ELECTRICAL DESIGN & FABRICATION LAB

ON

DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF POWER AMPLIFIER

Submitted For Partial Fulfillment of Award of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

In

Electrical & Electronics Engineering

By

[Rahul Sonkar]

[Satyam Virendra Singh]

[Saurabh Kumar]

SHRI RAMSWAROOP MEMORIAL GROUP OF PROFESSIONAL COLLEGES,

LUCKNOW

Affiliated to

Dr. A.P.J. ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, LUCKNOW

[2019-20]
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is our proud privilege and duty to acknowledge the kind of help and guidance received from
faculties in preparation of this project work. It would not have been possible to prepare this project
report in this form without their valuable help, cooperation and guidance.

First and foremost, we wish to record our sincere gratitude to Mrs.SandhyaShirvastava forher
constant support with inspiring and encouraging guidance incompletion of this project and for
making available library and laboratory facilities needed in this project. We will always remember
their quick analysis, comprehensive solution and critical reviews which has been provided to us
throughout the project.

At last, but not the least we express over indebtedness to our parents and all others for their support
with patience and help extended in this end over

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

1. Introduction 4
2. What is Power Amplifier 5
3. Appratus 6-8
3.1. Speaker 6
3.2. Diodes 6
3.3. Capacitor 6
3.4. Battery 7
3.5. Transistor 8
4. Power Amplifier Efficiency 9
5. Circuit Diagram and PCB Design 10
6. Theory 11-15
6.1. Amplifier 11
6.2. Ideal Amplifier Model 12
6.3. Amplifier Gain 13
6.4. Amplifier Gain of Input Signal 13
6.5. Voltage Amplifier Gain 13
6.6. Current Amplifier Gain 14
6.7. Power Amplifier Gain 14
7. Description of technology 15-22
7.1. Amplifier Efficiency 15
7.2. Ideal Amplifier 16
7.3. Electronic Amplifier Class 16
7.4. Class A Amplifier Operation 17
7.5. Class A Amplifier Output Waveform 17
7.6. Class B Amplifier Operation 18
7.7. Class B Amplifier Output Waveform 18
7.8. Class AB Amplifier Operation 19
7.9. Class AB Amplifier Output Waveform 19
8. Advantages & Disadvantages 23
9. Future Scope 24
10. Conclusion 25

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 DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF POWER AMPLIFIER

CHAPTER - 1

INTRODUCTION
Enabled by Lee de Forest's invention of the vacuum tube triode in 1906, power
amplification of electrical signals has played a key function in electronic systems ever since.
Mundane devices we take for granted such as the telephone, the radio, or the television
would not exist without this capability. Given such a wide application space, it is not
surprising that early on electrical engineers have worked out the details ofdesigning good
power amplifiers (PAs), first with vacuum tubes, and then with discrete transistors. They did
such a fine job that by the second part of the twentieth century, the art of designing PAs
became a mature electrical engineering (EE) specialty, which seemed to have little room left
for breakthroughs or major innovations. However, the late-century market explosion of
mobile digital communication systems and devices, such as cellular phones and wireless
local area networks (LANs), and the massive introduction of integrated circuit (Ie)
technology in everyday life have changed the electronic landscape dramatically, opening
new challenges and opportunities for PAs.
In this chapter, the issues and appropriate techniques for modern PAs are discussed,
focusing on Ie implementations for wireless communication systems. To familiarize the
reader with the general PA design approach, which is rather different from the regular
analog circuit approach, a few important points are clarified, as a prerequisite for the
following material. Then, the classical theory of PA design in the case of constant
magnitude signals is reviewed and the trade-offs for different classes of transistor operation
are pointed out. The important class AB case is discussed in more details. Next, the PA
design problem from a unified, general point of view based on the internal PA signal
harmonic content is revisited. This will give the reader a further insight into the PA design
problem and high-level solution possibilities. The following section concerns the important
topic of efficiency in the presence of back-off and briefly mentions other important design
considerations.
Finally, recent PA results are reviewed and conclusions drawn.

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CHAPTER - 2

WHAT Is A POWER AMPLIFIER?

Despite the deep-rooted terminology, PAs do not amplify power! Power is energy per unit
of time, and as the first law of thermodynamics states, energy cannot be created. Then, what
are PAs? And why are they given this name?
A defining property of a PA is that its output signal power delivered to a load is larger
than the input signal powerit absorbs from a driver. In this respect and outside any energy
balance considerations, the PA produces the effect of a nonphysical power amplification
device, hence the name. The way the PA accomplishes this effect is by converting the DC
power supplied through the DC biasing lines into output signal power. Therefore, a PA is an
energy conversion circuit very much like a DC-to-DC converter or an RF oscillator, which
converts DC power into constant wave (CW) power. However, unlike DC-to-DC converters
or oscillators, an ideal PA converts the DC power into output signal power under the linear
control of an RF input. A wireless system PA is simply a DC-to-modulated-RF converter.
The simple observation regarding power conversion in PAs is crucial to understanding
the design and operation of this type of circuits, as will be explained later. Here, it suffices
to notice that the very PA concept implies a nonlinear operation since linear networks
cannot shift power from one frequency to another.
As described so far, the PA concept is still non-distinguishable from a regular voltage or
current amplifier since the latter may (or may not) generate a power-amplified output with
respect to its transferred is lost through heat. The output modulation information is provided
through a low-power pose of the PA is to transfer most of this power to the modulated-RF
output. The portion that is not at DC is shown on the horizontal axis to emphasize the key
role it plays in this circuit. The very purof power into the load than regular amplifiers do and
may need the capability for power control. Figure illustrates the PA functionality in terms of
a power flow diagram. The input power paramount in PA designs
Related to the artificial power amplifier terminology are the concepts of power gains.
Several output power-to-input-power ratios are commonly defined under various operating
and power-accounting conditions. The PA power gains lack any deep physical meaning but
are useful in practice for the purpose of specifying the driving requirements of the circuit in
relation to matching and stability conditions.

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CHAPTER - 3

APPARATUS

3.1.Speaker – To get the output of the power amplifier we use a small power speaker in
the lab.Music is dynamic in nature. It is constantly changing in volume level and
frequency. The best way to understand music's dynamic nature is to listen to live
acoustic (un-amplified) music. An orchestra, for example, has a wide range of volume
levels, from very quiet passages to loud crescendos and some in-between quiet and
loud. The range in volume level is known as dynamic range, the difference between the
softest and loudest passages. When the same music is reproduced through an audio
system, the system should reproduce the same range in loudness. When played back at
an average volume level, the soft and medium passages in the music would require
minimal power. If the receiver had 100 watts of power per channel, the soft and
medium passages would require roughly 10-15 watts of power. However, the
crescendos in the music would require more significantly more power for short periods
of time, perhaps as much as 80 watts. A cymbal crash is another good example.
Although it is a short-term event, the cymbal crash demands lots of power for a short
period of time. The ability of the receiver to deliver bursts of power for a short time is
important for accurate sound reproduction. Although the receiver may only use a small
portion of its maximum output most of the time, it must have the 'headroom' to deliver
large amounts of power for short periods of time.

3.2.Diodes IN4007 - A rectifier diode is used as a one-way check valve. Since these
diodes only allow electrical current to flow in one direction, they are used to convert
AC power into DC power. When constructing a rectifier, it is important to choose the
correct diode for the job; otherwise, the circuit may become damaged. Luckily, a
1N4007 diode is electrically compatible with other rectifier diodes, and can be used as a
replacement for any diode in the 1N400x family. We have used two diodes of this kind.

3.3.Capacitiors – Capacitors are used in the mplifier for different purposes:

3.3.1. Power supply smoothing Some fairly big capacitors are used in the power
supply. Typically, you rectify an AC mains power input into DC. This needs

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the ripple smoothing out, otherwise it modulates the audio. Usually, these big
caps have a much smaller RF bypass capacitor in parallel. The big ones
smooth out the low frequency ripple; the little ones help eliminate RF
3.3.2. Input coupling You have no idea what DC voltage will appear on the
amplifier input. But you definitely don’t want it messing up your circuit’s DC
biassing. So a series capacitor is used in the hot signal path of the input. This
strips away the DC component of the input source. It has to be chosen with
care, as it determines one part of the low frequency response.
3.3.3. Output coupling Not especially desirable - but some audio power amplifiers
circuits have a large series capacitor in line with the speaker output. It blocks
DC from flowing through the speaker, which just makes them hot and pushes
the cones into a weird place. They are a nuisance as they need to be high value
and not electrolytic. There are ways of using DC negative feedback to avoid
the need.
3.3.4. Interstate coupling Older circuits (like the ace Ladybird ‘Making a Transistor
Radio’ circuit) use capacitors to couple together different amplifier stages. If
you’re not careful, you end up with a phase shift oscillator instead, which
spoils things somewhat.
3.3.5. Tone shaping The key part of your treble and bass controls - or any analogue
EQ circuit. Passive resistor - capacitor combinations form simple filtering
circuits that can cut low frequency or cut high frequency. By putting these in
feedback loops, you can make them boost these frequencies as well. Some of
this tone shaping is for taste, but there are other uses. An RIAA magnetic
pickup in a record player needs tone shaping just to sound ‘normal’.
We have used two transistors in this power amplifier of values 22 microfarad and 330 microfarad.

3.4.Battery:The nine-volt battery, or 9-volt battery, is a common size of battery that

was introduced for the early transistor radios. It has a rectangular prism shape with
rounded edges and a polarized snap connector at the top. The nine-volt battery format is
commonly available in primary carbon-zinc and alkaline chemistry, in primary lithium
iron disulfide, and in rechargeable form in nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal hydride and
lithium-ion. Mercury-oxide batteries of this format, once common, have not been
manufactured in many years due to their mercury content. Designations for this format

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 DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF POWER AMPLIFIER

include NEDA 1604 and IEC 6F22 (for zinc-carbon) or MN1604 6LR61 (for alkaline).

The size, regardless of chemistry, is commonly designated PP3—a designation
originally reserved solely for carbon-zinc, or in some countries, E or E-block.

3.5.Transistors:

3.5.1. BD139: BD139 is a NPN transistor hence the collector and emitter will be left
open (Reverse biased) when the base pin is held at ground and will be closed
(Forward biased) when a signal is provided to base pin. BD139 has a gain
value of 40 to 160, this value determines the amplification capacity of the
transistor. The maximum amount of current that could flow through the
Collector pin is 1.5A, hence we cannot connect loads that consume more than
1.5A using this transistor. To bias a transistor we have to supply current to
base pin, this current (IB) should be limited to 1/10th of the collector current
and voltage across the base emitter pin should be 5V maximum. When this
transistor is fully biased then it can allow a maximum of 1.5A to flow across
the collector and emitter. This stage is called Saturation Region and the typical
voltage allowed across the Collector-Emitter (VCE) or Base-Emitter (VBE)
could be 80V. When base current is removed the transistor becomes fully off,
this stage is called as the Cut-off Region. The BD139 was originally
manufactured by Phillips rated at 160MHz for specific audio applications, later
they were cloned by other manufacturers like Samsung, ST etc.
3.5.2. BD140:

Type - PNP

Collector-Emitter Voltage: -80 V

Collector-Base Voltage: -100 V

Emitter-Base Voltage: -5 V

Collector Current: -1.5 A

Collector Dissipation - 12.5 W

DC Current Gain (hfe) - 40 to 250

Operating and Storage Junction Temperature Range -55 to +150 °C

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Package - TO-126

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CHAPTER - 4
POWER AMPLIFIER EFFICIENCY

FIG 4.1 – A Classical Single-transistor often called as PA or CURRENT PA

Figure 4.1 shows the simplest classical nonswitched single-transistor PA configuration. DC

bias is provided through a large inductor (choke) and the PA load is connected via an ideally
lossless matching network. Two most important figures of merit of any PA are the
following power efficiency ratios using the notation from Figure:

PE = Pout / Pdc …….(4.1)

PAE = ( Pout– Pin ) / Pdc ……(4.2)

PE is the power conversion efficiency reflecting the percentage of the DC power drawn
from the power supply, which has been converted into output signal power. This figure of
merit is also called drain/ collector efficiency. Power-added efficiency (PAE) is calculated
by subtracting the input power from the output power to include the effect of the PA driver
in the efficiency metric. Obviously, for large power gains, PAE approaches power
efficiency (PE). The various power quantities can be calculated in the circuit from Figure
4.1 as follows:

Pdc = Vdc.Idc …..(4.3)

Pout = 0.5(VLIL)….(4.4)
T

Ploss= 1/T ∫ i ( t ) v ( t ) dt …..(4.5)

0

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CHAPTER - 5
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND PCB DESIGN

Fig 5.1 – PCB Design of Power Amplifier shouldered

Fig 5.2 – Circuit Diagram of Power Amplifier

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CHAPTER - 6

THEORY
6.1. Amplifier is the generic term used to describe a circuit which produces and increased
version of its input signal. However, not all amplifier circuits are the same as they are
classified according to their circuit configurations and modes of operation.

In “Electronics”, small signal amplifiers are commonly used devices as they have the ability
to amplify a relatively small input signal, for example from a Sensorsuch as a photo-device,
into a much larger output signal to drive a relay, lamp or loudspeaker for example.

There are many forms of electronic circuits classed as amplifiers, from Operational
Amplifiers and Small Signal Amplifiers up to Large Signal and Power Amplifiers. The
classification of an amplifier depends upon the size of the signal, large or small, its physical
configuration and how it processes the input signal, that is the relationship between input
signal and current flowing in the load.

The type or classification of an Amplifier is given in the following table.

Table 6.1 :-Classification of Signal Amplifier

Type of Type of Frequency of

Classification
Signal Configuration Operation

Small Common Class A Direct Current

Signal Emitter Amplifier (DC)

Large Class B Audio

Common Base
Signal Amplifier Frequencies (AF)

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Common Class AB Radio

 
Collector Amplifier Frequencies (RF)

VHF, UHF and

Class C
    SHF
Amplifier
Frequencies

Amplifiers can be thought of as a simple box or block containing the amplifying device,
such as a Bipolar Transistor, Field Effect Transistor or Operational Amplifier, which has
two input terminals and two output terminals (ground being common) with the output signal
being much greater than that of the input signal as it has been “Amplified”.

An ideal signal amplifier will have three main properties: Input Resistance or (RIN), Output
Resistance or (ROUT) and of course amplification known commonly as Gain or (A). No
matter how complicated an amplifier circuit is, a general amplifier model can still be used to
show the relationship of these three properties.

6.2Ideal Amplifier Model

Fig 6.1 – Ideal power amplifier

The amplified difference between the input and output signals is known as the Gain of the
amplifier. Gain is basically a measure of how much an amplifier “amplifies” the input
signal. For example, if we have an input signal of 1 volt and an output of 50 volts, then the

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gain of the amplifier would be “50”. In other words, the input signal has been increased by a
factor of 50. This increase is called Gain.

Amplifier gain is simply the ratio of the output divided-by the input. Gain has no units as its
a ratio, but in Electronics it is commonly given the symbol “A”, for Amplification. Then the
gain of an amplifier is simply calculated as the “output signal divided by the input signal”.

6.3Amplifier Gain

The introduction to the amplifier gain can be said to be the relationship that exists between
the signal measured at the output with the signal measured at the input. There are three
different kinds of amplifier gain which can be measured and these are: Voltage
Gain ( Av ), Current Gain ( Ai ) and Power Gain ( Ap) depending upon the quantity being
measured with examples of these different types of gains are given below.

6.4Amplifier Gain of the Input Signal

Fig 6.2 – amplifier gain circuit

6.5Voltage Amplifier Gain

……
(6.1)

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6.6. Current Amplifier Gain

……..(6.2)

6.7. Power Amplifier Gain

…………(6.3)

Note that for the Power Gain you can also divide the power obtained at the output with the
power obtained at the input. Also when calculating the gain of an amplifier, the
subscripts v, i and p are used to denote the type of signal gain being used.

The power gain (Ap) or power level of the amplifier can also be expressed in Decibels,
(dB). The Bel (B) is a logarithmic unit (base 10) of measurement that has no units. Since the
Bel is too large a unit of measure, it is prefixed with decimaking it Decibels instead with
one decibel being one tenth (1/10th) of a Bel. To calculate the gain of the amplifier in
Decibels or dB, we can use the following expressions.

   Voltage Gain in dB:   av  =  20*log(Av)

   Current Gain in dB:   ai  =  20*log(Ai)

   Power Gain in dB:   ap  =  10*log(Ap)

Note that the DC power gain of an amplifier is equal to ten times the common log of the
output to input ratio, where as voltage and current gains are 20 times the common log of the
ratio. Note however, that 20dB is not twice as much power as 10dB because of the log scale.

Also, a positive value of dB represents a Gain and a negative value of dB represents

a Loss within the amplifier. For example, an amplifier gain of +3dB indicates that the
amplifiers output signal has “doubled”, (x2) while an amplifier gain of -3dB indicates that
the signal has “halved”, (x0.5) or in other words a loss.

The -3dB point of an amplifier is called the half-power point which is -3dB down from
maximum, taking 0dB as the maximum output value.

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Amplifier Example No1

Determine the Voltage, Current and Power Gain of an amplifier that has an input signal of
1mA at 10mV and a corresponding output signal of 10mA at 1V. Also, express all three
gains in decibels, (dB).

The Various Amplifier Gains:

Amplifier Gains given in Decibels (dB):

Then the amplifier has a Voltage Gain, (Av) of 100, a Current Gain, (Ai) of 10 and a Power
Gain, (Ap) of 1,000

Generally, amplifiers can be sub-divided into two distinct types depending upon their power
or voltage gain. One type is called the Small Signal Amplifier which include pre-
amplifiers, instrumentation amplifiers etc. Small signal amplifies are designed to amplify
very small signal voltage levels of only a few micro-volts (μV) from sensors or audio
signals.

The other type are called Large Signal Amplifiers such as audio power amplifiers or power
switching amplifiers. Large signal amplifiers are designed to amplify large input voltage
signals or switch heavy load currents as you would find driving loudspeakers.

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Chapter – 7

DESCRIPTION OF TECHNOLOGY
The Small Signal Amplifier is generally referred to as a “Voltage” amplifier because they
usually convert a small input voltage into a much larger output voltage. Sometimes an
amplifier circuit is required to drive a motor or feed a loudspeaker and for these types of
applications where high switching currents are needed Power Amplifiers are required.

As their name suggests, the main job of a “Power Amplifier” (also known as a large signal
amplifier), is to deliver power to the load, and as we know from above, is the product of the
voltage and current applied to the load with the output signal power being greater than the
input signal power. In other words, a power amplifier amplifies the power of the input
signal which is why these types of amplifier circuits are used in audio amplifier output
stages to drive loudspeakers.

The power amplifier works on the basic principle of converting the DC power drawn from
the power supply into an AC voltage signal delivered to the load. Although the
amplification is high the efficiency of the conversion from the DC power supply input to the
AC voltage signal output is usually poor.

The perfect or ideal amplifier would give us an efficiency rating of 100% or at least the
power “IN” would be equal to the power “OUT”. However, in reality this can never happen
as some of the power is lost in the form of heat and also, the amplifier itself consumes
power during the amplification process. Then the efficiency of an amplifier is given as:

7.1 Amplifier Efficiency

……(7.1)

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7.2 Ideal Amplifier

We can know specify the characteristics for an ideal amplifier from our discussion above
with regards to its Gain, meaning voltage gain:

 The amplifiers gain, ( A ) should remain constant for varying values of input signal.

 Gain is not be affected by frequency. Signals of all frequencies must be amplified by

exactly the same amount.

 The amplifiers gain must not add noise to the output signal. It should remove any noise
that is already exists in the input signal.

 The amplifiers gain should not be affected by changes in temperature giving good
temperature stability.

 The gain of the amplifier must remain stable over long periods of time.

7.3 Electronic Amplifier Classes

The classification of an amplifier as either a voltage or a power amplifier is made by

comparing the characteristics of the input and output signals by measuring the amount of
time in relation to the input signal that the current flows in the output circuit.

We saw in the Common Emitter Transistor tutorial that for the transistor to operate within
its “Active Region” some form of “Base Biasing” was required. This small Base Bias
voltage added to the input signal allowed the transistor to reproduce the full input waveform
at its output with no loss of signal.

However, by altering the position of this Base bias voltage, it is possible to operate an
amplifier in an amplification mode other than that for full waveform reproduction. With the
introduction to the amplifier of a Base bias voltage, different operating ranges and modes of
operation can be obtained which are categorized according to their classification. These
various mode of operation are better known as Amplifier Class.

Audio power amplifiers are classified in an alphabetical order according to their circuit
configurations and mode of operation. Amplifiers are designated by different classes of
operation such as class “A”, class “B”, class “C”, class “AB”, etc. These different amplifier
classes range from a near linear output but with low efficiency to a non-linear output but
with a high efficiency.

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No one class of operation is “better” or “worse” than any other class with the type of
operation being determined by the use of the amplifying circuit. There are typical maximum
conversion efficiencies for the various types or class of amplifier, with the most commonly
used being:

 Class A Amplifier  –  has low efficiency of less than 40% but good signal reproduction
and linearity.

 Class B Amplifier  –  is twice as efficient as class A amplifiers with a maximum

theoretical efficiency of about 70% because the amplifying device only conducts (and uses
power) for half of the input signal.

 Class AB Amplifier  –  has an efficiency rating between that of Class A and Class B but
poorer signal reproduction than Class A amplifiers.

 Class C Amplifier  –  is the most efficient amplifier class but distortion is very high as
only a small portion of the input signal is amplified therefore the output signal bears very
little resemblance to the input signal. Class C amplifiers have the worst signal reproduction.

7.4 Class A Amplifier Operation

Class A Amplifier operation is where the entire input signal waveform is faithfully

reproduced at the amplifiers output as the transistor is perfectly biased within its active
region, thereby never reaching either of its cut-off or saturation regions. This then results in
the AC input signal being perfectly “centred” between the amplifiers upper and lower signal
limits as shown below.

7.5 Class A Amplifier Output Waveform

Fig7.1 – Class –A Amplifier

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In this configuration, the Class A amplifier uses the same transistor for both halves of the
output waveform and due to its biasing arrangement the output transistor always has current
flowing through it, even if there is no input signal. In other words the output transistors
never turns “OFF”. This results in the Class A type of operation being very inefficient as its
conversion of the DC supply power to the AC signal power delivered to the load is usually
very low.

Generally, the output transistor of a Class A amplifier gets very hot even when there is no
input signal present so some form of heat sinking is required. The direct current flowing
through the output transistor (Ic) when there is no output signal will be equal to the current
flowing through the load. Then a Class A amplifier is very inefficient as most of the DC
power is converted to heat.

7.6 Class B Amplifier Operation

Unlike the Class A amplifier mode of operation above that uses a single transistor for its
output power stage, the Class B Amplifier uses two complimentary transistors (either an
NPN and a PNP or a NMOS and a PMOS) for each half of the output waveform. One
transistor conducts for one-half of the signal waveform while the other conducts for the
other or opposite half of the signal waveform. This means that each transistor spends half of
its time in the active region and half its time in the cut-off region thereby amplifying only
50% of the input signal.

7. 7 Class B Amplifier Output Waveform

In a Class B amplifier, no DC voltage is used to bias the transistors, so for the output
transistors to start to conduct each half of the waveform, both positive and negative, they
need the base-emitter voltage Vbe to be greater than the 0.7v required for a bipolar
transistor to start conducting.

Then the lower part of the output waveform which is below this 0.7v window will not be
reproduced accurately resulting in a distorted area of the output waveform as one transistor
turns “OFF” waiting for the other to turn back “ON”. The result is that there is a small part
of the output waveform at the zero voltage cross over point which will be distorted. This
type of distortion is called Crossover Distortion and is looked at later on in this section.

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7.8 Class AB Amplifier Operation

The Class AB Amplifier is a compromise between the Class A and the Class B

configurations above. While Class AB operation still uses two complementary transistors in
its output stage a very small biasing voltage is applied to the Base of the transistor to bias it
close to the Cut-off region when no input signal is present.

An input signal will cause the transistor to operate as normal in its Active region thereby
eliminating any crossover distortion which is present in class B configurations. A small
Collector current will flow when there is no input signal but it is much less than that for the
Class A amplifier configuration.

This means then that the transistor will be “ON” for more than half a cycle of the waveform.
This type of amplifier configuration improves both the efficiency and linearity of the
amplifier circuit compared to a pure Class A configuration.

7.9 Class AB Amplifier Output Waveform

FIG 7.2 – Class AB output waveform

The class of operation for an amplifier is very important and is based on the amount of
transistor bias required for operation as well as the amplitude required for the input signal.
Amplifier classification takes into account the portion of the input signal in which the

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transistor conducts as well as determining both the efficiency and the amount of power that
the switching transistor both consumes and dissipates in the form of wasted heat. Then we
can make a comparison between the most common types of amplifier classifications in the
following table.

Table 7.10 :-Power Amplifier Classes

Class A B C AB

Conductio
Less 180 to
n 360o 180o
than 90o 360o
Angle

In
between
Centre the
Exactly Below
Position of Point of X-axis
on the the
the Q-point the Load and the
X-axis X-axis
Line Centre
Load
Line

Overall Poor Better Higher Better

Efficiency 25 to 70 to than than A
30% 80% 80% but less
than B

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 DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF POWER AMPLIFIER

50 to
70%

At the X-
None if
Signal axis Large Small
Correctly
Distortion Crossover Amounts Amounts
Biased
Point

Badly designed amplifiers especially the Class “A” types may also require larger power
transistors, more expensive heat sinks, cooling fans, or even an increase in the size of the
power supply required to deliver the extra wasted power required by the amplifier. Power
converted into heat from transistors, resistors or any other component for that matter, makes
any electronic circuit inefficient and will result in the premature failure of the device.

So why use a Class A amplifier if its efficiency is less than 40% compared to a Class
B amplifier that has a higher efficiency rating of over 70%. Basically, a Class A amplifier
gives a much more linear output meaning that it has, Linearity over a larger frequency
response even if it does consume large amounts of DC power.

In this Introduction to the Amplifier tutorial, we have seen that there are different types of
amplifier circuit each with its own advantages and disadvantages. In the next tutorial about
amplifiers, we will look at the most commonly connected type of transistor amplifier circuit,
the common emitter amplifier. Most transistor amplifiers are of the Common Emitter
or CE type circuit due to their large gains in voltage, current and power as well as their
excellent input/output characteristics.

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CHAPTER -8
ADVANTAGES AND DISADANTAGES

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CHAPTER-9
FUTURE SCOPE
For some years following the introduction of solid state amplifiers, their perceived sound
did not have the excellent audio quality of the best valve amplifiers . This led audiophiles to
believe that "tube sound" or valve sound had an intrinsic quality due to the vacuum tube
technology itself. In 1970, MattiOtala published a paper on the origin of a previously
unobserved form of distortion: transient intermodulation distortion (TIM), later also called
slew-induced distortion (SID) by others. TIM distortion was found to occur during very
rapid increases in amplifier output voltage.
TIM did not appear at steady state sine tone measurements, helping to hide it from design
engineers prior to 1970. Problems with TIM distortion stem from reduced open loop
frequency response of solid state amplifiers. Further works of Otala and other authors found
the solution for TIM distortion, including increasing slew rate, decreasing preamp frequency
bandwidth, and the insertion of a lag compensation circuit in the input stage of the
amplifier. In high quality modern amplifiers the open loop response is at least 20 kHz,
canceling TIM distortion.
The next step in advanced design was the Baxandall Theorem, created by Peter Baxandall in
England. This theorem introduced the concept of comparing the ratio between the input
distortion and the output distortion of an amplifier. This new idea helped audio design
engineers to better evaluate the distortion processes within an amplifier.

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CHAPTER – 10
CONCLUSION
In performing this designing and fabrication of Power Amplifier we have learnt a lot of
practical things for shouldering of conductors to making this amplifier work. The PBC
design of the Power Amplifier is drawn by the software called Circuit Wizard. Circuit
Design of the Power Amplifier is shown in the above article.
Given such a wide application space, it is not surprising that early on electrical engineers
have worked out the details of designing good power amplifiers (PAs), first with vacuum
tubes, and then with discrete transistors. They did such a fine job that by the second part of
the twentieth century, the art of designing PAs became a mature electrical engineering (EE)
specialty, which seemed to have little room left for breakthroughs or major innovations.
However, the late-century market explosion of mobile digital communication systems and
devices, such as cellular phones and wireless local area networks (LANs), and the massive
introduction of integrated circuit (Ie) technology in everyday life have changed the
electronic landscape dramatically, opening new challenges and opportunities for PAs.

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REFERENCE
1.F. H. Raab, P. Asbeck, S. Cripps, P. B. Kenington, Z. B. Popovic, N. Pothecary, J. F.
Sevic, and N.O. Sakal, "Power amplifiers and transmitters for RF and microwave," IEEE
Trans. Microwave Theory Tech
2. S. C. Cripps, RF Power Amplifiersfor Wireless Communication, Artech House, 1999.
3. S. C. Cripps, Advanced Techniques in RF Power Amplifier Design, Artech House, 2002.
4. N. O. Sakal and A. D. Sakal, "High-Efficiency Tuned Switching Power Amplifier," U.S.
Patent
5.N. O. Sakal and A. D. Sakal, "Class E-A new class of high-efficiency tuned single-ended
switching power amplifiers," IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits
6.S. D. Kee, I. Aoki, A. Hajimiri, and D. Rutledge, "The class-ElF family of ZVS switching
amplifiers," IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech

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