(1) How many elements are essential for any communication system? State names of it.

Answer: Any communication system has three important elements. They are the transmitter, channel,
and receiver.

(2) What is the function of the receiver?

Answer: Receiver – Due to noise and other factors, the corrupted version of signal arrives at the
receiver. The receiver has to reconstruct the signal into recognizable form of the original message for
delivering it to the user. The signal at the receiver forms the output.

(3) What is the bandwidth of the signal if the upper sideband frequency and the lower sideband
frequency are 7350 KHz and 7210 KHz respectively?
Answer:
Explanation: Bandwidth = upper sideband frequency – lower sideband frequency
= 7350 – 7210 = 140KHz.
(4) When does over-modulation occur?
Answer: In frequency modulation, over modulation is occur when the frequency of modulating wave
exceeds the maximum frequency of the carrier wave.

(5) The general name for both FM and PM are Angle modulation.

(6) Many FM transmitters can use the same carrier frequency. True

(7) Which waveforms are also called as line codes? A) PCM B) PAM C) FM D) AM

(8) FM is called constant envelope because Amplitude of carrier wave is kept constant.

(9) What are the drawbacks of binary PSK system?

Answer: It has a very less bandwidth as compared to ASK. It is a type of non-coherent reference
signal. Extremely difficult algorithms are used in decoding the binary information which is transmitted
during PSK. They are at times are extremely sensitive to phase differences.
In BPSK modulation, one bit is carried by one single analog carrier. Hence data rate in bits per
second is same as the symbol rate.

(10) Draw the PSK waveform for 011011.

Answer:

(11) Define the analog and digital signal.

Answer:
Analog Signal: A signal for conveying information which is a continuous function of time is
known as analog signal. Typical representation. An analog signal is typically represented by a
sine wave function. The bandwidth of an analog signal is low.
 Digital Signal: A signal which is a discrete function of time, i.e. non-continuous signal, is known
as digital signal. The typical representation of a signal is given by a square wave function. The
bandwidth of a digital signal is relatively high.

(12) Define modulation.

Answer:
Modulation is defined as the process of superimposing a low-frequency signal on a high-
frequency carrier signal.
Modulation is the process of converting data into radio waves by adding information to an
electronic or optical carrier signal. A carrier signal is one with a steady waveform -- constant
height, or amplitude, and frequency.

(13) Define SNR:

Answer:

Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR or S/N) is a measure used in science and engineering that
compares the level of a desired signal to the level of background noise. SNR is defined as the
ratio of signal power to the noise power, often expressed in decibels. A ratio higher than 1:1
(greater than 0 dB) indicates more signal than noise.

(14) Define Internal Noise:

Internal Noise is the fundamental noise that gets generated by the electronic equipment involved
in the system itself. They are called so because these are nothing but an integral part of the
system. Proper designing of the communication system can reduce or overcome noise due to
internal sources.
Internal Noise is classified as follows:
(1) Thermal Noise (2) Shot Noise (3) Partition Noise (4) Flicker Noise (5) Transit Time Noise
(15) Define External Noise:

Answer: External Noise may be defined as that type of noise that is generated external to a
communication system. i.e. whose sources are external to the communication system.
These are grouped into three categories
• Atmospheric Noise (Solar Noise, Cosmic Noise)
• Extraterrestrial Noise (Man-made Noise, Vehicle Noise)
• Industrial Noise

(16) Define Noise Figure:

Answer:
Noise figure (NF) is figures of merit that indicate degradation of the signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR) that is caused by components in a signal chain. These figures of merit are used to
evaluate the performance of an amplifier or a radio receiver, with lower values indicating better
performance.

(17) Define Amplitude Modulation:

Answer:
“The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal.” Which means, the amplitude of the carrier signal containing no information
varies as per the amplitude of the signal containing information, at each instant. This can be well
explained by the following figures.

(18) State the expression for sideband power in AM.

Answer: The sideband power PS is equal to the mean square value of the sideband term x(t)
cos ωct i.e. In AM generation, a Band pass filter (BPF) or a tuned circuit tuned to carrier
frequency ωc is used to filter out the second integral term.
Or
Power of AM wave is equal to the sum of powers of carrier, upper sideband, and lower sideband
frequency components. Pt = Pc + PUSB + PLSB.
(19) What is deviation ratio?
Answer:
deviation ratio (plural deviation ratios) (signal processing) The ratio of maximum permitted
frequency deviation, σmax to the maximum permitted modulating frequency, fimax.
 or

Frequency deviation in FM is defined as the way to describe the difference between the
minimum and maximum extent of a frequency modulated signal and the carrier frequency.

(20) Differentiate between coherent and non-coherent detection.

Answer:

In coherent detection the local carrier generated at the receiver is phase locked with. the carrier
at the transmitter. Hence it is also called synchronous detection. In non-coherent detection the
local carrier generated at the receiver not be phase.

(21) Define information capacity.

Answer:

In electronic communication channels the information capacity is the maximum amount of

information that can pass through a channel without error, i.e., it is a measure of channel
“goodness.” The actual amount of information depends on the code— how information is
represented.

(22) List the types of Digital Modulation techniques.

Answer:
 Phase-shift keying (PSK) ...
 Frequency-shift keying (FSK) ...
 Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
 On-off keying (OOK), the most common ASK form. ...
 Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), a combination of PSK and ASK. ...
 Continuous phase modulation (CPM) methods.

(23) Why is the AM system more susceptible to noise?

Answer:

AM is more susceptible to noise because noise affects amplitude, which is where information is
"stored" in an AM signal. FM is less susceptible to noise because information in an FM signal is
transmitted through varying the frequency, and not the amplitude.

FM is less susceptible to noise because information in an FM signal is transmitted through

varying the frequency, and not the amplitude.

(24) What is modulation? Explain the need of modulation.

Answer:
Data with carrier to travel a long distance is called modulation. We can transmit our low
frequency signal or Data with the help of high frequency carrier signal. This process is called
modulation.
Modulation is the process of varying one or more parameters of a carrier signal in accordance
with the instantaneous values of the message signal. The message signal is the signal which is
 being transmitted for communication and the carrier signal is a high frequency signal which has
no data, but is used for long distance transmission.

Modulation is needed because the baseband transmission has many limitations which can be
overcome using modulation. It is explained below.
In the process of modulation, the baseband signal is translated i.e., shifted from low frequency to
high frequency. This frequency shift is proportional to the frequency of carrier.

(25) Explain generation of AM signal using square law modulator.

Answer:

Square Law Modulator:

Generation of AM Waves using the square law modulator could be understood in a better way by
observing the square law modulator circuit shown in below figure.

It consists of the following:

1. A non-linear device
2. A band pass filter
3. A carrier source and modulating signal

The modulating signal and carrier are connected in series with each other and their sum V1(t) is
applied at the input of the non-linear device, such as diode, transistor etc.

(26) State advantages and disadvantage of SSB over DSB.

Answer:

Advantages
• Bandwidth or spectrum space occupied is lesser than AM and DSBSC waves.
• Transmission of more number of signals is allowed.
• Power is saved.
• High power signal can be transmitted.
• Less amount of noise is present.
• Signal fading is less likely to occur.

Disadvantages
• The generation and detection of SSBSC wave is a complex process.
 • The quality of the signal gets affected unless the SSB transmitter and receiver have an
excellent frequency stability.

(27) Explain pre-emphasis and De-emphasis network.

Answer:

Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis:

Pre-emphasis: The noise suppression ability of FM decreases with the increase in the
frequencies. Thus increasing the relative strength or amplitude of the high frequency
components of the message signal before modulation is termed as Pre-emphasis. The Figure
below shows the circuit of pre-emphasis.

De-emphasis:
In the de-emphasis circuit, by reducing the amplitude level of the received high frequency signal
by the same amount as the increase in pre-emphasis is termed as De-emphasis. The Figure
below shows the circuit of de-emphasis.

The pre-emphasis process is done at the transmitter side, while the de-emphasis process is
done at the receiver side.
Thus a high frequency modulating signal is emphasized or boosted in amplitude in transmitter
before modulation. To compensate for this boost, the high frequencies are attenuated or de-
emphasized in the receiver after the demodulation has been performed. Due to pre-emphasis
and de-emphasis, the S/N ratio at the output of receiver is maintained constant.
 The de-emphasis process ensures that the high frequencies are returned to their original relative
level before amplification.
Pre-emphasis circuit is a high pass filter or differentiator which allows high frequencies to pass,
whereas de-emphasis circuit is a low pass filter or integrator which allows only low frequencies to
pass.

(28) Compare wideband and narrowband FM.

Answer:

(29) Define baud, symbol, minimum bandwidth.

Answer:
Baud:
Baud refers to the rate of change of a signal on the transmission medium after encoding and modulation have
occurred. Therefore baud is a unit of transmission rate, modulation rate, or symbol rate and the terms symbols
per second. Mathematically, baud is the reciprocal of the time of one output signaling element. and a signaling
element may represent several information bits. Baud is expressed as
baud = 𝟏𝑻𝒔
Where, baud = symbol rate (baud per second)
Ts = time of one signaling element (seconds)
Symbol: A signaling element is called a symbol and could be encoded as a change in the amplitude,
frequency, or phase.

Binary signals are generally encoded and transmitted one bit at a time in the form of discrete voltage levels
representing logic Is and logic Os. A baud is also transmitted one at a time: a baud may represent more than
one information bit. Thus, the baud of a data communications system may be considerably less than the bit
rate. In binary systems baud and bits per second are equal. However, in higher-level systems bps is always
greater than baud. Minimum Bandwidth:
According to Nyquist, binary digital signals can be propagated through an Ideal noiseless transmission medium
at a rate equal to two times the bandwidth of the medium. The minimum bandwidth necessary to propagate a
signal is called the minimum Nyquist bandwidth or the minimum Nyquist frequency.

(30) Draw waveform for Polar RZ and Polar NRZ for digital data 10101011.
Answer:

Polar RZ: Example 010010110110

Polar NRZ: Example 010010110110

(31) Why FSK is better than ASK?

Answer:
FSK has several advantages over ASK due to the fact that the carrier has a constant
amplitude. hence, its immunity to non-linarites, immunity to rapid fading, immunity to adjacent
channel interference, and the ability to work in small SNR environments due to the effect of
exchanging SNR for bandwidth.
(32) Draw ASK and FSK modulated signals for signal for bit pattern 1 0 0 1 0 1.
 (33) Comparison between AM and FM.

Amplitude Modulation Frequency Modulation

In amplitude modulation, the frequency and phase
remain the same.
Its modulation index varies from 0 to 1.
It has only two sidebands.
It has simple circuit.
The amplitude of the carrier wave is modified in
order to send the data or information.
It requires low bandwidth in the range of 10 kHz.
In AM received signal is of low quality.
In frequency modulation amplitude and phase
remain the same.
Its modulation index is always greater than one.
It has an infinite number of sidebands.
It has complex circuit.
The frequency of the carrier wave is modified in
order to send the data or information.
It requires high bandwidth in the range of 200 kHz.
In FM received signal is of high quality.

(34) Explain generation of ASK with help of necessary sketch.

Amplitude Shift Keying ASK. ASK is a type of Amplitude Modulation which represents the binary data in the
form of variations in the amplitude of a signal.
Any modulated signal has a high frequency carrier. The binary signal when ASK modulated, gives a zero value
for Low input while it gives the carrier output for High input.
The following figure represents ASK modulated waveform along with its input.

Input Digital Signal ASK Output

NRZ

Continuous Wave (carrier wave)

The carrier generator, sends a continuous high-frequency carrier. The binary sequence from the message signal
makes the unipolar input to be either High or Low. The high signal closes the switch, allowing a carrier wave.
Hence, the output will be the carrier signal at high input. When there is low input, the switch opens, allowing no
voltage to appear. Hence, the output will be low.
(35) Explain the channel coding techniques with suitable example.

This are the most Channel coding techniques as below…

  Unipolar Return to Zero(RZ) and Unipolar Non- Return to Zero(NRZ)

Unipolar NRZ
In a unipolar signaling scheme, all non-zero signalling elements have the same polarity - either they are all
positive or they are all negative. It is analogous to a simple on-off keying scheme in which the presence of a
voltage pulse signifies a binary one and the absence of a pulse signifies a binary zero. It is also the simplest
kind of line-code we will encounter. The oldest unipolar line coding schemes are non-return-to-zero (NRZ)
schemes in which the signal does not return to zero in the middle of the bit time. A positive voltage
represents a binary one, and a zero voltage represents a binary zero.

Unipolar RZ
There is also a return-to-zero (RZ) version of unipolar line coding in which the logic high (binary one) signal
voltage returns to zero half way through the bit time.

 Polar Return to Zero(RZ) and Polar Non- Return to Zero(NRZ)

Polar NRZ
Polar line coding schemes use both positive and negative voltage levels to represent binary values. Like the
unipolar line coding schemes described above, polar signalling has both NRZ and RZ versions. For polar
line coding, however, there are two different kinds of NRZ scheme. The first one we will look at is called
NRZ-level (NRZ-L). Here, the voltage level determines the value of a bit. Typically, logic low (binary zero) is
represented by a positive voltage while logic high (binary one) is represented by a negative voltage.
 Polar RZ

Polar RZ is the return-to-zero form of polar line coding. Some of the problems relating to polar NRZ line
coding schemes are mitigated here through the use of three signaling levels. It is still the case that (typically)
logic low is represented by a positive voltage and logic high is represented by a positive voltage, but in both
cases the signal level returns to zero half way through the bit time and stays there until the next bit is
transmitted (note that, somewhat confusingly, some sources refer to this line coding scheme as bipolar RZ,
or BPRZ).

 Bipolar Non Return to zero(AMI) format

Bipolar Non-Return to Zero(AMI)

Like polar RZ, bipolar line coding schemes (sometimes called multi-level binary or duo-binary) use three voltage
levels - positive, negative and zero. That, however, is pretty much where the similarity ends. Bipolar alternate
mark inversion (AMI) uses alternate positive and negative voltages to represent logic high (binary one), and a
zero voltage to represent logic low (binary zero). Although AMI is technically an NRZ line coding scheme itself,
it was developed as an alternative to other NRZ schemes in which long runs of ones or zeros introduced a DC-
component into the signal.
  Manchester and differential Manchester coding

Manchester encoding is a widely used line coding scheme that embeds timing information in the
transmitted signal. It does this by ensuring that there is a transition (high-to-low or low-to-high) in the
middle of every bit time, making it easy for the receiver to retrieve a clock signal from the incoming bit
stream and maintain synchronization with the transmitted signal. The trade-off is a much higher
bandwidth requirement than the other line coding schemes we have seen so far.

 HDB-3 coding format.

The HDB-3 (High-Density Bipolar Order 3) code relies on the transmission of both positive and negative
pulses and is the encoding technique used over G.703 E1 networks. With this technique, both timing and
data can be transmitted over just two wires in each direction HDB3 is a development of AMI (Alternate Mark
Inversion), a line code in which a logical 0 is represented by no change and a logical 1 is represented by
pulses of alternating polarity. HDB3 prevents more than four AMI "no change" bits from being sent
consecutively. This, in turn, prevents long runs of zeros in the data stream. Without HDB3, the receiving PLL
(phase lock loop) circuit would have difficulty maintaining synchronization.

(36) Derive the mathematical expression of AM wave.

Mathematical Expressions
Following are the mathematical expressions for these waves.
Time-domain Representation of the Waves
Let the modulating signal be,
m(t)=Amcos(2πfmt)
and the carrier signal be,
c(t)=Accos(2πfct)
Where,
Am and Ac are the amplitude of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.
fm and fc are the frequency of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.
Then, the equation of Amplitude Modulated wave will be
s(t)=[Ac+Am cos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct)
s(t)=[Ac+Am cos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct)-------------- (Equation 1)

A carrier wave, after being modulated, if the modulated level is calculated, then such an attempt is called as
Modulation Index or Modulation Depth. It states the level of modulation that a carrier wave undergoes.
Rearrange the Equation 1 as below.
s(t)=Ac[1+(AmAc)cos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct)
s(t)=Ac[1+μcos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct) -------- (Equation 2)
Where, μ is Modulation index and it is equal to the ratio of Am and Ac. Mathematically, we can write it as
μ=𝐴𝑚𝐴𝑐 (Equation 3)
Hence, we can calculate the value of modulation index by using the above formula, when the amplitudes of the
message and carrier signals are known.
Now, let us derive one more formula for Modulation index by considering Equation 1.
We can use this formula for calculating modulation index value, when the maximum and minimum amplitudes of
the modulated wave are known.
Let,Amax and Amin be the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the modulated wave.
We will get the maximum amplitude of the modulated wave, when cos(2πfmt) is 1.
Amax=Ac+Am (Equation 4)
We will get the minimum amplitude of the modulated wave, when cos(2πfmt) is -1.
Amin=Ac−Am (Equation 5)

OR

amplitude modulation, amplitude of carrier varies proportional to instantaneous amplitude of modulating signal.
Hence amplitude of modulated signal is

A = Vc + Vm
= Vc + Vm sin ωmt
= Vc[1 + V m V c VmVcsinωmt]
= Vc[1 + ma Sin ωmt]

The instantaneous value of amplitude modulated signal is

VAm = A Sin ωmcd VAm
= Vc[1 + ma Sinωmt] Sin ωct.
where ma is called modulation index.

(37) Draw and explain block diagram of communication system.

Block diagram of communication system

Communication means sending, receiving and processing of information between two or more devices.
Some examples of communication system include radio broadcasting, television broadcasting, radio telegraphy,
mobile communication, computer communication etc.

Information Source – The source produces signal of the information which needs to be communicated.
Signal – Information in electrical form suitable for transmission is called signal.
Transmitter – Converts the source signal into suitable form for transmission through the channel.
Channel – The channel connecting the transmitter and the receiver is a physical medium. The channel can be
in the form of wires, cables or wireless.
Noise – When the transmitted signal propagates along the channel, it may get distorted due to channel
imperfection.
Receiver – Due to noise and other factors, the corrupted version of signal arrives at the receiver.
The receiver has to reconstruct the signal into recognizable form of the original message for delivering it to the
user. The signal at the receiver forms the output.

(38) Why amplitude modulation is used for broadcasting? What will be the total modulation index if
the carrier is simultaneously modulated by two sine waves with modulation indices of 0.3 and 0.4
respectively?

Answer:

It has a narrower bandwidth than FM, and wider coverage compared with FM radio. Its use avoids receiver
complexity, thus reducing the cost at the receiver end. This makes them suitable for broadcasting
purposes.

m = √𝑚1 2 + 𝑚2 2

= √(0.3)2 + (0.4)2

=√252

m =0.5

(39) Explain bipolar NRZ(AMI) format in detail. State advantages and disadvantages of Bipolar NRZ
format.

Bipolar Non-Return to Zero(AMI)

Like polar RZ, bipolar line coding schemes (sometimes called multi-level binary or duo-binary) use three
voltage levels - positive, negative and zero. That, however, is pretty much where the similarity ends.
Bipolar alternate mark inversion (AMI) uses alternate positive and negative voltages to represent logic
high (binary one), and a zero voltage to represent logic low (binary zero). Although AMI is technically an
NRZ line coding scheme itself, it was developed as an alternative to other NRZ schemes in which long
runs of ones or zeros introduced a DC-component into the signal.

The advantages of bipolar AMI are:

 Easy to implement.
 Same signaling rate as other NRZ schemes.
 Uses less power than polar NRZ line coding schemes.
 The signal has no DC-component.
 Baseline wandering is not an issue.
 Avoidance of polar ambiguity.

The disadvantages of bipolar AMI are:

  No embedded clock signal. Long sequences of zeros can cause loss of synchronization at the receiver
due to the absence of voltage transitions.

(40) Draw the block diagram of FSK modulator and explain working of it.

In the block diagram as shown two oscillators corresponding to frequencies f1 and f2 are shown. There are two
switches controlled by signal digital modulating signal. Analog switch A operates when digital signal is at logic 1
and analog switch B operates when digital signal is at 0. Thus depending on the level of digital signal i.e. 0 or 1
corresponding frequencies f1 or f2 pass to the linear mixer. It is amplified by linear power amplifier and
transmitted via antenna or telephone line.

Analog Switch
Oscillator f1
A FSK
Linear RF Output

Mixe
Power

r
Amplifier
Oscillator f2 Analog Switch
B

Digital Signal