15.

Threshold detection involves the establishing of a threshold signal voltage level on the
external noise voltage and then by deciding on the existence of a target by comparing the
signal level with every cell with the threshold voltage (Richards 2010). If the signal level
exceeds the threshold voltage, then the existence of a target is declared. The detection process
is done on the received signal after whatever processing the signal experiences. To detect the
signal with some reasonable probability and to discard noise, the signal muse be larger than
the noise. The figure below shows an example of establishing a threshold level to detect
targets. The target here will be in bin 50.

Figure 1: Concept of threshold detection

16.
Despite the target being modelled as a constant echo voltage, the output voltage of the
receiver when the target is present is the amplitude and phase combination of the target and
noise (Richards 2010). Therefore, random variations exist. This means there is a probably of
detecting the target (usually less than 1). This is called the probably of detection and is
denoted by PD. It is expressed by the equation below:
detected targets
PD =
∑ of all possible blibs on radar · 100%
17.
Despite the target being modelled as a constant echo voltage, the output voltage of the
receiver when the target is present is the amplitude and phase combination of the target and
noise (Richards 2010). Therefore, random variations exist. This means there is a probably of
not detecting the target (usually more than 0). This is called the probably of false alarm or
false alarm rates and is denoted by PFA or FAR. It is expressed by the equation below:
false targets per pulse repitition time
FAR =
number of rangecells
18.
A pulse integrator is an improvement technique for improving probability of detection by
using multiple transmit pulses (Wolff). This gain in probability will be done by inserted in
receiving path radar signal processor adding radar returns form multiple successive pulse
periods. Based on the location of the pulse integrator in the signal processing chain this
process is referred to as coherent or non-coherent integration.

19.
Albersheim’s equation is an empirically derived equation relating PD, PFA, the number of
pulses noncoherently integrated, N independent samples, and the single-pulse signal to noise
ratio (or SNR). It is used with nonfluctuating targets and a linear detector. It provides a good
approximation of SNR values for PD values between 0.1 and 0.9 and PFA values between 10-7
and 10-3. Since there is a relationship the PD can also be found if PFA, N and SNR are known.
The figure below shows SNR verses PD for nonfluctuating target using Albersheim’s equation
and another method of finding these values (Richards, 2010).

Figure 2:SNR versus PD

20.
Albersheim’s estimate of required SNR to achieve a given PD and PFA is shown in the
following equations (Richards 2010):
4.54
SNR (dB) = −5 log10 N + (6.2 + ) log10 (A + 0.12AB + 1.7B)
√ N + 0.44
Where:
A = ln( 0.62/ PFA)
And
PD
B = ln( )
1−P D

21.
Coherent detection detects the amplitude and the phase treating the received signal as a
vector. Most modern radar systems are coherent. The measurement of the phase of the signal
obtained provides allows determination if the phase is changing, which can provide target
motion characteristics and the ability to image the target (Richards, 2010).

22.
Noncoherent detection detects only the amplitude of the received signal. Noncoherent
systems are used to provide a two-dimensional display of target location. They can be used in
cases which the target signal will surpass any clutter signal (Richards, 2010).

23.
A transmitted signal propagates through the environment to the target. EM waves induce
currents on the target which reradiates to the environment. Other surfaces on the ground and
atmosphere, however, also reradiate the signal. These unwanted but existing signals are
called clutter (Richards, 2010).

24.
Jamming is deliberately impairing the effectiveness of radar systems and is a form of
electrical countermeasures. This can be done by decreasing the signal-to-noise ratio by
transmitting signals with the same frequency and modulation which enough power to
override signals the receiver of the system to be jammed (Richards, 2010).

25.
The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is the ratio of target signal to noise power in the special case
where the receiver thermal noise is the interfering signal. This ratio determines the radar
performance. A high SNR or a ratio greater than 1:1 means that there is more signal than
noise or less interference (Richards, 2010).
26.
The equation for the minimum detectable signal in terms of SNR is (Richards, 2010):
Smin = k TS B F (SNR0)min
Where:
k - Boltzmann’s Constant = 1.38 x 10-23 (Joules/Kelvin)
Ts - System (Kelvin)
B – Operating Bandwidth
F – Fidelity of Radar receiver
SNR0 – Output Signal to Noise Ratio

27.
The radar range equation in terms of SNR is shown below (Richards, 2010):
1
P t G 2 λ2 σ
Rmax =
( ( 4 π )3 k T s BF ( SNR 0 )min ) 4

Pt = Peak Transmitted Power

G = Antenna Gain
λ = Wavelength
σ = Radar cross section
k - Boltzmann’s Constant = 1.38 x 10-23 (Joules/Kelvin)
Ts - System (Kelvin)
B – Operating Bandwidth
F – Fidelity of Radar receiver
SNR0 – Output Signal to Noise Ratio

28.
The maximum radar range decreases as the SNR increases because of its inversely
proportional relationship.

29.
Four factors that affect radio propagation are given below:
Reflection and Refraction:
None of these affect the frequency but will affect direction, phase and amplitude (Except for
total reflection and refraction). Refraction also affects the speed of propagation. Reflection
can be used in coverage techniques.

Diffraction:
Occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a surface
with sharp edges/irregularities.

Absorption:
The resonances of water vapor and oxygen can cause attenuation from the resonance
frequencies in the troposphere.

Scattering:
Scattering occurs when the medium of propagation has small objects, comparable to the
wavelength (small surfaces, rough surfaces or other irregularities). Causes the transmitter
energy to be radiated in many directions. This should be considered if transmitting signals at
high frequencies.

30.
In the analog-to-digital process, “digital signals” are obtained by discretizing analog signals
in two independent ways. Discretization in time is called sampling. In sampling x(t)
represents a continuous signal and x[n] represents a discrete, sampled signal. A continuous
time signal x(t) is sampled by obtaining its amplitude at regularly spaced intervals of time.
This is done by sampling the signal as a product of the signal and an impulse train function.
This concept is shown in the figure below where p(t) is the impulse train signal:
Figure 3: Figure showing sampling process using an impulse train p(t)

The rate of which a signal is sample is a major factor to consider during sampling. Aliasing
occurs when a signal is sampled too slowly (in comparison to the frequency of the signal
being measured), thus the incorrect frequency or amplitude is obtained as the result
(McNames).

References
Richards, M. A., Jim Scheer, and William A. Holm. Principles of Modern Radar / Basic
Principles. Raleigh, NC: SciTech Pub., 2010.
McNames, J. “Sampling.” Sampling. March 27, 2020.
Wolff, Christian. “Radar Basics.” Radar Basics - Pulse Integration. Accessed March 26,
2020. https://www.radartutorial.eu/10.processing/Pulse Integration.en.html.