Mechanical Technology

(iii) Equal and similar principal stresses, a 1 = a2, when points A, B and C
coincide and the circle is reduced to a point.

In such a system, all planes have the same direct stress which is unaccompanied
by shear stress.* Equal and similar principal stresses occur, for example, in thin
spherical shells under internal pressure and in shafts on which collars have been
shrunk.

When the principal planes are not known the constuction of the circle can
be carried out by the method of the following example.

Example. At a point in a material, the stresses on two mutually perpendicular

planes are 50 MNfm 2 and 20 MNfm 2, both tensile, accompanied by comple-
mentary shear stresses of 10 MN/m 2. Find the positions of the principal planes
and the values of the principal stresses.
SOMN/m~

(a) (b)
Fig. rg.8

Fig. 13.8 (a) shows the stresses acting on a small cube ABCD. The
given information means that planes x and y are separated by an angle of
goo and that
O'x =+so MNfm 2, Tx = -10 MN/m 2, O'y = +20 MNfm2
and Ty = +1o MN/m 2
Thus points Dx and Dy may be constructed and, since these must be
diametrally opposite, the diagram may be completed (Fig. 13.8 (b)).

* This does not mean that there is no shear stress in the material but only that there
is no shear stress on planes perpendicular to that of the stress system. In three-dimensional
systems, this is a case in which the third principal stress aa is zero and hence To (max) =
i(a1- aa) = ia1. Only a system with all three principal stresses equal and similar
would have no shear stress on any plane.
 Stress and Strain-2
Angles DxCA and DxCB are 34° and 146° respectively and so the angles
made by the principal planes with plane x (i.e., that of the 50 MNfm2
stress) are I7° (measured anticlockwise) and 73° (measured clockwise).
The principal stresses, represented by OA and OB, are 53'0 MNfm2
and 17·0 MNfm2 respectively (both tensile). These are shown acting
on the cube of material PQRS in Fig. 13.8 (a).
In this example, positive shear stress has by convention been taken as
that which, acting alone, would tend to rotate an element clockwise,
and is represented by the upper half of the circle diagram.

I 3.2 CoMBINED STRESSES

Thin cylinders
Cylindrical shells are usually considered thin if their thickness is not more
than 1j2o their diameter, in which case (i) radial stresses may be neglected
and (ii) circumferential stresses may be considered uniform.
In the equilibrium of a longitudinal
section of a cylinder (Fig. 13.9 (a)), t
if the ends have no effect, the forces
acting are those due to the internal
pressure p and the circumferential
stress a c. Equating these for a section
of axial length l,
p dl = ac X 2lt (a) (b)
Fig. 13.9
:. ac = pdj2t (13.12)
In the equilibrium of that part of the cylinder on one side of a transverse
plane (Fig. 13·9 (b)), equating forces gives
p X t7Td 2 = O'L X 7T dt
:. Longitudinal stress O'L = pdj4t (13.13)

Example. A compressed air tank has a diameter oj3oo mm and is 10 mm thick.

Find, for the normal working pressure of 4 MNfm2 (40 bar), (a) the maximum
shear stress in its cylindrical wall, (b) the direct stress which accompanies this
shear stress.
From Eq. (13.12),
ac = pdj2t
= 4 X X 0•3/2 X o·OI
106
= 6o X 106 Nfm2 = 6o MNfm2 (tensile)
 Mechanical Technology
Similarly, from Eq. (13.13),

O'L = pdf4t = 30 MN/m 2 (tensile)

Since no shear stresses act on the planes of ac and O'L, it follows that they
are the principal stresses in the cylindrical wall. The Mohr circle may be
constructed (see Fig. 13.10). The points D 1 and D 2 represent planes of
maximum she"·'· stress, and the diagram shows that the maximum shear
stress is 15 MN/m 2 and that it is accompanied by a direct stress of 45
MNfm2 (tensile).

14---"ASMN/m~

t.
ISMN/m•

0>~-------b---+~~
8 C
~--~~~
A

3:>MN/ms ~
D,
w..--60MN/m..

Fig. 13.10

Combined torsion and thrust

It may be shown that if a circular shaft is subjected to a torque T, shear
stresses are produced, and

where T = Shear stress at radius r,

T =Torque transmitted,
J= Polar second moment of area of the shaft cross-section
( =7Td4/32 for a solid shaft of diameter d),
G = Modulus of rigidity, and
0 = Angle of twist over a length of shaft l.

Thus the shear stresses in a shaft vary from zero at the centre to a maximum
at its surface. If there is also a longitudinal force on the shaft so that a
uniform direct stress is combined with the torsional stresses, the combina-
tions of stress will range from direct stress only at the centre to direct stress
plus maximum shear stress at the surface. It is usually necessary to find
maximum values of stress, so that only the stresses at the surface need
be considered.
 Stress and Strain-2
Example. A ship's propeller shaft is 400 mm diameter and runs at 120 rev/min.
The power transmitted is 9 MW and the thrust of the screw is 850 kN. Find
the maximum compressive stress in the shaft.

Power transmitted by torque= Tw

9 X 106 = T X (120 X 21r)j6o
:. T = 716 X xo3 Nm = o·716 MNm
From Eq. (13.14),
T = Tr/J = 32 Tr/TTd4
Shear stress at surface of shaft = 32 X 0·716 X o·2/1r(o·4)4
= 57·oMNjm 2
If the stress due to the thrust is evenly distributed over the cross-section,

Compressive stress a = 850 X w3j1r(o·2)2

= 6760 X xo3 Nfm2 = 6·76 MNfm2

The stresses acting on an elementary block of material at the surface

of the shaft are as shown in Fig. 13.1 I (a) and from the Mohr stress
circle, Fig. 13.11 (b), the maximum compressive stress (i.e., the principal
stress of negative sign) is 60·5 MN/m 2.

__1_11_LOMN/m"
~6CJ6MN/m'

(a) (b)
Fig. 13.11

Combined torsion and bending

The bending of a shaft involves (see Chapter 15) stresses ranging from
maximum tensile (on the convex side) to maximum compressive (on the
concave side) and if these are combined with the stresses due to torsion,
various combinations will result. Maximum stresses will be found at the
surface of the shaft and at the maximum distance from the neutral axis.
 Mechanical Technology
It is usually necessary to find the maximum tensile stress and maximum
shear stress, which means an investigation along the line of intersection
of the shaft surface with the plane of bending, on the convex side.

Example. A shaft 20 mm diameter transmits a torque of 100 Nm and is acted

on by transverse forces which give rise to a maximum bending moment of 30 Nm.
Find (a) the maximum tensile stress, and (b) the maximum shear stress. Show by a
diagram the positions of the principal planes at a point where these stresses occur.

From Eq. (13.14),

-r = Tr/J = 32 Trf7Td4
at shaft surface,
T = 32 X 100 X 0'01/7T(0·02)4
= 6·37 X 107 N/m 2 = 63·7 MN/m 2
From Eq. (15.1),
a = Myfl = 64My/1rd4
for a solid circular beam.
Therefore, at maximum distance from the neutral axis,
(J = 64 X 30 X 0'01/7T(0'02)4
= 3·82 X 107 N/m 2 = 38·2 MN/m 2

1
665

(b)
Fig. 13.12

From the Mohr stress circle (approximately to scale, Fig. 13.12 (a)),
the maximum tensile stress is 85·6 MNfm2 and the maximum shear stress
66·5 MNfm2. The angle DyCA is 74°, so that the principal plane having
tensile stress makes an angle of 37° with the plane on which the bending
stress acts (Fig. 13.12 (b)).
 Stress and Strain-2
Example. A solid circular shaft is to transmit a torque of I ·6 kNm, and will
be subjected to a maximum bending moment of I kNm. Calculate the required
diameter (a) if the maximum tensile stress is not to exceed go MN/m 2, (b) if
the maximum shear stress is not to exceed 45 MNfm2.

From Eq. (I3.I4), T = Tr!J. But}= 1Td4 j32, and at the shaft surface,
r = dj2,
-r = I6Tf7Td3
= I6 X I·6 X 103j7Td3
= 8·I5 X 103fd3 Nfm2
From Eq. (IS.I),
a= Myfl

so that at maximum distance from the neutral axis (y = dj2),

a = 32Mj7Td3
= 32 X 103f7Td3
= Io·I8 X 103fd3 Nfm2

A Mohr stress circle could now be constructed to a scale in which a

stress of 103fd3 Nfm2 is represented by, say, I em. Alternatively, from
Eq. (I3.6),

For (a), ax= o, Gy = +Io·I8 X 103/d 3, T = 8·I5 X 103jd 3 and a8 (max)

is to be go x 106 Nfm2. Substituting these values and dividing through-
out by 103,

go x 103 = t(Io·I8jd3) + tv'(-10·I8jd3)2 + 4(8·I5jd3)2

= I4•7fd3
d = 0·0547 m = 54'7 mm

Similarly, from Eq. (I3.g),

To(max) = fV(ax- ay) 2 + 4T2

For case (b),
45 X 103 = !V(-IO·I8jd3)2 + 4(8·xsfd3)2
= g·6Ifd3

d = o·osg8 m = sg·8 mm
 Mechanical Technology

13.3 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN STRESS AND STRAIN

Longitudinal and lateral strains

If a bar of material is stressed in simple tension, there will be two kinds
of strain (Fig. I 3· I 3).
I • The bar will extend in the
direction of the applied stress a so
that there will be a longitudinal strain
------- e. Provided the stress is not greater
Fig. 13.13 than some limit, e is proportional to
a and e = afE.
2. The bar will contract in all directions at right angles to that of a
so that there will be a lateral strain which is a contraction when the longi-
tudinal strain is an extension and vice versa.
Within the limit of proportionality, the ratio of lateral strain to longi-
tudinal strain is a constant for each material and is known as Poisson's
ratio v. The ratio is a positive number equal to the numerical ratio of the
strains and ignoring the fact that they are of opposite signs. For most
metals, a lies between! and }. In general, the lateral strain is given by
-vafE, where the negative sign indicates that the lateral strain is in the
opposite sense to that normally associated with the stress a.

Principal stresses and principal strains

In any stress system, there are three mutually perpendicular planes on
which only direct stresses act. If the three principal stresses are at, a2
and v3 and their effect on a cube of material with faces are parallel to the
principal planes is considered (see Fig. I3.14), the strain in the direction
of one principal stress will be the algebraic sum of the longitudinal strain
due to that stress and the lateral strains due to the other two principal
stresses. Hence the strain in the direction of a1,
e1 = a1/E- va2/E- vaa/E
+ aa)]/E
= [a1- v(a2 (13.15)
Similarly, e2 = [a2 - v(a1+ aa)]/E (I3.I6)
and ea = [aa- v(a1 + a2)]/E (13.17)
Although stresses in Fig. I3.14 are shown as tensile, Eqs. (I3.15) to
(I3.17) apply to systems in which one (or more) of the principal stresses
is compressive, so long as the convention is used that tensile stress and
extension are positive, compressive stress and contraction negative.
 Stress and Strain-2 273
The cube of material in Fig. 13.14 will be deformed but will remain
rectangular, so that there is no shear strain in the directions of e1, e2 and e 3 •
It will later be seen that, for a two-dimensional system, e1 and e2 represent
maximum and minimum values of direct strain. There is an obvious
analogy with the properties of the principal stresses, and the strains e1,
e2 and ea are termed principal strains.

Example. In a previous example, a cylin-

drical shell was found to have a longitudinal
stress GL = 30 MNfm2 and a circum-
ferential stress ac = 6o MN/m 2. If, for
this material, E = 200 GNfm2 and v =
0·3, find the proportional changes in length,
diameter and thickness.
The three principal stresses are
a1 = +30 MN/m 2, a2 = +6o MN/m 2
and as= o.
Proportional change in length
= e1 = [a1- v(a2 + as)]/E
= (30 X 106 - o·3(6o X 106 + o)]/200 X 109
= +6 X 10-5 (i.e., an increase)
Proportional change in diameter
= Proportional change in circumference
= e2 = [a2- v(a1 + aa)]/E
= [6o X 106 - 0·3(30 X 106 + o)]j2oo X 109
= +25'5 X 10-5 (i.e., an increase)
Proportional change in thickness
= ea = [as- v(a1 + a2)]/E
= [o - 0·3(30 X 106 + 6o X 106)]/200 X 109
= -13·5 X 10-5 (i.e., a decrease)

13.4 CoMPLEX STRAINS

Two~dimensional strain analysis

A small block of material ABCD forms part of a component subjected
to two-dimensional stresses, the face ABCD being in the plane of the
stress system and the faces AB and BC being parallel to the principal
 Mechanical Technology
planes. Principal strains occur in the directions of the principal stresses
or at right angles to the faces of the block. If these strains are el hori-
zontally and e2 vertically (both positive), the block becomes A1B1C 1D
(Fig. I3.I5 (a)) and the objective is to find the strain s 8 at an angle ()
with the horizontal, that is the proportional change in the diagonal DB.
It is also important to find the rotation fJ of this diagonal relative to the
principal planes, for this can be related to the shear strain y 8 •

(a) (b)
Fig. 13.15

At the corner B (Fig. I 3· I 5 (b)), for most materials, the strains are
small so that B1F may be considered parallel to BD. (This analysis does
not apply to materials such as rubber.) Then,

BE = el X AB and EB1 = e2 X CB
FB1 = FG + GB1 = BH + GB1
= BE cos() + EB1 sin()
= e1 . AB cos () + e2 . CB sin ()
e8 = FB1/DB = e1 cos 2 () + s 2 sin2 ()
= !(el + e2) + t(e1- e2) cos 2fJ
BF = HG = HE - GE
= BE sin () - EB1 cos ()
= e1 . AB sin () - s 2 . CB cos ()
fJ = BF/DB = e1 cos() sin() - e2 sin() cos()
= i(e1- e2) sin 2()
 Stress and Strain-2 275
Relationship between f3 and y. The shear strain in a material is usually
regarded (Fig. I3.I6 (a)) either as the ratio AA1/BA or the angle y.
If, however, it is stipulated that the principal planes (i.e. the diagonals
AC and DB) must not rotate, the situation is that shown in Fig. I3. I6 (b).
Both figures show the same deformation. The only difference is that
in (a), the line BC is fixed while in (b) the point C is fixed and the diagonals
do not rotate. The angle y is now seen as the sum of the two angles f3
which correspond to the rotations of the sides of the cube relative to the
principal planes. Hence in Eq. (I3.I9), the angle f3 represents half the
shear strain y 0 • Furthermore, the rotation of the sides BC and DA (on

--- ---t'I
-
D O,
f-Jo,
D A_,A,
I $,_ I A

v
I
I
1~/
I
I I
I I
I I I

c B
I

c
-- ---~-f B,
B
(a) (b)
Fig. I3.I6

which, by the usual convention, shear stress is positive) is seen to be anti-

clockwise. In Fig. I3.I5 (a), f3 represents a clockwise rotation and so
must correspond to a negative shear strain. In other words,

Mohr's strain circle

For a principal plane where ax= a1, ay = a2 and T = o, Eqs. (I3.I) and
(I3.2), become
a0 = t(a1 + a2) + t(a1- a2) cos 2()
and To= t(a1- a2) sin 2()

Eqs. (I 3· I 8) and (I 3.20) are seen to be similar in form, principal strains

replacing principal stresses. Just as Eqs. (I3.I) and (I3.2) may be
represented by a geometrical construction, so can be Eqs. (I3.I8) and
(I3.20). Mohr's strain circle is constructed in the same way as Mohr's
stress cirde, except that horizontal distances now represent direct strains
 Mechanical Technology
and vertical distances represent half the corresponding shear strains.
Furthermore, the negative sign in Eq. (13.20) means that the lower half
of the strain circle represents positive shear strain.

Example. In a material acted on by stresses on{y in one plane, the principal

strains are e1 = 5 X 10-4, e2 = 3 X 10-4 (both being positive, i.e., extensions).
Construct the Mohr strain circle and find the strains in a direction making an angle
of 30° with the direction oft:I. What is the maximum shear strain and where
does it occur?

or-------------~----~~~~ '
-~-,;

~--------- ~ --------~

Fig. 13.17

Fig. 13.17 shows the strain circle, approximately to scale. If the 30°
angle is measured anticlockwise from the direction of e1, the strains in the
required direction are
e8 = +4"5 X 10-4

Y8 = -1·73 X 10-4 radians

Thus, t:0 represents an extension and y 0 a clockwise rotation. Maximum

shear strain corresponds to points on the circle vertically above and below
its centre. From the diagram, the maximum shear strain is ±2 X 10-4
radians and occurs in directions making 45° with those of the principal
strains. In other words, a cube of material with faces at 45° with the
principal planes would have the maximum shear deformation.

Experimental strain analysis

Strains can be measured mechanically (for example, by an extensometer
during a simple tensile test) or by attaching an electrical resistance strain
gauge to the surface of the material.
 Stress and Strain-2
Such a strain gauge (Fig. 13.18 (a)) consists of a length of thin wire
bonded to an insulating backing which is firmly cemented in use to the
surface of the material so that any strain is faithfully transmitted to the
gauge. If the gauge is strained in the direction of its length, the wire is
stretched and its electrical resistance is increased. Three factors con-
tribute to this increase. The wire becomes longer, its cross-section is
reduced and, because it is in a state of stress, its electrical resistivity
increases. A strain of, say, I0-3 or o· 1 per cent thus causes a change in
resistance somewhat in excess ofo·I per cent. The ratio (bRfR)fe is called
the gauge factor and is usually between 2 and 2"5·
If an electrical resistance strain gauge is strained transversely, or in
shear, most of the wire is unaffected so that variations in resistance are

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. I3.I8

negligible. Thus the gauge measures only the direct strain in the direction
of its length. Changes in resistance are measured using a form of
Wheatstone bridge circuit and the resistance of the "active" gauge
is usually compared with that of a "dummy" gauge-an identical but
unstrained gauge placed so that temperature variations will affect both
equally.
Strain gauges can be used to find the principal strains in cases of com-
plex stress. In two-dimensional systems, the magnitudes of the principal
strains and the positions of the principal planes will both be unknown,
but may be determined by measuring the direct strains in a number of
different directions. The smallest such number is three and a strain rosette
is an assembly of three strain gauges. Theoretically, measurements may
be taken in any three directions but those directions used in practice are
either the "45° strain rosette" (Fig. 13.18 (b)) or the "6o 0 strain rosette"
(Fig. 13.18 (c)). From the three strains measured by a rosette, the Mohr
strain circle may be constructed and, from the principal strains, the
principal stresses may be deduced.
 Mechanical Technology
Example. A 45 °strain rosette gave the following results: Gauge A, 7 X I o-4
(extension); Gauge B, at 45° (anticlockwise) to A, 3 X 10-4 (extension);
Gauge C, at goo (anticlockwise) to A, 2 X 10-4 (extension). Find the principal
strains, the principal stresses and the positions of the principal planes relative to
the strain rosette. Assume that E = 200 GNfm 2 and v = o·3.

Since the strains are measured in directions separated by 45°, they will
be represented on the axis of Mohr's strain circle by the projections of
three points on the circle separated by go 0 • The construction of the circle
is as follows:

(i) The axis of the diagram is drawn and, to a suitable scale, 8A, 8B
and 8c are represented by OPa, OPb and OPe. Vertical lines are
drawn through Pa, Pb and P e·
(ii) The centre C of the circle is midway between points Pa and Pe.
(Since planes A and C are goo apart, DaDe will be a diameter of
the circle.)
(iii) The point Da is found by making PaDa equal to CPb-triangles
DbCPb and CDaPa are congruent.

The strain circle is now drawn (Fig. I3.Ig (a)), whence the principal
strains are 81 = +742 X 10-6 and 82 = +I 58 X 10-6. The principal
stresses may be found by substituting these values in Eqs. (I3.I5) and
(I 3· 1 6) as follows:
742 X 10-6 = (0'1 - o·3a2) j2oo X 10 9

I 58 X 10- 6 = (0'2 - o·3a1)/200 X 109

Solving these simultaneous equations, 0'1 = +I 74 MN/m 2 and az = +84

MNfm2 (i.e., both are tensile). In Fig. I3.I9 (a), the angle ACDa is
3I so that the angle between strains 81 and 8A (measured anticlockwise)
0

is 15"5o·
The principal stresses will be in the directions of 81 and 82, so that the
principal planes make angles of74·5° (anticlockwise) and 15"5° (clockwise)
with the axis of strain gauge A. Fig. 13.1g (b) shows the relative positions
of the strain rosette and a block of material having faces parallel to the
principal planes.

Example. A 6o o strain rosette gave the following results: Gauge A: 7 X 10-4

(extension), Gauge B, at 6o 0 (anticlockwise) to A: 2 X xo-4 (extension),
Gauge C, at I 20 o (anticlockwise) to A: 10-4 (contraction). Find the principal
strains and stresses, and the direction of the greater principal stress relative to gauge
A if, for the material, E = 70 GN/m 2 and v = 0·25.
 Stress and Strain-2 279
The points Pa, Pb and Pc are constructed as in the previous example
(Pc being to the left ofO since t:c is negative) and, as before, vertical lines
are drawn. It is now necessary to construct a circle such that Pa, Pb
and Pc are the projections of three points equally spaced around its
circumference. One method (Fig. 13.20) is as follows.
(i) The centre C of the circle is located by
OC = t(OPa + OPb + OPe)
(These quantities must be treated algebraically.)
(ii) With centre C, a circle is drawn tangential to one of the verticals,
that through Pain Fig. 13.20.

84lvfll/m:z.

174MN/m:z.

(a) (b)
Fig. 13.19

(iii) With this vertical as base, an equilateral triangle is constructed

so that it encloses the circle. The points at which the sides of this
triangle intersect the other verticals are points on the strain circle.
From Fig. 13.20, the principal strains are e1 = +733 X w- 6 and
e2 = -rg8 X w- 6 • Substituting in Eqs. (13.15) and (13.16),
733 X w- 6 = (0'1 - 0'250'2)/70 X 109
-rg8 X w-6 = (a2- o·250'1)/7o X ro 9
Solving these simultaneous equations,
0'1 = +5r·o MN/m 2 and 0'2 -1·1 MNfm2
This means that the principal stresses are 51·0 MNfm 2 (tensile) and
r·I MNfm 2 (compressive). In Fig. 13.20, the angle DaCA is 22°, so that
the angle between strains eA and er (or between the axis of gauge A and
the direction of the principal stress 0'1) is 1 1o (measured anticlockwise).
IO
 Mechanical Technology

13.5 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE ELASTIC CoNSTANTS

Relationship between E, G and v

In simple shear, the principal stresses are equal and opposite. From a
consideration of the Mohr stress circle or from Eqs. (I 2. 10) and (I 2. I I),
<rr = T and <12 = -T

From Eq. (I3.20),

-ire = Hsr - s2) sin 2()
or Ye = -(sr- c2) sin 2()

On planes subjected to pure shear stress, however, y = TjG and in Eq.

(I3.20), the angle() is measured (anticlockwise) from the direction of the

Fig. rg.2o

strain q. Fig. 13.2 I shows that in a simple shear system, the angle between
the positive principal strain and the plane on which the stress is pure
shear (and, conventionally, positive) is 135°, so that
YI35° = -(sr- s2) sin 270°
.". TjG = c1 - c2
From Eq. (I3.15),
sr = [ar - v(a2 + a3)]jE
Here ar = T, <12 = -T and <13 = o
c1 = (T + VT)jE
= T(l + v)jE
 Stress and Strain-2
Similarly, from Eq. (13.16),

e2 = (-T - YT)jE
= -T(I + v)jE
Hence TjG = T(l + v)jE- [ -T(I + v)jE]
= 2T(1 + v)jE
E = 2G(1 + v)

Fig. 13.21

Relationship between E, K and v

The bulk modulus K applies only to bodies under hydrostatic pressure,
and is defined as the numerical ratio of volumetric strain and hydrostatic
pressure. The volumetric strain is the ratio change in volume/original
volume and, since the volume V decreases for a positive pressure p,
the strain is negative. Thus
-p
K=--
(15 vI V)

Hydrostatic pressure brings about a stress system with all three principal
stresses equal and of the same sign, so that the principal strains will be
equal.
Let e = e1 = e2 = sa and consider an element of material consisting
of a cube of side l. Under pressure, each side will become l(1 + s),
where e is negative for a body under pressure. Then

bV = [!(1 + s)J3 -[3

 Mechanical Technology
Neglecting products of small quantities,

bV = 3Bla
and bVfV = 38

But a1 = a2 = aa = -p, so that Eqs. (I3.I5) to (I3.I7), give

8 = [ - p - v( - p - p)]jE
= -p(I - 2v)jE
bVfV = 38 = -3p(I - 2v)jE

-p
:. K = (bVjV) = Ej3(I - 2v)

or E = 3K(I- 2Y)

Derived relationships
Transposition ofEqs. (I 3.2 I) and (I 3.22) gives the following relationships:

v = (E- 2G)j2G ( I3.23)

v = (3K- E)f6K (I3.24)
Hence (E- 2G)j2G = (3K- E)f6K
from which E = gKGJ(G + 3K) ( I3.25)
and K = GEJ(gG- 3E) (I3.26)

Example. Typical values of the moduli of elasticity and rigidity for steel are
E = 200 GN/m 2 and G = 8o GN/m 2 • Calculate the values of the bulk
modulus and Poisson's ratio.
From Eq. (I3.26),
K = GEJ(gG- 3E)
= 200 X 8oj (9 X 8o - 3 X 200)
= I33'3 GNfm 2
From Eq. (I3.23),
v = (E - 2G){2G
= (200 - 2 x 8o){2 x 8o
= 0'25
 Stress and Strain-2

PROBLEMS

For tutorials
1. For a two-dimensional stress system, the stresses and strains in a material may
be represented graphically by Mohr's stress circle and strain circle. The material
concerned usually obeys Hooke's law and the strains are small. Are these con-
ditions essential? State, giving reasons, whether each of the constructions would
be valid for (a) a material in which strains were not proportional to stresses,
(b) a material (such as rubber) in which the strains can exceed unity.
2. Materials of exceptional strength have been made by embedding "whiskers"
(that is, long thin crystals of sapphire and other materials) in a metal matrix.
A similar composite material is glass-fibre reinforced plastic, and in all such
materials it may be assumed that the fibres are strong in tension while the matrix
is strong in compression but weak in tension. A thin-walled tube is to be made of
such a material. Show by diagrams the directions in which you think the fibres
should be laid if the tube is to be subjected to (a) internal pressure, (b) torsion
in one direction only, (c) torsion in either direction.
3· You have been given the task of determining the constants E, G, v and K for
a new alloy. The only available specimen is a rod of circular section, 200 mm
long and 4 mm diameter, and this must be returned intact. (In other words,
you are not allowed to alter its shape or even to use an extensometer which indents
its surface.) The elastic limits in tension and in shear are known to be, approxi-
mately, goo MN/m2 and 150 MNfm2 respectively. Devise a procedure which will
enable the elastic constants to be determined with reasonable accuracy and
describe, in detail, the tests to be performed. Include the limits to be imposed so
that stresses are kept well within the elastic range. (Hint: One procedure makes
use ofEqs. (7.8), (x6.14), (13.23) and (xg.26).)

General
x. A small cube of material has no stress on two of its faces. On the remaining
four, there are complementary shear stresses of 20 MNfm2 and on the faces
with conventionally positive shear stress, there is also a tensile stress ofg6 MNfm2.
By consideration of the forces acting on a prism of material, find (a) the stresses
on a plane making an angle ofgo 0 (measured anticlockwise) from the plane of the
tensile stress; (b) the positions of the principal planes; (c) the principal stresses.
Ans. (a) 9·7 MNJm2 (tensile) and 2y6 MN/m 2 (shear); (b) principal planes
make angles of 24° (clockwise) and 66° (anticlockwise) with that of the tensile
stress; (c) 44·9 MNfm2 (tensile) and 8·g MNfm2 (compressive).
2. At a point in a material, the principal stresses are 130 MNfm2 (tensile)
and So MNfm2 (compressive). Construct the Mohr stress circle and find the
stresses on planes making (a) 20° and (b) 6o 0 with that of the tensile principal
stress. Find also (c) the maximum shear stress, and (d) the positions of the planes
on which the stress is pure shear.
Ans. (a) 105·4 MN/m 2 (tensile) and 67·5 MN/m2 (shear); (b) 27·5 MNfm2
(compressive) and go·g MNfm2 (shear); (c) 105 MNfm2; (d) planes making
angles of 52°, and 128° with that of the tensile principal stress.
 Mechanical Technology
3· The cylindrical shell of a steam boiler is made from 15 mm thick steel plates.
Its diameter is 3m and the working pressure is 850 kN/m 2 (8·5 bar). Construct
a Mohr circle and find the maximum shear stress in the material (a) if its ends are
supported only by the cylindrical shell, (b) if in addition they are connected by
stays which exert a total inward force of 4 MN on each end.
Ans. (a) 21·25 MNJm2; (b) 35"4 MNfm2
4· During a test on a 45 mm twist drill, the following dynamometer readings
were recorded: thrust, 4 kN; torque, 6o Nm. Find (a) the maximum compressive
stress, and (b) the maximum shear stress in the plain cylindrical part of the drill.
Ans. (a) 4·84 MN/m 2; (b) 3·58 MN/m2
5· A 100 mm diameter shaft transmits 500 kW at 500 rev/min. Transverse
forces produce a maximum bending moment of 4 kNm. Find (a) the maximum
shear stress, and (b) the maximum tensile stress in the shaft. Also, (c) show by a
diagram the position of a plane on which maximum tensile stress acts.
Ans. (a) 52·g MNJm2; (b) 73·2 MNJm 2; (c) maximum tensile stress acts on
planes making 56! with the shaft axis.
0

6. A 45° strain rosette attached to a brass component (E = go GNfm2 and

v = 0·3) gave the following values of strain:
Gauge A: 432 X 10-6 (extension).
Gauge B: at 45° (anticlockwise) to A: 21 X 10-6 (extension).
Gauge C: at go 0 (anticlockwise) to A: 138 X w-6 (contraction).
Construct the Mohr strain circle and find (a) the principal strains, (b) the principal
stresses, (c) the direction of the greater principal strain relative to the strain rosette.
Ans. (a) e1 = 45g X 10-o (extension), e2 = 165 X 10-6 (contraction);
(b) 40·5 MN/m 2 (tensile) and 2·7 MN/m2 (compressive); (c) the direction of
strain e1 makes an angle of I2° (clockwise) with the axis of gauge A.
7· The following strains, all extensional, were measured by a 6o strain rosette:
0

Gauge A: 716 x 10-6,

Gauge B: at 6o 0 (anticlockwise) to A: 53g X w-6,
Gauge C: at 120° (anticlockwise) to A: 155 X 10-6.
Construct the Mohr strain circle and find (a) the principal strains, (b) the principal
stresses if E = 200 GNfm2 and v = o·3.
Ans. (a) 801 X 10- 6 and 13g x 10-6 (both extensional); (b) z8y2 MNfm2
and 83·4 MNJm2 (both tensile).
8. Tests on a ceramic gave values of284 GNJm 2 and I 17 GNfm2 for the moduli
of elasticity and rigidity respectively. Calculate the values of (a) the bulk modulus,
and (b) Poisson's ratio.
Ans. (a) 165 GNJm2; (b) 0·214