averages Fc = 0.36 √ +√0.1 ln (12T), [Ref. C6-19]. This limited data indicates that a speed of 100 mi/h
with T in years [Ref. C6-12]. Setting Fc = F = 1.5 = 1.225
is appropriate in some portions of the special coastal region in
yields T = 476 yr. On this basis, a roughly 500-yr speed might
Washington and 90 mi/h in the special coastal region in Oregon.
reasonably represent an approximate ultimate limit state event.
These speeds do not include that portion of the special wind region
However, the use of a strength design load factor of 1.6 (Section
in the Columbia River Gorge where higher speeds may be justi-
2.3.2) in this standard causes the actual strength design return
fied. Speeds in the Aleutian Islands and in the interior of Alaska
period to be slightly higher.
were established from gust data. Contours in Alaska are modified
A set of design-level hurricane speed contours, which include slightly from ASCE 7-88 based on measured data, but insufficient
the hurricane importance factor, were
√obtained by dividing 500-yr data were available for a detailed coverage of the mountainous
hurricane wind speed contours by F = 1.225. Essentially the regions. Gust data in Alaska were not corrected for potential ter-
same map would be obtained
√ by dividing a map for slightly higher rain influence. It is possible that wind speeds in parts of Alaska
recurrence interval by 1.6. The implied hurricane importance would reduce if a study were made to determine the topographic
factor ranges from near 1.0 up to about 1.25 (the explicit value in wind speed-up effect on recorded wind speeds.
ASCE 7-93 was 1.05).
Correlation of Basic Wind Speed Map with the Saf-
The design-level speed map has several advantages. First, a fir/Simpson Scale. Hurricane intensities are reported by the Na-
design using the map results in an ultimate load (loads inducing tional Hurricane Center according to the Saffir/Simpson Hurri-
the design strength after use of the load factor) that has a more cane Scale [Refs. C6-20, C6-21] shown in Table C6-1. This scale
uniform risk for buildings than occurred with earlier versions has found broad usage by hurricane forecasters, local and federal
of the map. Second, there is no need for a designer to use and agencies responsible for short-range evacuation of residents dur-
interpolate a hurricane coast importance factor. It is not likely that ing hurricane alerts, as well as long-range disaster planning and
the 500-yr event is the actual speed at which engineered structures the news media. The scale contains five categories of hurricanes
are expected to fail, due to resistance factors in materials, due to and distinguishes them based on wind speed intensity, barometric
conservative design procedures that do not always analyze all load pressure at the center of the storm, and estimated storm surge and
capacity, and due to a lack of a precise definition of “failure.” damage potential. Wind speed is the determining factor used in
categorizing the hurricane.
The wind speed map of Fig. 6-1 presents basic wind speeds
for the contiguous United States, Alaska, and other selected lo- The wind speeds used in the Saffir/Simpson Hurricane Scale are
cations. The wind speeds correspond to 3-s gust speeds at 33 ft defined in terms of a sustained wind speed with a 1-min averaging
(10 m) above ground for exposure category C. Because the Na- time at 33 ft (10 m) over open water. The ASCE 7 standard by
tional Weather Service (NWS) has phased out the measurement comparison uses a 3-s gust speed at 33 ft (10 m) above ground in
of fastest-mile wind speeds, the basic wind speed has been rede- Exposure C (defined as the Basic Wind Speed, and shown in the
fined as the peak gust that is recorded and archived for most NWS wind speed map, Fig. 6-1). An approximate relationship between
stations. Given the response characteristics of the instrumentation the wind speeds in ASCE 7 and the Saffir/Simpson scale is shown
used, the peak gust is associated with an averaging time of approx- in Table C6-2. The table provides the sustained wind speeds of
imately 3 s. Because the wind speeds of Fig. 6-1 reflect conditions the Saffir/Simpson scale over water, equivalent intensity gust wind
at airports and similar open-country exposures, they do not ac- speeds over water, and equivalent intensity gust wind speeds over
count for the effects of significant topographic features such as land. The gust wind speeds over water use a gust factor taking
those described in Section 6.5.7. Note that the wind speeds shown into account the increase in the sea surface roughness with the
in Fig. 6-1 are not representative of speeds at which ultimate limit increase in wind speed. For a storm of a given intensity, Table
states are expected to occur. Allowable stresses or load factors C6-2 takes into consideration both the reduction in wind speed
used in the design equation(s) lead to structural resistances and as the storm moves from over water to over land due to changes
corresponding wind loads and speeds that are substantially higher in surface roughness and also the change in the gust factor as the
than the speeds shown in Fig. 6-1. storm moves from over water to over land [Ref. C6-22]. It should
be noted that the sustained wind speed over water in Table C6-2
The hurricane wind speeds given in Fig. 6-1 replace those given
cannot be converted to a peak gust wind speed using the Durst
in ASCE-7-95 that were based on a combination of the data given
Curve from Fig. C6-4, which is only valid for wind blowing over
in [Refs. C6-8, C6-13, C6-14, C6-15, C6-16], supplemented with
open terrain (Exposure C).
some judgment. The nonhurricane wind speeds of Fig. 6-1 were
prepared from peak gust data collected at 485 weather stations Table C6-3 shows the design wind speed from the ASCE 7 basic
where at least 5 yr of data were available [Refs. C6-12, C6-17, wind speed map (Fig. 6-1) for various locations along the hurri-
C6-18]. For nonhurricane regions, measured gust data were as- cane coastline from Maine to Texas. A tabulation is also provided
sembled from a number of stations in state-sized areas to defor a wind speed equal to the square root of 1.6 times the basic
crease sampling error, and the assembled data were fit using a wind speed from the map (column 4). This wind speed represents
Fisher-Tippett Type I extreme value distribution. This procedure an approximate limit state event using the wind load factor of 1.6
gives the same speed as does area-averaging the 50-year speeds from Section 2.3. It can be thought of as the equivalent wind speed
from the set of stations. There was insufficient variation in 50- used in determination of factored wind loads, in contrast to the
yr speeds over the eastern three-quarters of the lower 48 states basic wind speed that is used in determination of nominal wind
to justify contours. The division between the 90 and 85 mi/h loads. Tables C6-4 and C6-5 show the two different wind speeds
(40.2 and 38.0 m/s) regions, which follows state lines, was suffi- in terms of the Saffir/Simpson Hurricane Scale. These tables indi-
ciently close to the 85 mi/h (38.0 m/s) contour that there was no cate the hurricane category equivalents associated with the nom-
statistical basis for placing the division off political boundaries. inal and factored wind loads, respectively. Structures designed

P1: JsY
to withstand the wind loads specified in this standard, which are three standard deviations of sampling error [Ref. C6-23]. Other
also appropriately constructed and maintained, should have a high equivalent methods may be used.
probability of surviving hurricanes of the intensity shown in Table
C6.5.4.3 Limitation. In recent years, advances have been made
C6-5 without serious structural damage.
in understanding the effects of tornadoes on buildings. This un-
Tables C6-1 through C6-5 are intended to help users of the stan- derstanding has been gained through extensive documentation of
dard to better understand design wind speeds as used in this stan- building damage caused by tornadic storms and through analy-
dard in the context of wind speeds reported by weather forecasters sis of collected data. It is recognized that tornadic wind speeds
and the news media, who commonly use the Saffir/Simpson Hur- have a significantly lower probability of occurrence at a point
ricane Scale. than the probability for basic wind speeds. In addition, it is found
that in approximately one-half of the recorded tornadoes, gust
C6.5.4.1 Special Wind Regions. Although the wind speed map
speeds are less than the gust speeds associated with basic wind
of Fig. 6-1 is valid for most regions of the country, there are special
speeds. In intense tornadoes, gust speeds near the ground are in
regions in which wind speed anomalies are known to exist. Some
the range of 150–200 mi/h (67–89 m/s). Sufficient information is
of these special regions are noted in Fig. 6-1. Winds blowing
available to implement tornado resistant design for above-ground
over mountain ranges or through gorges or river valleys in these
shelters and for buildings that house essential facilities for post-
special regions can develop speeds that are substantially higher
disaster recovery. This information is in the form of tornado risk
than the values indicated on the map. When selecting basic wind
probabilities, tornadic wind speeds, and associated forces. Sev-
speeds in these special regions, use of regional climatic data and
eral references provide guidance in developing wind load criteria
consultation with a wind engineer or meteorologist is advised.
for tornado-resistant design [Refs. C6-24 through C6-31].
It is also possible that anomalies in wind speeds exist on a mi-
Tornadic wind speeds, which are gust speeds, associated with
crometeorological scale. For example, wind speed-up over hills
an annual probability of occurrence of 1 × 10−5 (100,000-yr
and escarpments is addressed in Section 6.5.7. Wind speeds over
Mean Recurrence Interval [MRI]) are shown in Fig. C6-5. This
complex terrain may be better determined by wind-tunnel studies
map was developed by the American Nuclear Society committee
as described in Section 6.6. Adjustments of wind speeds should
(ANS) 2.3 in the early 1980s. Tornado occurrence data of the last
be made at the micrometeorological scale on the basis of wind en-
15 years can provide a more accurate tornado hazard wind speed
gineering or meteorological advice and used in accordance with
for a specific site.
the provisions of Section 6.5.4.2 when such adjustments are war-
ranted. C6.5.4.4 Wind Directionality Factor. The existing wind load
factor 1.3 in ASCE 7-95 included a “wind directionality factor”
C6.5.4.2 Estimation of Basic Wind Speeds from Regional Cli- of 0.85 [Refs. C6-10 and C6-11]. This factor accounts for two
matic Data. When using regional climatic data in accordance effects: (1) The reduced probability of maximum winds com-
with the provisions of Section 6.5.4.2 and in lieu of the basic ing from any given direction and (2) the reduced probability of
wind speeds given in Fig. 6-1, the user is cautioned that the gust the maximum pressure coefficient occurring for any given wind
factors, velocity pressure exposure coefficients, gust effect fac- direction. The wind directionality factor (identified as K d in the
tors, pressure coefficients, and force coefficients of this standard standard) has been hidden in previous editions of the standard and
are intended for use with the 3-s gust speed at 33 ft (10 m) above has generated renewed interest in establishing the design values
ground in open country. It is necessary, therefore, that regional cli- for wind forces determined by using the standard. Accordingly,
matic data based on a different averaging time, for example hourly the Task Committee on Wind Loads, working with the Task Com-
mean or fastest mile, be adjusted to reflect peak gust speeds at mittee on Load Combinations, has decided to separate the wind
33 ft (10 m) above ground in open country. The results of statis- directionality factor from the load factor and include its effect in
tical studies of wind-speed records, reported by [Ref. C6-19] for the equation for velocity pressure. This has been done by devel-
extratropical winds and for hurricanes [Ref. C6-6], are given in oping a new factor, K d , that is tabulated in Table 6-4 for different
Fig. C6-4, which defines the relation between wind speed aver- structure types. As new research becomes available, this factor
aged over t seconds, Vt , and over 1 h, V3600 . New research cited can be directly modified without changing the wind load factor.
[Ref. C6-6] indicates that the old Krayer Marshall curve [Ref. Values for the factor were established from references in the lit-
C6-16] does not apply in hurricanes. Therefore it was removed erature and collective committee judgment. It is noted that the kd
from Fig. C6-1 of ASCE 7-98. The gust factor adjustment to re- value for round chimneys, tanks, and similar structures is given as
flect peak gust speeds is not always straightforward and advice 0.95 in recognition of the fact that the wind load resistance may not
from a wind engineer or meteorologist may be needed. be exactly the same in all directions as implied by a value of 1.0.
In using local data, it should be emphasized that sampling errors A value of 0.85 might be more appropriate if a triangular trussed
can lead to large uncertainties in specification of the 50-yr wind frame is shrouded in a round cover. A value of 1.0 might be more
speed. Sampling errors are the errors associated with the limited appropriate for a round chimney having a lateral load resistance
size of the climatological data samples (years of record of annual equal in all directions. The designer is cautioned by the footnote to
extremes). It is possible to have a 20 mi/h (8.9 m/s) error in wind Table 6-4 and the statement in Section 6.5.4.4, where reference
speed at an individual station with a record length of 30 yr. It is made to the fact that this factor is only to be used in conjunc-
was this type of error that led to the large variations in speed in tion with the load combination factors specified in Sections 2.3
the nonhurricane areas of the ASCE 7-88 wind map. While local and 2.4.
records of limited extent often must be used to define wind speeds
C6.5.5 Importance Factor. The importance factor is used to ad-
in special wind areas, care and conservatism should be exercised
just the level of structural reliability of a building or other struc-
in their use.
ture to be consistent with the building classifications indicated in
If meteorological data are used to justify a wind speed lower Table 1-1. The importance factors given in Table 6-1 adjust the ve-
than 85-mi/h 50-yr peak gust at 10 m, an analysis of sampling locity pressure to different annual probabilities of being exceeded.
error is required to demonstrate that the wind record could not Importance-factor values of 0.87 and 1.15 are, for the nonhurri-
occur by chance. This can be accomplished by showing that the cane winds, associated, respectively, with annual probabilities
difference between predicted speed and 85 mi/h contains two to of being exceeded of 0.04 and 0.01 (MRIs of 25 and 100 yr).
286 ASCE 7-05

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In the case of hurricane winds, the annual exceedance probabili- 4. Interpolation between exposure categories was permitted.
ties implied by the use of the importance factors of 0.77 and 1.15 One acceptable method of interpolating between exposure
will vary along the coast. However, the resulting risk levels as- categories is provided in Section C6.5.6.4.
sociated with the use of these importance factors when applied
5. The required fetch upwind of a tall building has been in-
to hurricane winds will be approximately consistent with those
creased from 10 to 20 building heights. This is a more
applied to the nonhurricane winds.
realistic distance based on the calculation method in Sec-
The probability Pn that the wind speed associated with a certain tion C6.5.6.4 for the fetch length required for the planetary
annual probability Pa will be equaled or exceeded at least once boundary layer to change after a change in surface rough-
during an exposure period of n years is given by ness.
The descriptions of the surface roughness categories and ex-
Pn = 1 − (1 − Pa )n (C6-2) posure categories in Section 6.5.6 have been expressed as far
as is possible in easily understood verbal terms that are suffi-
and values of Pn for various values of Pa and n are listed in ciently precise for most practical applications. For cases where
Table C6-6. As an example, if a design wind speed is based upon the designer wishes to make a more detailed assessment of the
Pa = 0.02 (50-yr MRI), there exists a probability of 0.40 that this surface roughness category and exposure category, the follow-
speed will be equaled or exceeded during a 25-yr period, and a ing more mathematical description is offered for guidance. The
0.64 probability of being equaled or exceeded in a 50-yr period. ground surface roughness is best measured in terms of a rough-
ness length parameter called z 0 . Each of the surface roughness
For applications of serviceability, design using maximum likely categories B through D correspond to a range of values of this
events, or other applications, it may be desired to use wind speeds parameter, as does the even rougher category A used in previous
associated with MRIs other than 50 yr. To accomplish this, the versions of the standard in heavily built-up urban areas but re-
50-yr speeds of Fig. 6-1 are multiplied by the factors listed in moved in the present edition. The range of z 0 in m (ft) for each
Table C6-3. Table C6-7 is strictly valid for the nonhurricane terrain category is given in the following table. Exposure A has
winds only (V < 100 mi/h for the continental United States been included in Table C6-8 as a reference that may be useful
and all speeds in Alaska), where the design wind speeds have when using Method 3 (the wind tunnel procedure). Further infor-
a nominal annual exceedance probability of 0.02. Using the fac- mation on values of z 0 in different types of terrain can be found in
tors given in Table C6-7 to adjust the hurricane wind speeds will [Ref. C6-23].
yield wind speeds and resulting wind loads that are approximately
risk consistent with those derived for the non-hurricane-prone re- It should be noted that for Exposure B the tabulated values of
gions. The true return periods associated with the hurricane wind K z in Section 6.5.6.4 correspond to the lower limit of the range of
speeds cannot be determined using the information given in this z 0 , whereas for Exposures C and D they correspond to the typical
standard. value of z 0 . The reason for the difference in Exposure B is that
this category of terrain, which is applicable to suburban areas,
The difference in wind speed ratios between the continental often contains open patches, such as highways, parking lots, and
United States (V < 100 mi/h) and Alaska were determined by playing fields. These cause local increases in the wind speeds at
data analysis and probably represent a difference in climatology their edges. By using an exposure coefficient corresponding to the
at different latitudes. lower limit of z 0 , rather than the typical value, some allowance is
made for this. The alternative would be to introduce a number of
C6.5.6 Exposure Categories. A number of revisions were made exceptions to use of Exposure B in suburban areas, which would
to the definitions of exposure categories in the ASCE 7-02 edition. add an undesirable level of complexity.
In ASCE 7-98 the definitions of Exposures C and D were modified The value of z 0 for a particular terrain can be estimated from
based on new research [Ref. C6-32]. Further changes in ASCE the typical dimensions of surface roughness elements and their
7-02 were spacing on the ground area using an empirical relationship, due
1. Exposure A was deleted. Previously, Exposure A was in- to Lettau [Ref. C6-34], which is
tended for heavily built-up city centers with tall buildings.
However, the committee has concluded that in areas in close Sob
z 0 = 0.5Hob (C6-3)
proximity to tall buildings the variability of the wind is too Aob
great, because of local channeling and wake buffeting ef-
fects, to allow a special category A to be defined. For projects where
where schedule and cost permit, in heavily built-up city cen-
Hob = the average height of the roughness in the upwind terrain
ters, Method 3 is recommended because this will enable
Sob = the average vertical frontal area per obstruction presented
local channeling and wake-buffeting effects to be properly
to the wind
accounted for. For all other projects, Exposure B can be
Aob = the average area of ground occupied by each obstruction,
used, subject to the limitations in Section 6.5.2.
including the open area surrounding it
2. Distinction was made between surface roughness categories
Vertical frontal area is defined as the area of the projection of the
and exposure categories. This has enabled more precise def-
obstruction onto a vertical plane normal to the wind direction. The
initions of Exposures B, C, and D to be obtained in terms of
area Sob may be estimated by summing the approximate vertical
the extent and types of surface roughness that are upwind of
frontal areas of all obstructions within a selected area of upwind
the site. The requirements for the upwind fetch were modi-
fetch and dividing the sum by the number of obstructions in the
fied based on recent investigations into effects of roughness
area. The average height H may be estimated in a similar way
changes and transitions between them [Ref. C6-33].
by averaging the individual heights rather than using the frontal
3. The exposure for each wind direction was defined as the areas. Likewise Aob may be estimated by dividing the size of
worst case of the two 45◦ sectors either side of the wind the selected area of upwind fetch by the number of obstructions
direction being considered (see also Section C6.5.4). in it.

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EXPOSURE B SUBURBAN RESIDENTIAL AREA WITH MOSTLY SINGLE-FAMILY DWELLINGS.

LOW-RISE STRUCTURES, LESS THAN 30 FT (9.1 M) HIGH, IN THE CENTER OF THE
PHOTOGRAPH HAVE SITES DESIGNATED AS EXPOSURE B WITH SURFACE ROUGHNESS
CATEGORY B TERRAIN AROUND THE SITE FOR A DISTANCE GREATER THAN 1500 FT (457
M) IN ANY WIND DIRECTION.
EXPOSURE B URBAN AREA WITH NUMEROUS CLOSELY SPACED OBSTRUCTIONS HAVING

SIZE OF SINGLE FAMILY DWELLINGS OR LARGER. FOR ALL STRUCTURES SHOWN,
TERRAIN REPRESENTATIVE OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS CATEGORY B EXTENDS
MORE THAN TWENTY TIMES THE HEIGHT OF THE STRUCTURE OR 2600 FT (792 M),
WHICHEVER IS GREATER, IN THE UPWIND DIRECTION.
288 ASCE 7-05

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EXPOSURE B STRUCTURES IN THE FOREGROUND ARE LOCATED IN EXPOSURE B.

STRUCTURES IN THE CENTER TOP OF THE PHOTOGRAPH ADJACENT TO THE CLEARING
TO THE LEFT, WHICH IS GREATER THAN APPROXIMATELY 656 FT (200 M) IN LENGTH,
ARE LOCATED IN EXPOSURE C WHEN WIND COMES FROM THE LEFT OVER THE CLEARING.
(SEE FIGURE C6-5.)
EXPOSURE C FLAT OPEN GRASSLAND WITH SCATTERED OBSTRUCTIONS HAVING

HEIGHTS GENERALLY LESS THAN 30 FT.

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EXPOSURE C OPEN TERRAIN WITH SCATTERED OBSTRUCTIONS HAVING HEIGHTS

GENERALLY LESS THAN 30 FT FOR MOST WIND DIRECTIONS, ALL 1-STORY STRUCTURES
WITH A MEAN ROOF HEIGHT LESS THAN 30 FT IN THE PHOTOGRAPH ARE LESS THAN 1500
FT OR TEN TIMES THE HEIGHT OF THE STRUCTURE, WHICHEVER IS GREATER, FROM AN
OPEN FIELD THAT PREVENTS THE USE OF EXPOSURE B.
EXPOSURE D A BUILDING AT THE SHORELINE (EXCLUDING SHORELINES

IN HURRICANE-PRONE REGIONS) WITH WIND FLOWING OVER OPEN WATER FOR A
DISTANCE OF AT LEAST 1 MILE. SHORELINES IN EXPOSURE D INCLUDE INLAND
WATERWAYS, THE GREAT LAKES, AND COASTAL AREAS OF CALIFORNIA, OREGON,
WASHINGTON, AND ALASKA.
290 ASCE 7-05

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As an example, if the upwind fetch consists primarily of single time. Other changes were implemented in ASCE 7-98 including
family homes with typical height H = 20 ft (6 m), vertical frontal truncation of K z values for Exposures A and B below heights of
area (including some trees on each lot) of 1,000 ft2 (100 m2 ), 100 ft and 30 ft, respectively. Exposure A has been eliminated in
and ground area per home of 10,000 ft2 (1,000 m2 ), then z 0 is the 2002 edition.
calculated to be z 0 = 0.5 × 20 × 1,000/10,000 = 1 ft (0.3 m),
In the ASCE 7-02 standard, the K z expressions are unchanged
which falls into exposure category B according to Table C6-8.
from ASCE 7-98. However, the possibility of interpolating be-
Trees and bushes are porous and are deformed by strong tween the standard exposures using a rational method is recog-
winds, which reduce their effective frontal areas [Ref. C6-35]. nized in the present edition. One rational method is provided in
For conifers and other evergreens no more than 50 percent of the following text.
their gross frontal area can be taken to be effective in obstructing
To a reasonable approximation, the empirical exponent α and
the wind. For deciduous trees and bushes no more than 15 percent
gradient height z g in the preceding expressions C6-3a and C6-3b
of their gross frontal area can be taken to be effective in obstruct-
for exposure coefficient K z may be related to the roughness length
ing the wind. Gross frontal area is defined in this context as the
z 0 by the relations
projection onto a vertical plane (normal to the wind) of the area
enclosed by the envelope of the tree or bush. α = c1 z 0−0.157 (C6-5)
A recent study [Ref. C6-36] has estimated that the majority of and
buildings (perhaps as much as 60 percent to 80 percent) have an
exposure category corresponding to Exposure B. While the rela- z g = c2 z 00.125 (C6-6)
tively simple definition in the standard will normally suffice for where
most practical applications, oftentimes the designer is in need of
additional information, particularly with regard to the effect of Units of z 0 , z g c1 c2
large openings or clearings (e.g., large parking lots, freeways, or m 5.14 450
tree clearings) in the otherwise “normal” ground surface rough- ft 6.19 1,273
ness B. The following is offered as guidance for these situations:
1. The simple definition of Exposure B given in the body of The preceding relationships are based on matching the Engi-
the standard, using the new surface roughness category def- neering Sciences Data Unit ESDU boundary layer model [Refs.
inition, is shown pictorially in Fig. C6-7. This definition ap- C6-33, C6-35, C6-37] empirically with the power law relation-
plies for the surface roughness B condition prevailing 2,630 ship in Eqs. C6-4a, b, the ESDU model being applied at latitude
ft (800 m) upwind with insufficient “open patches” as de- 45◦ with a gradient wind of 50 m/s. If z 0 has been determined for
fined in the following text to disqualify the use of Exposure a particular upwind fetch, Eqs. C6-4, C6-5, and C6-6 can be used
B. to evaluate K z . The correspondence between z 0 and the parame-
ters α and z g implied by these relationships does not align exactly
2. An opening in the surface roughness B large enough to have
with that described in the commentary to ASCE 7-95 and 7-98.
a significant effect on the exposure category determination
However, the differences are relatively small and not of practi-
is defined as an “open patch.” An open patch is defined as
cal consequence. The ESDU boundary layer model has also been
an opening greater than or equal to approximately 164 ft (50
used to derive the following simplified method of evaluating K z
m) on each side (i.e., greater than 165 ft [50 m] by 164 ft
following a transition from one surface roughness to another. For
[50 m]). Openings smaller than this need not be considered
more precise estimates the reader is referred to the original ESDU
in the determination of the exposure category.
model [Refs. C6-33, C6-35, C6-37].
3. The effect of open patches of surface roughness C or D on
In uniform terrain, the wind travels a sufficient distance over the
the use of exposure category B is shown pictorally in Figs.
terrain for the planetary boundary layer to reach an equilibrium
C6-8 and C6-9. Note that the plan location of any open patch
state. The exposure coefficient values in Table 6-3 are intended for
may have a different effect for different wind directions.
this condition. Suppose that the site is a distance x miles downwind
Aerial photographs, representative of each exposure type, are of a change in terrain. The equilibrium value of the exposure
included in the commentary to aid the user in establishing the coefficient at height z for the terrain roughness downwind of the
proper exposure for a given site. Obviously, the proper assessment change will be denoted by K zd , and the equilibrium value for the
of exposure is a matter of good engineering judgment. This fact is terrain roughness upwind of the change will be denoted by K zu .
particularly true in light of the possibility that the exposure could The effect of the change in terrain roughness on the exposure
change in one or more wind directions due to future demolition coefficient at the site can be represented by adjusting K zd by an
and/or development. increment K , thus arriving at a corrected value K z for the site.
C6.5.6.6 Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient. The veloc- K z = K z1 + K (C6-7)
ity pressure exposure coefficient K z can be obtained using the In this expression K is calculated using
equation:
 2/α K zd
 K = (K 33,u − K 33,d ) FK (x)
 2.01 zz for 15 ft ≤ z ≤ z g (C6-4a) K 33,d (C6-8)
Kz = |K | = |K zu − K zd |
g
 2/α
 2.01 15
for z < 15 ft (C6-4b)
zg
where K 33,d and K 33,u are respectively the downwind and upwind
equilibrium values of exposure coefficient at 33 ft (10 m) height,
in which values of α and z g are given in Table 6-2. These equations and the function FK (x) is given by
are now given in Table 6-3 to aid the user.
x
In ASCE 7-95, the values of α and the preceding formulae were 1 x1
FK (x) = log10 /log10 (C6-9)
adjusted to be consistent with the 3-s gust format introduced at that x x0

P1: JsY
for x0 < x < x1 Because the value 0.94 for K z lies between the values 0.88
and 1.16, which would be derived from Table 6-3 for Exposures
Fk (x) = 1 for x < x0 B and C respectively, it is an acceptable interpolation. If it falls
below the Exposure B value then the Exposure B value of K z is
Fk (x) = 0 for x > x1
to be used. The value K z = 0.94 may be compared with the value
1.16 that would be required by the simple 2,600 ft fetch length
In the preceding relationships
requirement of Chapter 6.
x0 = 10−(K 33,d −K 33,u ) −2.3
2
(C6-10) The most common case where an interpolated value of K z is
The constant c3 = 0.621 mi (1.0 km). The length x1 = 6.21 needed is for the transition from Exposure C to Exposure B, as
mi (10 km) for K 33,d < K 33,u (wind going from smoother terrain in the example just described. For this particular transition, using
upwind to rougher terrain downwind) or x1 = 62.1 mi (100 km) the typical values of z 0 of 0.066 ft (0.02 m) and 1.0 ft (0.3 m), the
for K 33 ,d > K 33,u (wind going from rougher terrain upwind to preceding formulae can be simplified to
smoother terrain downwind).

Example: Suppose the building is 66 ft (20 m) high and its local 6.21
K z = K zd 1 + 0.180 log10 (C6-10b)
surroundings are suburban with a roughness length z 0 = 1 ft (0.3 x
m). However, the site is 0.37 mi (0.6 km) downwind of the edge K z B ≤ K z ≤ K zC
of the suburbs, beyond which the open terrain is characteristic of
open country with z 0 = 0.066 ft (0.02 m). From Eqs. C6-5, C6-6, where x is in miles, and K zd is computed using α = 6.19.K z B
and C6-4a, for the open terrain and K zC are the exposure coefficients in the standard Exposures C
and B. C6-10 illustrates the transition from terrain roughness C to
α = c1 z 0−0.157 = 6.19 × 0.066−0.157 = 9.5 terrain roughness B from this expression. Note that it is acceptable
to use the typical z 0 rather than the lower limit for Exposure
z g = c2 z 00.125 = 1,273 × 0.0660.125 = 906 ft (276 m) B in deriving this formula because the rate of transition of the
wind profiles is dependent on average roughness over significant
Therefore, applying Eq. C6-4a at 66 ft (20 m) and 33 ft (10 m) distances, not local roughness anomalies. The potential effects of
heights, local roughness anomalies, such as parking lots and playing fields,
2/9.5 are covered by using the standard Exposure B value of exposure
66 coefficient, K z B as a lower limit to the calculated value of K z .
K zu = 2.01 = 1.16 and
906
2/9.5 C6.5.7 Topigraphic Effects. As an aid to the designer, this sec-
33 tion was rewritten in ASCE 7-98 to specify when topographic
K 33,u = 2.01 = 1.00
906 effects need to be applied to a particular structure rather than
when they do not as in the previous version. In addition, the up-
Similarly, for the suburban terrain wind distance to consider has been lengthened from 50 times to
100 times the height of the topographic feature (100 H) and from
α = c1 z 0−0.157 = 6.19 × 1.0−0.157 = 6.19 1 mi to 2 mi. In an effort to exclude situations where little or no
topographic effect exists, condition (2) has been added to include
z g = c2 z 00.125 = 1,273 × 1.00.125 = 1,273 ft (388 m) the fact that the topographic feature should protrude significantly
above (by a factor of two or more) upwind terrain features before
Therefore it becomes a factor. For example, if a significant upwind terrain
feature has a height of 35 ft above its base elevation and has a top
66 2/6.19 elevation of 100 ft above mean sea level then the topographic fea-
K zd = 2.01 = 0.77 and
1,273 ture (hill, ridge, or escarpment) must have at least the H specified
and extend to elevation 170 mean sea level (100 ft + 2 × 35 ft)
33 2/6.19 within the 2-mi radius specified.
K 33,d = 2.01 = 0.62
1,273
A recent wind tunnel study [Ref. C6-38] and observation of
From Eq. C6-10 actual wind damage has shown that the affected height H is less
than previously specified. Accordingly, condition (5) was changed
to 15 ft in Exposure C.
x0 = c3 × 10−(K 33,d −K 33,u ) −2.3
= 0.621 × 10−(0.62−1.00) −2.3
2 2
Buildings sited on the upper half of an isolated hill or escarp-

= 0.00223 mi ment may experience significantly higher wind speeds than build-
ings situated on level ground. To account for these higher wind
From Eq. C6-9 speeds, the velocity pressure exposure coefficients in Table 6-3

6.21 6.21 are multiplied by a topographic factor, K zt , defined in Eq. 6-15 of
FK (x) = log10 /log10 = 0.36 Section 6.5.10. The topographic feature (2-D ridge or escarpment,
0.37 0.00223
or 3-D axisymmetrical hill) is described by two parameters, H and
Therefore from Eq. C6-8 L h . H is the height of the hill or difference in elevation between
0.77 the crest and that of the upwind terrain. L h is the distance upwind
K = (1.00 − 0.62) 0.36 = 0.17 of the crest to where the ground elevation is equal to half the
0.62
height of the hill. K zt is determined from three multipliers, K 1 ,
Note that because |K | is 0.17, which is less than the 0.38 value
K 2 , and K 3 , which are obtained from Fig. 6-4, respectively. K 1 is
of |K 33,u − K 33,d |, 0.17 is retained. Finally, from Eq. C6-7, the
related to the shape of the topographic feature and the maximum
value of K z is
speed-up near the crest, K 2 accounts for the reduction in speed-up
K z = K zd + K = 0.77 + 0.17 = 0.94 with distance upwind or downwind of the crest, and K 3 accounts
292 ASCE 7-05

P1: JsY
for the reduction in speed-up with height above the local ground expressions for evaluating these along-wind response components
surface. are given.
The multipliers listed in Fig. 6-4 are based on the assumption Maximum Along-Wind Displacement. The maximum along-
that the wind approaches the hill along the direction of maximum wind displacement X max (z) as a function of height above the
slope, causing the greatest speed-up near the crest. The average ground surface is given by
maximum upwind slope of the hill is approximately H/2Lh , and
φ(z)ρ BhC f x V̂z̄2
measurements have shown that hills with slopes of less than about X max (z) = KG (C6-11)
0.10 (H/Lh < 0.20) are unlikely to produce significant speed-up 2m 1 (2πn 1 )2
of the wind. For values of H/Lh > 0.5 the speed-up effect is where φ(z) = the fundamental model shape φ(z) = (z/h)ξ ; ξ = the
assumed to be independent of slope. The speed-up principally mode exponent; ρ = air density; C f x = mean along-wind force
affects the mean wind speed rather than the amplitude of the
h
turbulent fluctuations and this fact has been accounted for in the coefficient; m 1 = modal mass = o µ(z)φ 2 (z)dz; µ(z) = mass
values of K 1 , K 2 , and K 3 given in Fig. 6-4. Therefore, values per unit height:
of K zt obtained from Fig. 6-4 are intended for use with velocity K = (1.65)α̂ /(α̂ + ξ + 1); and V̂z̄ is the 3-s gust speed at height
pressure exposure coefficients, K h and K z , which are based on z̄. This can be evaluated by V̂z̄ = b̂(z/33)α̂ V , where V is the 3-s
gust speeds. gust speed in Exposure C at the reference height (obtained from
It is not the intent of Section 6.5.7 to address the general case Fig. 6-1); b̂ and â are given in Table 6-2.
of wind flow over hilly or complex terrain for which engineering RMS Along-Wind Acceleration The rms along-wind acceler-
judgment, expert advice, or wind tunnel tests as described in Sec- ation σẍ (z) as a function of height above the ground surface is
tion 6.6 may be required. Background material on topographic given by
speed-up effects may be found in the literature [Refs. C6-39, C6-
40, C6-41]. 0.85φ(z)ρ BhC f x V̄z̄2
σẍ (z) = Iz̄ K R (C6-12)
The designer is cautioned that, at present, the standard contains m1
no provision for vertical wind speed-up because of a topographic where V̄z̄ is the mean hourly wind speed at height z̄, ft/s
effect, even though this phenomenon is known to exist and can ᾱ
cause additional uplift on roofs. Additional research is required to z̄
V̄z̄ = b̄ V
quantify this effect before it can be incorporated into the standard. 33
where b̄ and ᾱ are defined in Table 6-2.
C6.5.8 Gust Effect Factor. ASCE 7-05 contains a single gust
effect factor of 0.85 for rigid buildings. As an option, the de- Maximum Along-Wind Acceleration. The maximum along-
signer can incorporate specific features of the wind environment wind acceleration as a function of height above the ground surface
and building size to more accurately calculate a gust effect factor. is given by
One such procedure, previously contained in the commentary, is
Ẍ max (z) = gẍ σẍ (z) (C6-13)
now located in the body of the standard [Refs. C6-42, C6-43].
A suggested procedure is also included for calculating the gust 0.5772
gẍ = 2 ln (n 1 T ) + √
effect factor for flexible structures. The rigid structure gust factor 2 ln(n 1 T )
is typically 0 percent to 4 percent higher than in ASCE 7-95 and
is 0 percent to 10 percent lower than the simple, but conserva- where T = the length of time over which the minimum accel-
tive, value of 0.85 permitted in the standard without calculation. eration is computed, usually taken to be 3,600 s to represent
The procedures for both rigid and flexible structures have been 1 h.
changed from the previous version to (1) keep the rigid gust factor Approximate Fundamental Frequency. To estimate the dy-
calculation within a few percent of the previous model, (2) pro- namic response of structures, knowledge of the fundamental fre-
vide a superior model for flexible structures that displays the peak quency (lowest natural frequency) of the structure is essential.
factors g Q and g R , and (3) causes the flexible structure value to This value would also assist in determining if the dynamic re-
match the rigid structure as resonance is removed (an advantage sponse estimates are necessary. Most computer codes used in
not included in the previous version). A designer is free to use the analysis of structures would provide estimates of the natural
any other rational procedure in the approved literature, as stated frequencies of the structure being analyzed. However, for the pre-
in Section 6.5.8.3. liminary design stages some empirical relationships for building
The gust effect factor accounts for the loading effects in the period Ta (Ta = 1/n 1 ) are available in the earthquake chapters
along-wind direction due to wind turbulence-structure interac- of ASCE 7. However, it is noteworthy that these expressions are
tion. It also accounts for along-wind loading effects due to dy- based on recommendations for earthquake design with inherent
namic amplification for flexible buildings and structures. It does bias toward higher estimates of fundamental frequencies [Refs.
not include allowances for across-wind loading effects, vortex C6-48, C6-49]. For wind design applications these values may be
shedding, instability due to galloping or flutter, or dynamic tor- unconservative because an estimated frequency higher than the
sional effects. For structures susceptible to loading effects that are actual frequency would yield lower values of the gust effect factor
not accounted for in the gust effect factor, information should be and concomitantly a lower design wind pressure. However, [Refs.
obtained from recognized literature [Refs. C6-42 through C6-47] C6-48, C6-49] also cite lower bound estimates of frequency that
or from wind tunnel tests. are more suited for use in wind applications. These expressions
are
Along-Wind Response. Based on the preceding definition of the
For steel Moment-Resisting-Frames MRFs
gust effect factor, predictions of along-wind response, for exam-
ple, maximum displacement, root-mean-square rms and peak ac- n 1 = 22.2/H 0.8 (C6-14)
celeration, can be made. These response components are needed
for survivability and serviceability limit states. In the following, For concrete MRFs: n 1 = 43.5/H 0.9 (C6-15)

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For concrete shearwall systems: where EI is the bending stiffness of the section; and m is the
mass/unit height. (This formula may be used for masts with a
n 1 = 385(Cw ) /H0.5
(C6-16) slight taper, using average value of EI and m) [Ref. C6-52].
where An approximate formula for cantilevered, tapered, circular
n poles [Ref. C6-52]
100 H 2 Ai √
cw = 2 n 1 ≈ [λ/(2π h 2 )] (E I /m) (C6-22b)
AB i=1
hi hi
1 + 0.83 where h is the height, and E, I, m are calculated for the cross-
Di
section at the base. λ depends on the wall thicknesses at the tip
n 1 = building natural frequency (Hz) and base, et and eb , and external diameter at the tip and base, dt
H = building height (ft) and db , according to the following formula:
 
n = number of shear walls in the building effective in resisting 6.65
lateral forces in the direction under consideration −4dt  0.666 
λ = 1.9 exp + et  (C6-23)
A B = base area of the structure (ft2 ) db 0.9 +
eb
Ai = area of shear wall (ft2 )
Di = length of shear wall “i” (ft) The preceding Eq. C6-22b reduces to Eq. C6-22a for uniform
masts. For free-standing lattice towers (without added ancillaries
h i = height of shear wall “i” (ft)
such as antennas, lighting frames, etc.) [Ref. C6-53]:
Observation from wind tunnel testing of buildings where fre-
n 1 ≈ 1500w a / h 2 (C6-24)
quency is calculated using analysis software reveals the following
expression for frequency, applicable to all buildings in steel or where w a is the average width of the structure in m; h is tower
concrete: height. An alternative formula for lattice towers (with added an-
cillaries) is [Ref. C6-54]
n 1 = 100/H (ft) average value
L N 2/3 w b 1/2
(C6-17)
n 1 = 75/H (ft) lower bound value (C6-18) n1 = (C6-25)
H H
where w b = tower base width; L N = 270 m for square base towers,
These equations are more appropriate for buildings less than or 230 m for triangular base towers.
about 400 ft in height.
Based on full-scale measurements of buildings under the action Structural Damping: Structural damping is a measure of energy
of wind, the following expression has been proposed for wind dissipation in a vibrating structure that results in bringing the
applications [Ref. C6-50]: structure to a quiescent state. The damping is defined as ratio of
the energy dissipated in one oscillation cycle to the maximum
f n1 = 150/H (ft) (C6-19) amount of energy in the structure in that cycle. There are as many
This frequency expression is based on older buildings and over- structural damping mechanisms as there are modes of converting
estimates the frequency common in U.S. construction for smaller mechanical energy into heat. The most important mechanisms are
buildings less than 400 ft in height, but becomes more accurate material damping and interfacial damping.
for tall buildings greater than 400 ft in height. The Australian and In engineering practice, the damping mechanism is often ap-
New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 1170.2, Eurocode ENV1991-2- proximated as viscous damping because it leads to a linear equa-
4, Hong Kong Code of Practice on Wind Effects Draft (1996) tion of motion. This damping measure, in terms of the damping
and others have adopted Eq. C6-19 for all building types and all ratio, is usually assigned based on the construction material, for
heights. example, steel or concrete. The calculation of dynamic load ef-
Recent studies in Japan involving a suite of buildings under fects requires damping ratio as an input. In wind applications,
low amplitude excitations have led to the following expressions damping ratios of 1 percent and 2 percent are typically used in
for natural frequencies of buildings [Ref. C6-51]: the United States for steel and concrete buildings at serviceability
levels, respectively, while ISO [Ref. C6-55] suggests 1 percent
n 1 = 220/H (ft) (concrete buildings) (C6-20) and 1.5 percent for steel and concrete, respectively. Damping val-
ues for steel support structures for signs, chimneys, and towers
n 1 = 164/H (ft) (steel buildings) (C6-21) may be much lower than buildings and may fall in the range of
0.15 percent to 0.5 percent. Damping values of special structures
like steel stacks can be as low as 0.2 percent to 0.6 percent and 0.3
It is noted that the expressions based on Japanese buildings
percent to 1.0 percent for unlined and lined steel chimneys, re-
result in higher frequency estimates than those obtained from the
spectively [Refs. C6-56, C6-57]. These values may provide some
general expression given in Eqs. C6-14 through C6-18, partic-
guidance for design. Note that damping levels used in wind load
ularly since the Japanese data set has limited observations for
applications are smaller than the 5 percent damping ratios com-
the more flexible buildings sensitive to wind effects and Japanese
mon in seismic applications because buildings subjected to wind
construction tends to be stiffer. Therefore, Eqs. C6-14 through
loads respond essentially elastic while buildings subjected to de-
C6-19, subject to the limitations noted, are more appropriate for
sign level earthquakes respond inelastically at higher damping
preliminary design calculations, as they provide conservative fre-
levels.
quency, and thereby wind load, estimates.
Because the level of structural response in the serviceability
For cantilevered masts or poles of uniform cross-section (in
and survivability states is different, the damping values associ-
which bending action dominates):
√ ated with these states may differ. Further, due to the number
n 1 = (0.56/ h 2 ) (EI/m) (C6-22a) of mechanisms responsible for damping, the limited full-scale
294 ASCE 7-05

P1: JsY
data manifest a dependence on factors such as material, height, response to each level
and type of structural system, and foundation. The Committee
on Damping of the Architectural Institute of Japan suggests dif- P̂R j = C M j M̂ R
ferent damping values for these states based on a large damping
database described in [Ref. C6-58]. w jφj
CM j =
w jφjz j
In addition to structural damping, aerodynamic damping may
be experienced by a structure oscillating in air. In general, the M̂ R = M̄ · G R /Ḡ
aerodynamic damping contribution is quite small compared to
the structural damping and it is positive in low to moderate wind M̄ = P̄ j · z j
speeds. Depending on the structural shape, at some wind veloci- j=1,n
ties, the aerodynamic damping may become negative, which can
lead to unstable oscillations. In these cases, reference should be where
made to recognized literature or a wind tunnel study.
C M j = vertical load distribution factor
Alternate Procedure to Calculate Wind Loads: It should be M̂ R = peak resonant component of the base bending moment
noted that the concept of the gust effect factor implies that the ef- response
fect of gusts can be adequately accounted for by multiplying the w j = portion of the total gravity load of the building located or
mean wind load distribution with height by a single factor. This is assigned to level j
an approximation. If a more accurate representation of gust effects n = total stories of the building
is required, the alternative procedure in the following section can φ j = first structural mode shape value at level j
be used. It takes account of the fact that the inertial forces cre- M̄ = mean base
ated by the building’s mass, as it moves under wind action, have bending produced by mean wind load
1.7Iz̄ · g R R
a different distribution with height than the mean wind loads or G R = 0.925 is the resonant component of the
the loads due to the direct actions of gusts [Refs. C6-55, C6-58]. 1 + 1 · 7gν Iz̄
gust effect factor
The alternate formulation of the equivalent static load distribution
utilizes the peak base bending moment and expresses it in terms Along-Wind Response: Through a simple static analysis the
of inertial forces at different building levels. A base bending mo- peak-building response along-wind direction can be obtained by
ment, instead of the base shear as in earthquake engineering, is
used for the wind loads, as it is less sensitive to deviations from r̂ = r̄ + r̂ B2 + r̂ R2
a linear mode shape while still providing a gust effect factor gen-
erally equal to the gust factor calculated by the current ASCE 7 where r̄ , r̂ B , and r̂ R = mean, peak background, and resonant re-
standard. This equivalence occurs only for structures with linear sponse components of interest, for example, shear forces,moment,
mode shape and uniform mass distribution, assumptions tacitly or displacement. Once the equivalent static wind load distribution
implied in the previous formulation of the gust effect factor, and is obtained, any response component including acceleration can
thereby permits a smooth transition from the existing procedure to be obtained using a simple static analysis. It is suggested that
the formulation suggested here. It is important to note that calcu- caution must be exercised when combining the loads instead of
lations of the building top displacements and accelerations would response according to the preceding expression, for example,
result in the same results as currently obtained using ASCE 7-02.
Other load effects may vary. For a more detailed discussion on P̂ j = P̄ j + P̂B2 j + P̂R2 j
this new wind loading procedure see [Refs. C6-55, C6-58].
because the background and the resonant load components have
Along-Wind Equivalent Static Wind Loading: The equivalent normally different distributions along the building height. Addi-
static wind loading for the mean, background, and resonant com- tional background can be found in [Refs. C6-55, C6-58].
ponents is obtained using the procedure outlined in the following
text.
Example: The following example is presented to illustrate
Mean wind load component P̄ j at the jth floor level is given by the calculation of the gust effect factor. Table C6-9 uses the
given information to obtain values from Table 6-2. Table C6-
P̄ j = q j · C p · A j · Ḡ
10 presents the calculated values. Table C6-11 summarizes the
where calculated displacements and accelerations as a function of the
height, z.
j = floor level
zj = height of the jth floor above the ground level
qj = velocity pressure at height z j Given Values:
Cp = external pressure coefficient Basic wind speed at reference height in exposure C = 90
Ḡ = 0.925 · (1 + 1.7gν Iz̄ )−1 is the gust velocity factor mi/h
Peak background wind load component P̂B j at the jth floor level Type of exposure = B
is given similarly by Building height h = 600 ft
Building width B = 100 ft
P̂B j = P̄ j · G B /Ḡ Building depth L = 100 ft
Building natural frequency n 1 = 0.2 Hz
where G B = 0.925 · 1+1.7g
1.7Iz̄ ·g Q Q
is the background component of Damping ratio = 0.01
I
ν z̄
C f x = 1.3
gust effect factor. Mode exponent = 1.0
Peak resonant wind load component P̂R j at the jth floor level Building density = 12 lb/ft3 = 0.3727 slugs/ft3
is obtained by distributing the resonant base bending moment Air density = 0.0024 slugs/ft3

P1: JsY
Aerodynamic Loads on Tall Buildings—An Interactive that the building experiences much higher across-wind load ef-
Database: Under the action of wind, tall buildings oscillate si- fects when compared to the along-wind response for this example,
multaneously in the along-wind, across-wind, and torsional direc- which reiterates the significance of wind loads and their effects
tions. While the along-wind loads have been successfully treated in the across-wind direction.
in terms of gust loading factors based on quasi-steady and strip
theories, the across-wind and torsional loads cannot be treated C6.5.9 Enclosure Classifications. The magnitude and sense of
in this manner, as these loads cannot be related in a straightfor- internal pressure is dependent upon the magnitude and location
ward manner to fluctuations in the approach flow. As a result, of openings around the building envelope with respect to a given
most current codes and standards provide little guidance for the wind direction. Accordingly, the standard requires that a determi-
across-wind and torsional response [Refs. C6-55, C6-58]. nation be made of the amount of openings in the envelope to assess
enclosure classification (enclosed, partially enclosed, or open).
To provide some guidance at the preliminary design stages of “Openings” are specifically defined in this version of the standard
buildings, an interactive aerodynamic loads database for assess- as “apertures or holes in the building envelope which allow air
ing dynamic wind induced loads on a suite of generic isolated to flow through the building envelope and which are designed as
buildings is introduced. Although the analysis based on this ex- “open” during design winds.” Examples include doors, operable
perimental database is not intended to replace wind tunnel testing windows, air intake exhausts for air conditioning and/or ventila-
in the final design stages, it provides users a methodology to tion systems, gaps around doors, deliberate gaps in cladding, and
approximate the previously untreated across-wind and torsional flexible and operable louvers. Once the enclosure classification
responses in the early design stages. The database consists of is known, the designer enters Fig. 6-5 to select the appropriate
high frequency base balance measurements involving seven rect- internal pressure coefficient.
angular building models, with side ratio (D/B, where D is the
depth of the building section along the oncoming wind direc- This version of the standard has four definitions applicable to
tion) from 1/3 to 3, three aspect ratios for each building model enclosure: wind-borne debris regions, glazing, impact-resistant
in two approach flows, namely, BL1 (alpha-bar = 0.16) and glazing, and impact-resistant covering. Windborne debris regions
BL2 (alpha-bar = 0.35) corresponding to an open and an ur- are defined to alert the designer to areas requiring consideration
ban environment. The data are accessible with a user-friendly of missile impact design and potential openings in the building
Java-based applet through the worldwide Internet community at envelope. “Glazing” is defined as “any glass or transparent or
http://aerodata.ce.nd.edu/interface/interface.html. Through the translucent plastic sheet used in windows, doors, skylights, or
use of this interactive portal, users can select the geometry and curtain walls.” “Impact-resistant glazing” is specifically defined
dimensions of a model building, from the available choices, and as “glazing which has been shown by testing in accordance with
specify an urban or suburban condition. Upon doing so, the aero- ASTM E 1886 [Ref. C6-60] and ASTM E 1996 [Ref. C6-61]
dynamic load spectra for the along-wind, across-wind, or torsional or other approved test methods to withstand the impact of wind-
directions is displayed with a Java interface permitting users to borne missiles likely to be generated in wind-borne debris regions
specify a reduced frequency (building frequency × building di- during design winds.” “Impact-resistant covering” over glazing
mension/wind velocity) of interest and automatically obtain the can be shutters or screens designed for wind-borne debris impact.
corresponding spectral value. When coupled with the supporting Impact resistance can now be tested using the test method speci-
Web documentation, examples, and concise analysis procedure, fied in ASTM E 1886 [Ref. C6-60], with missiles, impact speeds,
the database provides a comprehensive tool for computation of and pass/fail criteria specified in ASTM E 1996 [Ref. C6-61].
wind-induced response of tall buildings, suitable as a design guide Other approved test methods are acceptable. Origins of missile
in the preliminary stages. impact provisions contained in these standards are summarized
in [Refs. C6-62, C6-63].
Attention is made to Section 6.5.9.3, which requires glazing in
Example: An example tall building is used to demonstrate the
Category II, III, and IV buildings in wind-borne debris regions
analysis using the database. The building is a square steel tall
to be protected with an impact-resistant covering or to be impact
building with size H × W 1 × W 2 = 656 × 131 × 131 ft (200
resistant. The option of unprotected glazing was eliminated for
× 40 × 40 m) and an average radius of gyration of 59 ft (18 m).
most buildings in this edition of the standard to reduce the amount
of wind and water damage to buildings during design wind storm
The three fundamental mode frequencies, f 1 , are 0.2, 0.2, and events.
0.35 Hz in X, Y, and Z directions, respectively; the mode shapes
Prior to the 2002 edition of the standard, glazing in the lower
are all linear or β is equal to 1.0; and there is no modal coupling.
60 ft (18.3 m) of Category II, III, or IV buildings sited in wind-
The building density is equal to 0.485 slugs/ft3 (250 kg/m3 ). This
borne debris regions was required to be protected with an impact-
building is located in Exposure A or close to the BL2 test condition
resistant covering, or be impact resistant, or the area covered by
of the Internet-based database [C6-59]. In this location (Exposure
the glazing was assumed to be open. Recognizing that glazing
A), the reference 3-s design gust speed at a 50-year recurrence
higher than 60 ft (18.3 m) above grade may be broken by wind-
interval is 207 ft/s (63 m/s) [ASCE 2000], which is equal to 62 ft/s
borne debris when a debris source is present, a new provision was
(18.9 m/s) upon conversion to 1-h mean wind speed with 50-yr
added in 2002. With that new provision, aggregate surface roofs
MRI (207 × 0.30 = 62 m/s). For serviceability requirements, 1-h
on buildings within 1,500 ft (457 m) of the new building need to be
mean wind speed with 10-yr MRI is equal to 46 ft/s (14 m/s) (207
evaluated. For example, loose roof aggregate that is not protected
× 0.30 × 0.74 = 46). For the sake of illustration only, the first
by an extremely high parapet should be considered as a debris
mode critical structural damping ratio, ζ1 , is to be 0.01 for both
source. Accordingly, the glazing in the new building, from 30 ft
survivability and serviceability design.
(9.1 m) above the source building to grade would need to be pro-
Using these aerodynamic data and the procedures provided on tected or assumed to be open. If loose roof aggregate is proposed
the Web and in [Ref. C6-55], the wind load effects are evaluated for the new building, it too should be considered as a debris source
and the results are presented in Table C6-12. This table includes because aggregate can be blown off the roof and be propelled into
base moments and acceleration response in the along-wind direc- glazing on the leeward side of the building. Although other types
tion obtained by the procedure in ASCE 7-02. It can also be noted of wind-borne debris can impact glazing higher than 60 ft above
296 ASCE 7-05

P1: JsY
grade, at these high elevations, loose roof aggregate has been the new values require the designer to consider a zero or slightly
predominate debris source in previous wind events. The require- positive net wind pressure in the load combinations of Chapter 2.
ment for protection 30 ft (9.1 m) above the debris source is to
For low-rise buildings having a height less than or equal to 60 ft
account for debris that can be lifted during flight. The following
(18 m), however, the values of GC p f represent “pseudo” loading
references provide further information regarding debris damage
conditions that, when applied to the building, envelope the desired
to glazing: [Refs. C6-62, C6-64, C6-65, C6-66, C6-67].
structural actions (bending moment, shear, thrust) independent of
C6.5.10 Velocity Pressure. The basic wind speed is converted wind direction. To capture all appropriate structural actions, the
to a velocity pressure qz in lb/ft2 (newtons/m2 ) at height z by the building must be designed for all wind directions by considering
use of Eq. 6-15. in turn each corner of the building as the reference corner shown
in the sketches of Fig. 6-10. In ASCE 7-02, these sketches were
The constant 0.00256 (or 0.613 in SI) reflects the mass density modified in an attempt to clarify the proper application of the
of air for the standard atmosphere, that is, temperature of 59 ◦ F patterns. At each corner, two load patterns are applied, one for
(15 ◦ C) and sea level pressure of 29.92 in. of mercury (101.325 each MWFRS direction. The proper orientation of the load pattern
kPa), and dimensions associated with wind speed in mi/h (m/s). is with the end-zone strip parallel to the MWFRS direction. The
The constant is obtained as follows: end zone creates the required structural actions in the end frame
or bracing. Note also that for all roof slopes, all eight load cases
constant = 1/2[(0.0765 lb/ft3 )/(32.2 ft/s2 )] must be considered individually to determine the critical loading
for a given structural assemblage or component thereof. Special
×[(mi/h)(5, 280 ft/mi) attention should be given roof members, such as trusses, which
×(1 h/3, 600 s)]2 meet the definition of MWFRS, but are not part of the lateral
resisting system. When such members span at least from the eave
= 0.00256 to the ridge or support members spanning at least from eave to
ridge they are not required to be designed for the higher end zone
constant = 1/2[(1.225 kg/m3 )/(9.81 m/s2 )] loads under MWFRS. The interior zone loads should be applied.
×[(m/s)]2 [9.81 N/kg] = 0.613 This is due to the enveloped nature of the loads for roof members.
To develop the appropriate “pseudo” values of GC p f , inves-
tigators at the University of Western Ontario [Ref. C6-68] used
The numerical constant of 0.00256 should be used except where
an approach that consisted essentially of permitting the building
sufficient weather data are available to justify a different value of
model to rotate in the wind tunnel through a full 360◦ while si-
this constant for a specific design application. The mass density
multaneously monitoring the loading conditions on each of the
of air will vary as a function of altitude, latitude, temperature,
surfaces (see Fig. C6.5-6). Both Exposures B and C were consid-
weather, and season. Average and extreme values of air density
ered. Using influence coefficients for rigid frames, it was possible
are given in Table C6-13.
to spatially average and time average the surface pressures to as-
C6.5.11 Pressure and Force Coefficients. The pressure and certain the maximum induced external force components to be
force coefficients provided in Figs. 6-6 through 6-22 have been resisted. More specifically, the following structural actions were
assembled from the latest boundary-layer wind-tunnel and full- evaluated:
scale tests and from previously available literature. Because the 1. Total uplift.
boundary-layer wind-tunnel results were obtained for specific
types of building, such as low- or high-rise buildings and buildings 2. Total horizontal shear.
having specific types of structural framing systems, the designer 3. Bending moment at knees (two-hinged frame).
is cautioned against indiscriminate interchange of values among
the figures and tables. 4. Bending moment at knees (three-hinged frame).
5. Bending moment at ridge (two-hinged frame).
Loads on Main Wind-Force Resisting Systems: Figs. 6-6 and
6-10. The pressure coefficients for MWFRSs are separated into The next step involved developing sets of “pseudo” pressure
two categories: coefficients to generate loading conditions that would envelope
the maximum induced force components to be resisted for all
1. Buildings of all heights (Fig. 6-6). possible wind directions and exposures. Note, for example, that
2. Low-rise buildings having a height less than or equal to 60 the wind azimuth producing the maximum bending moment at the
ft (18 m) (Fig. 6-10). knee would not necessarily produce the maximum total uplift.
The maximum induced external force components determined
In generating these coefficients, two distinctly different ap- for each of the preceding five categories were used to develop the
proaches were used. For the pressure coefficients given in Fig. coefficients. The end result was a set of coefficients that represent
6-6, the more traditional approach was followed and the pressure fictitious loading conditions, but that conservatively envelope the
coefficients reflect the actual loading on each surface of the build- maximum induced force components (bending moment, shear,
ing as a function of wind direction; namely, winds perpendicular and thrust) to be resisted, independent of wind direction.
or parallel to the ridge line.
The original set of coefficients was generated for the fram-
Observations in wind tunnel tests show that areas of very low ing of conventional preengineered buildings, that is, single-story
negative pressure and even slightly positive pressure can occur in moment-resisting frames in one of the principal directions and
all roof structures, particularly as the distance from the windward bracing in the other principal direction. The approach was later
edge increases and the wind streams reattach to the surface. These extended to single-story moment-resisting frames with interior
pressures can occur even for relatively flat or low slope roof struc- columns [Ref. C6-69].
tures. Experience and judgment from wind tunnel studies have
been used to specify either zero or slightly negative pressures Subsequent wind tunnel studies [Ref. C6-70] have shown that
(−0.18) depending on the negative pressure coefficient. These the GC p f values of Fig. 6-10 are also applicable to low-rise

P1: JsY
buildings with structural systems other than moment-resisting intuition, and judgment. This suggested method is presented in
frames. That work examined the instantaneous wind pressures on Fig. C6-11.
a low-rise building with a 4:12 pitched gable roof and the result-
Recent research [Refs. C6-71, C6-72] indicates that in the past
ing wind-induced forces on its MWFRS. Two different MWFRSs
the low-rise method underestimated the amount of torsion caused
were evaluated. One consisted of shear walls and roof trusses at
by wind loads. In ASCE 7-02, Note 5 was added to Fig. 6-10 to
different spacings. The other had moment-resisting frames in one
account for this torsional effect. The reduction in loading on only
direction, positioned at the same spacings as the roof trusses, and
50 percent of the building results in a torsional load case with-
diagonal wind bracing in the other direction. Wind tunnel tests
out an increase in the predicted base shear for the building. The
were conducted for both Exposures B and C. The findings of this
provision will have little or no effect on the design of MWFRSs
study showed that the GC p f values of Fig. 6-10 provided satisfac-
that have well-distributed resistance. However, it will impact the
tory estimates of the wind forces for both types of structural sys-
design of systems with centralized resistance, such as a single
tems. This work confirms the validity of Fig. 6-10, which reflects
core in the center of the building. An illustration of the intent of
the combined action of wind pressures on different external sur-
the note on two of the eight load patterns is shown in Fig. 6-10.
faces of a building and thus takes advantage of spatial averaging.
All eight patterns should be modified in this way as a separate set
In the original wind tunnel experiments, both B and C exposure of load conditions in addition to the eight basic patterns.
terrains were checked. In these early experiments, Exposure B did
Internal pressure coefficients (GC pi ) to be used for loads on
not include nearby buildings. In general, the force components,
MWFRSs are given in Fig. 6-5. The internal pressure load can be
bending moments, and so forth were found comparable in both
critical in one-story moment-resisting frames and in the top story
exposures, although GC p f values associated with Exposure B
of a building where the MWFRS consists of moment-resisting
terrain would be higher than that for Exposure C terrain because
frames. Loading cases with positive and negative internal pres-
of reduced velocity pressure in Exposure B terrain. The GC p f
sures should be considered. The internal pressure load cancels
values given in Figs. 6-10 through 6-15 are derived from wind
out in the determination of total lateral load and base shear. The
tunnel studies modeled with Exposure C terrain. However, they
designer can use judgment in the use of internal pressure loading
may also be used in other exposures when the velocity pressure
for the MWFRS of high-rise buildings.
representing the appropriate exposure is used.
Fig. 6-7. Frame loads on dome roofs are adapted from the
In recent comprehensive wind tunnel studies conducted by
proposed Eurocode [Ref. C6-73]. The loads are based on data ob-
[Ref. C6-36] at the University of Western Ontario, it was de-
tained in a modeled atmospheric boundary-layer flow that does
termined that when low buildings (h < 60 ft) are embedded in
not fully comply with requirements for wind-tunnel testing spec-
suburban terrain (Exposure B, which included nearby buildings),
ified in this standard, Blessman [Ref. C6-74]. Loads for three
the pressures in most cases are lower than those currently used
domes (h D /D = 0.5, f /D = 0.5), (h D /D = 0, f /D = 0.5), and
in existing standards and codes, although the values show a very
(h D /D = 0, f /D = 0.33) are roughly consistent with data of Tay-
large scatter because of high turbulence and many variables. The
lor [Ref. C6-75] who used an atmospheric boundary layer as re-
results seem to indicate that some reduction in pressures for build-
quired in this standard. Two load cases are defined, one of which
ings located in Exposure B is justified. The Task Committee on
has a linear variation of pressure from A to B as in the Eurocode
Wind Loads believes it is desirable to design buildings for the ex-
[Ref. C6-73] and one in which the pressure at A is held constant
posure conditions consistent with the exposure designations de-
from 0◦ to 25◦ ; these two cases are based on comparison of the Eu-
fined in the standard. In the case of low buildings, the effect of the
rocode provisions with Taylor [Ref. C6-75]. Case A (the Eurocode
increased intensity of turbulence in rougher terrain (i.e., Exposure
calculation) is necessary in many cases to define maximum uplift.
A or B vs. C) increases the local pressure coefficients. In ASCE
Case B is necessary to properly define positive pressures for some
7-95 this effect was accounted for by allowing the designer of a
cases, which cannot be isolated with current information, and that
building situated in Exposure A or B to use the loads calculated as
result in maximum base shear. For domes larger than 200 ft in di-
if the building were located in Exposure C, but to reduce the loads
ameter the designer should consider use of Method 3. Resonant
by 15 percent. In ASCE 7-98 the effect of the increased turbulence
response is not considered in these provisions. Method 3 should
intensity on the loads is treated with the truncated profile. Using
be used to consider resonant response. Local bending moments in
this approach, the actual building exposure is used and the profile
the dome shell may be larger than predicted by this method due to
truncation corrects for the underestimate in the loads that would
the difference between instantaneous local pressure distributions
be obtained otherwise. The resulting wind loads on components
and that predicted by Fig. 6-7. If the dome is supported on vertical
and cladding obtained using this approach are much closer to the
walls directly below, it is appropriate to consider the walls as a
true values than those obtained using Exposure C loads combined
“chimney” using Fig. 6-19.
with a 15 percent reduction in the resulting pressures.
Fig. 6-10 is most appropriate for low buildings with width Loads on Components and Cladding. In developing the set of
greater than twice their height and a mean roof height that does not pressure coefficients applicable for the design of components and
exceed 33 ft (10 m). The original database included low buildings cladding as given in Figs. 6-11through 6-15 an envelope approach
with width no greater than five times their eave height, and eave was followed but using different methods than for the MWFRSs
height did not exceed 33 ft (10 m). In the absence of more appro- of Fig. 6-10. Because of the small effective area that may be in-
priate data, Fig. 6-10 may also be used for buildings with mean volved in the design of a particular component (consider, e.g.,
roof height that does not exceed the least horizontal dimension the effective area associated with the design of a fastener), the
and is less than or equal to 60 ft (18 m). Beyond these extended pointwise pressure fluctuations may be highly correlated over the
limits, Fig. 6-6 should be used. effective area of interest. Consider the local purlin loads shown
in Fig. C6-6. The approach involved spatial averaging and time
All the research used to develop and refine the low-rise averaging of the point pressures over the effective area transmit-
building method for MWFRS loads was done on gable-roofed ting loads to the purlin while the building model was permitted to
buildings. In the absence of research on hip-roofed build- rotate in the wind tunnel through 360◦ . As the induced localized
ings, the committee has developed a rational method of apply- pressures may also vary widely as a function of the specific lo-
ing Fig. 6-10 to hip roofs based on its collective experience, cation on the building, height above ground level, exposure, and
298 ASCE 7-05

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more importantly, local geometric discontinuities and location of on the basis of its location on the building and the effective area
the element relative to the boundaries in the building surfaces for the element. As recent research has shown [Refs. C6-80, C6-
(walls, roof lines), these factors were also enveloped in the wind 87], the pressure coefficients provided generally apply to facades
tunnel tests. Thus, for the pressure coefficients given in Figs. 6-11 with architectural features, such as balconies, ribs, and various
through 6-15, the directionality of the wind and influence of expo- facade textures.
sure have been removed and the surfaces of the building “zoned”
More recent studies [Refs. C6-88, C6-89, C6-90] have led to
to reflect an envelope of the peak pressures possible for a given
updating the roof slope range and the values of GC p included in
design application.
ASCE 7-02.
As indicated in the discussion for Fig. 6-10, the wind tunnel
Figs. 6-13 and 6-14A. These figures present values of GC p for
experiments checked both Exposure B and C terrains. Basically
the design of roof components and cladding for buildings with
GC p values associated with Exposure B terrain would be higher
multispan gable roofs and buildings with monoslope roofs. The
than that for Exposure C terrain because of reduced velocity pres-
coefficients are based on wind tunnel studies [Refs. C6-83, C6-91,
sure in Exposure B terrain. The GC p values given in Figs. 6-11
C6-92].
through 6-15 are associated with Exposure C terrain as obtained in
the wind tunnel. However, they may also be used for any exposure Fig. 6-14B. The values of GC p in this figure are for the design of
when the correct velocity pressure representing the appropriate roof components and cladding for buildings with sawtooth roofs
exposure is used (see Section C6.5.11). and mean roof height, h, less than or equal to 60 ft (18 m). Note
The wind tunnel studies conducted by [Ref. C6-33] determined that the coefficients for corner zones on segment A differ from
that when low buildings (h < 60 ft) are embedded in suburban those coefficients for corner zones on the segments designated as
terrain (Exposure B), the pressures on components and cladding B, C, and D. Also, when the roof angle is less than or equal to
in most cases are lower than those currently used in the standards 10◦ , values of GC p for regular gable roofs (Fig. 6-11B) are to be
and codes, although the values show a very large scatter because of used. The coefficients included in Fig. 6-14B are based on wind
high turbulence and many variables. The results seem to indicate tunnel studies reported by [Ref. C6-93].
that some reduction in pressures for components and cladding of Fig. 6-17. The pressure coefficients shown in this figure have
buildings located in Exposure B is justified. been revised to reflect the results obtained from comprehensive
The pressure coefficients given in Fig. 6-17 for buildings with wind tunnel studies carried out [Ref. C6-76]. In general, the loads
mean height greater than 60 ft were developed following a similar resulting from these coefficients are lower than those required by
approach, but the influence of exposure was not enveloped [Ref. ASCE 7-93. However, the area averaging effect for roofs is less
C6-76]. Therefore, exposure categories B, C, or D may be used pronounced when compared with the requirements of ASCE 7-93.
with the values of GC p in Fig. 6-8 as appropriate. The availability of more comprehensive wind tunnel data has also
allowed a simplification of the zoning for pressure coefficients, flat
roofs are now divided into three zones, and walls are represented
Fig. 6-11. The pressure coefficient values provided in this figure by two zones.
are to be used for buildings with a mean roof height of 60 ft (18
m) or less. The values were obtained from wind-tunnel tests con- The external pressure coefficients and zones given in Fig. 6-17
ducted at the University of Western Ontario [Refs. C6-77, C6- were established by wind tunnel tests on isolated “box-like” build-
68], at the James Cook University of North Queensland [Ref. C6- ings [Refs. C6-25, C6-94]. Boundary-layer wind-tunnel tests on
78], and at Concordia University [Refs. C6-79, C6-80, C6-81, C6- high-rise buildings (mostly in downtown city centers) show that
82, C6-83]. These coefficients have been refined to reflect results variations in pressure coefficients and the distribution of pressure
of full-scale tests conducted by the National Bureau of Standards on the different building facades are obtained [Ref. C6-95]. These
[Ref. C6-84] and the Building Research Station, England [Ref. variations are due to building geometry, low attached buildings,
C6-85]. Pressure coefficients for hemispherical domes on ground nonrectangular cross-sections, setbacks, and sloping surfaces. In
or on cylindrical structures have been reported [Ref. C6-86]. Some addition, surrounding buildings contribute to the variations in
of the characteristics of the values in the figure are as follows: pressure. Wind tunnel tests indicate that pressure coefficients are
not distributed symmetrically and can give rise to torsional wind
1. The values are combined values of GC p. The gust effect loading on the building.
factors from these values should not be separated.
Boundary-layer wind-tunnel tests that include modeling of sur-
2. The velocity pressure qh evaluated at mean roof height rounding buildings permit the establishment of more exact mag-
should be used with all values of GC p. nitudes and distributions of GC p for buildings that are not isolated
3. The values provided in the figure represent the upper bounds or “box-like” in shape.
of the most severe values for any wind direction. The re- Fig. 6-16. This figure for cladding pressures on dome roofs is
duced probability that the design wind speed may not occur based on Taylor [Ref. C6-75]. Negative pressures are to be applied
in the particular direction for which the worst pressure coef- to the entire surface, because they apply along the full arc that is
ficient is recorded has not been included in the values shown perpendicular to the wind direction and that passes through the
in the figure. top of the dome. Users are cautioned that only three shapes were
4. The wind-tunnel values, as measured, were based on the available to define values in this figure (h D /D = 0.5, f /D = 0.5;
mean hourly wind speed. The values provided in the figures h D /D = 0.0, f /D = 0.5; and h D /D = 0.0, f /d = 0.33).
are the measured values divided by (1.53)2 (see Fig. C6-4)
Figs. 6-8, 6-18, 6-19, 6-21, and 6-22. With the exception of Fig.
to reflect the reduced pressure coefficient values associated
6.22, the pressure and force coefficient values in these tables are
with a 3-s gust speed.
unchanged from ANSI A58.1-1972 and 1982, and ASCE 7-88
Each component and cladding element should be designed for and 7-93. The coefficients specified in these tables are based
the maximum positive and negative pressures (including applica- on windtunnel tests conducted under conditions of uniform flow
ble internal pressures) acting on it. The pressure coefficient values and low turbulence, and their validity in turbulent boundary-layer
should be determined for each component and cladding element flows has yet to be completely established. Additional pressure

P1: JsY
coefficients for conditions not specified herein may be found in The 0.85 term in the denominator modifies the wind tunnel-
two references [Refs. C6-96, C6-97]. With regard to Fig. 6-19, derived force coefficients into a format where the gust effect factor
local maximum and minimum peak pressure coefficients for cylin- as defined in Section 6.5.8 can be used.
drical structures with h/D < 2 are GC p = 1.1 and GC p = −1.1,
Force coefficients for Cases A and B were generated from the
respectively, for Reynolds numbers ranging from 1.1 × 105 to 3.1 preceding equation, then rounded off to the nearest 0.05. That
× 105 [Ref. C6-98]. The latter results have been obtained under equation is only valid within the range of B/s and s/h ratios given
correctly simulated boundary-layer flow conditions. in the figure for Case A and B.
With regard to Fig. 6-22, the force coefficients are a refine- Of all the pertinent studies, only Letchford [Ref. C6-100]
ment of the coefficients specified in ANSI A58.1-1982 and in specifically addressed eccentricity (i.e., Case B). Letchford re-
ASCE 7-93. The force coefficients specified are offered as a sim- ported that his data provided a reasonable match to Cook’s [Ref.
plified procedure that may be used for trussed towers and are C6-107] recommendation for using an eccentricity of 0.25 times
consistent with force coefficients given in ANSI/EIA/TIA-222- the average width of the sign. However, the data was too limited
E-1991, Structural Standards for Steel Antenna Towers and An- in scope to justify changing the existing eccentricity value of 0.2
tenna Supporting Structures, and force coefficients recommended times the average width of the sign, which is also used in the latest
by Working Group No. 4 (Recommendations for Guyed Masts), Australian/New Zealand Standard [Ref. C6-108].
International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (1981).
Case C was added to account for the higher pressures observed
It is not the intent of this standard to exclude the use of other in both wind tunnel [Refs. C6-100 through C-106] and full-scale
recognized literature for the design of special structures, such as studies [Ref. C6-109] near the windward edge of a freestand-
transmission and telecommunications towers. Recommendations ing wall or sign for oblique wind directions. Linear regression
for wind loads on tower guys are not provided as in previous edi- equations were fit to the local mean net pressure coefficient data
tions of the standard. Recognized literature should be referenced (for wind direction 45◦ ) from the referenced wind tunnel studies
for the design of these special structures as is noted in Section to generate force coefficients for square regions starting at the
C6.4.2.1. For the design of flagpoles, see ANSI/NAAMM windward edge. Pressures near this edge increase significantly as
FP1001-97, 4th Ed., Guide Specifications for Design of Metal the length of the structure increases. No data was available on
Flagpoles. the spatial distribution of pressures for structures with low aspect
ASCE 7-05 requires the use of Fig. 6-21 for the determination ratios (B/s < 2).
of the wind force on small structures and equipment located on a The sample illustration for Case C at the top of Fig. 6-20 is for
rooftop. Because of the small size of the structures in comparison a sign with an aspect ratio B/s = 4. For signs of differing B/s ratios
to the building, it is expected that the wind force will be higher than the number of regions is equal to the number of force coefficient
predicted by Eq. 6-25 due to higher correlation of pressures across entries located below each B/s column heading.
the structure surface, higher turbulence on the building roof, and
accelerated wind speed on the roof. There is now a very limited For oblique wind directions (Case C), increased force coeffi-
amount of research to provide better guidance for the increased cients have been observed on above-ground signs compared to
force [Ref. C6-99]. Based on this research, the force of Eq. 6-25 same aspect ratio walls on ground [Refs. C6-100, C6-103, C6-
should be increased by a factor of 1.9 for units with area less than 105]. The ratio of force coefficients between above-ground and
(0.1 Bh). Because the multiplier is expected to approach 1.0 as on-ground signs (i.e., s/h = 0.8 and 1.0, respectively) is 1.25,
A f approaches that of the building (Bh), a linear interpolation is which is the same ratio used in the Australian/New Zealand Stan-
included as a way to avoid a step function in load if the designer dard [Ref. C6-108]. Note 4 of Fig. 6-20 provides for linear inter-
wants to treat other sizes. The research only treated one value of polation between these two cases.
A f (0.04 Bh). For walls and signs on ground (s/h = 1), the mean vertical center
The research also showed high uplifts on the top of rooftop air of pressure ranged from 0.5h to 0.6h [Refs. C6-101, C6-104,
conditioning units, although the net uplift on the units was not C6-105, C6-110, C6-111, C6-112] with 0.55h being the average
measured. The consensus of the committee is that uplift forces value. For above-ground walls and signs, the geometric center
may be a significant fraction of the horizontal force. Hence uplift best represents the expected vertical center of pressure.
load should also be considered by the designer. The reduction in C f due to porosity (Note 2) follows a recom-
mendation [Ref. C6-100]. Both wind tunnel and full-scale data
have shown that return corners significantly reduce the net pres-
Fig. 6-20 The force coefficients for solid freestanding walls and sures in the region near the windward edge of the wall or sign
signs in Fig. 6-20 of ASCE 7-02 date back to ANSI A58.1-1972. [Ref. C6-102].
It was shown by Letchford [Ref. C6-100] that this data originated
from wind tunnel studies performed by Flachsbart in the early C6.5.11.1 Internal Pressure Coefficients. .5 The internal pres-
1930s in smooth uniform flow. The current values in Fig. 6-20 sure coefficient values in Fig. 6-5 were obtained from wind tunnel
are based on the results of boundary layer wind tunnel studies tests [Ref. C6-113] and full-scale data [Ref. C6-114]. Even though
[Refs. C6-100, C6-101, C6-102, C6-103, C6-104, C6-105, C6- the wind tunnel tests were conducted primarily for low-rise build-
106]. ings, the internal pressure coefficient values are assumed to be
A surface curve fit to Letchford’s [Ref. C6-100] and Holmes’ valid for buildings of any height. The values GC pi = +0.18 and
[Ref. C6-104] area averaged mean net pressure coefficient data −0.18 are for enclosed buildings. It is assumed that the building
(equivalent to mean force coefficients in this case) is given by the has no dominant opening or openings and that the small leak-
following equation: age paths that do exist are essentially uniformly distributed over
the building’s envelope. The internal pressure coefficient values
C f = {1.563+0.008542ln(x) − 0.06148y + 0.009011[ln(x)]2 for partially enclosed buildings assume that the building has a
− 0.2603y2 − 0.08393y[ln(x)]}/0.85 where x = B/s and dominant opening or openings. For such a building, the internal
y = s/ h. pressure is dictated by the exterior pressure at the opening and is
300 ASCE 7-05

P1: JsY
typically increased substantially as a result. Net loads, that is, the the positive wall pressure on its front surface (exterior side of the
combination of the internal and exterior pressures, are therefore building) and the negative roof edge zone pressure on its back
also significantly increased on the building surfaces that do not surface (roof side). This behavior is based on the concept that the
contain the opening. Therefore, higher GC pi values of +0.55 and zone of suction caused by the wind stream separation at the roof
−0.55 are applicable to this case. These values include a reduction eave moves up to the top of the parapet when one is present. Thus
factor to account for the lack of perfect correlation between the the same suction that acts on the roof edge will also act on the
internal pressure and the external pressures on the building sur- back of the parapet.
faces not containing the opening [Refs. C6-115, C6-116]. Taken
The leeward parapet will experience a positive wall pressure
in isolation, the internal pressure coefficients can reach values of
on its back surface (roof side) and a negative wall pressure on
±0.8 (or possibly even higher on the negative side).
its front surface (exterior side of building). There should be no
For partially enclosed buildings containing a large unparti- reduction in the positive wall pressure to the leeward parapet due
tioned space, the response time of the internal pressure is in- to shielding by the windward parapet because, typically, they are
creased and this reduces the ability of the internal pressure to re- too far apart to experience this effect. Because all parapets would
spond to rapid changes in pressure at an opening. The gust factor be designed for all wind directions, each parapet would in turn
applicable to the internal pressure is therefore reduced. Equation be the windward and leeward parapet and, therefore, must be
6-14, which is based on [Refs. C6-117, C6-118], is provided as designed for both sets of pressures.
a means of adjusting the gust factor for this effect on structures
For the design of the MWFRS, the pressures used describe
with large internal spaces, such as stadiums and arenas.
the contribution of the parapet to the overall wind loads on that
Because of the nature of hurricane winds and exposure to debris system. For simplicity, the front and back pressures on the para-
hazards [Ref. C6-29], glazing located below 60 ft (18.3 m) above pet have been combined into one coefficient for MWFRS design.
the ground level of buildings sited in wind-borne debris regions The designer should not typically need the separate front and back
has a widely varying and comparatively higher vulnerability to pressures for MWFRS design. The internal pressures inside the
breakage from missiles, unless the glazing can withstand reason- parapet cancel out in the determination of the combined coef-
able missile loads and subsequent wind loading, or the glazing ficient. The summation of these external and internal, front and
is protected by suitable shutters. (See Section C6.5.9 for discus- back pressure coefficients is a new term GC pn , the Combined Net
sion of glazing above 60 ft [18.3 m].) When glazing is breached Pressure Coefficient for a parapet.
by missiles, development of higher internal pressure may result,
For the design of the components and cladding a similar ap-
which can overload the cladding or structure if the higher pres-
proach was used. However, it is not possible to simplify the co-
sure was not accounted for in the design. Breaching of glazing
efficients due to the increased complexity of the components and
can also result in a significant amount of water infiltration, which
cladding pressure coefficients. In addition, the front and back
typically results in considerable damage to the building and its
pressures are not combined because the designer may be design-
contents [Refs. C6-119, C6-120, C6-121].
ing separate elements on each face of the parapet. The internal
If the option of designing for higher internal pressure (vs. de- pressure is required to determine the net pressures on the wind-
signing glazing protection) is selected, it should be realized that if ward and leeward surfaces of the parapet. The provisions guide
glazing is breached, significant damage from overpressurization the designer to the correct GC p and velocity pressure to use for
to interior partitions and ceilings is likely. The influence of com- each surface as illustrated in Fig. C6-12.
partmentalization on the distribution of increased internal pres-
Interior walls that protrude through the roof, such as party walls
sure has not been researched. If the space behind breached glazing
and fire walls, should be designed as windward parapets for both
is separated from the remainder of the building by a sufficiently
MWFRS and components and cladding.
strong and reasonably airtight compartment, the increased internal
pressure would likely be confined to that compartment. However, The internal pressure that may be present inside a parapet is
if the compartment is breached (e.g., by an open corridor door highly dependent on the porosity of the parapet envelope. In other
or by collapse of the compartment wall), the increased internal words, it depends on the likelihood of the wall surface materials
pressure will spread beyond the initial compartment quite rapidly. to leak air pressure into the internal cavities of the parapet. For
The next compartment may contain the higher pressure, or it too solid parapets, such as concrete or masonry, the internal pressure
could be breached, thereby allowing the high internal pressure to is zero because there is no internal cavity. Certain wall materials
continue to propagate. may be impervious to air leakage, and as such have little or no
internal pressure or suction, so using the value of GC pi for an
Because of the great amount of air leakage that often occurs at
enclosed building may be appropriate. However, certain materi-
large hangar doors, designers of hangars should consider utilizing
als and systems used to construct parapets containing cavities are
the internal pressure coefficients for partially enclosed buildings
more porous, thus justifying the use of the GC pi values for par-
in Fig. 6-5.
tially enclosed buildings, or higher. Another factor in the internal
C6.5.11.5 Parapets. Prior to the 2002 edition of the standard, pressure determination is whether the parapet cavity connects to
no provisions for the design of parapets had been included due to the internal space of the building, allowing the building’s internal
the lack of direct research. In the 2002 edition of this standard, pressure to propagate into the parapet. Selection of the appro-
a rational method was added based on the committee’s collec- priate internal pressure coefficient is left to the judgment of the
tive experience, intuition, and judgment. In the 2005 edition, the design professional.
parapet provisions have been updated as a result of research per-
formed at the University of Western Ontario [Ref. C6-122] and C6.5.12 Design Wind Loads on Enclosed and Partially En-
at Concordia University [Refs. C6-123, C6-124]. closed Buildings. The standard provides specific wind pressure
equations for both the MWFRSs and components and cladding.
Wind pressures on a parapet are a combination of wall and roof
pressures, depending on the location of the parapet, and the direc- In Eqs. 6-17, 6-19, and 6-23 a new velocity pressure term
tion of the wind (Fig. C6-9). A windward parapet will experience “qi ” appears that is defined as the “velocity pressure for internal

P1: JsY
pressure determination.” The positive internal pressure is dictated buildings. The effects of torsion can more accurately be deter-
by the positive exterior pressure on the windward face at the point mined for these cases and for the more normal building shapes
where there is an opening. The positive exterior pressure at the using the wind tunnel procedure.
opening is governed by the value of q at the level of the opening,
not qh . Therefore the old provision that used qh as the velocity C6.5.13 Design Wind Loads on Open Buildings with Monos-
pressure is not in accord with the physics of the situation. For low lope, Pitched, or Troughed Roofs. New Figs. 6-18 and 6-19
buildings this does not make much difference, but for the example are presented for wind loads on MWFRSs and components and
of a 300 ft tall building in Exposure B with a highest opening at cladding of open buildings with roofs as shown, respectively. This
60 ft, the difference between q300 and q60 represents a 59 percent work is based on the Australian Standard AS1170.2-2000, Part 2:
increase in internal pressure. This is unrealistic and represents Wind Actions, with modifications to the MWFRS pressure coef-
an unnecessary degree of conservatism. Accordingly, qi = qz for ficients based on recent studies [C6-127 and C6-128].
positive internal pressure evaluation in partially enclosed build-
ings where height z is defined as the level of the highest opening The roof wind loading on open building roofs is highly de-
in the building that could affect the positive internal pressure. For pendent upon whether goods or materials are stored under the
buildings sited in wind-borne debris regions, glazing that is not roof and restrict the wind flow. Restricting the flow can intro-
impact resistant or protected with an impact-resistant covering, duce substantial upward-acting pressures on the bottom surface
qi should be treated as an opening. For positive internal pres- of the roof, thus increasing the resultant uplift load on the roof.
sure evaluation, qi may conservatively be evaluated at height h Figs. 6-18 and 6-19 offer the designer two options. Option 1 (clear
(qi = qh ). wind flow) implies little (less than 50 percent) or no portion of
the cross-section below the roof is blocked. Option 2 (obstructed
C6.5.12.3 Design Wind Load Cases. Recent wind tunnel re- wind flow) implies that a significant portion (more than 75 per-
search [Refs. C6-71, C6-72, C6-125, C6-126] has shown that tor- cent is typically referenced in the literature) of the cross-section
sional load requirements of Fig. 6-9 in ASCE 7-98 often grossly is blocked by goods or materials below the roof. Clearly, values
underestimate the true torsion on a building under wind, includ- would change from one set of coefficients to the other following
ing those that are symmetric in geometric form and stiffness. This some sort of smooth, but as yet unknown relationship. In de-
torsion is caused by nonuniform pressure on the different faces veloping the provisions included in this standard, the 50 percent
of the building from wind flow around the building, interference blockage value was selected for Option 1, with the expectation
effects of nearby buildings and terrain, and by dynamic effects that it represents a somewhat conservative transition. If the de-
on more flexible buildings. The revision to Load Cases 2 and 4 signer is not clear about usage of the space below the roof or if
in Fig. 6-9 increases the torsional loading to 15 percent eccen- the usage could change to restrict free air flow, then design loads
tricity under 75 percent of the maximum wind shear for Load for both options should be used.
Case 2 (from the ASCE 7-98 value of 3.625 percent eccentricity In determining loads on component and cladding elements for
at 87.5 percent of maximum shear). Although this is more in line open building roofs using Fig. 6-19, it is important for the de-
with wind tunnel experience on square and rectangular buildings signer to note that the net pressure coefficient C N is based on
with aspect ratios up to about 2.5, it may not cover all cases, even contributions from the top and bottom surfaces of the roof. This
for symmetric and common building shapes where larger torsions implies that the element receives load from both surfaces. Such
have been observed. For example, wind tunnel studies often show would not be the case if the surface below the roof was separated
an eccentricity of 5 percent or more under full (not reduced) base structurally from the top roof surface. In this case, the pressure
shear. The designer may wish to apply this level of eccentricity at coefficient should be separated for the effect of top and bottom
full wind loading for certain more critical buildings even though pressures, or conservatively, each surface could be designed using
it is not required by the standard. The present more moderate tor- the C N value from Fig. 6-19.
sional load requirements can in part be justified by the fact that
the design wind forces tend to be upper-bound for most common
building shapes.
C6.6 METHOD 3—WIND-TUNNEL PROCEDURE
In buildings with some structural systems, more severe load-
Wind tunnel testing is specified when a structure contains any of
ing can occur when the resultant wind load acts diagonally to the
the characteristics defined in Section 6.5.2 or when the designer
building. To account for this effect and the fact that many build-
wishes to more accurately determine the wind loads. For some
ings exhibit maximum response in the across-wind direction (the
building shapes wind tunnel testing can reduce the conservatism
standard currently has no analytical procedure for this case), a
due to enveloping of wind loads inherent in Methods 1 and 2. Also,
structure should be capable of resisting 75 percent of the design
wind tunnel testing accounts for shielding or channeling and can
wind load applied simultaneously along each principal axis as
more accurately determine wind loads for a complex building
required by Case 3 in Fig. 6-9.
shape than Methods 1 and 2. It is the intent of the standard that
For flexible buildings, dynamic effects can increase torsional any building or other structure be allowed to use the wind tunnel
loading. Additional torsional loading can occur because of eccen- testing method to determine wind loads. Requirements for proper
tricity between the elastic shear center and the center of mass at testing are given in Section 6.6.2.
each level of the structure. The new Eq. 6-21 accounts for this
Wind tunnel tests are recommended when the building or other
effect.
structure under consideration satisfies one or more of the follow-
It is important to note that significant torsion can occur on lowing conditions:
rise buildings also [Ref. C6-72] and, therefore, the wind loading
1. Has a shape which differs significantly from a uniform rect-
requirements of Section 6.5.12.3 are now applicable to buildings
angular prism or “box-like” shape.
of all heights.
2. Is flexible with natural frequencies normally below 1 Hz.
As discussed in Section 6.6, the wind tunnel Method 3 should
always be considered for buildings with unusual shapes, rectangu- 3. Is subject to buffeting by the wake of upwind buildings or
lar buildings with larger aspect ratios, and dynamically sensitive other structures.
302 ASCE 7-05

P1: JsY
4. Is subject to accelerated flow caused by channeling or local unless specific testing is performed to show that it is the aero-
topographic features. dynamic coefficient of the building, rather than shielding from
nearby structures, that is responsible for the lower values. The
It is common practice to resort to wind tunnel tests when design
80 percent limit may be adjusted by the ratio of the frame load
data are required for the following wind-induced loads:
at critical wind directions as determined from wind tunnel test-
1. Curtain wall pressures resulting from irregular geometry. ing without specific adjacent buildings, but including appropriate
2. Across-wind and/or torsional loads. upwind roughness, to that determined by Section 6.5.
3. Periodic loads caused by vortex shedding. Lower Limit on Pressures for Components and Cladding. The
design pressures for components and cladding on walls or roofs
4. Loads resulting from instabilities, such as flutter or gallop- shall be selected as the greater of the wind tunnel test results or
ing. 80 percent of the pressure obtained for Zone 4 for walls and Zone
Boundary-layer wind tunnels capable of developing flows that 1 for roofs as determined in Section 6.5, unless specific testing
meet the conditions stipulated in Section 6.4.3.1 typically have is performed to show that it is the aerodynamic coefficient of
test-section dimensions in the following ranges; width of 6 to 12 ft the building, rather than shielding from nearby structures, that is
(2 to 4 m), height of 6 to 10 ft (2 to 3 m), and length of 50 to100 ft responsible for the lower values. Alternatively, limited tests at a
(15 to 30 m). Maximum wind speeds are ordinarily in the range few wind directions without specific adjacent buildings, but in
of 25 to 100 mi/h (10 to 45 m/s). The wind tunnel may be either the presence of an appropriate upwind roughness, may be used to
an open-circuit or closed-circuit type. demonstrate that the lower pressures are due to the shape of the
building and not to shielding.
Three basic types of wind-tunnel test models are commonly
used. These are designated as follows: (1) rigid Pressure Model
(PM), (2) rigid high-frequency base balance model (H-FBBM), REFERENCES
and (3) Aeroelastic Model (AM). One or more of the models may
be employed to obtain design loads for a particular building or [Ref. C6-1] Mehta, K. C., and Marshall, R. D. (1998). “Guide to the use of
the wind load provisions of ASCE 7-95.” Wind Design Guide. ASCE Press,
structure. The PM provides local peak pressures for design of ele- Reston, VA.
ments, such as cladding and mean pressures, for the determination [Ref. C6-2] Cheung, J. C. J., and Melbourne, W.H. (1986). “Wind loadings
of overall mean loads. The H-FBBM measures overall fluctuating on porous cladding.” Proc. 9th Australian Conference on Fluid Mechanics,
loads (aerodynamic admittance) for the determination of dynamic p. 308.
responses. When motion of a building or structure influences the [Ref. C6-3] Haig, J. R. (June 1990). “Wind Loads on Tiles for USA.” Redland
wind loading, the AM is employed for direct measurement of Technology Limited, Horsham, West Sussex, England.
[Ref. C6-4] (1994). Standard Building Code, Southern Building Code
overall loads, deflections, and accelerations. Each of these mod- Congress International.
els, together with a model of the surroundings (proximity model), [Ref. C6-5] Peterka, J. A., Cermak, J. E., Cochran, L. S., Cochran, B. C.,
can provide information other than wind loads, such as snow loads Hosoya, N., et al. (1997). “Wind uplift model for asphalt shingles.” Journal
on complex roofs, wind data to evaluate environmental impact on of Architectural Engineering Dec: 147–155.
pedestrians, and concentrations of air-pollutant emissions for en- [Ref. C6-6] Vickery, P. J., Skerlj, P. S., Steckley, A. C., and Twisdale, L. A.
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ington, DC. Wind Engineering, Toronto, Ontario. Ref. C6-58 Womble, J. A.,
Isyumov, N. (1982). The aeroelastic modeling of tall buildings. Yeatts, B. B., and Mehta, K. C. (1995). Internal wind pressures
In Proceedings of the International Workshop on Wind Tunnel in a full and small scale building. In Proceedings of the Ninth In-
Modeling Criteria and Techniques in Civil Engineering Applica- ternational Conference on Wind Engineering. New Delhi, India:
tions. Ed. T. Reinhold Gaithersburg, MD: Cambridge University Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Press, pp. 373–407. Womble, J. A., Yeatts, B. B., and Mehta, K. C. (1995). Internal
Jeary, A. P., and Ellis, B. R. (1983). On predicting the response wind pressures in a full and small scale building. In Proceedings
of tall buildings to wind excitation. Journal of Wind Engineering of the Ninth International Conference on Wind Engineering. New
and Industrial Aerodynamics, 13, 173–182. Delhi, India: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Kijewski, T. and Kareem, A. (1998). Dynamic wind effects: Zhou, Y., Kareem, A., and Gu, M., (2000). Equivalent static
A comparative study of provisions in codes and standards with buffeting wind loads on structures. J. Struct. Engrg. (ASCE),
wind tunnel data. Wind and Structures, An International Journal, 126(8).
1(1), 77–109. Zhou, Y., Kijewski, T., and Kareem, A. (2003). Aerodynamic
Perry, D. C., Stubbs, N., and Graham, C. W. (1993). Responsi- loads on tall buildings: An interactive database. J. Struct. Engrg.
bility of architectural and engineering communities in reducing (ASCE), 129(3), 394–404.
306 ASCE 7-05

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FIGURE C6-1 APPLICATION OF MINIMUM WIND LOAD
2 d2
Center of 3
L
Rigidity
d4
4
1
d1 d3
Plan View
Wind
FIGURE C6-2 METHOD 1 MWFRS CHECK FOR TORSIONAL SENSITIVITY
FIGURE C6-3 DETERMINATION OF WIND LOADS FROM DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS

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FIGURE C6-4 MAXIMUM SPEED AVERAGED OVER ts TO HOURLY MEANS SPEED
FIGURE C6-5 TORNADIC GUST WIND SPEED CORRESPONDING TO ANNUAL PROBABILITY OF 105 (MEAN RECURRENCE
INTERVAL OF 100,000 YEARS) (FROM ANSI/ANS 1983)
308 ASCE 7-05

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FIGURE C6-6 UNSTEADY WIND LOADS ON LOW BUILDINGS FOR GIVEN WIND DIRECTION
(AFTER REFERENCE [C6-68])

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FIGURE C6-7 DEFINITION OF EXPOSURE B
FIGURE C6-8 EXPOSURE B WITH UPWIND OPEN PATCHES
310 ASCE 7-05

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FIGURE C6-9 EXPOSURE B WITH OPEN PATCHES

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1000
Exp. C, x=0 mile
height above grade, ft
x=0.05 mile
x=0.2mile
100
x=0.5 mile
Transition from
Z0=0.066 ft to 1 ft x=1 mile
10 Exp. B
0.6 1.0 1.4 1.8

Kz
FIGURE C6-10 TRANSITION FROM TERRAIN ROUGHNESS C TO TERRAIN

ROUGHNESS B, EQ. C6-9B.
FIGURE C6-11 HIP ROOFED LOW-RISE BUILDINGS
312 ASCE 7-05

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FIGURE C6-12 DESIGN WIND PRESSURES ON PARAPETS

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TABLE C6-1 SAFFIR/SIMPSON HURRICANE SCALE

Hurricane Category Sustained Wind Speeda Central Barometric Pressure Storm Surge Damage
mph (m/s) inches of mercury millibars ft (m) Potential
1 74–95 33.1–42.5 >28.91 > 979 4 to 5 0.8 to 1.2 Minimal
2 96–110 42.6–49.2 28.50–28.91 965–979 6 to 8 1.3 to 1.8 Moderate
3 111–130 49.3–58.1 27.91–28.47 945–964 9 to 12 1.9 to 2.7 Extensive
4 131–155 58.2–69.3 27.17–27.88 920–944 13 to 18 2.8 to 3.7 Extreme
5 >155 > 69.3 <27.17 <920 >18 >3.7 Catastrophic
1000 millibars = 100 kPa
a 1-min average wind speed at 33 ft (10 m) above open water
TABLE C6-2 APPROXIMATE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WIND SPEEDS IN ASCE 7 AND

SAFFIR/SIMPSON HURRICANE SCALE
Saffir/Simpson Sustained Wind Speed Over Watera Gust Wind Speed Over Waterb Gust Wind Speed Over Landc
Hurricane Category mph (m/s) mph (m/s) mph (m/s)
1 74–95 33.1–42.5 91–116 40.7–51.9 82–108 36.7–48.3
2 96–110 42.6–49.2 117–140 52.0–62.6 109–130 48.4–58.1
3 111–130 49.3–58.1 141–165 62.7–73.8 131–156 58.2–69.7
4 131–155 58.2–69.3 166–195 73.9–87.2 157–191 69.8–85.4
5 > 155 > 69.3 > 195 > 87.2 > 191 > 85.4
a 1-minute average wind speed at 33 ft (10 m) above open water
b 3-second gust wind speed at 33 ft (10 m) above open water
c 3-second gust wind speed at 33 ft (10 m) above open ground in Exposure Category C. This column has the same basis
(averaging time, height, and exposure) as the basic wind speed from Fig. 6-1.
314 ASCE 7-05

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TABLE C6-3 DESIGN WIND SPEEDS AT SELECTED COASTAL LOCATIONS IN HURRICANE-PRONE AREAS
√
Location Basic Wind Speed from Fig. 6-1 1.6 × Basic Wind Speed
mph (m/s) mph (m/s)
Bar Harbor, Maine 97 43.4 123 55.0
Hampton Beach, New Hampshire 102 45.6 129 57.7
Boston, Massachusetts 106 47.4 134 59.9
Hyannis, Massachusetts 117 52.3 148 66.2
Newport, Rhode Island 117 52.3 148 66.2
New Haven, Connecticut 112 50.1 142 63.5
Southhampton, New York 120 53.6 152 67.9
Brooklyn, New York 116 51.9 147 65.7
Atlantic City, New Jersey 114 51.0 144 64.4
Bowers Beach, Delaware 98 43.8 124 55.4
Ocean City, Maryland 117 52.3 148 66.2
Virginia Beach, Virginia 114 51.0 144 64.4
Wrightsville Beach, North Carolina 132 59.0 167 74.6
Folly Beach, South Carolina 131 58.6 166 74.2
Sea Island, Georgia 120 53.6 152 67.9
Jacksonville Beach, Florida 120 53.6 152 67.9
Melbourne, Florida 129 57.7 163 72.9
Miami Beach, Florida 145 64.8 183 81.8
Key West, Florida 150 67.1 190 84.9
Clearwater, Florida 128 57.2 162 72.4
Panama City, Florida 129 57.7 163 72.9
Gulf Shores, Alabama 141 63.0 178 79.6
Biloxi, Mississipi 138 61.7 175 78.2
Slidell, Louisiana 125 55.9 158 70.6
Cameron, Louisiana 124 55.4 157 70.2
Galveston, Texas 131 58.6 166 74.2
Port Aransas, Texas 134 59.9 169 75.5
Hawaii 105 46.9 133 59.5
Puerto Rico 145 64.8 183 81.8
Virgin Islands 145 64.8 183 81.8
Note: All wind speeds in Table C6-3 are 3-s gust wind speeds at 33 ft (10 m) above open terrain.

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Saffir/Simpson Hurricane Category

Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4 Category 5
Bar Harbor, Maine
Hampton Beach, New Hampshire
Boston, Massachusetts
Hyannis, Massachusetts
Newport, Rhode Island
New Haven, Connecticut
Southampton, New York
Brooklyn, New York
Atlantic City, New Jersey
Bowers Beach, Delaware
Ocean City, Maryland
Virginia Beach, Virginia
Wrightsville Beach, North Carolina
Folley Beach, South Carolina
Sea Island, Georgia
Jacksonville Beach, Florida
Melbourne, Florida
Miami Beach, Florida
Key West, Florida
Clearwater, Florida
Panama City, Florida
Gulf Shores, Alabama
Biloxi, Mississippi
Slidell, Louisiana
Cameron, Louisiana
Galveston, Texas
Port Aransas, Texas
Hawaii
Puerto Rico
Virgin Islands
82 108 130 156 191

(36.7) (48.3) (58.1) (69.7) (85.4)
Wind Speed, mph (m/s)
Note: All wind speeds in Table C6-4 are 3-second gust wind speeds at 33 ft (10 m) above open
terrain
TABLE C6-4 BASIC WIND SPEED AT SELECTED COASTAL LOCATIONS IN HURRICANE-PRONE AREAS
316 ASCE 7-05

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Saffir/Simpson Hurricane Category

Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4 Category 5
Bar Harbor, Maine
Hampton Beach, New Hampshire
Boston, Massachusetts
Hyannis, Massachusetts
Newport, Rhode Island
New Haven, Connecticut
Southampton, New York
Brooklyn, New York
Atlantic City, New Jersey
Bowers Beach, Delaware
Ocean City, Maryland
Virginia Beach, Virginia
Wrightsville Beach, North Carolina
Folley Beach, South Carolina
Sea Island, Georgia
Jacksonville Beach, Florida
Melbourne, Florida
Miami Beach, Florida
Key West, Florida
Clearwater, Florida
Panama City, Florida
Gulf Shores, Alabama
Biloxi, Mississippi
Slidell, Louisiana
Cameron, Louisiana
Galveston, Texas
Port Aransas, Texas
Hawaii
Puerto Rico
Virgin Islands
82 108 130 156 191

(36.7) (48.3) (58.1) (69.7) (85.4)
Wind Speed, mph (m/s)
Note: All wind speeds in Table C6-5 are 3-second gust wind speeds at 33 ft (10 m) above open
terrain
√
TABLE C6-5 1.6 × BASIC WIND SPEED AT SELECTED COASTAL LOCATIONS IN HURRICANE-PRONE AREAS

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TABLE C6-6 PROBABILITY OF EXCEEDING DESIGN WIND

SPEED DURING REFERENCE PERIOD
Annual Reference (Exposure) Period, n (years)
Probability Pa 1 5 10 25 50 100
0.04 (1/25) 0.04 0.18 0.34 0.64 0.87 0.98
0.02 (1/50) 0.02 0.10 0.18 0.40 0.64 0.87
0.01 (1/100) 0.01 0.05 0.10 0.22 0.40 0.64
0.005 (1/200) 0.005 0.02 0.05 0.10 0.22 0.39
TABLE C6-7 CONVERSION FACTORS FOR OTHER MEAN RECURRENCE

INTERVALS
MRI Peak Gust Wind Speed, V (mph) m/s
(years)
Continental U.S.
V = 85–100 V > 100 (hurricane) (44.7 m/s) Alaska

(38–45 m/s)
500 1.23 1.23 1.18
200 1.14 1.14 1.12
100 1.07 1.07 1.06
50 1.00 1.00 1.00
25 0.93 0.88 0.94
10 0.84 0.74 (76 mph min.) (33.9 m/s) 0.87
5 0.78 0.66 (70 mph min.) (31.3 m/s) 0.81
Note: Conversion factors for the column “V > 100 (hurricane)” are approximate. For the
MRI = 50 as shown, the actual return period, as represented by the design wind speed map
in Fig. 6-1, varies from 50 to approximately 90 years. For an MRI = 500, the conversion
factor is theoretically “exact” as shown.
318 ASCE 7-05

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TABLE C6-8 RANGE OF z0 BY EXPOSURE CATEGORY

Exposure Category Lower Limit of z0 , ft (m) Typical Value of z0 , ft (m) Upper Limit of z0 , ft (m) z0 inherent in Tabulated Kz
Values in Sec. 6.5.6.4, ft (m)
A 2.3 (0.7) ≤ z0 6.6 (2)
B 0.5 (0.15) ≤ z0 1.0 (0.3) z0 < 2.3(0.7) 0.5 (0.15)
C 0.033 (0.01) ≤ z0 0.066 (0.02) z0 < 0.5 (0.15) 0.066 (0.02)
D - 0.016 (0.005) z0 < 0.033(0.01) 0.016 (0.005)
TABLE C6-9 GUST EFFECT FACTOR - EXAMPLE

Calculated Values
Z min 30 ft (9.14 m)
∈¯ 1/3
c 0.30
b̄ 0.45
ᾱ 0.25
b̂ 0.84
α̂ 1/7
l 320 ft (97.54 m)
Cfx 1.3
ξ 1
Height (h) 600 ft (182.88 m)
Base (B) 100 ft (30.48 m)
Depth (L) 100 ft (30.48 m)

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TABLE C6-10 GUST EFFECT FACTOR - EXAMPLE

Calculated Values
V 132 ft/s (40.23 m/s)
z̄ 360 ft (109.73 m)
Iz̄ 0.201
L z̄ 709.71 ft (216.75 m)
Q2 0.616
V̄z̄ 107.95 ft/s (32.95 m/s)
V̂z̄ 155.99 ft/s (47.59 m/s)
N1 1.31
Rn 0.113
η 0.852
RB 0.610
η 5.113
Rh 0.176
η 2.853
RL 0.289
R2 0.813
Gf 1.062
K 0.501
m1 745,400 slugs
gR 3.787
TABLE C6-11 ALONG WIND RESPONSE - EXAMPLE

Floor zj φj Xmax j RMS Acc.∗ RMS Acc.∗ Max Acc.∗ Max Acc.∗
(ft/sec2 ) (milli-g) (ft/sec2 ) (milli-g)
0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
5 60 0.10 0.10 0.01 0.41 0.05 1.6
10 120 0.20 0.21 0.03 0.83 0.10 3.1
15 180 0.30 0.31 0.04 1.24 0.15 4.7
20 240 0.40 0.41 0.058 1.66 0.20 6.3
25 300 0.50 0.51 0.07 2.07 0.25 7.8
30 360 0.60 0.61 0.08 2.49 0.30 9.4
35 420 0.70 0.72 0.09 2.90 0.35 11.0
40 480 0.80 0.82 0.11 3.32 0.40 12.6
45 540 0.80 0.93 0.12 3.73 0.45 14.1
50 600 1.00 1.03 0.13 4.14 0.50 15.7
∗ This table presents X
max j for 50-year mean recurrence wind; however, the acceleration values in subsequent
columns are based on the 10-year mean recurrence wind of 75.6 mph (Table C6-3). The 10-year recurrence
interval is more consistent with serviceability requirements as they relate to human comfort consideration
and typical design practice. The metric equivalent of this table is presented below.
Metric Equivalent
Floor zj φj Xmax j RMS Acc.∗ RMS Acc.∗ Max Acc.∗ Max Acc.∗
(m) (m) (m/sec2 ) (milli-g) (m/sec2 ) (milli-g)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 18.29 0.10 0.03 0.00 0.41 0.02 1.6
10 36.58 0.20 0.06 0.01 0.83 0.03 3.1
15 54.86 0.30 0.09 0.01 1.24 0.05 4.7
20 73.15 0.40 0.13 0.02 1.66 0.06 6.3
25 91.44 0.50 0.16 0.02 2.07 0.08 7.8
30 109.73 0.60 0.19 0.02 2.49 0.09 9.4
35 128.02 0.70 0.22 0.03 2.90 0.11 11.0
40 146.3 0.80 0.25 0.03 3.32 0.12 12.6
45 164.59 0.80 0.28 0.04 3.73 0.14 14.1
50 182.88 1.00 0.31 0.04 4.14 0.15 15.7
320 ASCE 7-05

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TABLE C6-12 ALONG WIND, ACROSSWIND, TORSIONAL MOMENTS AND ACCELERATION

RESPONSE
Load Components σCM Survivability Design Serviceability Design
Aerodyn. Load Coef. Base moments Aerodyn. Load Coef. Acc. (milli-g or rad/s2 )
(10e6 kips ft)
f1 CM ( f1 ) M̂ f1 CM ( f1 ) σa Corner
X Y
Da 2.85 5.44 6.39 9.46
D 0.109 0.156 0.048 2.67 0.211 0.040 5.32
L 0.133 0.156 0.192 3.89 0.211 0.073 8.77
T 0.044 0.273 0.059 .15 0.369 0.040 0.002 3.54 3.54
a Based on ASCE 7 Method 2
D Alongwind direction
L Acrosswind direction
T Torsional direction
Note: As this database is experimental in nature, it will be expanded and refined as additional wind tunnel data is made
available. These enhancements will be made available at (www.seinstitute.org) as subsequent versions of ASCE 7 are
released. Past versions of the database will also be permanently archived at this site.
TABLE C6-13 AMBIENT AIR DENSITY VALUES FOR VARIOUS ALTITUDES

Altitude Ambient Air Density
Feet Meters Minimum Minimum Average Average Maximum Maximum
(lbm/ft3 ) (kg/m3 ) (lbm/ft3 ) (kg/m3 ) (lbm/ft3 ) (kg/m3 )
0 0 0.0712 1.1392 0.0765 1.2240 0.0822 1.3152
1000 305 0.0693 1.1088 0.0742 1.1872 0.0795 1.2720
2000 610 0.0675 1.0800 0.0720 1.1520 0.0768 1.2288
3000 914 0.0657 1.0512 0.0699 1.1184 0.0743 1.1888
3281 1000 0.0652 1.0432 0.0693 1.1088 0.0736 1.1776
4000 1219 0.0640 1.0240 0.0678 1.0848 0.0718 1.1488
5000 1524 0.0624 0.9984 0.0659 1.0544 0.0695 1.1120
6000 1829 0.0608 0.9728 0.0639 1.0224 0.0672 1.0752
6562 2000 0.0599 0.9584 0.0629 1.0064 0.0660 1.0560
7000 2134 0.0592 0.9472 0.0620 0.9920 0.0650 1.0400
8000 2438 0.0577 0.9232 0.0602 0.9632 0.0628 1.0048
9000 2743 0.0561 0.8976 0.0584 0.9344 0.0607 0.9712
9843 3000 0.0549 0.8784 0.0569 0.9104 0.0591 0.9456
10,000 3048 0.0547 0.8752 0.0567 0.9072 0.0588 0.9408

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322
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Chapter C7
SNOW LOADS
C7.0 SNOW LOADS C7.2 GROUND SNOW LOADS, pg

Methodology. The procedure established for determining design The snow load provisions were developed from an extreme-value
snow loads is as follows: statistical analysis of weather records of snow on the ground
1. Determine the ground snow load for the geographic loca- [Ref. C7-1]. The log normal distribution was selected to estimate
tion (Sections 7.2 and C7.2). ground snow loads, which have a 2 percent annual probability of
being exceeded (50-yr mean recurrence interval).
2. Generate a flat roof snow load from the ground load with
consideration given to (1) roof exposure (Sections 7.3.1, Maximum measured ground snow loads and ground snow loads
C7.3, and C7.3.1), (2) roof thermal condition (Sections with a 2 percent annual probability of being exceeded are pre-
7.3.2, C7.3, and C7.3.2), (3) occupancy and function of sented in Table C7-1 for 204 National Weather Service (NWS)
structure (Sections 7.3.3 and C7.3.3). “first-order” stations at which ground snow loads have been mea-
sured for at least 11 years during the period 1952–1992.
3. Consider roof slope (Sections 7.4 through 7.4.5 and C7.4).
Concurrent records of the depth and load of snow on the ground
4. Consider partial loading (Sections 7.5 and C7.5). at the 204 locations in Table C7-1 were used to estimate the ground
5. Consider unbalanced loads (Sections 7.6 through 7.6.4 and snow load and the ground snow depth having a 2 percent an-
C7.6). nual probability of being exceeded for each of these locations.
The period of record for these 204 locations, where both snow
6. Consider snow drifts: (1) on lower roofs (Sections 7.7 depth and snow load have been measured, averages 33 years up
through 7.7.2 and C7.7) and (2) from projections (Sections through the winter of 1991–1992. A mathematical relationship
7.8 and C7.8). was developed between the 2 percent depths and the 2 percent
7. Consider sliding snow (Sections 7.9 and C7.9). loads. The nonlinear best-fit relationship between these extreme
values was used to estimate 2 percent (50-yr mean recurrence
8. Consider extra loads from rain on snow (Sections 7.10 and interval) ground snow loads at about 9,200 other locations at
C7.10). which only snow depths were measured. These loads, as well
9. Consider ponding loads (Section 7.11 and C7.11). as the extreme-value loads developed directly from snow load
measurements at 204 first-order locations, were used to construct
10. Consider existing roofs (Sections 7.12 and C7.12). the maps.
11. Consider other roofs and sites (Section C7.13). In general, loads from these two sources were in agreement. In
12. Consider the consequences of loads in excess of the design areas where there were differences, loads from the 204 first-order
value (see the following text). locations were considered to be more valuable when the map was
constructed. This procedure ensures that the map is referenced to
the NWS observed loads and contains spatial detail provided by
Loads in Excess of the Design Value. The philosophy of the snow-depth measurements at about 9,200 other locations.
probabilistic approach used in this standard is to establish a design The maps were generated from data current through the 1991–
value that reduces the risk of a snow load–induced failure to an 1992 winter. Where statistical studies using more recent informa-
acceptably low level. Because snow loads in excess of the design tion are available, they may be used to produce improved design
value may occur, the implications of such “excess” loads should guidance.
be considered. For example, if a roof is deflected at the design
snow load so that slope to drain is eliminated, “excess” snow load However, adding a big snow year to data developed from pe-
might cause ponding (Section C7.11) and perhaps progressive riods of record exceeding 20 years will usually not change 50-yr
failure. values much. As examples, the databases for Boston and Chat-
tanooga were updated to include the winters of 1992–1993 and
The snow load/dead load ratio of a roof structure is an important 1993–1994 because record snows occurred there during that pe-
consideration when assessing the implications of “excess” loads. riod. In Boston, 50-yr loads based on water equivalent measure-
If the design snow load is exceeded, the percentage increase in ments only increased from 34 to 35 lb/ft2 (1.63 to 1.68 kN/m2 )
total load would be greater for a lightweight structure (i.e., one and loads generated from snow depth measurements remained at
with a high snow load/dead load ratio) than for a heavy structure 25 lb/ft2 (1.20 kN/m2 ). In Chattanooga, loads generated from wa-
(i.e., one with a low snow load/dead load ratio). For example, if ter equivalent measurements increased from 6 to 7 lb/ft2 (0.29 to
a 40 lb/ft2 (1.92 kN/m2 ) roof snow load is exceeded by 20 lb/ft2 0.34 kN/m2 ) and loads generated from snow depth measurements
(0.96 kN/m2 ) for a roof having a 25 lb/ft2 (1.19 kN/m2 ) dead load, remained at 6 lb/ft2 (0.29 kN/m2 ).
the total load increases by 31 percent from 65 to 85 lb/ft2 (3.11
to 4.07 kN/m2 ). If the roof had a 60-lb/ft2 (2.87 kN/m2 ) dead The following additional information was also considered
load, the total load would increase only by 20 percent from 100 when establishing the snow load zones on the map of the United
to 120 lb/ft2 (4.79 to 5.75 kN/m2 ). States (Fig. 7-1).

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1. The number of years of record available at each location. Local records and experience should also be considered when
establishing design values.
2. Additional meteorological information available from
NWS, Soil Conservation Service (SCS) snow surveys, and The values in Table 7-1 are for specific Alaskan locations only
other sources. and generally do not represent appropriate design values for other
nearby locations. They are presented to illustrate the extreme vari-
3. Maximum snow loads observed.
ability of snow loads within Alaska. This variability precludes
4. Regional topography. statewide mapping of ground snow loads there.
5. The elevation of each location. Valuable information on snow loads for the Rocky Mountain
The map is an updated version of those in the 1993 edition of this states is contained in [Refs. C7-5 through C7-15].
standard and is the same as that in the 1995 and 1998 editions. Most of these references for the Rocky Mountain states use
In much of the south, infrequent but severe snowstorms dis- annual probabilities of being exceeded that are different from
rupted life in the area to the point that meteorological observations the 2 percent value (50-yr mean recurrence interval) used in this
were missed. In these and similar circumstances more value was standard. Reasonable, but not exact, factors for converting from
given to the statistical values for stations with complete records. other annual probabilities of being exceeded to the value herein
Year-by-year checks were made to verify the significance of data are presented in Table C7-3.
gaps. For example, a ground snow load based on a 3.3 percent annual
The mapped snow loads cannot be expected to represent all probability of being exceeded (30-yr mean recurrence interval)
the local differences that may occur within each zone. Because should be multiplied by 1.18 to generate a value of pg for use in
local differences exist, each zone has been positioned so as to Eq. 7-1.
encompass essentially all the statistical values associated with The snow load provisions of several editions of the National
normal sites in that zone. Although the zones represent statistical Building Code of Canada served as a guide in preparing the snow
values, not maximum observed values, the maximum observed load provisions in this standard. However, there are some im-
values were helpful in establishing the position of each zone. portant differences between the Canadian and the United States
For sites not covered in Fig. 7-1 design values should be estab- databases. They include
lished from meteorological information, with consideration given 1. The Canadian ground snow loads are based on a 3.3 percent
to the orientation, elevation, and records available at each location. annual probability of being exceeded (30-yr mean recur-
The same method can also be used to improve upon the values rence interval) generated by using the extreme-value, Type-
presented in Fig. 7-1. Detailed study of a specific site may gen- I (Gumbel) distribution, while the normal-risk values in this
erate a design value lower than that indicated by the generalized standard are based on a 2 percent annual probability of be-
national map. It is appropriate in such a situation to use the lower ing exceeded (50-yr mean recurrence interval) generated by
value established by the detailed study. Occasionally a detailed a log-normal distribution.
study may indicate that a higher design value should be used than
the national map indicates. Again, results of the detailed study 2. The Canadian loads are based on measured depths and re-
should be followed. gionalized densities based on four or less measurements
per month. Because of the infrequency of density measure-
Using the database used to establish the ground snow loads in ments, an additional weight of rain is added [Ref. C7-16].
Fig. 7-1, additional meteorological data, and a methodology that In this standard, the weight of the snow is based on many
meets the requirements of Section 7.2 [Ref. C7-2], ground snow years of frequently measured weights obtained at 204 loca-
loads have been determined for every town in New Hampshire tions across the United States. Those measurements contain
[Refs. C7-3, C7-4]. many rain-on-snow events and thus a separate rain-on-snow
The area covered by a site-specific case study will vary depend- surcharge load is not needed except for some roofs with a
ing on local climate and topography. In some places, a single case slope less than 1/2 in./ft (2.38◦ ).
study will suffice for an entire community, but in others, varying
local conditions limit a “site” to a much smaller area. The area of
applicability usually becomes clear as information in the vicinity C7.3 FLAT-ROOF SNOW LOADS, p f
is examined for the case study.
The live load reductions in Section 4.8 should not be applied to
As suggested by the footnote, it is not appropriate to use only snow loads. The minimum allowable values of p f presented in
the site-specific information in Table C7-1 for design purposes. It Section 7.3 acknowledge that in some areas a single major storm
lacks an appreciation for surrounding station information and, in can generate loads that exceed those developed from an analysis
a few cases, is based on rather short periods of record. The map of weather records and snow-load case studies.
or a site-specific case study provide more valuable information.
The factors in this standard that account for the thermal, aero-
The importance of conducting detailed studies for locations not dynamic, and geometric characteristics of the structure in its par-
covered in Fig. 7-1 is shown in Table C7-2. ticular setting were developed using the National Building Code
of Canada as a point of reference. The case study reports in [Refs.
For some locations within the Case Study (CS) areas of
C7-17 through C7-25] were examined in detail.
the northeast (Fig. 7-1), ground snow loads exceed 100 lb/ft2
(4.79 kN/m2 ). Even in the southern portion of the Appalachian In addition to these published references, an extensive program
Mountains, not far from sites where a 15-lb/ft2 (0.72 kN/m2 ) of snow load case studies was conducted by eight universities in
ground snow load is appropriate, ground loads exceeding 50 lb/ft2 the United States, the Corps of Engineers’ Alaska District, and
(2.39 kN/m2 ) may be required. Lake-effect storms create require- the United States Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering
ments for ground loads in excess of 75 lb/ft2 (3.59 kN/m2 ) along Laboratory (CRREL) for the Corps of Engineers. The results of
portions of the Great Lakes. In some areas of the Rocky Moun- this program were used to modify the Canadian methodology to
tains, ground snow loads exceed 200 lb/ft2 (9.58 kN/m2 ). better fit United States conditions. Measurements obtained during
324 ASCE 7-05

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the severe winters of 1976–1977 and 1977–1978 are included. A life of the structure. Although it is possible that a brief power
statistical analysis of some of that information is presented in interruption will cause temporary cooling of a heated structure,
[Ref. C7-26]. The experience and perspective of many design the joint probability of this event and a simultaneous peak snow
professionals, including several with expertise in building failure load event is very small. Brief power interruptions and loss of
analysis, have also been incorporated. heat are acknowledged in the Ct = 1.0 category. Although it is
possible that a heated structure will subsequently be used as an
The minimum values of p f account for a number of situations
unheated structure, the probability of this is rather low. Conse-
that develop on roofs. They are particularly important consider-
quently, heated structures need not be designed for this unlikely
ations where pg is 20 lb/ft2 (0.96 kN/m2 ) or less. In such areas,
event.
single storms result in loadings for which Eq. 7-1 and the Ce and
Ct values in Tables 7-2 and 7-3, respectively, underestimate loads. Some dwellings are not used during the winter. Although their
thermal factor may increase to 1.2 at that time, they are unoccu-
C7.3.1 Exposure Factor, Ce . Except in areas of “aerodynamic pied, so their importance factor reduces to 0.8. The net effect is to
shade,” where loads are often increased by snow drifting, less require the same design load as for a heated, occupied dwelling.
snow is present on most roofs than on the ground. Loads in
unobstructed areas of conventional flat roofs average less than Discontinuous heating of structures may cause thawing of snow
50 percent of ground loads in some parts of the country. The val- on the roof and subsequent refreezing in lower areas. Drainage
ues in this standard are above-average values, chosen to reduce systems of such roofs have become clogged with ice, and ex-
the risk of snow load-induced failures to an acceptably low level. tra loads associated with layers of ice several inches thick have
Because of the variability of wind action, a conservative approach built up in these undrained lower areas. The possibility of similar
has been taken when considering load reductions by wind. occurrences should be investigated for any intermittently heated
structure.
The effects of exposure are handled on two scales. First, Eq. 7-1
contains a basic exposure factor of 0.7. Second, the type of terrain Similar icings may build up on cold roofs subjected to meltwa-
and the exposure of the roof are handled by exposure factor Ce . ter from warmer roofs above. Exhaust fans and other mechanical
This two-step procedure generates ground-to-roof load reductions equipment on roofs may also generate meltwater and icings.
as a function of exposure that range from 0.49 to 0.84. Icicles and ice dams are a common occurrence on cold eaves
Table 7-2 has been changed from what appeared in a prior of sloped roofs. They introduce problems related to leakage and
(1988) version of this standard to separate regional wind issues to loads. Large ice dams that can prevent snow from sliding off
associated with terrain from local wind issues associated with roofs are generally produced by heat losses from within build-
roof exposure. This was done to better define categories without ings. Icings associated with solar melting of snow during the day
significantly changing the values of Ce . and refreezing along eaves at night are often small and transient.
Although icings can occur on cold or warm roofs, roofs that are
Although there is a single “regional” terrain category for a well insulated and ventilated are not commonly subjected to seri-
specific site, different roofs of a structure may have different ex- ous icings at their eaves. Methods of minimizing eave icings are
posure factors due to obstruction provided by higher portions discussed in [Refs. C7-27 through C7-32]. Ventilation guidelines
of the structure or by objects on the roof. For example in ter- to prevent problematic icings at eaves have been developed for
rain category C, an upper level roof could be fully exposed attics [Ref. C7-33] and for cathedral ceilings [Ref. C7-34].
(Ce = 0.9) while a lower level roof would be partially exposed
(Ce = 1.0) due to the presence of the upper level roof, as shown in Because ice dams can prevent load reductions by sliding on
Example 3. some warm (Ct =≤ 1.0) roofs, the “unobstructed slippery sur-
face” curve in Fig. 7-2a now only applies to unventilated roofs
The adjective “windswept” is used in the “mountainous areas” with a thermal resistance equal to or greater than 30 ft2 h ◦ F/Btu
terrain category to preclude use of this category in those high (5.3 ◦ C m2 /W ) and to ventilated roofs with a thermal resistance
mountain valleys that receive little wind. equal to or greater than 20 ft2 h ◦ F/Btu (3.5 ◦ C m2 /W). For roofs
The normal, combined exposure reduction in this standard is that are well insulated and ventilated, see Ct = 1.1 in Table 7-3.
0.70 as compared to a normal value of 0.80 for the ground-to- Glass, plastic, and fabric roofs of continuously heated struc-
roof conversion factor in the 1990 National Building Code of tures are seldom subjected to much snow load because their high
Canada. The decrease from 0.80 to 0.70 does not represent de- heat losses cause snow melt and sliding. For such specialty roofs,
creased safety, but arises due to increased choices of exposure and knowledgeable manufacturers and designers should be consulted.
thermal classification of roofs (i.e., five terrain categories, three The National Greenhouse Manufacturers Association [Ref. C7-
roof exposure categories, and four thermal categories in this stan- 35] recommends use of Ct = 0.83 for continuously heated green-
dard vs. three exposure categories and no thermal distinctions in houses and Ct = 1.00 for unheated or intermittently heated green-
the Canadian code). houses. They suggest a value of I = 1.0 for retail greenhouses and
It is virtually impossible to establish exposure definitions that I = 0.8 for all other greenhouses. To qualify as a continuously
clearly encompass all possible exposures that exist across the heated greenhouse, a production or retail greenhouse must have a
country. Because individuals may interpret exposure categories constantly maintained temperature of 50 ◦ F (10 ◦ C) or higher dur-
somewhat differently, the range in exposure has been divided into ing winter months. In addition, it must also have a maintenance
several categories rather than just two or three. A difference of attendant on duty at all times or an adequate temperature alarm
opinion of one category results in about a 10 percent “error” using system to provide warning in the event of a heating system failure.
these several categories and an “error” of 25 percent or more if Finally, the greenhouse roof material must have a thermal resis-
only three categories are used. tance, R-value, less than 2 ft2 × h × ◦ F/Btu (0.4 ◦ C m2 /W). In this
standard, the Ct factor for such continuously heated greenhouses
C7.3.2 Thermal Factor, Ct . Usually, more snow will be present is set at 0.85. An unheated or intermittently heated greenhouse is
on cold roofs than on warm roofs. An exception to this is dis- any greenhouse that does not meet the requirements of a contin-
cussed in the following text. The thermal condition selected from uously heated single or double glazed greenhouse. Greenhouses
Table 7-3 should represent that which is likely to exist during the should be designed so that the structural supporting members are

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stronger than the glazing. If this approach is used, any failure absence of obstructions not only on the roof but also below it,
caused by heavy snow loads will be localized and in the glazing. the temperature of the roof, and the slipperiness of its surface.
This should avert progressive collapse of the structural frame. It is difficult to define “slippery” in quantitative terms. For that
Higher design values should be used where drifting or sliding reason a list of roof surfaces that qualify as slippery and others
snow is expected. that do not, are presented in the standard. Most common roof
surfaces are on that list. The slipperiness of other surfaces is best
Little snow accumulates on warm air-supported fabric roofs
determined by comparisons with those surfaces. Some tile roofs
because of their geometry and slippery surface. However, the
contain built-in protrusions or have a rough surface that prevents
snow that does accumulate is a significant load for such structures
snow from sliding. However, snow will slide off other smooth-
and should be considered. Design methods for snow loads on air
surfaced tile roofs. When a surface may or may not be slippery,
structures are discussed in [Refs. C7-36, C7-37].
the implications of treating it either as a slippery or nonslippery
The combined consideration of exposure and thermal condi- surface should be determined. Because valleys obstruct sliding
tions generates ground-to-roof factors that range from a low of on slippery surfaced roofs, the dashed lines in Figs. 7-2a, b, and c
0.49 to a high of 1.01. The equivalent ground-to-roof factors in should not be used in such roof areas.
the 1990 National Building Code of Canada are 0.8 for sheltered
Discontinuous heating of a building may reduce the ability of
roofs, 0.6 for exposed roofs, and 0.4 for exposed roofs in ex-
a sloped roof to shed snow by sliding, because meltwater created
posed areas north of the tree line, all regardless of their thermal
during heated periods may refreeze on the roof’s surface during
condition.
periods when the building is not heated, thereby “locking” the
Reference [C7-38] indicates that loads exceeding those cal- snow to the roof.
culated using this standard can occur on roofs that receive little
All these factors are considered in the slope reduction factors
heat from below. Limited case histories for freezer buildings in
presented in Fig. 7-2 and are supported by [Refs. C7-38 through
which the air directly below the roof layer is intentionally kept
C7-41]. The thermal resistance requirements have been added to
cold suggest that the Ct factor may be larger than 1.2.
the “unobstructed slippery surfaces” curve in Fig. 7-2a to prevent
C7.3.3 Importance Factor, I. The importance factor I has been its use for roofs on which ice dams often form because ice dams
included to account for the need to relate design loads to the prevent snow from sliding. Mathematically the information in
consequences of failure. Roofs of most structures having normal Fig. 7-2 can be represented as follows:
occupancies and functions are designed with an importance factor 1. Warm roofs (Ct = 1.0 or less):
of 1.0, which corresponds to unmodified use of the statistically
determined ground snow load for a 2 percent annual probability (a) Unobstructed slippery surfaces with R ≥ 30 ft2 h ◦ F/Btu
of being exceeded (50-yr mean recurrence interval). (5.3 ◦ C m2 /W) if unventilated and R ≥ 20 ft2 h ◦ F/Btu
(3.5 ◦ C m2 /W) if ventilated:
A study of the 204 locations in Table C7-1 showed that the ratio
of the values for 4 percent and 2 percent annual probabilities of 0◦ –5◦ slope Cs = 1.0
being exceeded (the ratio of the 25-yr to 50-yr mean recurrence ◦ ◦
5 –70 slope Cs = 1.0 − (slope − 5◦ )/65◦
interval values) averaged 0.80 and had a standard deviation of
0.06. The ratio of the values for 1 percent and 2 percent annual > 70◦ slope Cs = 0
probabilities of being exceeded (the ratio of the 100-yr to 50-yr
mean recurrence interval values) averaged 1.22 and had a standard (b) All other surfaces:
deviation of 0.08. On the basis of the nationwide consistency of
these values it was decided that only one snow load map need be 0◦ –30◦ slope Cs = 1.0
prepared for design purposes and that values for lower and higher 30◦ –70◦ slope Cs = 1.0 − (slope − 30◦ )/40◦
risk situations could be generated using that map and constant
> 70◦ slope Cs = 0
factors.
Lower and higher risk situations are established using the im- 2. Cold Roofs with Ct = 1.1
portance factors for snow loads in Table 7-4. These factors range (a) Unobstructed slippery surfaces:
from 0.8 to 1.2. The factor 0.8 bases the average design value
for that situation on an annual probability of being exceeded of 0◦ –10◦ slope Cs = 1.0
about 4 percent (about a 25-year mean recurrence interval). The
factor 1.2 is nearly that for a 1 percent annual probability of being 10◦ –70◦ slope Cs = 1.0 − (slope − 10◦ )/60◦
exceeded (about a 100-year mean recurrence interval). > 70◦ slope Cs = 0
C7.3.4 Minimum Values of p f for Low Slope Roofs. These (b) All other surfaces:
minimums account for a number of situations that develop on
low slope roofs. They are particularly important considerations 0◦ –37.5◦ slope Cs = 1.0
where pg is 20 lb/ft2 (0.96 kN/m2 ) or less. In such areas, single
storms can result in loading for which the basic exposure factor 37.5 –70 slope Cs = 1.0−(slope−37.5◦ )/32.5◦
◦ ◦
of 0.7 as well as the Ce and Ct factors do not apply. > 70◦ slope Cs = 0
3. Cold Roofs (Ct = 1.2):

C7.4 SLOPED-ROOF SNOW LOADS, ps
(a) Unobstructed slippery surfaces:
Snow loads decrease as the slopes of roofs increase. Generally,
less snow accumulates on a sloped roof because of wind action. 0◦ –15◦ slope Cs = 1.0
Also, such roofs may shed some of the snow that accumulates on ◦
15 –70 slope ◦
Cs = 1.0 − (slope − 15◦ )/55◦
them by sliding and improved drainage of meltwater. The ability ◦
of a sloped roof to shed snow load by sliding is related to the > 70 slope Cs = 0
326 ASCE 7-05

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(b) All other surfaces: ridge. The location of the centroid for the rectangular distribu-
tion is identical to that for the expected triangular distribution.
0◦ –45◦ slope Cs = 1.0 The intensity is the average of that for the expected triangular
◦ ◦
45 –70 slope Cs = 1.0 − (slope − 45◦ )/25◦ distribution.
◦ The design snow load on the windward side for the unbalanced
> 70 slope Cs = 0
case, 0.3Ps , is based upon case histories presented in [Refs. C7-
If the ground (or another roof of less slope) exists near the eave 24, C7-42] and discussed in [Ref. C7-43]. The lower limit of
of a sloped roof, snow may not be able to slide completely off θ = 70/W + 0.5 with W in ft (in SI: 21.3/W + 0.5, with W
the sloped roof. This may result in the elimination of snow loads in m) or 2.38◦ is intended to exclude low slope roofs, such as
on upper portions of the roof and their concentration on lower membrane roofs, on which significant unbalanced loads have not
portions. Steep A-frame roofs that nearly reach the ground are been observed.
subject to such conditions. Lateral as well as vertical loads induced C7.6.2 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Curved Roofs. The
by such snow should be considered for such roofs. method of determining roof slope is the same as the 1995 edition
C7.4.3 Roof Slope Factor for Curved Roofs. These provisions of this standard. Cs is based on the actual slope not an equivalent
have been changed from those in the 1993 edition of this standard slope. These provisions do not apply to roofs that are concave
to cause the load to diminish along the roof as the slope increases. upward. For such roofs, see Section 7.13.
C7.4.4 Roof Slope Factor for Multiple Folded Plate, C7.6.3 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Multiple Folded Plate,
Sawtooth, and Barrel Vault Roofs. Because these types of roofs Sawtooth, and Barrel Vault Roofs. A minimum slope of
collect extra snow in their valleys by wind drifting and snow creep 3/8 in./ft (1.79◦ ) has been established to preclude the need to
and sliding, no reduction in snow load should be applied because determine unbalanced loads for most internally drained, mem-
of slope. brane roofs that slope to internal drains. Case studies indicate that
significant unbalanced loads can occur when the slope of multiple
C7.4.5 Ice Dams and Icicles Along Eaves. The intent is to con- gable roofs is as low as 1/2 in./ft (2.38◦ ).
sider heavy loads from ice that forms along eaves only for struc-
tures where such loads are likely to form. It is also not considered The unbalanced snow load in the valley is 2 p f /Ce to create a
necessary to analyze the entire structure for such loads, just the total unbalanced load that does not exceed a uniformly distributed
eaves themselves. ground snow load in most situations.
Sawtooth roofs and other “up-and-down” roofs with significant
C7.5 UNLOADED PORTIONS slopes tend to be vulnerable in areas of heavy snowfall for the
following reasons:
In many situations a reduction in snow load on a portion of a roof
by wind scour, melting, or snow-removal operations will simply 1. They accumulate heavy snow loads and are therefore ex-
reduce the stresses in the supporting members. However, in some pensive to build.
cases a reduction in snow load from an area will induce heavier 2. Windows and ventilation features on the steeply sloped faces
stresses in the roof structure than occur when the entire roof is of such roofs may become blocked with drifting snow and
loaded. Cantilevered roof joists are a good example; removing be rendered useless.
half the snow load from the cantilevered portion will increase the
3. Meltwater infiltration is likely through gaps in the steeply
bending stress and deflection of the adjacent continuous span. In
sloped faces if they are built as walls, because slush may
other situations adverse stress reversals may result.
accumulate in the valley during warm weather. This can
The intent is not to require consideration of multiple “checker- promote progressive deterioration of the structure.
board” loadings.
4. Lateral pressure from snow drifted against clerestory win-
Separate, simplified provisions have been added for continuous dows may break the glass.
beams to provide specific partial loading requirements for that
5. The requirement that snow above the valley not be at an
common structural system.
elevation higher than the snow above the ridge may limit
the unbalanced load to less than 2 p f /Ce .
C7.6 UNBALANCED ROOF SNOW LOADS
C7.6.4 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Dome Roofs. This provi-
Unbalanced snow loads may develop on sloped roofs because of sion is based on a similar provision in the 1990 National Building
sunlight and wind. Winds tend to reduce snow loads on windward Code of Canada.
portions and increase snow loads on leeward portions. Because it
is not possible to define wind direction with assurance, winds from
C7.7 DRIFTS ON LOWER ROOFS (AERODYNAMIC
all directions should generally be considered when establishing
SHADE)
unbalanced roof loads.
When a rash of snow-load failures occurs during a particularly
C7.6.1 Unbalanced Snow Loads on Hip and Gable Roofs. The
severe winter, there is a natural tendency for concerned parties to
expected shape of a gable roof drift is nominally a triangle located
initiate across-the-board increases in design snow loads. This is
close to the ridgeline. Recent research suggests that the size of this
generally a technically ineffective and expensive way of attempt-
nominally triangular gable roof drift is comparable to a leeward
ing to solve such problems because most failures associated with
roof step drift with the same fetch. For certain simple structural
snow loads on roofs are caused not by moderate overloads on ev-
systems, for example, wood or light gage roof rafter systems with
ery square foot (square meter) of the roof, but rather by localized
either a ridge board or a supporting ridge beam, with small eave
significant overloads caused by drifted snow.
to ridge distances, the drift is represented by a uniform load of
I × pg from eave to ridge. For all other gable roofs, the drift is It is extremely important to consider localized drift loads in
represented by a rectangular distribution located adjacent to the designing roofs. Drifts will accumulate on roofs (even on sloped

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roofs) in the wind shadow of higher roofs or terrain features. As shown in Fig. 7-8, the clear height, h c , is determined based
Parapets have the same effect. The affected roof may be influenced on the assumption that the upper roof is blown clear of snow in
by a higher portion of the same structure or by another structure the vicinity of the drift. This is a reasonable assumption when the
or terrain feature nearby if the separation is 20 ft (6.1 m) or less. upper roof is nearly flat. However, sloped roofs often accumulate
When a new structure is built within 20 ft (6.1 m) of an existing snow at eaves as illustrated in Figs. 7-3 and 7-5. For such roofs, it is
structure, drifting possibilities should also be investigated for the appropriate to assume that snow at the upper roof edge effectively
existing structure. The snow that forms drifts may come from the increases the height difference between adjacent roofs. Using half
roof on which the drift forms, from higher or lower roofs or, on the depth of the unbalanced snow load in the calculation of h c
occasion, from the ground. produces more realistic estimates of drift loads.
The leeward drift load provisions are based on studies of snow Tests in wind tunnels [Refs. C7-55, C7-56] and flumes [Ref. C7-
drifts on roofs [Refs. C7-44 through C7-47]. Drift size is related 52] have proven quite valuable in determining patterns of snow
to the amount of driftable snow as quantified by the upwind roof drifting and drift loads. For roofs of unusual shape or configu-
length and the ground snow load. Drift loads are considered for ration, wind tunnel or water-flume tests may be needed to help
ground snow loads as low as 5 lb/ft2 (0.24 kN/m2 ). Case studies define drift loads. An ASCE standard for wind tunnel testing in-
show that, in regions with low ground snow loads, drifts 3 to 4 ft cluding procedures to assist in the determination of snow loads
(0.9 to 1.2 m) high can be caused by a single storm accompanied on roofs is currently under development.
by high winds.
A change from a prior (1988) edition of this standard involves C7.8 ROOF PROJECTIONS
the width w when the drift height h d from Fig. 7-9, exceeds the
clear height h c . In this situation the width of the drift is taken as Drifts around penthouses, roof obstructions, and parapet walls are
4h 2d /h c with a maximum value of 8h c . This drift width relation also of the “windward step” type because the length of the upper
is based upon equating the cross-sectional area of this drift (i.e., roof is small or no upper roof exists. Solar panels, mechanical
1/2h c × w) with the cross-sectional area of a triangular drift where equipment, parapet walls, and penthouses are examples of roof
the drift height is not limited by h c (i.e., 1/2h d × 4h d ) as suggested projections that may cause “windward” drifts on the roof around
by Zallen [Ref. C7-48]. The upper limit of drift width is based them. The drift-load provisions in Sections 7.7 and 7.8 cover most
on studies by Finney [Ref. C7-49] and Tabler [Ref. C7-50] that of these situations adequately, but flat-plate solar collectors may
suggest that a “full” drift has a rise-to-run of about 1:6.5, and case warrant some additional attention. Roofs equipped with several
studies [Ref. C7-48] that show observed drifts with a rise-to-run rows of them are subjected to additional snow loads. Before the
greater than 1:10. collectors were installed, these roofs may have sustained minimal
snow loads, especially if they were windswept. First, because a
The drift height relationship in Fig. 7-9 is based on snow blow- roof with collectors is apt to be somewhat “sheltered” by the col-
ing off a high roof upwind of a lower roof. The change in el- lectors, it seems appropriate to assume the roof is partially exposed
evation where the drift forms is called a “leeward step.” Drifts and calculate a uniform snow load for the entire area as though
can also form at “windward steps.” An example is the drift that the collectors did not exist. Second, the extra snow that might
forms at the downwind end of a roof that abuts a higher struc- fall on the collectors and then slide onto the roof should be com-
ture there. Fig. 7-7 shows “windward step” and “leeward step” puted using the “cold roofs-all other surfaces” curve in Fig. 7-2b.
drifts. This value should be applied as a uniform load on the roof at the
For situations having the same amount of available snow (i.e., base of each collector over an area about 2 ft (0.6 m) wide along
upper and lower roofs of the same length) the drifts that form in the length of the collector. The uniform load combined with the
leeward steps are larger than those that form in windward steps. In load at the base of each collector probably represents a reasonable
previous versions of the standard, the windward drifts height was design load for such situations, except in very windy areas where
given as 1/2h d from Fig. 7-9 using the length of the lower roof extensive snow drifting is to be expected among the collectors. By
for lu . Based upon an analysis of case histories in [Ref. C7-51], a elevating collectors several feet (a meter or more) above the roof
value of 3/4 is now prescribed. on an open system of structural supports, the potential for drifting
will be diminished significantly. Finally, the collectors should be
Depending on wind direction, any change in elevation between designed to sustain a load calculated by using the “unobstructed
roofs can be either a windward or leeward step. Thus the height of a slippery surfaces” curve in Fig. 7-2a. This last load should not be
drift is determined for each wind direction as shown in Example 3, used in the design of the roof because the heavier load of slid-
and the larger of the two heights is used as the design drift. ing snow from the collectors has already been considered. The
The drift load provisions cover most, but not all, situations. influence of solar collectors on snow accumulation is discussed
References [C7-49, C7-53] document a larger drift than would in [Refs. C7-57, C7-58].
have been expected based on the length of the upper roof. The
larger drift was caused when snow on a somewhat lower roof,
C7.9 SLIDING SNOW
upwind of the upper roof, formed a drift between those two roofs
allowing snow from the upwind lower roof to be carried up onto Situations that permit snow to slide onto lower roofs should be
the upper roof then into the drift on its downwind side. It was avoided [Ref. C7-59]. Where this is not possible, the extra load of
suggested that the sum of the lengths of both roofs could be used the sliding snow should be considered. Roofs with little slope have
to calculate the size of the leeward drift. been observed to shed snow loads by sliding. Consequently, it is
prudent to assume that any upper roof sloped to an unobstructed
In another situation [Ref. C7-54] a long “spike” drift was cre-
eave is a potential source of sliding snow.
ated at the end of a long skylight with the wind about 30◦ off the
long axis of the skylight. The skylight acted as a guide or deflec- The final resting place of any snow that slides off a higher
tor that concentrated drifting snow. This caused a large drift to roof onto a lower roof will depend on the size, position, and
accumulate in the lee of the skylight. This drift was replicated in orientation of each roof [Ref. C7-40]. Distribution of sliding loads
a wind tunnel. might vary from a uniform 5-ft (1.5-m) wide load, if a significant
328 ASCE 7-05

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vertical offset exists between the two roofs, to a 20-ft (6.1-m) been responsible for several roof failures under combined rain
wide uniform load, where a low-slope upper roof slides its load and snow loads.
onto a second roof that is only a few feet (about a meter) lower or
It is very important to consider roof deflections caused by snow
where snow drifts on the lower roof create a sloped surface that
loads when determining the likelihood of ponding instability from
promotes lateral movement of the sliding snow.
rain-on-snow or snow meltwater.
In some instances a portion of the sliding snow may be expected
Internally drained roofs should have a slope of at least 1/4 in./ft
to slide clear of the lower roof. Nevertheless, it is prudent to
(1.19◦ ) to provide positive drainage and to minimize the chance
design the lower roof for a substantial portion of the sliding load
of ponding. Slopes of 1/4 in./ft (1.19◦ ) or more are also effective
to account for any dynamic effects that might be associated with
in reducing peak loads generated by heavy spring rain on snow.
sliding snow.
Further incentive to build positive drainage into roofs is provided
Snow guards are needed on some roofs to prevent roof damage by significant improvements in the performance of waterproofing
and eliminate hazards associated with sliding snow [Ref. C7-60]. membranes when they are sloped to drain.
When snow guards are added to a sloping roof, snow loads on
Rain loads and ponding instability are discussed in detail in
the roof can be expected to increase. Thus, it may be necessary
Chapter 8.
to strengthen a roof before adding snow guards. When designing
a roof that will likely need snow guards in the future, it may be
appropriate to use the “all other surfaces” curves in Fig. 7-2 not C7.12 EXISTING ROOFS
the “unobstructed slippery surfaces” curves. Numerous existing roofs have failed when additions or new build-
ings nearby caused snow loads to increase on the existing roof.
C7.10 RAIN-ON-SNOW SURCHARGE LOAD A prior (1988) edition of this standard mentioned this issue only
in its commentary where it was not a mandatory provision. The
The ground snow-load measurements on which this standard is 1995 edition moved this issue to the standard.
based contain the load effects of light rain on snow. However,
The addition of a gable roof alongside an existing gable roof
because heavy rains percolate down through snow packs and may
as shown in Fig. C7-1 most likely explains why some such metal
drain away, they might not be included in measured values. Where
buildings failed in the South during the winter of 1992–1993.
pg is greater than 20 lb/ft2 (0.96 kN/m2 ), it is assumed that the
The change from a simple gable roof to a multiple folded plate
full rain-on-snow effect has been measured and a separate rain-
roof increased loads on the original roof as would be expected
on-snow surcharge is not needed. The temporary roof load con-
from Section 7.6.3. Unfortunately, the original roofs were not
tributed by a heavy rain may be significant. Its magnitude will
strengthened to account for these extra loads and they collapsed.
depend on the duration and intensity of the design rainstorm, the
drainage characteristics of the snow on the roof, the geometry of If the eaves of the new roof in Fig. C7-1 had been somewhat
the roof, and the type of drainage provided. Loads associated with higher than the eaves of the existing roof, the exposure factor Ce ,
rain on snow are discussed in [Refs. C7-61, C7-62 , C7-63]. for the original roof may have increased thereby increasing snow
loads on it. In addition, drift loads and loads from sliding snow
Calculated rain-on-snow loading in [Ref. C7-63] show that the
would also have to be considered.
surcharge is an increasing function of eave to ridge distance and
a decreasing function of roof slope. That is, rain-on-snow sur-
charges are largest for wide, low-sloped roofs. The minimum C7.13 OTHER ROOFS AND SITES
slope reflects that functional relationship. Wind tunnel model studies, similar tests employing fluids other
The following example illustrates the evaluation of the rain-on- than air, for example water flumes, and other special experimen-
snow surcharge. Consider a monoslope roof with slope of 1/4 on tal and computational methods have been used with success to
12 and a width of 100 ft with Ce = 1.0, Ct = 1.1, I = 1.2, and establish design snow loads for other roof geometries and com-
pg = 15 psf (0.72 kN/m2 ). Because Cs = 1.0 for a slope of 1/4 plicated sites [Refs. 7-52, C7-55, C7-56]. To be reliable, such
on 12, ps = 0.7(1.0)(1.1)(1.0)(1.2)(15) = 14 psf (0.67 kN/m2 ). methods must reproduce the mean and turbulent characteristics
Because the roof slope 1.19◦ is less than 100/50 = 2.0 the 5 psf of the wind and the manner in which snow particles are deposited
(0.24 kN/m2 ) surcharge is added to ps , resulting in a design load on roofs then redistributed by wind action. Reliability should be
of 19 psf (0.91 kN/m2 ). Because the slope is less than 15◦ , the min- demonstrated through comparisons with situations for which full-
imum load from 7.34 is I · pg = 1.2(15) = 18 psf (0.86 kN/m2 ). scale experience is available.
Hence the rain on snow modified load controls.
Examples. The following three examples illustrate the method
used to establish design snow loads for some of the situations
C7.11 PONDING INSTABILITY discussed in this standard. Additional examples are found in
Where adequate slope to drain does not exist, or where drains are O’Rourke and Wrenn [Ref. C7-64].
blocked by ice, snow meltwater and rain may pond in low areas.
Intermittently heated structures in very cold regions are particu- Example 1: Determine balanced and unbalanced design snow
larly susceptible to blockages of drains by ice. A roof designed loads for an apartment complex in a suburb of Hartford, Con-
without slope or one sloped with only 1/8 in./ft (0.6◦ ) to internal necticut. Each unit has an 8-on-12 slope unventilated gable
drains probably contains low spots away from drains by the time roof. The building length is 100 ft (30.5 m) and the eave to
it is constructed. When a heavy snow load is added to such a roof, ridge distance, W , is 30 ft (9.1 m). Composition shingles clad
it is even more likely that undrained low spots exist. As rainwater the roofs. Trees will be planted among the buildings.
or snow meltwater flows to such low areas, these areas tend to
deflect increasingly, allowing a deeper pond to form. If the struc-
Flat-Roof Snow Load:
ture does not possess enough stiffness to resist this progression,
failure by localized overloading can result. This mechanism has p f = 0.7Ce Ct I pg

P1: FBQ
where Because the vertical angle exceeds 10◦ , the minimum allowable
values of p f do not apply. Use p f = 17 lb/ft2 (0.83 kN/m2 ), see
pg = 30 lb/ft2 (1.44 kN/m2 ) (from Fig. 7-1)
Section 7.3.4.
Ce = 1.0 (from Table 7-2 for Terrain Category B and a partially
exposed roof) Sloped-Roof Snow Load:
Ct = 1.0 (from Table 7-3); and I = 1.0 (from Table 7-4).
ps = C s p f
Thus:
From Fig. 7-2a, Cs = 1.0 until slope exceeds 30◦ , which (by
p f = (0.7)(1.0)(1.0)(1.0)(30) = 21 lb/ft2 (balanced load) geometry) is 30 ft (9.1 m) from the centerline. In this area ps =
17(1) = 17 lb/ft2 (in SI ps = 0.83(1) = 0.83 kN/m2 ). At the
in SI: p f = (0.7)(1.0)(1.0)(1.0)(1.44) = 1.01 kN/m2 eaves, where the slope is (by geometry) 41◦ , Cs = 0.72 and ps =
Because the roof slope is greater than the larger of 1/2 on 12 17(0.72) = 12 lb/ft2 (in SI ps = 0.83(0.72) = 0.60 kN/m2 ). Be-
(2.38◦ ) and 70/30 + 0.5 (2.83◦ ), the minimum flat roof load does cause slope at eaves is 41◦ , Case II loading applies.
not apply (see Section 7.3). Unbalanced Snow Load: Because the vertical angle from the
Sloped-Roof Snow Load: eaves to the crown is greater than 10◦ and less than 60◦ , unbal-
anced snow loads must be considered.
ps = Cs p f where Cs = 0.91 (from solid line, Fig. 7-2a).
Thus: Unbalanced load at crown
= 0.5 p f = 0.5(17) = 9 lb/ft2
ps = 0.91(21) = 19 lb/ft2 (in SI: = 0.5(0.83) = 0.41 kN/m2 )
(in SI: ps = 0.91(1.01) = 0.92 kN/m2 ) Unbalanced load at 30◦ point
= 2 p f Cs /Ce = 2(17)(1.0)/0.9 = 38 lb/ft2
Unbalanced Snow Load: Because the roof slope is greater than
(in SI: = 2(0.83)(1.0)/0.9 = 1.84 kN/m2 )
the larger of 1/2 on 12 (2.38◦ ) and 70/30 + 0.5 (2.83◦ ), unbalanced
loads must be considered. For pg = 30 psf (1.44 kN/m2 ) and Unbalanced load at eaves
W = u = 30 ft (9.14 m), h d = 1.86 ft (0.56 m) from Fig. 7-9 = 2(17)(0.72)/0.9 = 27 lb/ft2
and γ = 17.9 pcf (2.80 kN/m3 ) from Eq. 7-3. For a 8 on 12√roof, (in SI: = 2(0.83)(0.72)/0.9 = 1.33 kN/m2 )
S = 1.5 and hence the intensity of the drift surcharge,
√ h d γ / S, is
27.2 psf (1.31 kN/m2 ) and its horizontal extent 8 Sh d /3 is 6.1 ft Rain on Snow Surcharge: A rain-on-snow surcharge load need
(1.87 m). not be considered, since pg > 20 psf (0.96 kN/m2 ) (see Section
Rain on Snow Surcharge: A rain-on-snow surcharge load need 7.10). See Fig. C7-3 for both loading conditions.
not be considered because pg > 20 psf (0.96 kN/m2 ) (see Sec-
tion 7.10). See Fig. C7-2 for both loading conditions. Example 3: Determine design snow loads for the upper and
lower flat roofs of a building located where pg = 40 lb/ft2
Example 2: Determine the roof snow load for a vaulted the- (1.92 kN/m2 ). The elevation difference between the roofs is
ater that can seat 450 people, planned for a suburb of Chicago, 10 ft (3 m). The 100 ft × 100 ft (30.5 m × 30.5 m) unventilated
Illinois. The building is the tallest structure in a recreation- high portion is heated and the 170 ft wide (51.8 m), 100 ft (30.5
shopping complex surrounded by a parking lot. Two large de- m) long low portion is an unheated storage area. The building
ciduous trees are located in an area near the entrance. The build- is in an industrial park in flat open country with no trees or
ing has an 80-ft (24.4-m) span and 15-ft (4.6-m) rise circular other structures offering shelter.
arc structural concrete roof covered with insulation and aggre-
gate surfaced built-up roofing. The unventilated roofing system
High Roof:
has a thermal resistance of 20 ft2 h ◦ F/Btu (3.5 K m2 /W ). It is
expected that the structure will be exposed to winds during its p f = 0.7Ce Ct I pg
useful life.
where
Flat-Roof Snow Load: pg = 40 lb/ft2 (1.92 kN/m2 ) (given)

Ce = 0.9 (from Table 7-2)
p f = 0.7Ce Ct I pg Ct = 1.0 (from Table 7-3)
I = 1.0 (from Table 7-4)
where
Thus:
pg = 25 lb/ft2 (1.20 kN/m2 ) (from Fig. 7-1)
Ce = 0.9 (from Table 7-2 for Terrain Category B and a fully ex-
p f = 0.7(0.9)(1.0)(1.0)(40) = 25 lb/ft2
posed roof)
Ct = 1.0 (from Table 7-3) (in SI: p f = 0.7(0.9)(1.0)(1.0)(1.92) = 1.21 kN/m2 )
I = 1.1 (from Table 7-4)
Thus: Because pg = 40 lb/ft2 (1.92 kN/m2 ) and I = 1.0, the minimum
p f = (0.7)(0.9)(1.0)(1.1)(25) = 17 lb/ft 2 value of p f = 20(1.0) = 20 lb/ft2 (0.96 kN/m2 ) and hence does
not control, see Section 7.3.
In SI: p f = (0.7)(0.9)(1.0)(1.1)(1.19) = 0.83 kN/m2
Low Roof:
Tangent of vertical angle from eaves to crown = 5/40 = 0.375
Angle = 21◦ . p f = 0.7Ce Ct I pg
330 ASCE 7-05

P1: FBQ
where [Ref. C7-2] Tobiasson, W., and Greatorex, A. (May 1996). “Database and
methodology for conducting site specific snow load case studies for the
pg = 40 lb/ft (1.92 kN/m ) (given)
2 2
United States.” In Proc. 3r d International Conference on Snow Engineering,
Ce = 1.0 (from Table 7-2) partially exposed due to presence of Sendai, Japan, pp. 249–256.
high roof [Ref. C7-3] Tobiasson, W., Buska, J., Greatorex, A., Tirey, J., Fisher, J., and
Ct = 1.2 (from Table 7-3) Johnson, S. (June 2000). “Developing ground snow loads for New Hamp-
I = 0.8 (from Table 7-4) shire.” In Proc. 4th International Conference on Snow Engineering, Trond-
heim, Norway, pp. 313–321.
Thus: [Ref. C7-4] Tobiasson, W., Buska, J., Greatorex, A., Tirey, J., Fisher, J., and
Johnson, S. (2002). “Ground snow loads for New Hampshire.” U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center (ERDC),
p f = 0.7(1.0)(1.2)(0.8)(40) = 27lb/ft2 Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL), Technical
Rep. ERDL/CRREL TR-02-6, Hanover, NH.
In SI: p f = 0.7(1.0)(1.2)(0.8)(1.92) = 1.29kN/m2 [Ref. C7-5] MacKinlay, I., and Willis, W.E. (1965). “Snow country design.”
National Endowment for the Arts, Washington, D.C.
[Ref. C7-6] Sack, R.L., and Sheikh-Taheri, A. (1986). Ground and roof snow
Because pg = 40 lb/ft2 (1.92 kN/m2 ) and I = 0.8, the mini- loads for Idaho. Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of Idaho, Moscow,
mum value of p f = 20(0.8) = 16 lb/ft2 (0.77 kN/m2 ) and hence ID.
does not control, see Section 7.3. [Ref. C7-7] Structural Engineers Association of Arizona. (1973). “Snow load
data for Arizona.” University of Arizona, Tempe, AZ.
Drift Load Calculation: [Ref. C7-8] Structural Engineers Association of Colorado. (1971). “Snow load
design data for Colorado.” Denver, CO [available from Structural Engineers
γ = 0.13(40) + 14 = 19 lb/ft3 (7-3) Association of Colorado, Denver].
[Ref. C7-9] Structural Engineers Association of Oregon. (1971). “Snow load
(in SI: γ = 0.426(1.92) + 2.2 = 3.02 kN/m ) 3 analysis for Oregon.” Oregon Dept. of Commerce, Building Codes Division,
Salem, OR.
h b = p f /19 = 27/19 = 1.4 ft [Ref. C7-10] Structural Engineers Association of Washington. (1981). “Snow
loads analysis for Washington.” SEAW, Seattle, WA.
(in SI: h b = 1.29/3.02 = 0.43 m) [Ref. C7-11] USDA Soil Conservation Service. (1970). “Lake Tahoe basin
snow load zones.” U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service,
h c = 10 − 1.4 = 8.6 ft Reno, NV.
[Ref. C7-12] Videon, F.V. and Stenberg, P. (1978). “Recommended snow loads
(in SI: h c = 3.05 − 0.43 = 2.62 m) for Montana structures.” Montana State University, Bozeman, MN.
h c / h b = 8.6/1.4 = 6.1 [Ref. C7-13] Structural Engineers Association of Northern California. (1964).
“Snow load design data for the Lake Tahoe area.” San Francisco, CA.
(in SI: h c / h b = 2.62/0.43 = 6.1) [Ref. C7-14] Placer County Building Division. (1985). “Snow Load Design.”
Placer County Code, Ch. 4, Sec. 4.20(V). Auburn, CA.
[Ref. C7-15] Brown, J. (1970). “An approach to snow load evaluation.” In
Because h c /h b ≥ 0.2 drift loads must be considered (see Sec- Proc. 38th Western Snow Conference.
tion 7.7.1). [Ref. C7-16] Newark, M. (1984). “A new look at ground snow loads in
Canada.” In Proc. 41st Eastern Snow Conference. Washington, D.C.,
pp. 37–48.
h d (leeward step) = 3.8 ft (1.16 m) [Ref. C7-17] Elliott, M. “Snow load criteria for western United States, case
histories and state-of-the-art.” In Proc. First Western States Conference of
(Fig. 7-9 with pg = 40 lb/ft2 (1.92. kN/m2 ) Structural Engineer Associations. Sun River, OR.
[Ref. C7-18] Lorenzen, R.T. (August 1970). “Observations of snow and wind
and lu = 100 ft [30.5 m])
loads precipitant to building failures in New York State, 1969–1970.” Amer-
h d (windward step) = 3/4 × 4.8 ft (1.5 m) ican Society of Agricultural Engineers North Atlantic Region meeting,
Paper NA 70-305 Newark, DE [available from American Society of Agri-
= 3.6 ft (1.1 m) (4.8 ft [1.5 m] cultural Engineers, St. Joseph, MO].
[Ref. C7-19] Lutes, D.A., and Schriever, W.R. (March 1971). “Snow accumu-
from Fig. 7-9 with pg = 40 lb/ft2 [1.92 kN/m2 ] lation in Canada: Case histories: II. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.” DBR Tech.
Paper 339, NRCC 11915. National Research Council of Canada.
and lu = length of lower roof = 170 ft [52 m]) [Ref. C7-20] Meehan, J.F. “Snow loads and roof failures.” In Proc. 1979
Structural Engineers Association of California. San Francisco, CA [avail-
Leeward drift governs, use h d = 3.8 ft (1.16 m) able from Structural Engineers Association of California].
[Ref. C7-21] Mitchell, G.R. (1978). “Snow loads on roofs—An interim re-
Because h d < h c , port on a survey.” In Wind and Snow Loading. Lancaster, England: The
Construction Press Ltd., pp. 177–190.
h d = 3.8 ft (1.16 m) [Ref. C7-22] Peter, B.G.W., Dalgliesh, W.A., and Schriever, W.R. (April
1963). “Variations of snow loads on roofs.” Trans. Engrg. Inst. Can. 6(A-1):
w = 4h d = 15.2 ft (4.64 m), say 15 ft (4.6 m) 8.
[Ref. C7-23] Schriever, W.R., Faucher, Y., and Lutes, D.A. (January 1967).
pd = h d γ = 3.8(19) = 72 lb/ft2 “Snow accumulation in Canada: Case histories: I. Ottawa, Ontario,
Canada.” NRCC 9287, National Research Council of Canada, Division of
(in SI: pd = 1.16(3.02) = 3.50 kN/m2 ) Building Research.
[Ref. C7-24] Taylor, D.A. (March 1979). “A survey of snow loads on roofs of
arena-type buildings in Canada.” Can. J. Civ. Engrg., 6(1), 85–96.
Rain on Snow Surcharge: A rain-on-snow surcharge load need [Ref. C7-25] Taylor, D.A. (March 1980). “Roof snow loads in Canada.” Can.
not be considered because pg is greater than 20 lb/ft2 (0.96 kN/m2 ). J. Civ. Engrg., 7(1), 1–18.
See Fig. C7-4 for snow loads on both roofs. [Ref. C7-26] O’Rourke, M., Koch, P., and Redfield, R. (1983). “Analysis of
roof snow load case studies: Uniform loads.” CRREL Rep. No. 83-1. U.S.
Dept. of the Army, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory,
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[Ref. C7-1] Ellingwood, B., and Redfield, R. (1983). “Ground snow loads for and ice-dam prevention in residential housing.” University of Minnesota,
structural design.” J. Struct. Engrg. (ASCE), 109(4), 950–964.

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Agricultural Extension Service. Extension Bull. St. Paul, MN, 399. [Ref. C7-47] Taylor, D.A. (June 7–8, 1984). “Snow loads on two-level flat
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[Ref. C7-31] de Marne, H. (July 1988). “Field experience in control and pre- graphic catchments.” Western Snow Conference, Coronado, CA.
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Gaithersburg, MD, pp. 34–44. Engrg. Santa Barbara, CA.
[Ref. C7-33] Tobiasson, W., Buska, J., and Greatorex, A. (Jan. 1998). “Attic [Ref. C7-53] O’Rourke, M. (Nov. 1989). “Discussion of ‘Roof collapse under
ventilation guidelines to minimize icings at eaves.” Interface XVI(1), Roof snow drift loading and snow drift design criteria.’” J. Perform. Const. Fac.
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cathedral ceilings to prevent problematic icings at their eaves.” In Proc. effectiveness of code provisions for snow accumulations on stepped roofs.”
North American Conference on Roofing Technology, September, 1999. Na- In Proc. 2nd International Conf. Snow Engrg. Santa Barbara, CA.
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[Ref. C7-35] National Greenhouse Manufacturers Association. (1988). “De- eling of snow accumulation on large roofs.” In Proc. 2nd International
sign loads in greenhouse structures.” Taylors, SC. Conf. Snow Engrg. Santa Barbara, CA.
[Ref. C7-36] Air Structures Institute. (1977). “Design and standards manual.” [Ref. C7-56] Irwin, P., William, C., Gamle, S., and Retziaff, R. (June 1992).
ASI-77 (available from the Industrial Fabrics Assn. International, St. Paul, “Snow prediction in Toronto and the Andes Mountains; FAE simulation
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Engrg. (ASCE), 114(3), 501−517. Bureau of Standards. NBS-GCR-79 180, Washington, D.C.
[Ref. C7-39] Sack, R., Arnholtz, D., and Haldeman, J. (Aug. 1987). “Sloped [Ref. C7-58] Corotis, R.B., Dowding, C.H., and Rossow, E.C. (Aug. 1979).
roof snow loads using simulation.” J. Struct. Engrg. (ASCE), 113(8), 1820– “Snow and ice accumulation at solar collector installations in the Chicago
1833. metropolitan area.” U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards.
[Ref. C7-40] Taylor, D. (Nov. 1983). “Sliding snow on sloping roofs.” Cana- NBS-GCR-79 181, Washington, D.C.
dian Building Digest 228. National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, [Ref. C7-59] Paine, J.C. (July 1988). “Building design for heavy snow ar-
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[Ref. C7-42] O’Rourke, M., and Auren, M. (Dec. 1997). “Snow loads on gable neering. Fairbanks, AK, ASCE, New York, NY.
roofs.” J. Struct. Engrg. (ASCE), 123(12), 1645–1651. [Ref. C7-61] Colbeck, S.C. (1977). “Snow loads resulting from rain-on-snow.”
[Ref. C7-43] Tobiasson, W. (Apr. 1999). “Discussion of Ref. C7-5642. J. U.S. Dept. of the Army, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Labora-
Struct. Engrg. (ASCE), 125(4), 470–471. tory. CRREL Rep. 77-12, Hanover, NH.
[Ref. C7-44] O’Rourke, M., Tobiasson, W., and Wood, E. (Sept. 1986). “Pro- [Ref. C7-62] Colbeck, S.C. (1977). “Roof loads resulting from rain-on-snow:
posed code provisions for drifted snow loads.” J. Struct. Engrg. (ASCE), Results of a physical model.” Can. J. Civil Engrg., 4, 482–490.
112(9), 2080–2092. [Ref. C7-63] O’Rourke, M., and Downey, C. (2001). “Rain-on-snow surcharge
[Ref. C7-45] O’Rourke, M., Speck, R., and Stiefel, U. (Feb. 1985). “Drift snow for roof design.” J. Struct. Engrg. (ASCE), 127(1), 74–79.
loads on multilevel roofs.” J. Struct. Engrg. (ASCE), 111(2), 290–306. [Ref. C7-64] O’Rourke, M., and Wrenn, P. “Snow loads: A guide to the use
[Ref. C7-46] Speck, R., Jr. “Analysis of snow loads due to drifting on mul- and understanding of the snow load provisions of ASCE 7-02.” ASCE,
tilevel roofs.” Thesis, presented to the Department of Civil Engineering, Reston, VA.
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, in partial fulfillment of the re-
quirements for the degree of Master of Science.
332 ASCE 7-05

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FIGURE C7-1 VALLEY IN WHICH SNOW WILL DRIFT IS CREATED WHEN

NEW GABLE ROOF IS ADDED ALONGSIDE EXISTING GABLE ROOF
6.1 ft
(1.87 m)
2 2 2
6 lb/ft 27.2 lb/ft (1.31 kN/m )
2
2 (0.29 kN/m )
19 lb/ft 2
2 19 lb/ft
(0.92 kN/m ) 2
(0.92 kN/m )
30 ft (9.14 m) 30 ft (9.14 m)
Wind
a) Balanced Condition b) Unbalanced Condition
FIGURE C7-2 DESIGN SNOW LOADS FOR EXAMPLE 1
2 2
38 lb/ft (1.84 kN/m )
2 2
27 lb/ft (1.33 kN/m )
17 lb/ft2 (0.83 kN/m2)
2 2
12 lb/ft (0.60 kN/m ) 9 lb/ft2 (0.41 kN/m2)
30 ft 30 ft 30 ft
(9.1 m) (9.1 m) (9.1 m)
Wind
a. Balanced Condition b. Unbalanced Condition

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334 ASCE 7-05

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TABLE C7-1 GROUND SNOW LOADS AT 204 NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE LOCATIONS WHERE LOAD MEASUREMENTS ARE MADE
Ground Snow Load (lb/ft2 ) Ground Snow Load (lb/ft2 )
Years of Maximum 2% Annual Years of Maximum 2% Annual
Location record observed probabilitya Location record observed probabilitya
ALABAMA MICHIGAN
Birmingham 40 4 3 Alpena 31 34 48
Huntsville 33 7 5 Detroit City 14 6 10
Mobile 40 1 1 Detroit Airport 34 27 18
ARIZONA Detroit-Willow 12 11 22
Flagstaff 38 88 48 Flint 37 20 24
Tucson 40 3 3 Grand Rapids 40 32 36
Winslow 39 12 7 Houghton Lake 28 33 48
ARKANSAS Lansing 35 34 36
Fort Smith 37 6 5 Marquette 16 44 53
Little Rock 24 6 6 Muskegon 40 40 51
CALIFORNIA Sault Ste. Marie 40 68 77
Bishop 31 6 8 MINNESOTA
Blue Canyon 26 213 242 Duluth 40 55 63
Mt. Shasta 32 62 62 International Falls 40 43 44
Red Bluff 34 3 3 Minneapolis-St. Paul 40 34 51
COLORADO Rochester 40 30 47
Alamosa 40 14 14 St. Cloud 40 40 53
Colorado Springs 39 16 14 MISSISSIPPI
Denver 40 22 18 Jackson 40 3 3
Grand Junction 40 18 16 Meridian 39 2 2
Pueblo 33 7 7 MISSOURI
CONNECTICUT Columbia 39 19 20
Bridgeport 39 21 24 Kansas City 40 18 18
Hartford 40 23 33 St. Louis 37 28 21
New Haven 17 11 15 Springfield 39 14 14
DELAWARE MONTANA
Wilmington 39 12 16 Billings 40 21 15
GEORGIA Glasgow 40 18 19
Athens 40 6 5 Great Falls 40 22 15
Atlanta 39 4 3 Havre 26 22 24
Augusta 40 8 7 Helena 40 15 17
Columbus 39 1 1 Kalispell 29 27 45
Macon 40 8 7 Missoula 40 24 22
Rome 28 3 3 NEBRASKA
IDAHO Grand Island 40 24 23
Boise 38 8 9 Lincoln 20 15 22
Lewiston 37 6 9 Norfolk 40 28 25
Pocatello 40 12 10 North Platte 39 16 13
ILLINOIS Omaha 25 23 20
Chicago-O’Hare 32 25 17 Scottsbluff 40 10 12
Chicago 26 37 22 Valentine 26 26 22
Moline 39 21 19 NEVADA
Peoria 39 27 15 Elko 12 12 20
Rockford 26 31 19 Ely 40 10 9
Springfield 40 20 21 Las Vegas 39 3 3
INDIANA Reno 39 12 11
Evansville 40 12 17 Winnemucca 39 7 7
Fort Wayne 40 23 20 NEW HAMPSHIRE
Indianapolis 40 19 22 Concord 40 43 63
South Bend 39 58 41 NEW JERSEY
IOWA Atlantic City 35 12 15
Burlington 11 15 17 Newark 39 18 15
Des Moines 40 22 22 NEW MEXICO
Dubuque 39 34 32 Albuquerque 40 6 4
Sioux City 38 28 28 Clayton 34 8 10
Waterloo 33 25 32 Roswell 22 6 8
KANSAS NEW YORK
Concordia 30 12 17 Albany 40 26 27
Dodge City 40 10 14 Binghamton 40 30 35
Goodland 39 12 15 Buffalo 40 41 39
Topeka 40 18 17 NYC - Kennedy 18 8 15
Wichita 40 10 14 NYC - LaGuardia 40 23 16
KENTUCKY Rochester 40 33 38
Covington 40 22 13 Syracuse 40 32 32
Jackson 11 12 18 NORTH CAROLINA
Lexington 40 15 13 Asheville 28 7 14
Louisville 39 11 12 Cape Hatteras 34 5 5
LOUISIANA Charlotte 40 8 11
Alexandria 17 2 2 Greensboro 40 14 11
Shreveport 40 4 3 Raleigh-Durham 36 13 14
MAINE Wilmington 39 14 7
Caribou 34 68 95 Winston-Salem 12 14 20
Portland 39 51 60 NORTH DAKOTA
MARYLAND Bismark 40 27 27
Baltimore 40 20 22 Fargo 39 27 41
MASSACHUSETTS Williston 40 28 27
Boston 39 25 34 OHIO
Nantucket 16 14 24 Akron-Canton 40 16 14
Worcester 33 29 44 Cleveland 40 27 19

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TABLE C7-1 GROUND SNOW LOADS AT 204 NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE LOCATIONS WHERE LOAD MEASUREMENTS ARE MADE
Ground Snow Load (lb/ft2 ) Ground Snow Load (lb/ft2 )
Years of Maximum 2% Annual Years of Maximum 2% Annual
Location record observed probabilitya Location record observed probabilitya
Columbus 40 11 11 Austin 39 2 2
Dayton 40 18 11 Dallas 23 3 3
Mansfield 30 31 17 El Paso 38 8 8
Toledo Express 36 10 10 Fort Worth 39 5 4
Youngstown 40 14 10 Lubbock 40 9 11
OKLAHOMA Midland 38 4 4
Oklahoma City 40 10 8 San Angelo 40 3 3
Tulsa 40 5 8 San Antonio 40 9 4
OREGON Waco 40 3 2
Astoria 26 2 3 Wichita Falls 40 4 5
Burns City 39 21 23 UTAH
Eugene 37 22 10 Milford 23 23 14
Medford 40 6 6 Salt Lake City 40 11 11
Pendleton 40 9 13 Wendover 13 2 3
Portland 39 10 8 VERMONT
Salem 39 5 7 Burlington 40 43 36
Sexton Summit 14 48 64 VIRGINIA
PENNSYLVANIA Dulles Airport 29 15 23
Allentown 40 16 23 Lynchburg 40 13 18
Erie 32 20 18 National Airport 40 16 22
Harrisburg 19 21 23 Norfolk 38 9 10
Philadelphia 39 13 14 Richmond 40 11 16
Pittsburgh 40 27 20 Roanoke 40 14 20
Scranton 37 13 18 WASHINGTON
Williamsport 40 18 21 Olympia 40 23 22
RHODE ISLAND Quillayute 25 21 15
Providence 39 22 23 Seattle-Tacoma 40 15 18
SOUTH CAROLINA Spokane 40 36 42
Charleston 39 2 2 Stampede Pass 36 483 516
Columbia 38 9 8 Yakima 39 19 30
Florence 23 3 3 WEST VIRGINIA
Greenville-Spartanburg 24 6 7 Beckley 20 20 30
SOUTH DAKOTA Charleston 38 21 18
Aberdeen 27 23 43 Elkins 32 22 18
Huron 40 41 46 Huntington 30 15 19
Rapid City 40 14 15 WISCONSIN
Sioux Falls 39 40 40 Green Bay 40 37 36
TENNESSEE La Crosse 16 23 32
Bristol 40 7 9 Madison 40 32 35
Chattanooga 40 6 6 Milwaukee 40 34 29
Knoxville 40 10 9 WYOMING
Memphis 40 7 6 Casper 40 9 10
Nashville 40 6 9 Cheyenne 40 18 18
TEXAS Lander 39 26 24
Abilene 40 6 6 Sheridan 40 20 23
Amarillo 39 15 10
a It
is not appropriate to use only the site-specific information in this table for design purposes. Reasons are given in Section C7.2.
NOTE: To convert lb/ft2 to kN/m2 , multiply by 0.0479.
TABLE C7-2 COMPARISON OF SOME SITE-SPECIFIC VALUES AND ZONED VALUES IN FIG. 7.1
Elevation, Zoned value Case Study Valuea
State Location ft (m) lb/ft2 (kN/m2 ) lb/ft2 (kN/m2 )
California Mount Hamilton 4,210 (1,283) 0 to 2,400 ft (732 m) 30 (1.44)
0 to 3,500 ft (1,067 m)
Arizona Palisade Ranger Station 7,950 (2,423) 5 to 4,600 ft (0.24 to 1,402 m) 120 (5.75)
10 to 5,000 ft (0.48 to 1,524 m)
Tennessee Monteagle 1,940 (591) 10 to 1,800 ft (0.48 to 549 m) 15 (0.72)
Maine Sunday River Ski Area 900 (274) 90 to 700 ft (4.31 to 213 m) 100 (4.79)
a Based on a detailed study of information in the vicinity of each location.
TABLE C7-3 FACTORS FOR CONVERTING FROM OTHER

ANNUAL PROBABILITIES OF BEING EXCEEDED, AND
OTHER MEAN RECURRENCE INTERVALS, TO THAT USED
IN THIS STANDARD
Annual Probability Mean
of Being Exceeded Recurrence Multiplication
(%) Interval (yr) Factor
10 10 1.82
4 25 1.20
3.3 30 1.15
1 100 0.82
336 ASCE 7-05

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Chapter C8
RAIN LOADS
C8.1 SYMBOLS AND NOTATION The flow rate through a single drainage system is as follows:
A = roof area serviced by a single drainage system, in ft2 (m2 ) Q = 0.0104Ai (C8-1)
i = design rainfall intensity as specified by the code having −6
jurisdiction, in./h (mm/h) (in SI:Q = 0.278 × 10 Ai )
Q = flow rate out of a single drainage system, in gal/min ( m3 /s) The hydraulic head, dh , is related to flow rate, Q, for various
drainage systems in Table C8-1. That table indicates that dh can
vary considerably depending on the type and size of each drainage
C8.2 ROOF DRAINAGE system and the flow rate it must handle. For this reason the single
value of 1 in. (25 mm) (i.e., 5 lb/ft2 (0.24 kN/m2 )) used in ASCE
Roof drainage systems are designed to handle all the flow asso- 7-93 has been eliminated.
ciated with intense, short-duration rainfall events. For example,
the 1993 BOCA National Plumbing Code [Ref. C8-1], and Fac- The hydraulic head, dh , is zero when the secondary drainage
tory Mutual Loss Prevention Data 1–54, “Roof Loads for New system is simply overflow all along a roof edge.
Construction” [Ref. C8-2] use a 1-h duration event with a 100-yr
return period; the 1994 Standard Plumbing Code [Ref. C8-3] uses C8.4 PONDING INSTABILITY
1-h and 15-min duration events with 100-yr return periods for the
primary and secondary drainage systems, respectively, and the Water may accumulate as ponds on relatively flat roofs. As addi-
1990 National Building Code [Ref. C8-4] of Canada uses a 15- tional water flows to such areas, the roof tends to deflect more,
min event with a 10-yr return period. A very severe local storm or allowing a deeper pond to form there. If the structure does not
thunderstorm may produce a deluge of such intensity and duration possess enough stiffness to resist this progression, failure by lo-
that properly designed primary drainage systems are temporarily calized overloading may result. References [C8-1 through C8-16]
overloaded. Such temporary loads are adequately covered in de- contain information on ponding and its importance in the design
sign when blocked drains (see Section 8.3) and ponding instability of flexible roofs. Rational design methods to preclude instability
(see Section 8.4) are considered. from ponding are presented in Refs. [C8-5 and C8-6].
Roof drainage is a structural, architectural and mechanical By providing roofs with a slope of 1/4 in./ft (1.19◦ ) or more,
(plumbing) issue. The type and location of secondary drains and ponding instability can be avoided. If the slope is less than 1/4 in./ft
the hydraulic head above their inlets at the design flow must be (1.19◦ ), the roof structure must be checked for ponding instability
known in order to determine rain loads. Design team coordination because construction tolerances and long-term deflections under
is particularly important when establishing rain loads. dead load can result in flat portions susceptible to ponding.
C8.5 CONTROLLED DRAINAGE

C8.3 DESIGN RAIN LOADS
In some areas of the country, ordinances are in effect that limit the
The amount of water that could accumulate on a roof from block- rate of rainwater flow from roofs into storm drains. Controlled-
age of the primary drainage system is determined and the roof flow drains are often used on such roofs. Those roofs must be
is designed to withstand the load created by that water plus the capable of sustaining the storm water temporarily stored on them.
uniform load caused by water that rises above the inlet of the sec- Many roofs designed with controlled-flow drains have a design
ondary drainage systems at its design flow. If parapet walls, cant rain load of 30 lb/ft2 (1.44 kN/m2 ) and are equipped with a sec-
strips, expansion joints, and other features create the potential for ondary drainage system (for example, scuppers) that prevents
deep water in an area, it may be advisable to install in that area water depths (ds + dh ) greater than 5.75 (145 mm) in. on the
secondary (overflow) drains with separate drain lines rather than roof.
overflow scuppers to reduce the magnitude of the design rain load.
Where geometry permits, free discharge is the preferred form of Examples
emergency drainage. The following two examples illustrate the method used to establish
When determining these water loads, it is assumed that the roof design rain loads based on Chapter 8 of this standard.
does not deflect. This eliminates complexities associated with de-
termining the distribution of water loads within deflection depres-
Example 1: Determine the design rain load, R, at the sec-
sions. However, it is quite important to consider this water when
ondary drainage for the roof plan shown in Fig. C8-1, located
assessing ponding instability in Section 8.4.
at a site in Birmingham, AL. The design rainfall intensity, i,
The depth of water, dh , above the inlet of the secondary drainage specified by the plumbing code for a 100-yr, 1-h rainfall is
system (i.e., the hydraulic head) is a function of the rainfall inten- 3.75 in./h (95 mm/h). The inlet of the 4 in. diameter (102 mm)
sity at the site, the area of roof serviced by that drainage system, secondary roof drains are set 2 in. (51 mm) above the roof
and the size of the drainage system. surface.

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Flow rate, Q, for the secondary drainage 4 in. diameter (102 Static head, ds = 2 in. (51 mm); depth of water from the scupper
mm) roof drain: inlet to the roof surface.
Q = 0.0104Ai (C8-1) Design rain load, R, adjacent to the scuppers:
Q = 0.0104(2500)(3.75) = 97.5 gal/min (0.0062 m /s) 3
R = 5.2(dh + ds )
Hydraulic head, dh : R = 5.2(2 + 3) = 26 psf (1.2 kN/m2 )
Using Table C8-1, for a 4 in. diameter (102 mm) roof drain with
a flow rate of 97.5 gal/min (0.0062 m3 /s) interpolate between a
hydraulic head of 1 and 2 in. (25 mm and 51 mm) as follows: REFERENCES
[Ref. C8-1] Building Officials and Code Administrators International. (Jan.
dh = 1 + [(97.5 − 80) ÷ (170 − 80)] = 1.19 in. 30.2 mm) 1993). The BOCA National Plumbing Code/1993. BOCA Inc., Country
Static head ds = 2 in. (51 mm); the water depth from drain inlet Club Hills, IL.
to the roof surface. [Ref. C8-2] Factory Mutual Engineering Corp. (Aug. 1991). “Loss Prevention
Data 1–54, Roof Loads for New Construction.” Norwood, MA.
Design rain load, R, adjacent to the drains: [Ref. C8-3] Southern Building Code Congress International. (1991). Standard
Plumbing Code, 1991 Ed. SBCCI Inc., Birmingham, AL.
R = 5.2(ds + dh ) (8-1) [Ref. C8-4] Associate Committee on the National Building Code. (Jan. 1990).
National Building Code of Canada 1990, National Research Council of
R = 5.2(2 + 1.19) = 16.6 psf (0.80 kN/m ) 2
Canada, Ottawa, Ontario.
[Ref. C8-5] American Institute of Steel Construction. (June 1989). “Specifi-
cation for structural steel for buildings, allowable stress design and plastic
Example 2: Determine the design rain load, R, at the sec- design.” AISC, New York.
ondary drainage for the roof plan shown in Fig. C8-2, located [Ref. C8-6] American Institute of Steel Construction. (Sept. 1986). “Load and
at a site in Los Angeles, CA. The design rainfall intensity, i, resistance factor design specification for structural steel buildings.” AISC,
specified by the plumbing code for a 100-yr, 1-h rainfall is New York.
1.5 in./h (38 mm/h). The inlet of the 12 in. (305 mm) sec- [Ref. C8-7] American Institute of Timber Construction. (Dec. 1978). “Roof
ondary roof scuppers are set 2 in. (51 mm) above the roof slope and drainage for flat or nearly flat roofs.” AITC Tech. Note No. 5,
Englewood, CO.
surface. [Ref. C8-8] Burgett, L.B. (First quarter, 1973). “Fast check for ponding.” Eng.
J. Am. Inst. Steel Construction, 10(1), 26–28.
Flow rate, Q, for the secondary drainage, 12 in. (305 mm) wide [Ref. C8-9] Chinn, J., Mansouri, A.H., and Adams, S.F. (May 1969). “Ponding
of liquids on flat roofs.” J. Struct. Div. (ASCE), 95(ST5), 797–808.
channel scupper: [Ref. C8-10] Chinn, J. (April 1965). “Failure of simply supported flat roofs
Q = 0.0104Ai (C8-1) by ponding of rain.” Eng. J. Am. Inst. Steel Construction, 3(2), 38–41.
[Ref. C8-11] Haussler, R.W. (Oct. 1962). “Roof deflection caused by rainwater
Q = 0.0104(11,500)(1.5) = 179 gal/min (0.0113 m /s) 3
pools.” Civil Eng., 32, 58–59.
[Ref. C8-12] Heinzerling, J.E. (May 1971). “Structural design of steel joist
Hydraulic head, dh : roofs to resist ponding loads.” Tech. Dig. No. 3. Steel Joist Institute,
Using Table C8-1, by interpolation, the flow rate for a 12 in. Arlington, VA.
[Ref. C8-13] Marino, F.J. (July 1966). “Ponding of two-way roof systems.”
(305 mm) wide channel scupper is twice that of a 6 in. (152 mm) Eng. J. Am. Inst. Steel Construction, 3(3), 93–100.
wide channel scupper. Using Table C8-1, the hydraulic head, dh , [Ref. C8-14] Salama, A.E., and Moody, M.L. (Feb. 1967). “Analysis of beams
for one-half the flow rate, Q, or 90 gal/min (0.0057 m3 /s), through and plates for ponding loads.” J. Struct. Div. (ASCE), 93(ST1), 109–126.
a 6 in. (152 mm) wide channel scupper is 3 in. (76 mm). [Ref. C8-15] Sawyer, D.A. (Feb. 1967). “Ponding of rainwater on flexible
roof systems.” J. Struct. Div. (ASCE), 93(ST1), 127–148.
dh = 3 in. (76 mm) for a 12 in. wide (305 mm) channel scupper [Ref. C8-16] Sawyer, D.A. (Jan. 1969). “Roof-structural roof-drainage inter-
with a flow rate, Q, of 179 gal/min (0.0113 m3 /s). actions.” J. Struct. Div. (ASCE), 94(ST1), 175–198.
338 ASCE 7-05

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FIGURE C8-1 EXAMPLE 1 ROOF PLAN FIGURE C8-2 EXAMPLE 2 ROOF PLAN

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TABLE C8-1 FLOW RATE, Q, IN GALLONS PER MINUTE OF VARIOUS DRAINAGE SYSTEMS AT VARIOUS HYDRAULIC HEADS, dh IN
INCHES [REF. C8-2]
Hydraulic Head dh , in.
Drainage System 1 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 7 8

4 in. diameter drain 80 170 180
6 in. diameter drain 100 190 270 380 540
8 in. diameter drain 125 230 340 560 850 1,100 1,170
6 in. wide, channel scupperb 18 50 a 90 a 140 a 194 321 393
24 in. wide, channel scupper 72 200 a 360 a 560 a 776 1,284 1,572
6 in. wide, 4 in. high, closed scupperb 18 50 a 90 a 140 a 177 231 253
24 in. wide, 4 in. high, closed scupper 72 200 a 360 a 560 a 708 924 1,012
6 in. wide, 6 in. high, closed scupper 18 50 a 90 a 140 a 194 303 343
24 in. wide, 6 in. high, closed scupper 72 200 a 360 a 560 a 776 1,212 1,372
a Interpolation is appropriate, including between widths of each scupper.
b Channel scuppers are open-topped (i.e., 3-sided). Closed scuppers are 4-sided.
TABLE C8-2 IN SI, FLOW RATE, Q, IN CUBIC METERS PER SECOND OF VARIOUS DRAINAGE SYSTEMS AT VARIOUS HYDRAULIC
HEADS, dh IN MILLIMETERS
Hydraulic Head dh , mm
Drainage System 25 51 64 76 89 102 114 127 178 203

102 mm diameter drain .0051 .0107 .0114
152 mm diameter drain .0063 .0120 .0170 .0240 .0341
203 mm diameter drain .0079 .0145 .0214 .0353 .0536 .0694 .0738
152 mm wide, channel scupperb .0011 .0032 a .0057 a .0088 a .0122 .0202 .0248
610 mm wide, channel scupper .0045 .0126 a .0227 a .0353 a .0490 .0810 .0992
152 mm wide, 102 mm high, closed scupperb .0011 .0032 a .0057 a .0088 a .0112 .0146 .0160
610 mm wide, 102 mm high, closed scupper .0045 .0126 a .0227 a .0353 a .0447 .0583 .0638
a Interpolation is appropriate, including between widths of each scupper.
b Channel scuppers are open-topped (i.e., 3-sided). Closed scuppers are 4-sided.
340 ASCE 7-05

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Commentary-10.tex ASCE003/SIE-v1.cls October 15, 2005 11:5
Chapter C10
ICE LOADS—ATMOSPHERIC ICING
C10.1 GENERAL Texas and Oklahoma, the United States Forest Service specifies
ice loads due to in-cloud icing for towers constructed at specific
In most of the contiguous United States, freezing rain is con-
mountaintop sites [Ref. C10-8]. Severe in-cloud icing has been
sidered the cause of the most severe ice loads. Values for ice
observed in southern California [Refs. C10-9, C10-10], eastern
thicknesses due to in-cloud icing and snow suitable for inclusion
Colorado [Ref. C10-3, Feb. 1978], the Pacific Northwest [Refs.
in this standard are not currently available.
C10-11, C10-12, C10-13], Alaska [Ref. C10-14], and the Ap-
Very few sources of direct information or observations of nat- palachians [Refs. C10-15, C10-16, C10-17, C10-18, C10-19].
urally occurring ice accretions (of any type) are available. Ref-
Snow accretions also can result in severe structural loads and
erence [C10-1] presents the geographical distribution of the oc-
may occur anywhere snow falls, even in localities that may ex-
currence of ice on utility wires from data compiled by various
perience only one or two snow events per year. Some exam-
railroad, electric power, and telephone associations in the 9-yr
ples of locations where snow accretion events resulted in signifi-
period from the winter of 1928–1929 to the winter of 1936–1937.
cant damage to structures are Nebraska [Ref. C10-20], Maryland
The data includes measurements of all forms of ice accretion on
[Ref. C10-21], Pennsylvania [Ref. C10-22], Georgia and
wires including glaze ice, rime ice, and accreted snow, but does
North Carolina [Ref. C10-23], Colorado [Ref. C10-24], Alaska
not differentiate between them. Ice thicknesses were measured on
[Ref. C10-25], and the Pacific Northwest [Refs. C10-26, C10-27].
wires of various diameters, heights above ground, and exposures.
No standardized technique was used in measuring the thickness. For Alaska, available information indicates that moderate to se-
The maximum ice thickness observed during the 9-yr period in vere snow and in-cloud icing can be expected. The measurements
each of 975 squares, 60 mi (97 km) on a side, in a grid covering the made by Golden Valley Electric Association [Ref. C10-25] are
contiguous United States is reported. In every state except Florida, consistent in magnitude with visual observations across a broad
thickness measurements of accretions with unknown densities of area of central Alaska [Ref. C10-28]. Several meteorological stud-
approximately one radial inch were reported. Information on the ies using an ice accretion model to estimate ice loads have been
geographical distribution of the number of storms in this 9-yr pe- performed for high-voltage transmission lines in Alaska [Refs.
riod with ice accretions greater than specified thicknesses is also C10-29, C10-30, C10-31, C10-32, C10-33, C10-34]. Estimated
included. 50-yr mean recurrence interval accretion thicknesses from snow
range from 1.0 to 5.5 in. (25 to 140 mm), and in-cloud ice accre-
Tattelman and Gringorten [Ref. C10-2] reviewed ice load data,
tions from 0.5 to 6.0 in. (12 to 150 mm). The assumed accretion
storm descriptions, and damage estimates in several meteorologi-
densities for snow and in-cloud ice accretions, respectively, were
cal publications to estimate maximum ice thicknesses with a 50-yr
5 to 31 lb/ft3 (80 to 500 kg/m3 ) and 25 lb/ft3 (400 kg/m3 ). These
Mean Recurrence Interval in each of seven regions in the United
loads are valid only for the particular regions studied and are
States. Storm Data [Ref. C10-3] is a monthly publication that
highly dependent on the elevation and local terrain features.
describes damage from storms of all sorts throughout the United
States. The compilation of this qualitative information on storms In Hawaii, for areas where freezing rain [Ref. C10-35], snow,
causing damaging ice accretions in a particular region can be used and in-cloud icing are known to occur at higher elevations, site-
to estimate the severity of ice and wind-on-ice loads. The Electric specific meteorological investigations are needed.
Power Research Institute has compiled a database of icing events Local records and experience should be considered when es-
from the reports in Storm Data [Ref. C10-4]. Damage severity tablishing the design ice thickness and concurrent wind speed.
maps were also prepared. In determining equivalent radial ice thicknesses from historical
References [C10-5, C10-6] provide information on freezing weather data, the quality, completeness, and accuracy of the data
rain climatology for the 48 contiguous states based on recent should be considered along with the robustness of the ice ac-
meteorological data. cretion algorithm. Meteorological stations may be closed by ice
storms because of power outages, anemometers may be iced over,
C10.1.1 Site-Specific Studies. In-cloud icing may cause signif- and hourly precipitation data recorded only after the storm when
icant loadings on ice-sensitive structures in mountainous regions the ice in the rain gauge melts. These problems are likely to be
and for very tall structures in other areas. Mulherin [Ref. C10-7] more severe at automatic weather stations where observers are
reports that of 120 communications tower failures in the United not available to estimate the weather parameters or correct erro-
States due to atmospheric icing, 38 were due to in-cloud icing, and neous readings. Note also that (1) air temperatures are recorded
in-cloud icing combined with freezing rain caused an additional only to the nearest 1◦ F, at best, and may vary significantly from
26 failures. In-cloud ice accretion is very sensitive to the degree the recorded value in the region around the weather station;
of exposure to moisture-laden clouds, which is related to terrain, (2) the wind speed during freezing rain has a significant effect
elevation, and wind direction and velocity. Large differences in on the accreted ice load on objects oriented perpendicular to the
accretion size can occur over a few hundred feet and cause severe wind direction; (3) wind speed and direction vary with terrain and
load unbalances in overhead wire systems. Advice from a mete- exposure; (4) enhanced precipitation may occur on the windward
orologist familiar with the area is particularly valuable in these side of mountainous terrain; and (5) ice may remain on the struc-
circumstances. In Arizona, New Mexico, and the panhandles of ture for days or weeks after freezing rain ends, subjecting the iced

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structure to wind speeds that may be significantly higher than to ice loads depends on the size and number of structural mem-
those that accompanied the freezing rain. These factors should bers, components, and appurtenances and also on the other loads
be considered both in estimating the accreted ice thickness at a for which the structure is designed. For example, the additional
weather station in past storms and in extrapolating those thick- weight of ice that may accrete on a heavy wide-flange member will
nesses to a specific site. be smaller in proportion to the dead load than the same ice thick-
ness on a light angle member. Also, the percentage increase in
In using local data, it must also be emphasized that sampling er-
projected area for wind loads will be smaller for the wide-flange
rors can lead to large uncertainties in the specification of the 50-yr
member than for the angle member. For some open structures
ice thickness. Sampling errors are the errors associated with the
other design loads, for example, snow loads and live loads on a
limited size of the climatological data samples (years of record).
catwalk floor, may be larger than the design ice load.
When local records of limited extent are used to determine ex-
treme ice thicknesses, care should be exercised in their use. IN-CLOUD ICING: This icing condition occurs when a cloud
or fog (consisting of supercooled water droplets 100 m or less in
A robust ice accretion algorithm will not be sensitive to small
diameter) encounters a surface that is at or below-freezing tem-
changes in input variables. For example, because temperatures
perature. It occurs in mountainous areas where adiabatic cooling
are normally recorded in whole degrees, the calculated amount
causes saturation of the atmosphere to occur at temperatures be-
of ice accreted should not be sensitive to temperature changes of
low freezing, in free air in supercooled clouds, and in supercooled
fractions of a degree.
fogs produced by a stable air mass with a strong temperature
C10.1.2 Dynamic Loads. While design for dynamic loads is not inversion. In-cloud ice accretions can reach thicknesses of 1 ft
specifically addressed in this edition of the standard, the effects (0.30 m) or more since the icing conditions can include high winds
of dynamic loads are an important consideration for some ice- and typically persist or recur episodically during long periods of
sensitive structures and should be considered in the design when subfreezing temperatures. Large concentrations of supercooled
they are anticipated to be significant. For example, large ampli- droplets are not common at air temperatures below about 0 ◦ F
tude galloping [Refs. C10-36 Section 6.2, C10-37] of guys and (−18 ◦ C).
overhead cable systems occurs in many areas. The motion of the In-cloud ice accretions have densities ranging from that of low-
cables can cause damage due to direct impact of the cables on density rime to glaze. When convective and evaporative cooling
other cables or structures and can also cause damage due to wear removes the heat of fusion as fast as it is released by the freez-
and fatigue of the cables and other components of the structure ing droplets, the drops freeze on impact. When the cooling rate
[Ref. C10-38]. Ice shedding from the guys on guyed masts can is lower, the droplets do not completely freeze on impact. The
cause substantial dynamic loads in the mast. unfrozen water then spreads out on the object and may flow com-
C10.1.3 Exclusions. Additional guidance is available in [Refs. pletely around it and even drip off to form icicles. The degree to
C10-39, C10-40, C10-41]. which the droplets spread as they collide with the structure and
freeze governs how much air is incorporated in the accretion and
thus its density. The density of ice accretions due to in-cloud icing
C10.2 DEFINITIONS varies over a wide range from 5 to 56 pcf (80 to 900 kg/m3 ) [Refs.
C10-44, C10-45]. The resulting accretion can be either white or
FREEZING RAIN: Freezing rain occurs when warm moist air clear, possibly with attached icicles; see Fig. C10-2.
is forced over a layer of subfreezing air at the earth’s surface.
The precipitation usually begins as snow that melts as it falls The amount of ice accreted during in-cloud icing depends on
through the layer of warm air aloft. The drops then cool as they fall the size of the accreting object, the duration of the icing condi-
through the cold surface air layer and freeze on contact with struction, and the wind speed. If, as often occurs, wind speed increases
tures or the ground. Upper air data indicates that the cold surface and air temperature decreases with height above ground, larger
air layer is typically between 1,000 and 3,900 ft (300 and 1,200 m) amounts of ice will accrete on taller structures. The accretion
thick [Ref. C10-42], averaging 1,600 ft (500 m) [Ref. C10-43]. shape depends on the flexibility of the structural member, com-
The warm air layer aloft averages 5,000 ft (1,500 m) thick in ponent, or appurtenance. If it is free to rotate, such as a long guy
freezing rain, but in freezing drizzle the entire temperature profile or a long span of a single conductor or wire, the ice accretes with
may be below 32 ◦ F (0 ◦ C) [Ref. C10-43]. a roughly circular cross-section. On more rigid structural mem-
bers, components, and appurtenances, the ice forms in irregular
Precipitation rates and wind speeds are typically low to moder- pennant shapes extending into the wind.
ate in freezing rain storms. In freezing rain the water impingement
rate is often greater than the freezing rate. The excess water drips HOARFROST: Hoarfrost, which is often confused with rime,
off and may freeze as icicles, resulting in a variety of accretion forms by a completely different process. Hoarfrost is an accumu-
shapes that range from a smooth cylindrical sheath, through a lation of ice crystals formed by direct deposition of water vapor
crescent on the windward side with icicles hanging on the bot- from the air on an exposed object. Because it forms on objects
tom, to large irregular protuberances, see Fig. C10-1. The shape of with surface temperatures that have fallen below the frost point (a
an accretion depends on a combination of varying meteorological dew point temperature below freezing) of the surrounding air due
factors and the cross-sectional shape of the structural member, its to strong radiational cooling, hoarfrost is often found early in the
spatial orientation, and flexibility. morning after a clear, cold night. It is feathery in appearance and
Note that the theoretical maximum density of ice (917 kg/m3 typically accretes up to about 1 in. (25 mm) in thickness with very
or 57 lb/ft3 ) is never reached in naturally formed accretions due little weight. Hoarfrost does not constitute a significant loading
to the presence of air bubbles. problem; however, it is a very good collector of supercooled fog
droplets. In light winds a hoarfrost-coated wire may accrete rime
ICE-SENSITIVE STRUCTURES: Ice-sensitive structures faster than a bare wire [Ref. C10-46].
are structures for which the load effects from atmospheric ic-
ing control the design of part or all of the structural system. Many SNOW: Under certain conditions snow falling on objects may
open structures are efficient ice collectors, so ice accretions can adhere due to capillary forces, inter-particle freezing [Ref. C10-
have a significant load effect. The sensitivity of an open structure 47], and/or sintering [Ref. C10-48]. On objects with circular
344 ASCE 7-05

P1: JsY
cross-section such as a wire, cable, conductor, or guy, sliding, was obtained about damaging freezing rain storms in Alaska, per-
deformation, and/or torsional rotation of the underlying cable haps because of the low population density and relatively sparse
may occur, resulting in the formation of a cylindrical sleeve, even newspaper coverage in the state.
around bundled conductors and wires; see Fig. C10-3. Since ac-
Extreme ice thicknesses were determined from an extreme
creting snow is often accompanied by high winds, the density
value analysis using the peaks-over-threshold method and the gen-
of accretions may be much higher than the density of the same
eralized Pareto distribution [Refs. C10-55, C10-56, C10-57]. To
snowfall on the ground.
reduce sampling error, weather stations were grouped into super-
Damaging snow accretions have been observed at surface air stations [Ref. C10-58] based on the incidence of severe storms,
temperatures ranging from about 23 to 36 ◦ F (−5 to 2 ◦ C). Snow the frequency of freezing rain storms, latitude, proximity to large
with a high moisture content appears to stick more readily than bodies of water, elevation, and terrain. Concurrent wind-on-ice
drier snow. Snow falling at a surface air temperature above freez- speeds were back-calculated from the extreme wind-on-ice load
ing may accrete even at wind speeds above 25 mi/h (10 m/s), pro- and the extreme ice thickness. The analysis of the weather data
ducing dense 37 to 50 pcf (600 to 800 kg/m3 ) accretions. Snow and the calculation of extreme ice thicknesses are described in
with a lower moisture content is not as sticky, blowing off the more detail in [Ref. C10-27].
structure in high winds. These accreted snow densities are typi-
This map represents the most consistent and best available na-
cally between 2.5 and 16 pcf (40 and 250 kg/m3 ) [Ref. C10-49].
tionwide map for nominal design ice thicknesses and wind-on-ice
Even apparently dry snow can accrete on structures [Ref. C10- speeds. The icing model used to produce the map has not, how-
50]. The cohesive strength of the dry snow is initially supplied ever, been verified with a large set of collocated measurements of
by the interlocking of the flakes and ultimately by sintering, as meteorological data and uniform radial ice thicknesses. Further-
molecular diffusion increases the bond area between adjacent more, the weather stations used to develop this map are almost
snowflakes. These dry snow accretions appear to form only in all at airports. Structures in more exposed locations at higher ele-
very low winds and have densities estimated at between 5 and 10 vations or in valleys or gorges, for example, Signal and Lookout
pcf (80 and 150 kg/m3 ) [Refs. C10-28, C10-51]. Mountains in Tennessee, the Ponatock Ridge and the edge of
the Yazoo Basin in Mississippi, the Shenandoah Valley and Poor
Mountain in Virginia, Mt. Washington in New Hampshire, and
C10.4 ICE LOADS DUE TO FREEZING RAIN
Buffalo Ridge in Minnesota and South Dakota, may be subject to
C10.4.1 Ice Weight. The ice thicknesses shown in Figs. 10-2 larger ice thicknesses and higher concurrent wind speeds. On the
through 10-6 were determined for a horizontal cylinder oriented other hand, structures in more sheltered locations, for example,
perpendicular to the wind. These ice thicknesses cannot be applied along the north shore of Lake Superior within 300 vertical feet of
directly to cross-sections that are not round, such as channels and the lake, may be subject to smaller ice thicknesses and lower con-
angles. However, the ice area from Eq. 10-1 is the same for all current wind speeds. Loads from snow or in-cloud icing may be
shapes for which the circumscribed circles have equal diameters. more severe than those from freezing rain (see Section C10.1.1).
It is assumed that the maximum dimension of the cross-section is
Special Icing Regions. Special icing regions are identified on the
perpendicular to the trajectory of the raindrops. Similarly the ice
map. As described above, freezing rain occurs only under special
volume in Eq. 10-2 is for a flat plate perpendicular to the trajectory
conditions when a cold, relatively shallow layer of air at the sur-
of the raindrops. For vertical cylinders and horizontal cylinders
face is overrun by warm, moist air aloft. For this reason, severe
parallel to the wind direction the ice area given by Eq. 10-1 is
freezing rain storms at high elevations in mountainous terrain will
conservative.
typically not occur in the same weather systems that cause severe
C10.4.2 Nominal Ice Thickness. The 50-year mean recurrence freezing rain storms at the nearest airport with a weather station.
interval ice thicknesses shown in Figs. 10-2 to 10-6 are based on Furthermore, in these regions ice thicknesses and wind-on-ice
studies using an ice accretion model and local data. loads may vary significantly over short distances because of local
variations in elevation, topography, and exposure. In these moun-
Historical weather data from 500 National Weather Service
tainous regions, the values given in Fig. 10-1 should be adjusted,
(NWS), military, Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), and En-
based on local historical records and experience, to account for
vironment Canada weather stations were used with the CRREL
possibly higher ice loads from both freezing rain and in cloud
and Simple ice accretion models [Refs. C10-52, C10-53] to es-
icing (see Section C10.1.1).
timate uniform radial glaze ice thicknesses in past freezing rain
storms. For the 2005 edition of ASCE 7, the models and algo- C10.4.4 Importance Factors. The importance factors for ice
rithms used to map the Eastern Region in ASCE 7-02 [Ref. C10- and concurrent wind adjust the nominal ice thickness and concur-
54] have been applied to the rest of the contiguous 48 states and rent wind pressure for Category I structures from a 50-yr mean
Alaska. The station locations are shown in Fig. C10-4 for the recurrence interval to a 25-yr mean recurrence interval. For Cat-
48 contiguous states and in Fig. 10-6 for Alaska. The period of egory III and IV structures, they are adjusted to a 100-yr mean
record of the meteorological data at any station is typically 20 to recurrence interval. The concurrent wind speed used with the
50 years. The ice accretion models use weather and precipitation nominal ice thickness is based on both the winds that occur dur-
data to simulate the accretion of ice on cylinders 33 ft (10 m) ing the freezing rain storm and those that occur between the time
above the ground, oriented perpendicular to the wind direction the freezing rain stops and the time the temperature rises to above
in freezing rain storms. Accreted ice is assumed to remain on the freezing. When the temperature rises above freezing, it is assumed
cylinder until after freezing rain ceases and the air temperature in- that the ice melts enough to fall from the structure. In the colder
creases to at least 33 ◦ F (0.6 ◦ C). At each station, the maximum ice northern regions, the ice will generally stay on structures for a
thickness and the maximum wind-on-ice load were determined longer period of time following the end of a storm resulting in
for each storm. Severe storms, those with significant ice or wind- higher concurrent wind speeds. The results of the extreme value
on-ice loads at one or more weather stations, were researched analysis show that the concurrent wind speed does not change
in Storm Data [Ref. C10-3], newspapers, and utility reports to significantly with mean recurrence interval. The lateral wind-on-
obtain corroborating qualitative information on the extent of and ice load does, however, increase with mean recurrence interval
damage from the storm. Yet very little corroborating information because the ice thickness increases. The importance factors differ

P1: JsY
TABLE C10-1 MEAN RECURRENCE When the reliability of a system of structures or one intercon-
INTERVAL FACTORS nected structure of large extent is important, spatial effects should
Mean Multiplier Multiplier
Recurrence on Ice on Wind
also be considered. All of the cellular telephone antenna structures
Interval Thickness Pressure that serve a state or a metropolitan area could be considered to be
25 0.80 1.0 a system of structures. Long overhead electric transmission lines
50 1.00 1.0 and communications lines are examples of large interconnected
100 1.25 1.0 structures. Figs. 10-2 through 10-6 are for ice loads appropriate
for a single structure of small areal extent. Large interconnected
200 1.5 1.0
structures and systems of structures are hit by icing storms more
250 1.6 1.0
frequently than a single structure. The frequency of occurrence
300 1.7 1.0 increases with the area encompassed or the linear extent. To ob-
400 1.8 1.0 tain equal risks of exceeding the design load in the same icing
500 2.0 1.0 climate, the individual structures forming the system or the large
1,000 2.3 1.0 interconnected structure should be designed for a larger ice load
1,400 2.5 1.0 than a single structure.
Several studies of the spatial effects of ice storms and wind
from those used for both the wind loads in Chapter 6 and the snow storms have been published. Reference [C10-59] presents a sim-
loads in Chapter 7 because the extreme value distribution used for ple approach for determining the risk of ice storms to extended
the ice thickness is different from the distributions used to deter- systems compared to single structures. The results indicate that
mine the extreme wind speeds in Chapter 6 and snow loads in the mean recurrence interval of a given ice load for a transmission
Chapter 7. See also Table C10-1 and the discussion under Section line decreases as the ratio of the line length to the ice storm width
C10.4.6 increases. For a line length to storm width ratio of 2, for example,
the mean recurrence interval of a 50-yr load as experienced by
C10.4.6 Design Ice Thickness for Freezing Rain. The design a single tower will be reduced to 17 years for the entire line. In
load on the structure is a product of the nominal design load another study, Laflamme and Periard [Ref. C10-60] analyzed the
and the load factors specified in Chapter 2. The load factors for maximum annual ice thickness from triads of passive ice meters
LRFD design for atmospheric icing are 1.0. This is similar to the spaced about 50 km apart. The 50-yr ice thicknesses obtained by
practice followed in this standard for seismic loads. Figs. 10-2 extreme value analysis of the triad maxima averaged 10 percent
through 10-6 show the 50-yr mean recurrence interval ice thick- higher than those for the single stations.
ness due to freezing rain and the concurrent wind speeds. The
probability of exceeding the 50-yr event in 50 years of a struc-
C10.5 WIND ON ICE-COVERED STRUCTURES
ture’s life is 64 percent. The design wind loads in this standard
(nominal loads times the load factors in Chapter 2) have a mean Ice accretions on structures change the structure’s wind drag co-
recurrence interval of approximately 500 years, which reduces efficients. The ice accretions tend to round sharp edges reducing
the probability of being exceeded to approximately 10 percent in the drag coefficient for such members as angles and bars. Natural
50 years. Consistent with the design wind loads, the design level ice accretions can be irregular in shape with an uneven distribu-
mean recurrence interval for atmospheric ice loads on ordinary tion of ice around the object on which the ice has accreted. The
structures, including load factors, is approximately 500 years. shape varies from storm to storm and from place to place within
Table C10-1 shows the multipliers on the 50-yr mean recurrence a storm. The actual projected area of a glaze ice accretion may be
interval ice thickness and concurrent wind speed to adjust to other larger than that obtained by assuming a uniform ice thickness.
mean recurrence intervals.
C10.5.5 Wind on Ice-Covered Guys and Cables. There is prac-
The factor 2.0 in Eq. 10-5 is to adjust the design ice thickness tically no published experimental data giving the force coeffi-
from a 50-yr mean recurrence interval to a 500-yr mean recurrence cients for ice-covered guys and cables. There have been many
interval. The multiplier is applied on the ice thickness rather than studies of the force coefficient for cylinders without ice. The force
on the ice load because the ice load from Eq. 10-1 depends on coefficient varies with the surface roughness and the Reynolds
the diameter of the circumscribing cylinder as well as the design number. At subcritical Reynolds numbers, both smooth and rough
ice thickness. The studies of ice accretion on which the maps are cylinders have force coefficients of approximately 1.2 as do square
based indicate that the concurrent wind speed on ice does not sections with rounded edges [Ref. C10-36, Fig. 4.5.5]. For a wide
increase with mean recurrence interval (see Section C10.4.4). variety of stranded electrical transmission cables the supercritical
TABLE C10-2 TYPICAL REYNOLDS NUMBERS FOR ICED GUYS AND CABLES
Guy or Cable Ice Thickness Importance Design Ice Iced Concurrent 3-s Gust Reynolds
Diameter (in.) t(in.) Factor I w Thickness td (in.) Diameter (in.) Wind Speed (mi/h) Number
Contiguous 48 States
0.250 0.25 0.80 0.20 0.650 30 15,200
0.375 0.25 0.80 0.20 0.775 30 18,100
0.375 1.25 1.25 1.563 3.500 60 163,000
1.000 0.25 0.80 0.20 1.400 30 32,700
1.000 1.25 1.25 1.563 4.125 60 192,000
2.000 1.25 1.25 1.563 5.125 60 239,000
Alaska
0.250 0.25 0.80 0.20 0.650 50 27,000
2.000 0.50 1.25 0.625 3.250 80 202,000
346 ASCE 7-05

P1: JsY
force coefficients are approximately 1.0 with subcritical values as national Workshop on Atmospheric Icing of Structures, U.S. Army CRREL
high as 1.3 [Ref. C10-61, Fig. 5-2]. The transition from subcritical Special Rep. No. 83-17, L. D. Minsk, ed. Hanover, NH, pp. 299–308.
to supercritical depends on the surface characteristics and takes [Ref. C10-11] Richmond, M. C., Gouze, S. C., and Anderson, R. S. (1977).
“Pacific Northwest icing study.” Meteorology Research, Inc., Altadena, CA.
place over a wide range of Reynolds numbers. For the stranded [Ref. C10-12] Sinclair, R. E., and Thorkildson, R. M. (1980). “In-cloud mois-
cables described in [Ref. C10-61] the range is from approximately ture droplet impingement angles and track clearances at the Moro UHV
25,000 to 150,000. For a square section with rounded edges, the test site.” BPA 1200 kV Project Rep. No. ME-80-7, Bonneville Power Ad-
transition takes place at a Reynolds number of approximately ministration, Portland, OR.
800,000 [Ref. C10-38]. The concurrent 3-s gust wind speed in [Ref. C10-13] Winkleman, P. F. (1974). “Investigation of ice and wind loads:
Figs. 10-2 through 10-5 for the contiguous 48 states varies from Galloping, vibrations and subconductor oscillations.” Bonneville Power
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atmosphere) for a range of iced guys and cables. In practice the pp. 221–232.
Reynolds numbers range from subcritical through critical to su- [Ref. C10-15] Govoni, J. W. (1990). “A comparative study of icing rates in the
percritical depending on the roughness of the ice accretion. Con- White Mountains of New Hampshire.” In Proc. 5th International Workshop
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C10.6 PARTIAL LOADING 1281.
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ern United States.” M.S. Thesis, Texas A&M University, College Station, [Ref. C10-57] Wang, Q. J. (1991). “The POT model described by the general-
TX. ized Pareto distribution with Poisson arrival rate.” J. Hydrology, 129, 263–
[Ref. C10-43] Bocchieri, J. R. (1980). “The objective use of upper air sound- 280.
ings to specify precipitation type.” Monthly Weather Rev., 108, 596–603. [Ref. C10-58] Peterka, J. A. (1992). “Improved extreme wind prediction for
[Ref. C10-44] Macklin, W. C. (1962). “The density and structure of ice formed the United States.” J. Wind Engrg. Industrial Aerodynamics, Elsevier Sci-
by accretion.” Q.J. Royal Meteorological Soc., 88, 30–50. ence Publishers B.V., 41–44, 533–541.
[Ref. C10-45] Jones, K. F. (1990). “The density of natural ice accretions [Ref. C10-59] Golikova, T. N., Golikov, B. F., and Savvaitov, D. S. (1982).
related to nondimensional icing parameters.” Q.J. Royal Meteorological “Methods of calculating icing loads on overhead lines as spatial construc-
Soc., 116, 477–496. tions.” In Proc. 1st International Workshop on Atmospheric Icing of Struc-
[Ref. C10-46] Power, B. A. (1983). “Estimation of climatic loads for transmis- tures. U.S. Army CRREL Special Rep. No. 83-17, L.D. Minsk, ed., pp. 341–
sion line design.” CEA No. ST 198. Canadian Electric Association, Mon- 345.
treal, Quebec, Canada. [Ref. C10-60] Laflamme, J., and Periard, G. (1996). “The climate of freez-
[Ref. C10-47] Colbeck, S. C., and Ackley, S. F. (1982). “Mechanisms for ice ing rain over the province of Quebec in Canada, a preliminary analysis.”
bonding in wet snow accretions on power lines.” In Proc. 1st International In Proc. 7th International Workshop on Atmospheric Icing of Structures.
Workshop on Atmospheric Icing of Structures, U.S. Army CRREL Special M. Farzaneh and J. Laflamme, eds. Chicoutimi, Quebec, Canada, pp. 19–
Report 83-17, L.D. Minsk, ed. Hanover, NH, pp. 25–30. 24.
[Ref. C10-48] Kuroiwa, D. (1962). “A study of ice sintering.” U.S. Army [Ref. C10-61] Shan, L. (1997). “Wind tunnel study of drag coefficients of
CRREL, Research Rep. No. 86, Hanover, NH. single and bundled conductors.” EPRI TR-108969, Electric Power Research
[Ref. C10-49] Kuroiwa, D. (1965). “Icing and snow accretion on electric Institute, Palo Alto, CA.
wires.” U.S. Army CRREL, Research Paper 123, Hanover, NH. [Ref. C10-62] Cluts, S., and Angelos, A. (1977). “Unbalanced forces on tan-
[Ref. C10-50] Gland, H., and Admirat, P. (1986). “Meteorological conditions gent transmission structures.” IEEE Winter Power Meeting, Paper No. A77-
for wet snow occurrence in France—Calculated and measured results in a 220-7.
348 ASCE 7-05

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FIGURE C10-3 SNOW ACCRETION ON WIRES
FIGURE C10-1 GLAZE ICE ACCRETION DUE

TO FREEZING RAIN
FIGURE C10-2 RIME ICE ACCRETION DUE TO IN-CLOUD ICING

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FIGURE C10-4 LOCATIONS OF WEATHER STATIONS USED IN PREPARATION OF FIGURES 10-2 THROUGH 10-5
350 ASCE 7-05

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Chapter C11
SEISMIC DESIGN CRITERIA
C11 GENERAL seismic resistance had some serious shortcomings. Each subse-
quent major earthquake has taught new lessons. ATC, BSSC, and
In preparing the seismic provisions contained within this stan-
ASCE have endeavored to work individually and collectively to
dard, the Seismic Task Committee of ASCE 7 formed established
improve each succeeding document to provide the best earthquake
a Scope and Format Subcommittee to review the layout and pre-
engineering design and construction provisions as possible and
sentation of the seismic provisions and to make recommendations
that the provisions would have nationwide applicability.
to improve the clarity and use of the standard. As a result of the ef-
forts of this subcommittee, the seismic provisions of ASCE 7-05 Content of Commentary. The commentary of Chapters 11
are presented in Chapters 11 through 23 and Appendices 11A and through 23 does not attempt to explain the earthquake loading
11B, as opposed to prior editions wherein the seismic provisions provisions in great detail. The reader is referred to two excellent
were presented in a single section (Section 9). The increase in resources:
number of sections has greatly reduced the depth of paragraph
numbering. The goal was to keep the section numbering to four r Part 2, Commentary, of the NEHRP Recommended Provi-
deep or less and, except for a few isolated sections, the goal was sions for the Development of Seismic Regulations for New
achieved. Users will also note that the major subject areas are now Buildings and Other Structures, Building Seismic Safety
identified as “chapters” whereas in ASCE 7-02 they were called Council, Federal Emergency Management Agency, 2003
sections. Individual provisions within a chapter are referred to edition
herein as “sections.” r Recommended Lateral Force Requirements and Commen-
Of foremost concern in the reformat effort, was to organize the tary, Seismology Committee, Structural Engineers Associa-
seismic provisions in a logical sequence for the general structural tion of California, 1999
design community and to clarify the various headings to more
accurately reflect their content. Accomplishing these two primary With the reorganization of Chapter 9 into the multiple sections
goals led to the decision to create 13 separate sections and to contained in ASCE 7-05, there is no longer a direct correlation
relocate provisions into their most logical new section. between the numbering of the sections of ASCE 7 and the 2003
NEHRP Provisions. Table C11-1 provides a correlation between
The provisions for buildings and nonbuilding structures are the sections of the two documents to facilitate the use of the
now distinctly separate as are the provisions for nonstructural commentary of the 2003 NEHRP Provisions. Most of this com-
components. Less commonly used provisions, such as those for mentary contained herein is devoted to noting and explaining the
seismically isolated structures, have also been located in their own differences of major substance between ASCE 7-05 and the 2003
distinct section. We hope that the users of ASCE 7-05 will find the edition of the NEHRP Recommended Provisions.
reformatted seismic provisions to be a significant improvement
in organization and presentation over prior editions and will be Nature of Earthquake “Loads.” The 1988 edition of ASCE 7
able to more quickly locate applicable provisions. Table C11-1 and the 1982 edition of ANSI A58.1 contained seismic provi-
has been provided to assist users in locating provisions between sions based upon those in the Uniform Building Code (UBC) of
the two editions. 1985 and earlier. The UBC provisions for seismic safety have
been based upon recommendations of the Structural Engineers
In addition to reorganizing Section 9 of ASCE 7-02, technical
Association of California (SEAOC) and predecessor organiza-
changes were also made to the requirements of the standard pri-
tions. Until 1988, the UBC and SEAOC provisions had not yet
marily based on the 2003 edition of the NEHRP Recommended
been fully influenced by the ATC and BSSC efforts. The 1972 and
Provisions for the Development of Seismic Regulations for New
1955 editions of A58.1 contained seismic provisions based upon
Buildings and Other Structures, which is prepared by the Build-
much earlier versions of SEAOC and UBC recommendations.
ing Seismic Safety Council (BSSC) under sponsorship of the
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). The National The two most far-reaching differences among the 1993, 1995,
Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP) is managed by 1998, 2002, and 2005 editions of ASCE 7 and these prior editions
FEMA. Since 1985, the NEHRP Provisions have been updated are that the newer editions are based upon a strength-level limit
every 3 years. In most cases, revisions incorporated into the 2005 state rather than an equivalent loading for use with allowable stress
edition of ASCE 7 directly reflect changes made to the 2000 edi- design and that it contains a much larger set of provisions that are
tion of the NEHRP Provisions that were the basis of 9 of ASCE not directly statements of loading. The intent is to provide a more
7-02. Where ASCE 7 revisions vary significantly from those made reliable and consistent level of seismic safety in new building
to the NEHRP Provisions, new commentary has generally been construction.
provided.
Earthquakes “load” structures indirectly. As the ground dis-
The efforts by BSSC to produce the NEHRP Provisions places, a building will follow and vibrate. The vibration produces
was preceded by work performed by the Applied Technology deformations with associated strains and stresses in the structure.
Council (ATC) that originated after the 1971 San Fernando valley Computation of dynamic response to earthquake ground shak-
earthquake that demonstrated the design rules of that time for ing is complex. As a simplification, this standard is based upon

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the concept of a response spectrum. A response spectrum for a should generally result in a member or cross-section with at least
specific earthquake ground motion does not reflect the total time as much true capacity as would result in strength-based design. As
history of response, but only approximates the maximum value of this commentary will explain, this is not always precisely the case.
response for simple structures to that ground motion. The design
There are two general load combinations, one where the effects
response spectrum is a smoothed and normalized approximation
of earthquake load and gravity load add, and a second where they
for many different ground motions, adjusted at the extremes for
counteract. In the second, the gravity load is part of the resistance,
characteristics of larger structures. The BSSC NEHRP Commen-
and therefore only dead load is considered. These combinations
tary, Chapters 4 and 5, contains a much fuller description of the
can be expressed as follows, where α is the factor on E in the
development of the design response spectrum and the maps that
ASD combination, calibrated to meet the premise of the previous
provide the background information for various levels of seismic
paragraph. Using the combinations from Sections 2.3 and 2.4:
hazard and various ground conditions.
The seismic requirements of ASCE 7 are stated in terms of Additive combinations:
forces and loads. However, the user should always bear in mind Strength: 1.2D + 0.5L + 0.2S + 1.0E ≤ φ× Strength
that there are no external forces applied to the above-ground por-
tion of a structure during an earthquake. The design forces are ASD: 1.0D + 0.75 × (1.0L + 1.0S + α E) ≤ Allowable
intended only as approximations to produce the same deforma- Stress and
tions, when multiplied by the Deflection Amplification factor Cd , 1.0D + α E ≤ Allowable Stress
as would occur in the same structure should an earthquake ground
motion at the design level occur. Counteracting combinations:
The design limit state for resistance to an earthquake is unlike Strength: 0.9D + 1.0E ≤ φ× Strength
that for any other load within the scope of ASCE 7. The earthquake ASD: 0.6D + α E ≤ Allowable Stress
limit state is based upon system performance, not member per-
formance, and considerable energy dissipation through repeated For any given material and limit state, the factor α depends on
cycles of inelastic straining is assumed. The reason is the large the central factor of safety between the strength and the allowable
demand exerted by the earthquake and the associated high cost stress, the resistance factor φ, and ratios of the effects of the
of providing enough strength to maintain linear elastic response various loads. Table C11-2 (see page 370) summarizes several
in ordinary buildings. This unusual limit state means that several common cases of interest, including those where the designer
conveniences of elastic behavior, such as the principle of superpo- opts to use the one-third increase in allowable stress permitted in
sition, are not applicable, and makes it difficult to separate design various reference standards.
provisions for loads from those for resistance. This is the reason
the NEHRP Provisions contain so many provisions that modify The bold entries indicate circumstances in which the 0.7 fac-
customary requirements for proportioning and detailing structural tor in the ASD equations will result in a structural capacity less
members and systems. It is also the reason for the construction than required by strength design. Given the current basis of the
quality assurance requirements. All these “nonload” provisions earthquake load provisions, such situations should be carefully
are presented in Chapter 14. considered in design. For wood, equivalency factors greater than
0.7 identify conservatism in wood LRFD resistance values rather
than potential overstress when using ASD.
Use of Allowable Stress Design Standards. The conventional
design of nearly all masonry structures and many wood and steel The amplification for Method 2 is accomplished by the intro-
structures has been accomplished using Allowable Stress Design duction of two sets of factors to amplify conventional allowable
(ASD) standards. Although the fundamental basis for the earth- stresses to approximate the equivalent yield strength: one is a
quake loads in Chapters 11 through 23 is a strength limit state stress increase factor (1.7 for steel, 2.16 for wood, and 2.5 for
beyond first yield of the structure, the provisions are written such masonry) and the second is a resistance or strength reduction fac-
that the conventional ASD standards can be used by the design tor (less than or equal to 1.0) that varies depending on the type
engineer. Conventional ASD standards may be used in one of two of stress resultant and component. The 2.16 factor is selected for
fashions: conformance with the new design standard for wood (Load and
Resistance Factor Standard for Engineered Wood Construction,
1. The earthquake load as defined in Chapters 11 through 23
ASCE 16-95) and with an existing ASTM standard. It should not
may be used directly in allowable stress load combinations
be taken to imply an accuracy level for earthquake engineering.
of Section 2.4 and the resulting stresses compared directly
with conventional allowable stresses. Although the modification factors just described accomplish
a transformation of allowable stresses to the earthquake strength
2. The earthquake load may be used in strength design load
limit state, it is not conservative to ignore the provisions in the
combinations and resulting stresses compared with ampli-
standard as well as the supplementary provisions in the appendix
fied allowable stresses (for those materials for which the
that deal with design or construction issues that do not appear
design standard gives the amplified allowable stresses, e.g.,
directly related to computation of equivalent loads, because the
masonry).
specified loads are derived assuming certain levels of damp-
Method 1 is changed somewhat since the 1995 edition of the stan- ing and ductile behavior. In many instances this behavior is
dard. The factor on E in the ASD combinations has been reduced not necessarily delivered by designs conforming to conventional
to 0.7 from 1.0. This change was accomplished simultaneously standards, which is why there are so many seemingly “nonload”
with reducing the factor on D in the combination where dead load provisions in this standard and appendix.
resists the effects of earthquake loads from 1.0 to 0.6.
Past design practices (the SEAOC and UBC requirements prior
The factor 0.7 was selected as somewhat of a compromise to 1997) for earthquake loads produce loads intended for use
among the various materials for which ASD may still be used. with allowable stress design methods. Such procedures generally
The basic premise suggested herein is that for earthquake load- appear very similar to this standard, but a coefficient Rw was used
ings ASD is an alternative to strength-based design, and that ASD in place of the response modification factor R. Rw was always
352 ASCE 7-05

P1: FBQ
larger than R, generally by a factor of about 1.4, thus the loads nations involving the earthquake forces of Chapters 11 through
produced were smaller, much as allowable stresses are smaller 23 such that the wind design governs the basic strength of the
that nominal strengths. However, the other procedures contain as lateral force resisting system, the detailing requirements and lim-
many, if not more, seemingly “nonload” provisions for seismic itations prescribed in this section and referenced standards are
design to assure the assumed performance. still required to be followed.
Story Above Grade. Figure C11-1 illustrates this definition:
C11.7 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SEISMIC
Occupancy Importance Factor. The NEHRP 1997 Provisions
DESIGN CATEGORY A.
introduced the occupancy importance factor, I . It was a new factor
in NEHRP provisions, but not for ASCE 7 or UBC provisions. The 2002 edition of this standard included a new provision of
Editions of this standard prior to 1995, as well as other current de- minimum lateral force for Seismic Design Category A structures.
sign procedures for earthquake loads, make use of an occupancy The minimum load is a structural integrity issue related to the load
importance factor, I , in the computation of the total seismic force. path. It is intended to specify design forces in excess of wind loads
This factor was removed from the 1995 edition of the standard in heavy low-rise construction. The design calculation is simple
when it introduced the provisions consistent with the 1994 edition and easily done to ascertain if it governs or the wind load governs.
of NEHRP provisions. The 1995 edition did include a classifica- This provision requires a minimum lateral force of 1 percent of the
tion of buildings by occupancy, but this classification did not affect total gravity load assigned to a story to assure general structural
the total seismic force. integrity.
The NEHRP provisions in Section 1.1, identifies two purposes C11.8.2 Soil Investigation Report for Seismic Design Cate-
of the provisions, one of which specifically is to “improve the ca- gories C through F. Earthquake motion is only one factor in as-
pability of essential facilities and structures containing substantial sessing potential for geologic and seismic hazards. All of the listed
quantities of hazardous materials to function during and after de- hazards can lead to surface ground displacements with potential
sign earthquakes.” This is achieved by introducing the occupancy adverse consequences to structures. Finally, hazard identification
importance factor of 1.25 for Seismic Use Group II structures and alone has little value unless mitigation options are also identified.
1.5 for Seismic Use Group III structures. The NEHRP Commen-
C11.8.3 Additional Soil Investigation Report Requirements
tary Sections 1.4, 5.2, and 5.2.8 explain that the factor is intended
for Seismic Design Categories D through F. In the 2003
to reduce the ductility demands and result in less damage. When
NEHRP Commentary, liquefaction requires consideration of
combined with the more stringent drift limits for such essential
both peak ground acceleration and earthquake magnitude. The
or hazardous facilities the result is improved performance of such
2003 NEHRP Provisions specify a default value of S DS /2.5
facilities.
for peak ground acceleration. However, Section 11.8.3 of this
Federal Government Construction. The Interagency Commit- standard specifies a default value of SS /2.5, which is gener-
tee on Seismic Safety in Construction has prepared an order ex- ally more conservative than the default value specified in the
ecuted by the President, Executive Order 12699, that all fed- NEHRP Provisions, except in the case of lower values of SS
erally owned or leased building construction, as well as feder- for Site Class E. The 2.5 factor is a nominal amplification
ally regulated and assisted construction, should be constructed from peak ground acceleration to short period spectral response
to mitigate seismic hazards and that the NEHRP Provisions are acceleration.
deemed to be the suitable standard. It is expected that this standard
The assessment of liquefaction potential may be based on
would be deemed equivalent, but the reader should bear in mind
the Summary Report and supporting documentation contained
that there are certain differences, which are summarized in this
in NCEER-97-0022, Proceedings of the NCEER Workshop on
commentary.
Evaluation of Liquefaction Resistance of Soils, available from the
C11.1.1 Purpose. The purpose of Section 11.1.1 is to clarify that Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering Research,
when the design load combinations involving the wind forces of State University of New York at Buffalo, Red Jacket Quadrangle,
Chapter 6 produce greater effects than the design load combi- Buffalo, New York, 14261.

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FIGURE C11-1 ILLUSTRATION OF DEFINITION OF STORY ABOVE GRADE
354 ASCE 7-05

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TABLE C11-1 CROSS REFERENCE OF SECTIONS BETWEEN 2002 AND 2005 EDITIONS
ASCE 7-02 Section ASCE 7-05 Section
9.1 General 11.1 General Provisions
9.1.1 Purpose 11.1.1 Purpose
9.1.2 Scope and Application No corresponding section
9.1.2.1 Scope 11.1.2 Scope
9.1.2.2 Additions to Existing Structures 11B.1
9.1.2.2.1 11B.2
9.1.2.2.2 11B.3
9.1.2.3 Change of Use 11B.5
9.1.2.4 Application of Provisions No corresponding section
9.1.2.4.1 New Buildings No corresponding section
9.1.2.5 Alternate Materials and Methods of Construction 11.1.4 Alternate Materials and Methods of Construction
9.1.3 Seismic Use Groups No corresponding section
Table 9.1.3 Seismic Use Group No corresponding table
9.1.3.1 High Hazard Exposure Structures No corresponding section
9.1.3.1.1 Seismic Use Group III Structure Protected Access 11.5.2 Protected Access for Occupancy Category IV
9.1.3.1.2 Seismic Use Group III Function No corresponding section
9.1.3.2 Left intentionally blank
9.1.3.3 Left intentionally blank
9.1.3.4 Multiple Use No corresponding section
9.1.4 Occupancy Importance Factor 11.5.1 Importance Factor
Table 9.1.4 Occupancy Importance Factors Table 11.5-1 Importance Factors
9.2.1 Definitions 11.2 Definitions
9.2.2 Symbols 11.3 Notation
9.3 Left intentionally blank
9.4.1 Procedures for Determining Maximum Considered Earthquake and No corresponding section
Design Earthquake Ground Motion Accelerations and Response Spectra
9.4.1.1 Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Motions Section 22 Seismic Ground Motion Maps
11.4.1 Mapped Acceleration Parameters
11.4.3 Site Coefficients and Adjusted Maximum Considered Earthquake
Spectral Response Acceleration Parameters
Figs. 9.4.1.1 (a)–(j) Seismic Ground Motion Maps Figs. 22-1–22-14 Seismic Ground Motion Maps
9.4.1.2 General Procedure for Determining Maximum Considered Earth- No corresponding provision
quake and Design Spectral Response Accelerations
Table 9.4.1.2 Site Classification Table 20.3-1 Site Classification
9.4.1.2.1 Site Class Definitions 11.4.2 Site Class
20.1 Site Classification
20.3 Site Class Definitions
9.4.1.2.2 Steps for Classifying a Site No corresponding section
9.4.1.2.3 Definitions for Site Class Parameters 20.4 Definitions for Site Class Parameters
9.4.1.2.4 Site Coefficients and Adjusted Maximum Considered Earth- 11.4.3 Site Coefficients and Adjusted Maximum Considered Earthquake
quake Spectral Response Acceleration Parameters Spectral Response Acceleration Parameters
Table 9.4.1.2.4a Values of Fa as a Function of Site Class and Mapped Table 11.4-1 Site Coefficient, Fa
Short Period Maximum Considered Earthquake Spectral Acceleration 11.4.7 Site Coefficients for Site Class F Soils
Table 9.4.1.2.4b Values of Fv as a Function of Site Class and Mapped Table 11.4-2 Site Coefficient, Fv
1-Second Period Maximum Considered Earthquake Spectral Accelera- 11.4.7 Site Coefficients for Site Class F Soils
tion
9.4.1.2.5 Design Spectral Acceleration Parameters 11.4.4 Design Spectral Acceleration Parameters
9.4.1.2.6 General Procedure Design Response Spectrum 11.4.5 Design Response Spectrum
Fig. 9.4.1.2.6 Design Response Spectrum Fig. 11.4-1 Design Response Spectrum
9.4.1.3 Site-Specific Procedure for Determining Ground Motion Accel- 11.4.7 Site Specific Ground Motion Procedures
erations
9.4.1.3.1 Probabilistic Maximum Considered Earthquake 21.2.1 Probabilistic MCE
9.4.1.3.2 Deterministic Limit on Maximum Considered Earthquake 21.2.2 Deterministic MCE
Ground Motion
Fig. 9.4.1.3.2 Deterministic Limit on Maximum Considered Earthquake Fig. 21.2-1 Deterministic Lower Limit on MCE Response Spectrum
Response Spectrum
9.4.1.3.3 Deterministic Maximum Considered Earthquake Ground Mo- 21.2.2 Deterministic MCE
tion
9.4.1.3.4 Site-Specific Design Ground Motion 21.2.4 Design Response Spectrum
9.4.1.3.5 Design Acceleration Parameters 21.2.5 Design Acceleration Parameters
9.4.2 Seismic Design Category 11.6.1 Seismic Design Category

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TABLE C11-1 CROSS REFERENCE OF SECTIONS BETWEEN 2002 AND 2005 EDITIONS (continued)
9.4.2.1 Determination of Seismic Design Category 11.6.1.1 Determination of Seismic Design Category
Table 9.4.2.1a Seismic Design Category Based on Short Period Response Table 11.6-1 Seismic Design Category Based on Short Period Response
Accelerations Acceleration Parameters
Table 9.4.2.1b Seismic Design Category Based on 1-Second Period Re- Table 11.6-2 Seismic Design Category Based on 1-Second Period Response
sponse Accelerations Acceleration Parameters
9.4.2.2 Site Limitation for Seismic Design Categories E and F 11.8.1 Site Limitation for Seismic Design Categories E and F
9.4.3 Quality Assurance 11.1.1 Purpose
9.5 Structural Design Criteria, Analysis, and Procedures No corresponding section
9.5.1 Left intentionally blank
9.5.2 Structural Design Requirements 12.1 Structural Design Basis
9.5.2.1 Design Basis 12.1.1 Basic Requirements
9.5.2.2 Basic Seismic Force-Resisting Systems 12.2.1 Selection and Limitations
Table 9.5.2.2 Design Coefficients and Factors for Basic Seismic Force- Table 12.2-1 Design Coefficients and Factors for Basic Seismic Force-
Resisting Systems Resisting Systems
9.5.2.2.1 Dual System 12.2.5.1 Dual System
9.5.2.2.2 Combinations of Framing Systems 12.2.1 Selection and Limitations
9.5.2.2.2.1 R and 0 Factors 12.2.2 Combinations of Framing Systems in Different Directions
12.2.3 Combinations of Framing Systems in the Same Direction
12.2.3.1 Vertical Combinations
12.2.3.2 Horizontal Combinations
9.5.2.2.2.2 Combination Framing Detailing Requirements 12.2.4 Combination Framing Detailing Requirements
9.5.2.2.3 Seismic Design Categories B and C 12.2.1 Selection and Limitation
12.2.5 System Specific Requirements
9.5.2.2.4 Seismic Design Categories D and E No corresponding section
9.5.2.2.4.1 Increased Building Height Limit 12.2.5.4 Increased Building Height Limit for Steel Braced Frames and Spe-
cial Reinforced Concrete Shear Walls
9.5.2.2.4.2 Interaction Effects 12.7.4 Interaction Effects
9.5.2.2.4.3 Deformational Compatibility 12.12.4 Deformational Compatibility for Seismic Design Categories D
through F
9.5.2.2.4.4 Special Moment Frames 12.2.5.5 Special Moment Frames in Structures Assigned to Seismic Design
Categories D through F
9.5.2.2.5 Seismic Design Category F 12.2.5.4 Increased Building Height Limit for Steel Braced Frames and Spe-
cial Reinforced Concrete Shear Walls
9.5.2.3 Structural Configurations 12.3.2 Irregular and Regular Classification
9.5.2.3.1 Diaphragm Flexibility 12.3.1 Diaphragm Flexibility
9.5.2.3.2 Plan Irregularity 12.3.2.1 Horizontal Irregularity
Table 9.5.2.3.2 Plan Structural Irregularities Table 12.3-1 Horizontal Structural Irregularities
9.5.2.3.3 Vertical Irregularity 12.3.2.2 Vertical Irregularity
Table 9.5.2.3.3 Vertical Structural Irregularities Table 12.3-2 Vertical Structural Irregularities
9.5.2.4 Redundancy 12.3.4 Redundancy
9.5.2.4.1 Seismic Design Categories A, B, and C 12.3.4.1 Conditions Where Value of ρ is 1.0
9.5.2.4.2 Seismic Design Category D 12.3.4.2 Seismic Design Categories D through F
9.5.2.4.3 Seismic Design Categories E and F 12.3.4.2 Seismic Design Categories D through F
9.5.2.5 Analysis Procedures No corresponding section
9.5.2.5.1 Analysis Procedures 12.6 Analysis Procedure Selection
Table 9.5.2.5.1 Permitted Analytical Procedures Table 12.6-1 Permitted Analytical Procedures
9.5.2.5.2 Application of Loading 12.5.1 Direction of Loading Criteria
9.5.2.5.2.1 Seismic Design Categories A and B 12.5.2 Seismic Design Category B
9.5.2.5.2.2 Seismic Design Category C 12.5.3 Seismic Design Category C
9.5.2.5.2.3 Seismic Design Categories D, E, and F 12.5.4 Seismic Design Categories D through F
9.5.2.6 Design and Detailing Requirements No corresponding section
9.5.2.6.1.1 Load Path Connections 11.7.3 Load Path Connections (for Seismic Design Category A)
11.7.4 Girder to Support Connection (for Seismic Design Category A)
12.1.3 Continuous Load Path and Interconnections (for Seismic Design Cat-
egories B–F)
12.1.4 Girder to Support Connection (for Seismic Design Categories B–F)
9.5.2.6.1.2 Anchorage of Concrete or Masonry Walls 11.7.4 Anchorage of Concrete or Masonry Walls
9.5.2.6.2 Seismic Design Category B No corresponding section
9.5.2.6.2.1 P-Delta Effects No corresponding section
9.5.2.6.2.2 Openings No corresponding section
9.5.2.6.2.3 Direction of Seismic Load 12.5.1 Direction of Loading Criteria
9.5.2.6.2.4 Discontinuities in Vertical System 12.3.3.2 Extreme Weak Stories
356 ASCE 7-05

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9.5.2.6.2.5 Nonredundant Systems No corresponding section
9.5.2.6.2.6 Collector Elements 12.10.2 Collector Elements
9.5.2.6.2.7 Diaphragms 12.10.1.1 Diaphragm Design Forces
12.12.2 Diaphragm Deflection
9.5.2.6.2.8 Anchorage of Concrete or Masonry Walls 12.11.1 Design for Out-of-Plane Forces
12.11.2 Anchorage of Concrete or Masonry Structural Walls to Flexible
Diaphragms
9.5.2.6.2.9 Inverted Pendulum-Type Structures 12.2.5.3 Inverted Pendulum-Type Structures
9.5.2.6.2.10 Anchorage of Nonstructural Systems No corresponding section
9.5.2.6.2.11 Elements Supporting Discontinuous Walls or Frames 12.3.3.3 Elements Supporting Discontinuous Walls or Frames
9.5.2.6.3 Seismic Design Category C No corresponding section
9.5.2.6.3.1 Collector Elements 12.10.2.1 Collector Elements Requiring Special Seismic Loads for Seismic
Design Categories C through F
9.5.2.6.3.2 Anchorage of Concrete or Masonry Walls 12.11.2.1 Anchorage of Concrete or Masonry Structural Walls to Flexible
Diaphragms
12.11.2.2 Anchorage of Concrete or Masonry Walls to Flexible Diaphragms
for Seismic Design Categories C through F
12.11.2.2.1 Transfer of Anchorage Forces into Diaphragm
12.11.2.2.2 Steel Elements of Structural Wall Anchorage System
12.11.2.2.3 Wood Diaphragm
12.11.2.2.4 Metal Deck Diaphragm
12.11.2.2.5 Embedded Straps
12.11.2.2.6 Eccentrically Loaded Anchorage System
12.11.2.2.7 Walls with Pilasters
9.5.2.6.4 Seismic Design Category D No corresponding section
9.5.2.6.4.1 Collector Elements 12.14.6.3 Collector Elements
9.5.2.6.4.2 Plan or Vertical Irregularities 12.3.3.4 Increase in Forces Due to Irregularities for Seismic Design
9.5.2.6.4.3 Vertical Seismic Forces 12.4.4 Minimum Upward Force for Horizontal Cantilevers for Seismic
Design Categories D through F
9.5.2.6.4.4 Diaphragms 12.10.1.2 Diaphragm Design Forces
9.5.2.6.5 Seismic Design Categories E and F No corresponding section
9.5.2.6.5.1 Plan or Vertical Irregularities 12.3.3.1 Prohibited Horizontal and Vertical Irregularities for Seismic Design
9.5.2.7 Combinations of Load Effects 12.4 Seismic Load Effects and Combinations
9.5.2.7.1 Special Seismic Load 12.4.1 Applicability
12.4.2 Seismic Load Effect
12.4.2.1 Horizontal Seismic Load Effect
12.4.2.2 Vertical Seismic Load Effect
12.4.2.3 Seismic Load Combinations
12.4.3 Seismic Load Effect with Overstrength
12.4.3.1 Horizontal Seismic Load Effect with Overstrength
12.4.3.2 Seismic Load Combinations with Overstrength
12.4.3.3 Allowable Stress Increase for Load Combinations with
Overstrength
9.5.2.8 Deflection, Drift Limits, and Building Separation 12.12.1 Story Drift Limit
12.12.3 Building Separation
Table 9.5.2.8 Allowable Story Drift, a Table 12.12-1 Allowable Story Drift, a
9.5.3 Index Force Analysis Procedure for Seismic Design of Buildings 11.7.2 Lateral Forces
12.7.2 Effective Seismic Weight
9.5.4 Simplified Analysis Procedure for Seismic Design of Buildings 12.14 Simplified Alternative Structural Design Criteria for Simple Bearing
12.14.7.1 Wall or Building Frame Systems
9.5.4.1 Seismic Base Shear 12.14.7.1 Seismic Base Shear
9.5.4.2 Vertical Distribution 12.14.7.2 Vertical Distribution
9.5.4.3 Horizontal Distribtution 12.14.7.3 Horizontal Distribution
9.5.4.4 Design Drift 12.14.7.5 Drift Limits and Building Separation
9.5.5 Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure 12.8 Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure
9.5.5.1 General 12.7.1 Base Fixity
9.5.5.2 Seismic Base Shear 12.8.1 Seismic Base Shear
9.5.5.2.1 Calculation of Seismic Response Coefficient 12.8.1.1 Calculation of Seismic Response Coefficient
12.8.1.2 Soil Structure Interaction Reduction
12.8.1.3 Maximum Ss Value in Determination of Cs
9.5.5.3 Period Determination 12.8.2 Period Determination
9.5.5.3.1 Upper Limit on Calculated Period No corresponding section
Table 9.5.5.3.1 Coefficient for Upper Limit on Calculated Period Table 12.8-1 Coefficient for Upper Limit on Calculated Period
9.5.5.3.2 Approximate Fundamental Period 12.8.2.1 Approximate Fundamental Period
Table 9.5.5.3.2 Values of Approximate Period Parameters Ct and x Table 12.8-2 Values of Approximate Period Parameters Ct and x
9.5.5.4 Vertical Distribution of Seismic Forces 12.8.3 Vertical Distribution of Seismic Forces

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9.5.5.5 Horizontal Shear Distribution and Torsion 12.8.4 Horizontal Distribution of Forces
9.5.5.5.1 Direct Shear 12.8.4 Horizontal Distribution of Forces
9.5.5.5.2 Torsion 12.8.4.1 Inherent Torsion
12.8.4.2 Accidental Torsion
12.8.4.3 Amplification of Accidental Torsional Moment
9.5.5.6 Overturning 12.8.5 Overturning
9.5.5.7 Drift Determination and P-Delta Effects 12.8.6 Story Drift Determination
12.8.7 P-Delta Effects
9.5.5.7.1 Story Drift Determination 12.8.6 Story Drift Determination
Exception. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.8.6.1 Minimum Base Shear for Computing Drift
12.8.6.2 Period for Computing Drift
. . . .12.12.1 Story Drift Limit
9.5.5.7.2 P-Delta Effects 12.8.7 P-Delta Effects
9.5.6 Modal Analysis Procedure 12.9 Modal Response Spectrum Analysis
9.5.6.1 General No corresponding section
9.5.6.2 Modeling 12.7.3 Modeling
9.5.6.3 Modes 12.9.1 Number of Modes
9.5.6.4 Periods No corresponding section
9.5.6.5 Modal Base Shear No corresponding section
9.5.6.6 Modal Forces, Deflections, and Drifts 12.9.2 Modal Response Parameters
9.5.6.7 Modal Story Shears and Moments No corresponding section
9.5.6.8 Design Values 12.9.4 Design Values
9.5.6.9 Horizontal Shear Distribution 12.9.5 Horizontal Shear Distribution
9.5.6.10 Foundation Overturning 12.13.4 Reduction in Foundation Overturning
9.5.6.11 P-Delta Effects 12.9.6 P-Delta Effects
9.5.7 Linear Response History Analysis Procedure 16.1 Linear Response History Procedure
16.1.1 Analysis Requirements
9.5.7.2 Ground Motion 16.1.3 Ground Motion
9.5.7.2.1 Two-Dimensional Analysis 16.1.3.1 Two-Dimensional Analysis
9.5.7.2.2 Three-Dimensional Analysis 16.1.3.2 Three-Dimensional Analysis
9.5.7.3 Response Parameters 16.1.4 Response Parameters
9.5.8 Nonlinear Response History Analysis 16.2 Nonlinear Response History Procedure
16.2.1 Analysis Requirements
9.5.8.2 Ground Motion and Other Loading 16.2.3 Ground Motion and Other Loading
9.5.8.3 Response Parameters 16.2.4 Response Parameters
9.5.8.3.1 Member Strength 16.2.4.1 Member Strength
9.5.8.3.2 Member Deformation 16.2.4.2 Member Deformation
9.5.8.3.3 Interstory Drift 16.2.4.3 Interstory Drift
9.5.8.4 Design Review 16.2.5 Design Review
9.5.9 Soil-Structure Interaction 19.0 Soil Structure Interaction for Seismic Design
9.5.9.1 General 19.1 General
9.5.9.2 Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure 19.2 Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure
9.5.9.2.1 Base Shear 19.2.1 Base Shear
9.5.9.2.1.1 Effective Building Period 19.2.1.1 Effective Building Period
Table 9.5.9.2.1.1a Values of G/G 0 and vs /vso Table 19.2-1 Values of G/G 0 and vs /vso
Table 9.5.9.2.1.1b Values of α θ Table 19.2-2 Values of α θ
9.5.9.2.1.2 Effective Damping 19.2.1.2 Effective Damping
Fig. 9.5.9.2.1.2 Foundation Damping Factor Fig. 19.2-1 Foundation Damping Factor
9.5.9.2.2 Vertical Distribution of Seismic Forces 19.2.2 Vertical Distribution of Seismic Forces
9.5.9.2.3 Other Effects 19.2.3 Other Effects
9.5.9.3 Modal Analysis Procedure 19.3 Modal Analysis Procedure
9.5.9.3.1 Modal Base Shears 19.3.1 Modal Base Shears
9.5.9.3.2 Other Modal Effects 19.3.2 Other Modal Effects
9.5.9.3.3 Design Values 19.3.3 Design Values
9.6 Architectural, Mechanical, and Electrical Components and Systems 13.0 Seismic Design Requirements for Nonstructural Components
9.6.1 General 13.1.1 Scope
9.6.1.1 Reference Standards No corresponding section
9.6.1.1.1 Consensus Standards No corresponding section
358 ASCE 7-05

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9.6.1.1.2 Accepted Standards No corresponding section
9.6.1.2 Component Force Transfer 13.4 Nonstructural Component Anchorage
9.6.1.3 Seismic Forces 13.3.1 Seismic Design Force
9.6.1.4 Seismic Relative Displacements 13.3.2 Seismic Relative Displacements

13.3.2.1 Displacements within Structures
13.3.2.2 Displacements between Structures
9.6.1.5 Component Importance Factor 13.1.3 Component Importance Factor
15.5.3 Steel Storage Racks
9.6.1.6 Component Anchorage No corresponding section
9.6.1.6.1 13.4.1 Design Forces
9.6.1.6.2 13.4.2 Anchors in Concrete or Masonry
9.6.1.6.3 13.4.3 Installation Conditions
9.6.1.6.4 13.4.4 Multiple Attachments
9.6.1.6.5 13.4.5 Power Actuated Fasteners
9.6.1.6.6 No corresponding section
9.6.1.7 Construction Documents 13.2.7 Construction Documents
Table 9.6.1.7 Construction Documents No corresponding table
9.6.2 Architectural Component Design 13.2 Architectural Components
9.6.2.1 General 13.5.1 General
9.6.2.2 Architectural Component Forces and Displacements 13.5.1 General
Table 9.6.2.2 Architectural Component Coefficients Table 13.5-1 Coefficients for Architectural Component
9.6.2.3 Architectural Component Deformation 13.5.2 Forces and Displacements
9.6.2.4 Exterior Nonstructural Wall Elements and Connections No corresponding section
9.6.2.4.1 General 13.5.3 Exterior Nonstructural Wall Elements and Connections
9.6.2.4.2 Glass 13.5.4 Glass
9.6.2.5 Out-of-Plane Bending 13.5.5 Out-of-Plane Bending
9.6.2.6 Suspended Ceilings 13.5.6 Suspended Ceilings
9.6.2.6.1 Seismic Forces 13.5.6.1 Seismic Forces
9.6.2.6.2 Industry Standard Construction 13.5.6.2 Industry Standard Construction
9.6.2.6.2.1 Seismic Design Category C 13.5.6.2.1 Seismic Design Category C
9.6.2.6.2.2 Seismic Design Categories D, E, and F 13.5.6.2.2 Seismic Design Categories D through F
9.6.2.6.3 Integral Ceiling/Sprinkler Construction 13.5.6.3 Integral Construction
9.6.2.7 Access Floors 13.5.7 Access Floors
9.6.2.7.1 General 13.5.7.1 General
9.6.2.7.2 Special Access Floors 13.5.7.2 Special Access Floors
9.6.2.8 Partitions 13.5.8 Partitions
9.6.2.8.2 Glass 13.5.8.2 Glass
9.6.2.9 Steel Storage Racks 13.1.5 Applicability of Nonstructural Component Provisions
15.5.3 Storage Racks
9.6.2.10 Glass in Glazed Curtain Walls, Glazed Storefronts, and Glazed 13.5.9 Glass in Glazed Curtain Walls, Glazed Storefronts, and Glazed Par-
Partitions titions
9.6.2.10.2 Seismic Drift Limits for Glass Components 13.5.9.2 Seismic Drift Limits for Glass Components
9.6.3 Mechanical and Electrical Component Design 13.6 Mechanical and Electrical Components
9.6.3.2 Mechanical and Electrical Component Forces and Displacements 13.6.1 General
Table 9.6.3.2 Mechanical and Electrical Components Seismic Coefficents Table 13.6-1 Seismic Coefficients for Mechanical and Electrical Compo-
nents
9.6.3.3 Mechanical and Electrical Component Period 13.6.2 Component Period
9.6.3.4 Mechanical and Electrical Component Attachments No corresponding section
9.6.3.5 Component Supports 13.6.5 Component Supports
9.6.3.6 Component Certification 13.2.2 Special Certification Requirements for Designated Seismic Systems
9.6.3.7 Utility and Service Lines at Structure Interfaces 13.6.6 Utility and Service Lines
9.6.3.8 Site-Specific Considerations 13.6.6 Utility and Service Lines
9.6.3.9 Storage Tanks Mounted in Structures No corresponding section
9.6.3.10 HVAC Ductwork 13.6.3 Mechanical Components
13.6.7 HVAC Ductwork

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9.6.3.11 Piping Systems 13.6.3 Mechanical Components
13.6.8 Piping Systems
9.6.3.11.1 Pressure Piping Systems 13.6.8.1 ASME Pressure Piping Systems
9.6.3.11.2 Fire Protection Sprinkler Systems 13.6.8.2 Fire Protection Sprinkler Systems in Seismic Design Category C
13.6.8.3 Fire Protection Sprinkler Systems in Seismic Design Categories D
through E
9.6.3.11.3 Other Piping Systems 13.6.3 Mechanical Components
13.6.11 Other Mechanical and Electrical Components
9.6.3.11.4 Supports and Attachments for Other Piping 13.6.5 Component Supports
a. . . . . . .5th paragraph
b. . . . . . .Item 7
e. . . . . . .Item 1
13.6.8 Piping Systems
c. . . . . . ..Item 1
d. . . . . . ..Item 2
9.6.3.12 Boilers and Pressure Vessels 13.6.1 General (last paragraph)
13.6.3 Mechanical Components
9.6.3.12.1 ASME Boilers and Pressure Vessels 13.6.9 Boilers and Pressure Vessels
9.6.3.12.2 Other Boilers and Pressure Vessels 13.6.3 Mechanical Components
13.6.9 Boilers and Pressure Vessels
13.6.11 Other Mechanical and Electrical Components
9.6.3.12.3 Supports and Attachments for Other Boilers and Pressure Ves- 13.6.5 Component Supports
sels a. . . ..5th paragraph
b. . . ..Item 7
c. . . ...Item 1
9.6.3.13 Mechanical Equipment, Attachments, and Supports 13.6.1 General (last paragraph)
9.6.3.13.1 Mechanical Equipment 13.6.11 Other Mechanical and Electrical Components
a. . . . . . Item 2
b. . . . . . Item 1
c. . . . . . Item 2
9.6.3.13.2 Attachments and Supports for Mechanical Equipment 13.6.5 Component Supports
a. . . . . . 5th paragraph
b. . . . . . 13.4.6 Friction Clips
c. . . . . . .Item 5
d. . . . . . .Item 8
e. . . . . . .Item 3
f. . . . . . ..Footnote b to Table 13.6-1
g. . . . . . .Item 1
9.6.3.14 Electrical Equipment, Attachments, and Supports 13.6.1 General (last paragraph)
13.6.4 Electrical Components, Item 8
9.6.3.14.1 Electrical Equipment 13.6.11 Other Mechanical and Electrical Components
a. . . . . . Item 2
b. . . . . . Item 1
c. . . . . . Item 2
d. . . . . . Item 3
e. . . . . . .Item 4
f. . . . . . .Item 5
g. . . . . . .Item 6
h. . . . . . .Item 7
9.6.3.14.2 Attachments and Supports for Electrical Equipment 13.6.5 Component Supports
a. . . . . . 5th paragraph
b. . . . . . 13.4.6 Friction Clips
c. . . . . . .Item 2
d. . . . . . .Item 3
e. . . . . . .No corresponding provision
f. . . . . . ..Item 4
9.6.3.15 Alternative Seismic Qualification Methods 13.2.5 Testing Alternative for Seismic Capacity Determination
9.6.3.16 Elevator Design Requirements 13.6.10 Elevator Design Requirements
9.6.3.16.1 Reference Document 13.6.10 Elevator Design Requirements
9.6.3.16.2 Elevators and Hoistway Structural System 13.6.10.1 Elevators and Hoistway Structural System
9.6.3.16.3 Elevator Machinery and Controller Supports and Attachments 13.6.10.2 Elevator Equipment and Controller Supports and Attachments
9.6.3.16.4 Seismic Controls 13.6.10.3 Seismic Switches

9.6.3.16.5 Retainer Plates 13.6.10.4 Retainer Plates
9.7 Foundation Design Requirements 12.13 Foundation Design
9.7.1 General 11.2 Definitions (Pile and Pile Cap)
9.7.2 Seismic Design Category A No corresponding section
9.7.3 Seismic Design Category B No corresponding section
360 ASCE 7-05

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9.7.3.1 Structural Components 12.1.5 Foundation Design
9.7.3.2 Soil Capacities 12.1.5 Foundation Design
9.7.4 Seismic Design Category C No corresponding section
9.7.4.1 Investigation 11.8.2 Soil Investigation Report for Seismic Design Categories C through F
9.7.4.2 Pole-Type Structures 12.13.6.1 Pole-Type Structures
9.7.4.3 Foundation Ties 12.13.6.2 Foundation Ties
9.7.4.4 Special Pile Requirements 12.13.2 Materials of Construction
9.7.5 Foundation Requirements for Seismic Design Categories D, E, and 12.13.7 Requirements for Structures Assigned to Seismic Design Categories
F D through F
9.7.5.1 Investigation 11.8.3 Additional Soil Investigation Report Requirements for Seismic De-
sign Categories D through F
9.7.5.2 Foundation Ties 12.13.7.1 Foundation Ties
9.7.5.3 Liquefaction Potential and Soil Strength Loss 11.8.3 Additional Soil Investigation Report Requirements for Seismic De-
sign Categories D through F
9.7.5.4 Special Pile and Grade Beam Requirements 12.13.7.2 Special Pile and Grade Beam Requirements
14.2.7.2.1 Site Class E or F Soil
14.2.7.2.2 No applicable ACI 318 Sections for Grade Beams and Piles
12.13.7.3 Batter Piles
12.13.7.4 Anchorage of Piles
12.13.7.5 Splices of Pile Segments
12.13.7.6 Pile-Soil Interaction
12.13.7.7 Pile Group Effects
9.8 Steel 14.1 Steel
9.8.1 Reference Documents 14.1.1 Reference Documents
9.9 Structural Concrete 14.2 Concrete
9.10 Composite Structures 14.3 Composite Structures
9.11 Masonry 14.4 Masonry
9.12 Wood 14.5 Wood
9.12.1.1 Consensus Standards No corresponding section
9.12.1.2 Other References No corresponding section
9.13 Provisions for Seismically Isolated Structures 17.0 Seismic Design Requirements for Seismically Isolated Structures
9.13.1 General 17.1 General
9.13.2 Criteria Selection No corresponding section
9.13.2.1 Basis for Design No corresponding section
9.13.2.2 Stability of the Isolation System No corresponding section
9.13.2.3 Seismic Use Group 17.2.1 Importance Factor
9.13.2.4 Configuration Requirements 17.2.3 Configuration
9.13.2.5 Selection of Lateral Response Procedure 17.4 Analysis Procedure Selection
9.13.2.5.1 General 17.4 Analysis Procedure Selection
9.13.2.5.2 Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure 17.4.1 Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure
9.13.2.5.3 Dynamic Analysis 17.4.2 Dynamic Procedures
9.13.2.5.3.1 Response-Spectrum Analysis 17.4.2.1 Response-Spectrum Procedure
9.13.2.5.3.2 Time-History Analysis 17.4.2.2 Response History Procedure
9.13.2.5.3.3 Site-Specific Design Spectra 17.3.1 Design Spectra
9.13.3 Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure 17.5 Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure
9.13.3.2 Deformation Characteristics of the Isolation System 17.5.2 Deformation Characteristics of the Isolation System
9.13.3.3 Minimum Lateral Displacements 17.5.3 Minimum Lateral Displacements
9.13.3.3.1 Design Displacement 17.5.3.1 Design Displacement
Table 9.13.3.3.1 Damping Coefficient, B I Table 17.5-1 Damping Coefficient, B D or B M
9.13.3.3.2 Effective Period at Design Displacement 17.5.3.2 Effective Period at Design Displacement
9.13.3.3.3 Maximum Lateral Displacement 17.5.3.3 Maximum Displacement
9.13.3.3.4 Effective Period at Maximum Displacement 17.5.3.4 Effective Period at Maximum Displacement
9.13.3.3.5 Total Lateral Displacement 17.5.3.5 Total Displacement
9.13.3.4 Minimum Lateral Forces 17.5.4 Minimum Lateral Forces
9.13.3.4.1 Isolation System and Structural Elements at or Below the Iso- 17.5.4.1 Isolation System and Structural Elements Below the Isolation Sys-
lation System tem

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9.13.3.4.2 Structural Elements Above the Isolation 17.5.4.2 Structural Elements Above the Isolation
9.13.3.4.3 Limits on Vs 17.5.4.3 Limits on Vs
9.13.3.5 Vertical Distribution of Force 17.5.5 Vertical Distribution of Force
9.13.3.6 Drift Limits 17.5.6 Drift Limits
9.13.4 Dynamic Lateral Response Procedure 17.6 Dynamic Procedures
9.13.4.2 Isolation System and Structural Elements Below the Isolation 17.6.4.1 Isolation System and Structural Elements Below the Isolation Sys-
System tem
9.13.4.3 Structural Elements Above the Isolation System 17.6.4.2 Structural Elements Above the Isolation System
9.13.4.4 Ground Motion No corresponding section
9.13.4.4.1 Design Spectra 17.3.1 Design Spectra
9.13.4.4.2 Time Histories 17.3.2 Ground Motion Histories
9.13.4.5 Mathematical Model No corresponding section
9.13.4.5.1 General 17.6.2 Modeling
9.13.4.5.2 Isolation System 17.6.2.1 Isolation System
9.13.4.5.3 Isolated Building 17.6.2.2 Isolated Structure
9.13.4.5.3.1 Displacement 17.6.2.2.1 Forces and Displacements in Key Elements
9.13.4.5.3.2 Forces and Displacements in Key Elements 17.6.2.2.1 Forces and Displacements in Key Elements
9.13.4.6 Description of Analysis Procedures 17.6.3 Description of Procedures
9.13.4.6.2 Input Earthquake 17.6.3.2 Input Earthquake
9.13.4.6.3 Response-Spectrum Analysis 17.6.3.3 Response-Spectrum Procedure
9.13.4.6.4 Time-History Analysis 17.6.3.4 Response History Procedure
9.13.4.7 Design Lateral Force No corresponding section
9.13.4.7.1 Isolation System and Structural Elements at or Below the Iso- 17.6.4.1 Isolation System and Structural Elements Below the Isolation Sys-
lation System tem
9.13.4.7.2 Structural Elements Above the Isolation System 17.6.4.2 Structural Elements Above the Isolation System
9.13.4.7.3 Scaling of Results 17.6.4.3 Scaling of Results
9.13.4.7.4 Drift Limits 17.6.4.4 Drift Limits
9.13.5 Lateral Load on Elements of Structures and Nonstructural Com- No corresponding section
ponents Supported by Buildings
9.13.5.1 General 17.2.6 Elements of Structures and Nonstructural Components
9.13.5.2 Forces and Displacements No corresponding section
9.13.5.2.1 Components at or Above the Isolation Interface 17.2.6.1 Components at or Above the Isolation Interface
9.13.5.2.2 Components Crossing the Isolation Interface 17.2.6.2 Components Crossing the Isolation Interface
9.13.5.2.3 Components Below the Isolation Interface 17.2.6.3 Components Below the Isolation Interface
9.13.6 Detailed System Requirements No corresponding section
9.13.6.1 General No corresponding section
9.13.6.2 Isolation System 17.2.4 Isolation System
9.13.6.2.1 Environmental Conditions 17.2.4.1 Environmental Conditions
9.13.6.2.2 Wind Forces 17.2.4.2 Wind Forces
9.13.6.2.3 Fire Resistance 17.2.4.3 Fire Resistance
9.13.6.2.4 Lateral Restoring Force 17.2.4.4 Lateral Restoring Force
9.13.6.2.5 Displacement Restraint 17.2.4.5 Displacement Restraint
9.13.6.2.6 Vertical-Load Stability 17.2.4.6 Vertical-Load Stability
9.13.6.2.7 Overturning 17.2.4.7 Overturning
9.13.6.2.8 Inspection and Replacement 17.2.4.8 Inspection and Replacement
9.13.6.2.9 Quality Control 17.2.4.9 Quality Control
9.13.6.3 Structural System 17.2.5 Structural System
9.13.6.3.1 Horizontal Distribution of Force 17.2.5.1 Horizontal Distribution of Force
9.13.6.3.2 Building Separations 17.2.5.2 Building Separations
9.13.6.3.3 Nonbuilding Structures 17.2.5.3 Nonbuilding Structures
9.13.7 Foundations No corresponding section
9.13.8 Design and Construction Review 17.7 Design Review
9.13.8.1 General 17.7 Design Review
9.13.8.2 Isolation System 17.7 Design Review
9.13.9 Required Tests of the Isolation System 17.8 Testing
362 ASCE 7-05

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9.13.9.2 Prototype Tests 17.8.2 Prototype Tests
9.13.9.2.1 General 17.8.2 Prototype Tests
9.13.9.2.2 Record 17.8.2.1 Record
9.13.9.2.3 Sequence and Cycles 17.8.2.2 Sequence and Cycles
9.13.9.2.4 Units Dependent on Loading Rates 17.8.2.3 Units Dependent on Loading Rates
9.13.9.2.5 Units Dependent on Bilateral Load 17.8.2.4 Units Dependent on Bilateral Load
9.13.9.2.6 Maximum and Minimum Vertical Load 17.8.2.5 Maximum and Minimum Vertical Load
9.13.9.2.7 Sacrificial Wind-Restraint Systems 17.8.2.6 Sacrificial Wind-Restraint Systems
9.13.9.2.8 Testing Similar Units 17.8.2.7 Testing Similar Units
9.13.9.3 Determination of Force-Deflection Characteristics 17.8.3 Determination of Force-Deflection Characteristics
9.13.9.4 System Adequacy 17.8.4 Test Specimen Adequacy
9.13.9.5 Design Properties of the Isolation System 17.8.5 Design Properties of the Isolation System
9.13.9.5.1 Maximum and Minimum Effective Stiffness 17.8.5.1 Maximum and Minimum Effective Stiffness
9.13.9.5.2 Effective Damping 17.8.5.2 Effective Damping
9.14 Nonbuilding Structures 15.0 Seismic Design Requirements for Nonbuilding Structures
9.14.1 General 15.1 General
9.14.1.1 Nonbuilding Structures 15.1.1 Nonbuilding Structures
9.14.1.2 Design 15.1.2 Design
9.14.2 Reference Standards No corresponding section
9.14.2.1 Consensus Standards No corresponding section
9.14.2.2 Accepted Standards No corresponding section
9.14.3 Industry Design Standards and Recommended Practice 15.2 Reference Documents
Table 9.14.3 Standards, Industry Standards, and References No corresponding table
9.14.4 Nonbuilding Structures Supported by Other Structures 15.3 Nonbuilding Structures Supported by Other Structures
15.3.1 Less than 25% Combined Weight Condition
15.3.2 Greater than or equal to 25% Combined Weight Condition
9.14.4.1 Architectural, Mechanical, and Electrical Components 15.3.3 Architectural, Mechanical, and Electrical Components
9.14.5 Structural Design Requirements 15.4 Structural Design Requirements
9.14.5.1 Design Basis 15.4.1 Design Basis
9.14.5.1.1 Seismic Factors No corresponding section
Table 9.14.5.1.1 Seismic Coefficients for Nonbuilding Structures Table 15.4-1 Seismic Coefficients for Nonbuilding Structures Similar to
Buildings
Table 15.4-2 Seismic Coefficients for Nonbuilding Structures Not Similar
to Buildings
9.14.5.1.2 Importance Factors and Seismic Use Group Classifications 15.4.1.1 Importance Factors
Table 9.14.5.1.2 Importance Factor (I ) and Seismic Use Group Occupancy No corresponding table
Category
Classification for Nonbuilding Structures
9.14.5.2 Rigid Nonbuilding Structures 15.4.2 Rigid Nonbuilding Structures
9.14.5.3 Loads 15.4.3 Loads
9.14.5.4 Fundamental Period 15.4.4 Fundamental Period
9.14.5.5 Drift Limitations 15.4.5 Drift Limitations
9.14.5.6 Materials Requirements 15.4.6 Material Requirements
9.14.5.7 Deflection Limits and Structure Separation 15.4.7 Deflection Limits and Structure Separation
9.14.5.8 Site-Specific Response Spectra 15.4.8 Site-Specific Response Spectra
9.14.6 Nonbuilding Structures Similar to Buildings 15.5 Nonbuilding Structures Similar to Buildings
9.14.6.2 Pipe Racks 15.5.2 Pipe Racks
9.14.6.2.1 Design Basis 15.5.2.1 Design Basis
9.14.6.3 Steel Storage Racks 15.5.3 Steel Storage Racks
9.14.6.3.1 General Requirements 15.5.3.1 General Requirements
9.14.6.3.2 Operating Weight 15.5.3.2 Operating Weight
9.14.6.3.3 Vertical Distribution of Seismic Forces 15.5.3.3 Vertical Distribution of Seismic Forces
9.14.6.3.4 Seismic Displacements 15.5.3.4 Seismic Displacements
9.14.6.4 Electrical Power Generating Facilities 15.5.4 Electrical Power Generating Facilities
9.14.6.5 Structural Towers for Tanks and Vessels 15.5.5 Structural Towers for Tanks and Vessels

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9.14.6.6 Piers and Wharves 15.5.6 Piers and Wharves
9.14.7 Nonbuilding Structures Not Similar to Buildings 15.6 General Requirements for Nonbuilding Structures Not Similar to
Buildings
9.14.7.1 General 15.6 General Requirements for Nonbuilding Structures Not Similar to
Buildings
9.14.7.2 Earth-Retaining Structures 15.6.1 Earth-Retaining Structures
9.14.7.2.1 General 15.6.1 Earth-Retaining Structures
9.14.7.3 Tanks and Vessels 15.7 Tanks and Vessels
9.14.7.3.1 General 15.7.1 General
9.14.7.3.2 Design Basis 15.7.2 Design Basis
9.14.7.3.3 Strength and Ductility 15.7.3 Strength and Ductility
9.14.7.3.4 Flexibility of Piping Attachments 15.7.4 Flexibility of Piping Attachments
Table 9.14.7.3.4 Minimum Displacements for Piping Attachments Table 15.7-1 Minimum Design Displacements for Piping Attachments
9.14.7.3.5 Anchorage 15.7.5 Anchorage
9.14.7.3.6 Ground-Supported Storage Tanks for Liquids 15.7.6 Ground-Supported Storage Tanks for Liquids
Fig. 9.14.7.3.6-1 Design Response Spectra for Ground-Supported Liquid No corresponding figure
Storage Tanks
9.14.7.3.6.1 General 15.7.6.1 General
9.14.7.3.6.1.1 Distribution of Hydrodynamic and Inertia Forces 15.7.6.1.1 Distribution of Hydrodynamic and Inertia Forces
9.14.7.3.6.1.2 Freeboard 15.7.6.1.2 Sloshing
Table 9.14.7.3.6.1.2 Minimum Required Freeboard Table 15.7-3 Minimum Required Freeboard
9.14.7.3.6.1.3 Equipment and Attached Piping 15.7.6.1.3 Equipment and Attached Piping
9.14.7.3.6.1.4 Internal Components 15.7.6.1.4 Internal Components
9.14.7.3.6.1.5 Sliding Resistance 15.7.6.1.5 Sliding Resistance
9.14.7.3.6.1.6 Local Shear Transfer 15.7.6.1.6 Local Shear Transfer
9.14.7.3.6.1.7 Pressure Stability 15.7.6.1.7 Pressure Stability
9.14.7.3.6.1.8 Shell Support 15.7.6.1.8 Shell Support
9.14.7.3.6.1.9 Repair, Alteration, or Reconstruction 15.7.6.1.9 Repair, Alteration, or Reconstruction
9.14.7.3.7 Water and Water Treatment Tanks and Vessels 15.7.7 Water and Water Treatment Tanks and Vessels
9.14.7.3.7.1 Welded Steel 15.7.7.1 Welded Steel
9.14.7.3.7.2 Bolted Steel 15.7.7.2 Bolted Steel
9.14.7.3.7.3 Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete 15.7.7.3 Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete
9.14.7.3.8 Petrochemical and Industrial Tanks and Vessels Storing 15.7.8 Petrochemical and Industrial Tanks and Vessels Storing Liquids
Liquids
9.14.7.3.8.1 Welded Steel 15.7.8.1 Welded Steel
9.14.7.3.8.2 Bolted Steel 15.7.8.2 Bolted Steel
9.14.7.3.8.3 Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete 15.7.8.3 Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete
9.14.7.3.9 Ground-Supported Storage Tanks for Granular Materials 15.7.9 Ground-Supported Storage Tanks for Granular Materials
9.14.7.3.9.1 General 15.7.9.1 General
9.14.7.3.9.2 Lateral Force Determination 15.7.9.2 Lateral Force Determination
9.14.7.3.9.3 Force Distribution to Shell and Foundation 15.7.9.3 Force Distribution to Shell and Foundation
9.14.7.3.9.3.1 Increased Lateral Pressure 15.7.9.3.1 Increased Lateral Pressure
9.14.7.3.9.3.2 Effective Mass 15.7.9.3.2 Effective Mass
9.14.7.3.9.3.3 Effective Density 15.7.9.3.3 Effective Density
9.14.7.3.9.3.4 Lateral Sliding 15.7.9.3.4 Lateral Sliding
9.14.7.3.9.3.5 Combined Anchorage Systems 15.7.9.3.5 Combined Anchorage Systems
9.14.7.3.9.4 Welded Steel Structures 15.7.9.4 Welded Steel Structures
9.14.7.3.9.5 Bolted Steel Structures 15.7.9.5 Bolted Steel Structures
9.14.7.3.9.6 Reinforced Concrete Structures 15.7.9.6 Reinforced Concrete Structures
9.14.7.3.9.7 Prestressed Concrete Structures 15.7.9.7 Prestressed Concrete Structures
9.14.7.3.10 Elevated Tanks and Vessels for Liquids and Granular 15.7.10 Elevated Tanks and Vessels for Liquids and Granular Materials
Materials
9.14.7.3.10.1 General 15.7.10.1 General
9.14.7.3.10.2 Effective Mass 15.7.10.2 Effective Mass
9.14.7.3.10.3 P-Delta Effects 15.7.10.3 P-Delta Effects
9.14.7.3.10.4 Transfer of Lateral Forces into Support Tower 15.7.10.4 Transfer of Lateral Forces into Support Tower
9.14.7.3.10.5 Evaluation of Structures Sensitive to Buckling Failure 15.7.10.5 Evaluation of Structures Sensitive to Buckling Failure
364 ASCE 7-05

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9.14.7.3.10.6 Welded Steel Water Storage Structures 15.7.10.6 Welded Steel Water Storage Structures
9.14.7.3.10.6.1 Analysis Procedure 15.7.10.6.1 Analysis Procedure
9.14.7.3.10.6.2 Structure Period 15.7.10.6.2 Structure Period
9.14.7.3.10.7 Concrete Pedestal (Composite) Tanks 15.7.10.7 Concrete Pedestal (Composite) Tanks
9.14.7.3.10.7.1 Analysis Procedures 15.7.10.7.1 Analysis Procedures
9.14.7.3.10.7.2 Structure Period 15.7.10.7.2 Structure Period
9.14.7.3.11 Boilers and Pressure Vessels 15.7.11 Boilers and Pressure Vessels
9.14.7.3.11.1 General 15.7.11.1 General
9.14.7.3.11.2 ASME Boilers and Pressure Vessels 15.7.11.2 ASME Boilers and Pressure Vessels
9.14.7.3.11.3 Attachments of Internal Equipment and Refractory 15.7.11.3 Attachments of Internal Equipment and Refractory
9.14.7.3.11.4 Coupling of Vessel and Support Structure 15.7.11.4 Coupling of Vessel and Support Structure
9.14.7.3.11.6 Other Boilers and Pressure Vessels 15.7.11.6 Other Boilers and Pressure Vessels
Table 9.14.7.3.11.6 Maximum Material Strength Table 15.7-4 Maximum Material Strength
9.14.7.3.11.7 Supports and Attachments for Boilers and Pressure Vessels 15.7.11.7 Supports and Attachments for Boilers and Pressure Vessels
9.14.7.3.12 Liquid and Gas Spheres 15.7.12 Liquid and Gas Spheres
9.14.7.3.12.1 General 15.7.12.1 General
9.14.7.3.12.2 ASME Spheres 15.7.12.2 ASME Spheres
9.14.7.3.12.3 Attachments of Internal Equipment and Refractory 15.7.12.3 Attachments of Internal Equipment and Refractory
9.14.7.3.12.5 Post and Rod Supported 15.7.12.5 Post and Rod Supported
9.14.7.3.12.6 Skirt Supported 15.7.12.6 Skirt Supported
9.14.7.3.13 Refrigerated Gas Liquid Storage Tanks and Vessels 15.7.13 Refrigerated Gas Liquid Storage Tanks and Vessels
9.14.7.3.13.1 General 15.7.13.1 General
9.14.7.3.14 Horizontal, Saddle-Supported Vessels for Liquid or Vapor 15.7.14 Horizontal, Saddle-Supported Vessels for Liquid or Vapor Storage
Storage
9.14.7.3.14.1 General 15.7.14.1 General
9.14.7.3.14.3 Vessel Design 15.7.14.3 Vessel Design
9.14.7.4 Stacks and Chimneys 15.6.2 Stacks and Chimneys
9.14.7.4.1 General 15.6.2 Stacks and Chimneys
9.14.7.4.2 Design Basis 15.6.2 Stacks and Chimneys
9.14.7.5 Amusement Structures 15.6.3 Amusement Structures
9.14.7.5.1 General 15.6.3 Amusement Structures
9.14.7.5.2 Design Basis 15.6.3 Amusement Structures
9.14.7.6 Special Hydraulic Structures 15.6.4 Special Hydraulic Structures
9.14.7.6.1 General 15.6.4 Special Hydraulic Structures
9.14.7.7 Secondary Containment Systems 15.6.5 Secondary Containment Systems
9.14.7.7.1 (does not exist)
9.14.7.7.2 Freeboard 15.6.5.1 Freeboard
9.14.7.8 Telecommunication Towers 15.6.6 Telecommunication Towers
A.9 Supplemental Provisions 11A Quality Assurance Provisions
A.9.1 Purpose 11A.1 Quality Assurance
A.9.3 Quality Assurance 11A.1 Quality Assurance
A.9.3.1 Scope 11A.1.1 Scope
A.9.3.2 Quality Assurance Plan 11A.1.2 Quality Assurance Plan
A.9.3.2.1 Details of Quality Assurance Plan 11A.1.2.1 Details of Quality Assurance Plan
A.9.3.2.2 Contractor Responsibility 11A.1.2.2 Contractor Responsibility
A.9.3.3 Special Inspection 11A.1.3 Special Inspection
A.9.3.3.1 Foundations 11A.1.3.1 Foundations
A.9.3.3.2 Reinforcing Steel 11A.1.3.2 Reinforcing Steel
A.9.3.3.2.1 11A.1.3.2.1 Periodic Special Inspection
A.3.3.3.2.2 11A.1.3.2.2 Continuous Special Inspection
A.9.3.3.3 Structural Concrete 11A.1.3.3 Structural Concrete
A.9.3.3.4 Prestressed Concrete 11A.1.3.4 Prestressed Concrete
A.9.3.3.5 Structural Masonry 11A.1.3.5 Structural Masonry

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A.9.3.3.6 Structural Steel 11A.1.3.6 Structural Steel
A.9.3.3.7 Structural Wood 11A.1.3.7 Structural Wood
A.9.3.3.7.2 11A.1.3.7.2 Periodic Special Inspection for Components
A.9.3.3.7.3 11A.1.3.7.3 Periodic Special Inspection for Wood Sheathing
A.9.3.3.8 Cold-Formed Steel Framing 11A.1.3.8 Cold-Formed Steel Framing
A.9.3.3.8.1 11A.1.3.8.1 Periodic Special Inspection for Welding
A.9.3.3.8.2 11A.1.3.8.2 Periodic Special Inspection for Components
A.9.3.3.9 Architectural Components 11A.1.3.9 Architectural Components
A.9.3.3.10 Mechanical and Electrical Components 11A.1.3.10 Mechanical and Electrical Components
A.9.3.3.11 Seismic Isolation System 11A.1.3.11 Seismic Isolation System
A.9.3.4 Testing 11A.2 Testing
A.9.3.4.1 Reinforcing and Prestressing Steel 11A.2.1 Reinforcing and Prestressing Steel
A.9.3.4.1.1 11A.2.1.1 Certified Mill Test Reports
A.9.3.4.1.2 11A.2.1.2 ASTM A615 Reinforcing Steel
A.9.3.4.1.3 11A.2.1.3 Welding of ASTM A615 Reinforcing Steel
A.9.3.4.2 Structural Concrete 11A.2.2 Structural Concrete
A.9.3.4.3 Structural Masonry 11A.2.3 Structural Masonry
A.9.3.4.4 Structural Steel 11A.2.4 Structural Steel
A.9.3.4.4.1 Base Metal Testing 11A.2.5 Base Metal Testing
A.9.3.4.5 Mechanical and Electrical Equipment 13.2.2 Special Certification Requirements for Designated Seismic Systems
11A.2.7 Mechanical and Electrical Equipment
A.9.3.4.6 Seismic-Isolated Structures 11A.2.6 Seismic-Isolated Structures
A.9.3.5 Structural Observations 11A.3 Structural Observations
A.9.3.6 Reporting and Compliance Procedures 11A.4 Reporting and Compliance Procedures
A.9.7 Supplementary Foundation Requirements No corresponding section
A.9.7.4.4 Special Pile Requirements for Category C 14.2.7.1 Concrete Pile Requirements for Structures Assigned to Seismic
Design Category C
14.2.7.1.1 Anchorage of Piles
12.13.5 Pile Anchorage Requirements for Structures Assigned to Seismic
Design Category C
A.9.7.4.4.1 Uncased Concrete Piles 14.2.7.1.2 Reinforcement for Uncased Concrete Piles
A.9.7.4.4.2 Metal-Cased Concrete Piles 14.2.7.1.3 Reinforcement for Metal-Cased Concrete Piles
A.9.7.4.4.3 Concrete-Filled Pipe 14.2.7.1.4 Reinforcement for Concrete-Filled Pipe Piles
A.9.7.4.4.4 Precast Nonprestressed Concrete Piles 14.2.7.1.5 Reinforcement for Precast Nonprestressed Concrete Piles
A.9.7.4.4.5 Precast Prestressed Piles 14.2.7.1.6 Reinforcement for Precast Prestressed Piles
A.9.7.5 Special Pile Requirements for Categories D, E, and F 14.2.7.2 Concrete Pile Requirements for Seismic Design Categories D
through F
A.9.7.5.4.1 Uncased Concrete Piles 14.2.7.2.3 Reinforcement for Uncased Concrete Piles
A.9.7.5.4.2 Metal-Cased Concrete Piles 14.2.7.2.4 Reinforcement for Metal-Cased Concrete Piles
A.9.7.5.4.3 Precast Concrete Piles 14.2.7.2.5 Reinforcement for Precast Concrete Piles
A.9.7.5.4.4 Precast Prestressed Piles 14.2.7.2.6 Reinforcement for Precast Prestressed Piles
A.9.7.5.4.5 Steel Piles 14.1.8 Additional Detailing Requirements for Steel Piles in Seismic Design
A.9.8 Supplementary Provisions for Steel No corresponding section
A.9.8.1 General 14.1 Steel
A.9.8.2 Seismic Requirements for Steel Structures No corresponding section
A.9.8.3 Seismic Design Categories A, B, and C 14.1.2 Seismic Design Categories B and C
A.9.8.4 Seismic Design Categories D, E, and F 14.1.3 Seismic Design Categories D through F
A.9.8.5 Cold-Formed Steel Seismic Requirements 14.1.4 Cold-Formed Steel
A.9.8.5.1 14.1.4.1 Modifications to AISC Cold-Formed-01
A.9.8.6 Light-Framed Wall Requirements 14.1.4.2 Light-Framed Wall Requirements
A.9.8.6.1 Boundary Members 14.1.4.2.1 Boundary Members
A.9.8.6.2 Connections 14.1.4.2.2 Connections
A.9.8.6.3 Braced Bay Members 14.1.4.2.3 Braced Bay Members
366 ASCE 7-05

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A.9.8.6.4 Diagonal Braces 14.1.4.2.4 Diagonal Braces
A.9.8.6.5 Shear Walls 14.1.4.2.5 Shear Walls
Table A.9.8.6.5 Nominal Shear Values for Seismic Forces for Shear Walls 14.1.4.1 Light-Framed Cold-Formed Construction
Framed with Cold-Formed Steel Studs
A.9.8.7 Seismic Requirements for Steel Deck Diaphragms 14.1.6 Steel Deck Diaphragms
A.9.8.8 Steel Cables 14.1.7 Steel Cables
A.9.9 Supplemental Provisions for Concrete No corresponding section
A.9.9.1 Modifications to Ref. 9.9-1 (ACI 318-02) 14.2.2 Modifications to ACI 318
A.9.9.1.1 ACI 318, Section 21.0 14.2.2.1 ACI 318, Section 21.0
A.9.9.1.3 ACI 318, Section 21.2.5 14.2.2.4 ACI 318, Section 21.2.5
A.9.9.1.7 ACI 318, Section D.4.2 14.2.2.14 ACI 318, Section D.4.2
A.9.9.2 Classification of Shear Walls 14.2.3 Classification of Shear Walls
A.9.9.2.1 Ordinary Plain Concrete Shear Walls 14.2.3.1 Ordinary Plain Concrete Shear Walls
A.9.9.2.2 Detailed Plain Concrete Shear Walls 14.2.3.2 Detailed Plain Concrete Shear Walls
A.9.9.2.3 Ordinary Reinforced Concrete Shear Walls 14.2.3.4 Ordinary Reinforced Concrete Shear Walls
A.9.9.2.4 Special Reinforced Concrete Shear Walls 14.2.3.6 Special Reinforced Concrete Shear Walls
A.9.9.3 Seismic Design Category B 14.2.4 Seismic Design Category B Requirements
A.9.9.3.1 Ordinary Moment Frames 14.2.4.1 Ordinary Moment Frames
A.9.9.4 Seismic Design Category C 14.2.5 Seismic Design Category C Requirements
A.9.9.4.1 Seismic Force-Resisting Systems 14.2.5.1 Seismic Force-Resisting Systems
A.9.9.4.2 Discontinuous Members 14.2.5.2 Discontinuous Members
A.9.9.4.3 Anchor Bolts in the Top of Columns 14.2.5.3 Anchor Bolts in the Top of Columns
A.9.9.4.4 Plain Concrete 14.2.5.4 Plain Concrete
A.9.9.4.4.1 Walls 14.2.5.4.1 Plain Concrete Wall Limitations
A.9.9.4.4.2 Footings 14.2.5.4.2 Plain Concrete Footings
A.9.9.4.4.3 Pedestals 14.2.5.4.3 Plain Concrete Pedestal Limitations
A.9.9.5 Seismic Design Categories D, E, and F 14.2.6 Requirements for Seismic Design Categories D through F
A.9.9.5.1 Seismic Force-Resisting Systems 14.2.6.1 Seismic Force-Resisting Systems
A.9.9.5.2 Frame Members Not Proportioned to Resist Forces Induced by 14.2.6.2 Frame Members Not Proportioned to Resist Forces Induced by
Earthquake Notions Earthquake Motions
A.9.11 Supplementary Provisions for Masonry No corresponding section
A.9.11.1 No corresponding section
A.9.11.2 No corresponding section
A.9.11.3 14.4.4 Anchorage Forces
A.9.11.4 14.4.2 R factors
A.9.11.4.1 Method A No corresponding section
A.9.11.4.2 Method B No corresponding section
A.9.11.5 14.4.6.1 Stress Increase

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TABLE C11-2
Ratio of Load Effects (moment, Equivalency
axial load, etc.) in the load Factor
combination being considered
Structural Element and ASD Rules D/E L/E α
Limit State
0 0 0.67
Steel girder; bending per 2.4.1 0.5 0.25 0.65
1 0.5 0.48
0 0 0.67
Steel brace, tension per 2.4.1
1 0 0.67
0.25 0.25 0.66
Steel brace, compression per 2.4.1
0.5 0.5 0.45
0 0 0.50
Masonry wall, reinforcement per 2.4.1
1.11 0 0.64
for in-plane bending 0 0 0.67
1/3 increase per reference standard
1.11 0 0.67
Masonry wall, in-plane shear per 2.4.1 0 0 0.47
(reinforced, with M/V d ≥ 1) 1/3 increase per reference standard 0 0 0.63
Wood shear panel 0 0 0.63
per 2.4.1 0 0 0.74
Wood collector, tension
(1/3 increase not permitted in −1 0 0.67
reference standard) 0 0 0.74
Bolts in wood
0.25 0.5 0.70
368 ASCE 7-05

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Chapter C12
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BUILDING STRUCTURES
C12.3.3.3 Elements Supporting Discontinuous Walls or sufficient strength to remain elastic. The 0 coefficient approx-
Frames. The purpose of the special load combinations is to pro- imates the inherent overstrength in typical structures having dif-
tect the gravity load-carrying system against possible overloads ferent seismic force–resisting systems. The special seismic loads,
caused by overstrength of the lateral-force-resisting system. Ei- factored by the 0 coefficient, are an approximation of the max-
ther columns or beams may be subject to such failure, therefore, imum force these elements are ever likely to experience. This
both should include this design requirement. Beams may be sub- standard permits the special seismic loads to be taken as less than
ject to failure due to overloads in either the downward or upward the amount computed by applying the 0 coefficient to the de-
directions of force. Examples include reinforced concrete beams, sign seismic forces when it can be shown that yielding of other
the weaker top laminations of glulam beams, or unbraced flanges elements in the structure will limit the amount of load that can
of steel beams or trusses. Hence, the provision has not been lim- be delivered to the element. As an example, the axial load in a
ited simply to downward force, but instead to the larger context column of a moment-resisting frame will derive from the shear
of “vertical load.” A remaining issue that has not been fully ad- forces in the beams that connect to this column. The axial loads
dressed in this edition is clarification of the appropriate load case due to lateral seismic action need never be taken greater than sum
for the design of the connections between the discontinuous walls of the shears in these beams at the development of a full struc-
or frames and the supporting elements. tural mechanism, considering the probable strength of the mate-
rials and strain hardening effects (for frames controlled by beam
The connection between the discontinuous element and the sup-
hinge-type mechanisms this would typically be 2M p /L, where
porting member must be adequate to transmit the forces for which
for steel frames M p is the expected plastic moment capacity of
the discontinuous element was designed. For example, where the
the beam as defined in the AISC Seismic Specification and for
discontinuous element is required to comply with the special loads
concrete frames, M p would be the probable flexural strength of
specified in Section 12.4.3, as is the case for steel columns in
the beam, where L is the clear span length). In other words, as used
braced and steel moment frames, its connection to the support-
in this section, the term “capacity” means the expected or median
ing member will also be required to be designed to transmit the
anticipated strength of the element, considering potential varia-
same forces. These same special seismic loads are not required
tion in material yield strength and strain-hardening effects. When
for shear wall systems and, as such, the connection between the
calculating the capacity of elements for this purpose, material
shear wall and the supporting member would only need to be de-
strengths should not be reduced by capacity or resistance factors.
signed to transmit the loads associated with the shear wall and not
the special seismic loads. C12.8.4.1 Inherent Torsion. Where earthquake forces are ap-
C12.3.4 Redundancy. This standard introduces a revised plied concurrently in two orthogonal directions the 5 percent dis-
redundancy factor for structures in Seismic Design Categories D, placement of the center of mass should be applied along a single
E, and F to quantify redundancy. The value of this factor is either orthogonal axis chosen to produce the greatest effect, but need
1.0 or 1.3. This factor has an effect of reducing the R factor for less not be applied simultaneously along two axis (i.e., in a diagonal
redundant structures thereby increasing the seismic demand. The direction).
factor is specified in recognition of the need to address the issue Most diaphragms of light-frame construction are somewhere
of redundancy in the design. The National Earthquake Hazards between rigid and flexible for analysis purposes, that is, semi-
Reduction Program (NEHRP) Commentary Section 5.2.4 ex- rigid. Such diaphragm behavior is difficult to analyze when con-
plains that this new revised requirement is “intended to quantify sidering torsion of the structure. As a result, it is believed that
the importance of redundancy.” The NEHRP Commentary points consideration of the amplification of the torsional moment is a
out that “many non-redundant structures have been designed in refinement that is not warranted for light-frame construction.
the past using values of R that were intended for use in design-
ing structures with higher levels of redundancy.” In other words, Historically, the intent of the A x , term was not to amplify the
the use of the R factor in the design has led to slant in design in natural torsion component, only the accidental torsion component.
the wrong direction. The NEHRP Commentary indicates that the There does not appear reason to further increase design forces by
source of the revised factor is Technical Subcommittee 2 of the amplifying both components together.
NEHRP Provisions.
C12.11.2.1 Anchorage of Concrete or Masonry Structural
C12.4.3 Seismic Load Effect Including Overstrength Factor. Walls to Flexible Diaphragms. Where roof framing is not per-
Some elements of properly detailed structures are not capable pendicular to anchored walls, provision needs to be made to trans-
of safely resisting ground-shaking demands through inelastic be- fer both the tension and sliding components of the anchorage force
havior. To assure safety, these elements must be designed with into the roof diaphragm.

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370
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Chapter C13
SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR NONSTRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
C13.0 SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR in the elements that will actually distort. For example, a glazing
NONSTRUCTURAL COMPONENTS system supported by precast concrete spandrels must be designed
to accommodate the full story drift, even though the height of
In Section 13.5.1 of ASCE 7-05, nonstructural components sup-
the glazing system is only a fraction of the floor-to-floor height.
ported by chains or otherwise suspended from the structure are
This condition arises because the precast spandrels will behave
exempt from lateral bracing requirements, provided they are de-
as rigid bodies relative to the glazing system and therefore all the
signed not to inflict damage to themselves or any other component
drift must be accommodated by anchorage of the glazing unit, the
when subject to seismic motion. However, for the 2005 edition,
joint between the precast spandrel and the glazing unit, or some
it has been determined that clarifications are needed on the type
combination of the two.
of nonstructural components allowed by these exceptions and the
acceptable consequences of interaction between components. In C13.5.9 Glass in Glazed Curtain Walls, Glazed Storefronts,
ASCE 7-02, certain nonstructural components that could repre- and Glazed Partitions. The 2000 National Earthquake Hazards
sent a fire hazard following an earthquake are exempted from Reduction Program (NEHRP) Provisions contain seismic design
meeting the Section 9.6.1 requirements. For example, gas-fired provisions for glazing systems. For ASCE 7, it was found that
space heaters clearly pose a fire hazard following an earthquake, clarity of the provisions could be improved by reformatting the
but are permitted to be exempted from the Section 9.6.1 require- equations.
ments. The fire hazard following the seismic event must be given
the same level of consideration as the structural failure hazard
when considering components to be covered by this exception. In C13.6 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL
addition, the ASCE 7-02 language is sometimes overly restrictive COMPONENTS
because it did not distinguish between credible seismic interac-
The revisions to Table 13.6-1 are the result of work done in re-
tions and incidental interactions. In ASCE 7-02, if a suspended
cent years to better understand the performance of mechanical
lighting fixture could hit a sheet metal duct and dent a sheet metal
and electrical components and their attachment to the structure.
duct, it would have to be braced, although no credible danger is
The primary concepts of flexible and rigid equipment, ductile and
created by the impact. The new reference in Section 13.2.3 0f
rugged behavior are drawn from the Structural Engineers Asso-
ASCE 7-05 allows the designer to consider whether the failures
ciation of California, Recommended Lateral Force Requirements
of the component and/or the adjacent components are likely to
and Commentary, 1999 Edition, Commentary Section C107.1.7.
occur if contact is made.
Material on HVAC is based on The American Society of Heating,
C13.3.2 Seismic Relative Displacements. The design of some Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. publication A
nonstructural components that span vertically in the structure can Practical Guide to Seismic Restraint, RP-812, 1999. Other ma-
be complicated when supports for the element do not occur at terial on industrial piping, boilers, and pressure vessels is based
horizontal diaphragms. The language in Section 13.3.2 was pre- on the American Society of Mechanical Engineers Codes and
viously amended to clarify that story drift must be accommodated Standards publications.

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372
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Chapter C14
MATERIAL-SPECIFIC SEISMIC DESIGN AND DETAILING REQUIREMENTS
C14.2 CONCRETE slender precast prestressed concrete elements and will result in un-
buildable piles. The requirements are based on the Recommended
The section adopts by reference ACI 318-05 for structural con-
Practice for Design, Manufacture and Installation of Prestressed
crete design and construction. In addition, modifications to ACI
Concrete Piling, PCI Committee on Prestressed Concrete Piling,
318-05 are made that are needed to coordinate the provisions of
1993.
the material design standard with the provisions of ASCE 7-05.
Work is ongoing to better coordinate the provisions of the two Equation 14.2-1, originally from ACI 318, has always been in-
documents (ACI 318 and ASCE 7) such that the provisions in tended to be a lower-bound spiral reinforcement ratio for larger
Section 14.2 will be significantly reduced or eliminated in future diameter columns. It is independent of the member section prop-
editions of ASCE 7. erties and can therefore be applied to large or small diameter
piles. For cast-in-place concrete piles and precast prestressed con-
Section 14.2.2.14 of this document makes one additional mod-
crete piles, the resulting spiral reinforcing ratios from this for-
ification to ACI 318-05. That standard currently requires labora-
mula are considered to be sufficient to provide moderate ductility
tory testing to establish the strength of anchor bolts greater than
capacities.
2 in. in diameter or exceeding 25 in. in tensile embedment depth.
This modification makes the ACI 318 equation giving the basic Full confinement per Eq. 14.2-1 is required for the upper
concrete breakout strength of a single anchor in tension in cracked 20 ft of the pile length where curvatures are large. The amount is
concrete applicable irrespective of the anchor bolt diameter and relaxed by 50 percent outside of that length in view of lower cur-
tensile embedment depth. vatures and in consideration of confinement provided by the soil.
C14.2.3.1.2 Reinforcement for Uncased Concrete Piles C14.2.3.2.3 Reinforcement for Uncased Concrete Piles
(SDC C). The transverse reinforcing requirements in the poten- (SDC D through F). The reinforcement requirements for un-
tial plastic hinge zone of uncased concrete piles in Seismic Design cased concrete piles are taken from current building code require-
Category C is a selective composite of two ACI 318 requirements. ments, and are intended to provide ductility in the potential plastic
In the potential plastic hinge region of an intermediate moment- hinge zones.
resisting concrete frame column, the transverse reinforcement
C14.2.3.2.5 Reinforcement for Precast Concrete Piles
spacing is restricted to the least of (1) eight times the diame-
(SDC D through F). The transverse reinforcement requirements
ter of the smallest longitudinal bar, (2) 24 times the diameter of
for precast nonprestressed concrete piles are taken from current
the tie bar, (3) one-half the smallest cross-sectional dimension of
building code requirements and are intended to provide ductility
the column, and (4) 12 in. outside of the potential plastic hinge
in the potential plastic hinge zone.
region of a special moment-resisting frame column, the transverse
reinforcement spacing is restricted to the smaller of six times the C14.2.3.2.6 Reinforcement for Precast Prestressed Piles
diameter of the longitudinal column bars and 6 in. (SDC D through F). The last paragraph provides minimum
transverse reinforcement outside of the zone of prescribed ductile
C14.2.3.1.5 Reinforcement for Precast Nonprestressed
reinforcing.
Concrete Piles (SDC C). Transverse reinforcement require-
ments in and outside of the plastic hinge zone of precast nonpre-
stressed piles are clarified. The transverse reinforcement require- C14.4 MASONRY
ment in the potential plastic hinge zone is a composite of two
This section adopts by reference and then makes modifications to
ACI 318 requirements (see Section C14.2.7.1.2). Outside of the
ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402 and ACI 530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602.
potential plastic hinge region the eight longitudinal-bar-diameter
The modifications are needed to coordinate the provisions of the
spacing is doubled. The maximum 8-in. tie spacing comes from
referenced material standards with the provisions of ASCE 7-
current building code provisions for precast concrete piles.
05. Work is ongoing to better coordinate the provisions of the
C14.2.3.1.6 Reinforcement for Precast Prestressed Piles two documents (MSJC and ASCE 7) such that the provisions in
(SDC C). The transverse and longitudinal reinforcing require- Section 14.4 will be significantly reduced or eliminated in future
ments given in ACI 318, Chapter 21, were never intended for editions.

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374

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ASCE STANDARD ASCE/SEI 7-05

Including Supplement No. 1 and Errata

American Society of Civil Engineers

Minimum Design Loads

Published by the American Society of Civil Engineers

Minimum design loads for buildings and other structures /

Any statements expressed in these materials are those of

ASCE and American Society of Civil Engineers—Registered

Photocopies and reprints. You can obtain instant permission

Copyright C 2006 by the American Society of Civil Engineers.

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures iii

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures v

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures vii

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures ix

1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . ....... 1

2 Combinations of Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... .. 5

4 Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ..... . ...... . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . . ...... 9

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures xi

5 Flood Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ...... . ..... .. 15

6 Wind Loads . . . ......................................... . . ..... . . ..... . ...... .. 21

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures xiii

7 Snow Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .. 81

8 Rain Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . ...... . ..... . . .. 95

9 Reserved for Future Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

11 Seismic Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures xv

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures xvii

13 Seismic Design Requirements for Nonstructural Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 143

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures xix

15 Seismic Design Requirements for Nonbuilding Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ..... . . .. 161

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures xxi

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures xxiii

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures xxv

20 Site Classiﬁcation Procedure for Seismic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 205

22 Seismic Ground Motion and Long-Period Transition Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

23 Seismic Design Reference Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

Appendix 11A Quality Assurance Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures xxvii

C2 Combinations of Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... .. 255

C4 Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ...... 269

C5 Flood Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . . ..... . ...... . ..... .. 275

C6 Wind Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... .. 281

C7 Snow Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .. 323

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures xxix

C11 Seismic Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

C12 Seismic Design Requirements for Building Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 369

C14 Material-Specific Seismic Design and Detailing Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

C19 Soil Structure Interaction for Seismic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures xxxi

1.1 SCOPE NOMINAL LOADS: The magnitudes of the loads specified

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures 1

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures 3

2. 1.2(D + F + T ) + 1.6(L + H ) + 0.5(L r or S or R) 1. D + F

3. 1.2D + 1.6(L r or S or R) + (L or 0.8W ) 2. D + H + F + L + T

4. 1.2D + 1.6W + L + 0.5(L r or S or R) 3. D + H + F + (L r or S or R)

5. 1.2D + 1.0E + L + 0.2S 4. D + H + F + 0.75(L + T ) + 0.75(L r or S or R)

6. 0.9D + 1.6W + 1.6H 5. D + H + F + (W or 0.7E)

7. 0.9D + 1.0E + 1.6H 6. D + H + F + 0.75(W or 0.7E) + 0.75L

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures 5

TABLE 3-1 DESIGN LATERAL SOIL LOAD

Inorganic clayey silts, elastic silts MH b

Inorganic clays of high plasticity CH b

Organic clays and silty clays OH b