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Impact DG On Voltage Regulation PDF
Impact DG On Voltage Regulation PDF
Ljubomir Kojovic
Cooper Power Systems
Franksville, WI
Abstract: This paper includes the technical impact of DR unit (based on the rating of that unit) or to more than
distributed generation (DG) on voltage regulation when one DR unit, based on the aggregate rating of all the DR
integrated into a typical distribution system. To study the units within the Local EPS. The functions of the
interaction of DG with voltage regulators and capacitors, interconnection system hardware and software that affect
computer models were developed and control systems the area EPS are required to meet this standard regardless of
simulated and implemented. their location on the EPS. The stated specifications and
requirements, both technical and testing, are universally
Test cases are presented that demonstrate and visualize the needed for interconnection of DR, including synchronous
impact of DG on voltage regulation and the interaction of machines, induction machines, or power
DG with voltage regulators and capacitors. inverters/converters, and will be sufficient for most
installations.
This paper covers the technical impact of DG on voltage Power transformers and lines possess impedances that
regulation when integrated into a typical distribution cause voltage drops due to load currents, reducing voltage
system. The system model of Figure 1 was used to study magnitudes at the load. Voltage magnitudes at load
voltage profiles without DG and the model of Figure 2 to locations must be maintained within specified ranges,
study the impact of DG on voltage regulation. Results of which is achieved by voltage control equipment and system
the interaction of DG with voltage regulators and capacitors design.
are presented in Sections II and III. The optimization of
DG, voltage regulator and capacitor operation is discussed Distribution step-type voltage regulators are used to
in Section IV. maintain constant voltage for individual customers. Step-
type voltage regulators hold line voltages within
predetermined limits and assure consumer voltage
magnitudes are kept within standards [2].
Load #1 Load #2
98
current must be measured in addition to the voltage, which Table 2. Results with Voltage Regulators at Tap-7 (no DG)
is done by the voltage regulator current transformer. Based s/s Load #2 Load #3 DG
on the secondary current, the line R and X parameters, and P [kW] 7980 1530 750 -
the load side voltage, the control calculates the line voltage Q [kvar] 6090 1170 540 -
drop active and reactive components and makes “decisions” V [p.u.] 1.0 0.996 0.973 -
to correct the voltage magnitude [4]. I [A] 466 91 45 -
4500
1.1
Line Voltage Without Distributed Generation
4000 1.08
Drop
Voltage Reactive Component [V]
Voltage [p.u.]
2500 1.02
2000 Tap-7
1
Load Voltage Tap-5
1500 0.98
Tap-2
1000 0.96
99
1.1
III. VOLTAGE REGULATION WITH DG, VOLTAGE
1.08 REGULATORS AND CAPACITORS
1.06 Upper Voltage Limit
1.04
Capacitors can be applied for power factor correction,
With DG and No Voltage Regulators
harmonic filters, and voltage regulation. They are
1.02
inexpensive, easy to install, require little maintenance, and
Voltage [p.u.]
1 have very low losses. This is why they are widely used in
0.98 Without DG and No Voltage Regulators distribution systems. Capacitors are manufactured in
0.96 Lower Voltage Limit relatively small ratings (kvar) for economical
manufacturing and engineering reasons. Individual units are
0.94
then combined into suitable banks to obtain a large range of
0.92
ratings. Capacitors can be added in small or large units to
S/S Voltage Load #2 Load #3 meet operating requirements. Capacitors do not generate
Regulator Location harmonics, but they create resonant circuits with reactances
Figure 6. Voltage Profile with DG and without Voltage that exist in every power system. If harmonic frequencies
Regulators hit resonant frequencies, overvoltages and/or overcurrents
can occur.
Table 4. Results with DG and Voltage Regulators Not Used
s/s Load #2 Load #3 DG To regulate voltage, capacitors can be connected in parallel
P [kW] 6600 30 780 2370 or in series with loads. They can be applied at transmission
Q [kvar] 4890 0 570 1860 or distribution voltage systems.
V [p.u.] 1.01 1.01 0.99 1.01
I [A] 387 2.5 46 138 Shunt capacitors are connected in parallel with the load.
They compensate reactive currents which reduce total
currents in the line. Reduced currents cause smaller line
voltage drops which results in increased voltage at the load.
Test Case #4. DG delivers approximately rated power and At the same time, the power factor is increased.
voltage regulators are at tap-7. Table 5 shows results when Additionally, reduced line currents increase power system
DG delivers 2460 [kW] active and 1620 [kvar] reactive capacity which may postpone investment in system
power. Figure 7 shows that the voltage magnitude exceeded capacity increases.
the upper limit at the voltage regulator location. But, this is
not a problem since the controls will sense this excessive The effectiveness of voltage improvements using capacitors
voltage and tap down. depends on capacitor location. The best voltage
improvement is achieved by locating capacitors at the load.
Table 5. Results with DG and Voltage Regulators at Tap-7 In the case of distributed load on the line or with lines
s/s Load #2 Load #3 DG having more taps, optimal capacitor locations can be
P [kW] 6600 60 810 2460 determined utilizing advanced analytical tools such as
Q [kvar] 5220 330 600 1620 computer programs [4].
V [p.u.] 1.01 1.04 1.02 1.04
I [A] 387 15 47 132 Sizing the Bank. Selecting the correct capacitor bank size
involves determining the system reactive power as well as
the location of dispersed loads. Also, the resultant effects
1.1 of adding one or more capacitor banks must be investigated.
1.08
These consequences may include voltage rise, reactive
Upper Voltage Limit
overcompensation at lower load levels, and harmonic
1.06
resonance effects.
1.04
1.02
DG
When capacitors are used to increase the system voltage,
Voltage [p.u.]
P = 2370 [kW]
1
Q = 1860 [kvar] the bank will be sized to achieve the desired voltage rise. A
Voltage Regulators at Tap-7 check should be made to make sure this amount of
0.98
capacitance does not overcompensate by placing the system
0.96 Lower Voltage Limit
in a leading power factor condition. If this happens,
0.94 capacitors can be selected to obtain a unity power factor. A
0.92 voltage regulator is then used to further increase voltage
magnitudes [4].
S/S Voltage Load #2 Load #3
Regulator Location
Figure 7. Voltage Profile with DG and Voltage Regulators Capacitor switching methods can be various and include
at Tap-7 Bus Voltage (On and Off levels based on metered voltage
100
which require potential transformers, PTs); Line Current 1.1
Capacitor 600 kvar
(monitors line current magnitude, requires current 1.08
Upper Voltage Limit
Tap-7
Tap-6 Voltage Regulators
transformers, CTs); Reactive Power Flow (monitors actual 1.06
kvar usage, requires both CTs and PTs); Time of Day; and 1.04
DG
P = 2340 [kW]
Ambient Temperature. Q = 1890 [kvar]
1.02
Voltage [p.u.]
Test Case #5. Voltage regulator is located near the 1 Tap-6 Voltage Regulators
DG
substation and capacitor is at Load #3. No DG 0.98 P = 3060 [kW]
Q = 90 [kvar]
interconnected to the system and no Load #4. Table 6 0.96
shows results with the capacitor and voltage regulators at Lower Voltage Limit
0.94
tap-7. Figure 8 compares voltage profiles with and without
capacitors and voltage regulators. 0.92
Table 6. Results with the Capacitor and Voltage Regulators Figure 9. Voltage Profile with DG, Capacitors at Load #3
at Tap-7 and Voltage Regulators
s/s Load #2 Load #3 DG
P [kW] 8040 1560 750 -
Q [kvar] 5940 990 360 -
V [p.u.] 1.0 1.0 0.985 - IV. OPTIMIZATION OF DG, VOLTAGE REGULATOR AND
I [A] 462 87 41 - CAPACITOR OPERATIONS
0.98
With Capacitors Capacitors can be located on the source (1) or load (2) side
and Without Voltage Regulators
of the regulator, or at the load (3) as shown in Figure 10. If
0.96 Lower Voltage Limit
fixed or switched capacitors are installed on the source side,
0.94
Without Voltage Regulators
they will not affect regulator operation. This is because
0.92 and Capacitors when capacitors are added, the input voltage of the
regulator changes (increases), but the regulator will detect
S/S Voltage Load #2 Load #3
Regulator Location that and operate to maintain the desired voltage. Current
Figure 8. Voltage Profile with and without Capacitors and through the regulator will be the same as line current.
Voltage Regulators Therefore, capacitors will not affect voltage regulator LDC
operation.
Test Case #6. DG delivers approximately its rated power.
Load #1 Load #2
Figure 9 compares voltage profiles with DG, capacitors,
and voltage regulators at tap-6 and tap-7. When DG
delivers both active and reactive power, voltage exceeds the
upper limit and the controls tap down to tap-6, in this case. VR
1 2 3
Table 7 shows results when voltage regulators are at tap-6,
Three different Capacitor Locations
capacitors connected at Load #3 and DG delivers 2340
Figure 10. Different Capacitors Locations vs. a Voltage
[kW] active and 1890 [kvar] reactive power.
Regulator
Table 7. Results with DG and Voltage Regulators at Tap-6
When capacitors are located between the voltage regulator
s/s Load #2 Load #3 DG
and the load, capacitors will compensate reactive current
P [kW] 6840 270 840 2340
(reduce total current) from its location back to the source
Q [kvar] 4800 -90 420 1890 and through the voltage regulator. Current from the
V [p.u.] 1.01 1.053 1.034 1.053 capacitor to the load will not be reduced. It will remain
I [A] 383 13 13 133 almost the same as without capacitors (the line current will
be the vector sum of the source and capacitor currents) and
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the line voltage drop will be almost the same as without If DG is located far from the substation (rural areas) and
capacitors. As mentioned above, current through the delivers power towards the substations or even back to
voltage regulator will be reduced, so the voltage regulator transmission networks through the substations transformer,
will “see” this as a light load and will not regulate voltage losses can increase in the distribution system, but losses in
accordingly. Therefore, the voltage setting needs to be transmission networks will decrease. This will help if
adjusted to account for the additional voltage drop. transmission networks are near full capacity, otherwise
increased losses in the distribution system would be a
Switched capacitors on the regulator load side may affect bigger concern.
regulator operation more than fixed capacitors. If energized,
they will affect regulators similar to fixed capacitors, When DG is connected to distribution lines, voltage control
regardless of the type of control system applied. at the PCC may be optimized by a slight reduction of
source voltage; controlling reactive power; adjusting
If capacitors are connected at the load center or beyond, the reactive power to meet the nearby load requirements; and
regulator control will see actual current which flows operating the generator in constant voltage mode.
through the line; therefore, no changes are required in the
control setting.
References
DG increases voltage along the feeder. The impact of DG
on voltage profiles depends on its delivered power and [1] IEEE P1547 Standard for Distributed Resources
feeder loading. If DG delivers only active power, the Interconnected with Electric Power Systems, Draft 08,
impact on voltages is smaller than if DG delivers both January 2002.
active and reactive power. In the second case, the effect of [2] “Voltage Ratings for Electric Power Systems and
DG is similar to that of capacitors; voltages can Equipment”, ANSI/IEEE Standard C84.1-1970 and
significantly increase. If voltages exceed the upper limit, Supplement C84.1a-1973.
when voltage regulators are used, they will make [3] “Voltage Regulators, McGraw-Edison® VR-32
corrections within their range. Regulator and CL-4C Control Installation, Operation
and Maintenance Instructions Parts Replacement
If a DG can control reactive power generation, it can Instruction”, Cooper Power Systems, S225-10-4C,
control voltages by reducing (or absorbing, if necessary) September 1991.
reactive power output. If voltages increase by increasing the [4] Lj. A. Kojovic, “Improving Distribution System Power
active power, decreasing the reactive power will cause line Quality using Capacitors and Voltage Regulators”, The
voltages to drop. DG output voltage regulation can be Power Quality 2000 Conference, Boston,
achieved using the reactive power setting. However, this Massachusetts, October 2000.
regulation may not be sufficient to control excessive
voltages. In these cases, voltage regulators could provide
voltage regulation. Biography
When a DG is sized to closely match the local load and is Ljubomir A. Kojovic (SM ’94) is a Chief Power Systems
located near the local load, it can provide a significant Engineer for Cooper Power Systems at the Thomas A.
reduction in line losses. In addition, the technical issues for Edison Technical Center. He has a Ph.D. in power systems
interconnection are less complex. This is easy to implement with specialties that include protective relaying, distributed
in industrial and urban areas. generation, testing, digital modeling, and systems analysis.
He is an adjunct assistant professor at Michigan
Technological University. Dr. Kojovic is included on the
roster of experts for the United Nations Development
Organization (UNIDO) and is a registered Professional
Engineer in the State of Wisconsin. He is a member of the
System Protection subcommittee and member of several
working groups of the IEEE Power System Relay
Committee. Dr. Kojovic has earned four US patents and
authored more than 100 technical papers.
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