Master Prelims 2020 WriteToBeIAS.com G.C.

Leong Synopsis

Certificate Physical and Human Geography

G.C. Leong
INDEX
Sn. Name of the Topic Page No
No.
1. Arid or Desert Landforms 2

2. Coastal Landforms 7

3. Island and Coral Reefs 12

4. Lakes 15
5. Landforms made by running water 17

6. Landforms of Glaciation 22

7. Limestone and Chalk Landform 27

8. The Earth and The Universe 28

9. The Earth’s Crust 33

10. The Oceans 39

11. Vulcanism and Earth Quakes 46

12. Weathering, Mass Movement and Ground Water 48

13. The Cool Temperate Western Marine Climate or British Type 52

Climate
14. Climate 55

15. The Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate or China Type 63

Climate
16. The Cool Temperate Eastern Margin or Laurentian Type 67
Climate
17. The Warm Temperate Western Margin Climate or 69
Mediterranean Climate
18. The Arctic or Polar Climate 74

19. The Savanna or Sudan Climate 76

20. The Cool Temperate Continental or the Siberian Type Climate 78

21. The Temperate Continental or Steppe Climate 81

22. The Hot Desert and Mid- Latitude Desert Climate 83

23. The Hot ,Wet Equatorial Climate 86

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24. The Tropical Monsoon and The Tropical Marine Climate 90

25. Weather 94

THE COOL TEMPERATE WESTERN MARGIN CLIMATE

OR BRITISH TYPE CLIMATE
• Cool temperate western margins are under the permanent influence of the
westerlies all-round the year approx. at 50 degree North- South
• They are also regions of much cyclonic activity, typical of Britain, & are
thus said to experience the British type of climate.
• From Britain, the climatic belt stretches far inland into lowlands of
North-West Europe, including such regions as northern & western
France, Belgium, Netherland, Denmark, Western Norway & North-
West Iberia.
• There is so much oceanic influence on both the temperature &
precipitation that the climate is also referred as North West European
Maritime Climate.
• In northern America, the high Rockies prevent the on shore westerlies
from penetrating far inland & British type of climate is confined mainly
to coastlands of British Columbia (West coast of Canada)
• In the southern hemisphere, this type of climate is experienced in
southern Chile, Tasmania (southern Australia) & Most parts of New
Zealand, particularly in south island, surrounded by large expanses of
water.
British Type • The mean annual temperatures are usually between 5 degree Celsius in
Climate winters to 15 degree Celsius in summers thus have a short annual
temperature range.
• Summers are infact never very warm and temperature above 20 degree
Celsius is rare; winters are abnormally mild & no station record a mean
temperature of below freezing point.
• Heat waves are a welcome feature in such cool temperate climate.
• Above climatic features especially warming effect mentioned are the
attributes to the moderating effects of the North Atlantic drifts &
prevalence of southern westerlies.
• Sometimes, unsual cold spells caused by the invasion of cold polar
continental air from the interiors, may hit the western margins for the
number of weeks.
• Night frost does occur & snow falls in winters.

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• Hence the climate of this maritime region as a whole may be described as

equable with moderately warm summers & fairly mild winters.
• British type of climate is even more equable in Southern –
Hemisphere, due to lack of continental mass (Tasmania, New Zealand &
Southern Chile) & more presence of oceanic water, which means extreme
of temperature are not likely at all, hence annual temperature range is
further reduced here.
• Amount of rainfall decreases from western margin of the continents
eastward,
• Relief can also make great differences in annual rainfall, hence it is
difficult to say how much annual rainfall is typical for British type of
climate
• Though if confined to lowlands, it receives 50 – 100 cm of mean annual
rainfall.
• British type of climate has adequate rainfall throughout the year with a
tendency towards slight winter or autumn maximum from cyclonic
sources.
Natural Vegetation • The natural vegetation of this climatic type is deciduous forests that shed
their leaves in the cold season, to protect themselves against winter
snow & frost.
• Some of the common species which provide hardwoods from these
deciduous forests are Oak, Elms, Birch, Neech, Poplar & Hornbeam;
along with certain other species such as chestnut, maple & lime.
• Unlike the equatorial forests, the deciduous trees occur in pure strands
& have greater lumbering value from the commercial point of view; &
are excellent for fuel, furniture & industrial purposes.
• The open nature of the forests with sparse undergrowth is highly useful
in logging operations as easy penetration means much cost can be saved
in movement of the logs.
• Higher up the mountains in Scavandian highlands, Rockies and
Southern Alps of New Zealand, deciduous trees are generally replaced
by conifers which can survive a higher altitude, a lower temperature &
poorer soils.
Economic • North-West Europe is one of the crowded parts of the world.
Developments of • Hence despite growing a large number of cereals, that too with highest
British Type of yield / acre, it remains the net importer of food crops.
Climates • Wheat from all over the wheat-lands across the globe.
• Fishing is particularly important in Britain, Norway and British
Columbia.
Agricultural 1. Market Gardening
Developments of • Though practised all over the world, where there is large urban population
British Type of but is highly specialized in North-West Europe (France, Belgium,

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Climates Britain, West Germany & Denmark).

• Farms are usually small and located near large cities or industrial areas.
• Soils are carefully maintained at a high degree of fertility & very
selective fertilizers are applied to the crops.
• Farming is carried out intensively, aiming at high yield & maximum
cash returns.
• Produces, such as potatoes, cauliflowers, lettuces, cabbages, tomatoes,
onion, peas & fruits are conveyed by high speed conveyances such as
trucks or vans, hence also called as truck farming in US.
• Bulbs & flowers (esp. tulips) from Netherlands, and eggs, bacon &
other dairy products from Denmark are sent to most of the
industrialized areas of Europe.
• In Australia, high speed boats ply across Bass Strait daily from Tasmania
to rush vegetables, tomatoes, apples & beans to most parts of Australian
mainland.
2. Mixed Farming
• Throughout Britain & N-W Europe, farmers practise both arable
farming (cultivation of crops on ploughed lands) & pastoral farming
(keeping animals on grass meadows).
• Crops may be raised for cash sales or as fodder for cattle & sheep.
• Among the cereals, wheat is most extensively grown, almost entirely for
home consumption.
• The next important cereal raised in mixed farm is Barley raised in drier
areas, as a fodder crop, with better quality barley sold to breweries for
making beers or distilling whisky.
• Denmark, Australia & New Zealand excels in dairy products; & are
one of the world’s greatest exporters.
• Amongst food crops, potatoes feature prominently as a staple food crop
in supplementing wheat or bread.
• Today almost, 2/3rd of world’s annual production of potatoes comes
from Europe, of which Poland, Germany, France and Britain are major
producers.
• Besides its principle use as a substitute for bread, it also serves as animal
fodder & a source of industrial alcohol.
Sheep Rearing • Well Developed in British type climate
• Home of some best known sheep breeds. E.g- Leicesters, Lincolns,
South downs
• Principal areas- Foot hills, well drained uplands, chalk, limestone,
scarplands, and the light sandy coasts.
• In the southern hemisphere sheep rearing is the chief occupation of New
Zealand- Greatest Concentration-Canterbury Plain
Other Agricultural • Amongst the food crops, potatoes feature prominently in the domestic

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Activities economy of the cool, temperate regions.

• It is the staple food in supplementing wheat or bread for millions of
people.
• Normally cooler and more northerly latitude is preferred because the crop
will be less prone to the attack of blight (virus disease that is particularly
infectious in warm and humid countries)
• 2/3 rd of the world’s annual production of potatoes comes from Europe
of which Poland, Germany, France, and UK are the major producers.
• Beet Sugar-Found almost in north western Europe and parts of USA.

CLIMATE
Atmosphere:
• On the basis of chemical composition atmosphere can be divided into 2
parts.
1. Homosphere
• Upto 90 km (Uniformity in chemical composition)
• Troposphere
• Stratosphere
• Mesosphere
2. Heterosphere
• Above 90 Km (non uniformity in chemical composition)
• Ionosphere
• Exosphere
Troposphere • Average height is 16 Km-10 km at Poles & upto 18 km at Equator.
• Greatest at Equator due to upward transportation of heat by strong
conventional currents.
• That is why height of troposphere at a given latitude is greater in summer.
• Temperature decreases with height, roughly at 1 degree Celsius for every
165 meters i.e. Normal Lapse Rate.
• Lowest, Densest & contains 75 % of earth’s atmosphere with 90% of
water vapours & dust particles.
• All major atmospheric processes take place in this layer.
Tropopause • Shallow transitional zone also known as unstable zone between
Troposphere & Stratosphere i.e. Approx. 1.5 Km
• Temperature stops falling in this layer
• 80 degree Celsius over equator
• 45 degree Celsius over poles
Stratosphere • This layer rises up-to 50 km
• Thicker at Poles than at Equator
• Temperature remains constant in its lower portion upto 20 Km & then
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gradually increases to 0 degree Celsius till its upper limit i.e.

Tropopause.
• Increases mainly due to the presence of ozone gas, which absorbs sun’s
UV rays.
• Practically no clouds, convection currents, Thundering or lighting, water
vapours or dust particles hence airplanes fly in this region.
• Few clouds called “Mother of Pearls / Narcreas” can be seen over
Antarctica.
• Its lower portion (15 – 35 Km) constitutes Ozone layer which prevents us
from harmful UV rays.
• amount of Ozone gas is found at Stratopause i.e. uppermost limit of
Stratosphere
Depletion of Ozone • Major cause CFCs i.e. mainly from Refrigerator, AC, Spray Cans,
Layer Plastic Packaging, Cleaning Fluids, Insulation materials
• UV breaks CFCs & release Chlorine atom which reacts with Ozone &
convert it into simple oxygen molecule, which is unstable to absorb UV
rays.
• Space probes are also responsible for depletion of Ozone layer, as every
time a rocket is fired into space, 70 – 150 tons of Chlorine is injected into
atmosphere
• Another cause for ozone layer depletion is oxides of Nitrogen, esp.
Nitric oxide, released from supersonic aircrafts, automotive exhaust, in
form of nitrates in fertilizers etc.
• Already a major Ozone hole is formed over Antarctica with risk
countries New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, Chile, Argentina etc.
Mesosphere • Upto 80 ~ 90 Km, Temp. decreases gradually with height until – 100 *C
at 80 km
• Displays wispy clouds at high altitudes due to reflected sunlight from
meteoric dust Particles.
• Most weather balloons are placed in this region
• Most meteors burn up in this layer ; Upper limit Mesopause
Ionosphere/ • Extends upto 400 km, contains electrically charged particles (ions)
Thermosphere with max. conc. at 250 Km.
• Starts rising with increase in height because of ionization by solar
radiations.
• Zone of Earths Satellites.
Auroras • Are formed when Earth’s magnetic field traps solar winds in
atmosphere, resulting in collision between solar wind & atmospheric
charged molecules (ions).
1. Aurora Borealis
• Northern light in northern hemisphere (Arctic circle)
2. Aurora Australia

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• Southern light in southern hemisphere (Antarctic Circle)

• All radio waves are reflected in this layer (Radio transmission)
• D layer-Reflects signal of low frequency & absorbs of medium & high
frequency
• E layer (Kennedy Heaviside layer)-Reflects medium & high
frequency radio waves to earth
• F layer (Appleton layer)-Useful for long distance radio transmissions-
reflects medium & high frequency radio waves to earth
• G layer-Highest layer
Importance of • Temperature influences the actual amount of water vapour present in
Temperature the air & thus decides the moisture carrying capacity of the air.
• It decides the rate of evaporation & condensation, & therefore governs
the degree of stability of the atmosphere.
• As relative humidity is directly related to the temperature of the air, it
affects the nature & types of cloud formation & precipitation
Factors 1. Latitude
influencing • Due to the earth’s inclination, temperature reduces from equator to
Temperature poles.
• Mainly due to direct & oblique sunrays falling differently on different
latitudes
2. Altitude
• Since the atmosphere is mainly heated by conduction from the earth.
• Hence places near to earth surface are warmer than those higher up.
• Thus, temperature decreases with increasing height above the sea level
3. Continentality
• Land surfaces are heated more quickly than the water surfaces, due to
higher specific heat of the water
• Hence warmer summers & colder winters prevails in continental
interiors as compared with maritime districts.
4. Ocean currents & winds
• Both ocean currents & winds affect temperature by transporting their
heat or coldness into adjacent regions.
• For e.g. the westerlies that come to Britain & Norway tend to be cool
winds in summer & warm winds in winter.
5. Slope, Shelter & Aspect
• A steep slope experiences more rapid change in temperature than a gentle
one.
• Mountain ranges that have an eastward alignment like the alps show a
higher temperature on the south facing sunny slope than the north
facing sheltered slope.
• The greater insolation of the southern slope is better suited for vine
cultivation & has a more flourishing vegetative cover, consequently more

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settlements
6. Natural vegetation
• There is a definite difference in temperature between forested
regions & open ground.

• Thick amazon forest cuts off much of incoming insolation keeping

the land surface of the jungle cool & few degrees lower than the open
spaces in corresponding latitudes

7. Soil

• Light soils reflect more heat than the darker ones which are better
absorbers of heat, which may give rise to slight variations in temperature
of the region.
• Dry soils like sand are very sensitive to temperature compared to wet
clayly soils which retains moisture & warms up & cools down more
slowly.
Precipitation • Condensation of water vapour in air in form of water droplets or ice.
• Their falling on earth surface is known as precipitation
1. Snowfall
• When condensation takes place below freezing point.
• Means at 0*C, conversion of water vapour directly into solid state.
• Precipitation occurs in forms of fine flakes of snow.
2. Sleet
• Sleet is frozen raindrops or refroze melted snow water.
• When a layer of temp. above freezing point overlies a subfreezing layer
near the ground, precipitation occurs in form of sleet.
3. Hail
• Sometimes, drops of rains after being released by the clouds become
solidified into small rounded stone pieces of ice, known as hailstones
• Formed by rainwater passing through colder layers hence have several
concentric layers of ice, one over the another.
4. Rainfall
• Most common form of precipitation
• Precipitation in form of water
• Also known as cloud particles
Types of Rainfall 1. Convectional Rainfall
• Air on being heated becomes light & rises up as conventional currents
• As it rises, it loses heat & consequently condensation takes place with
the formation of cumulus clouds.
• Under these conditions, heavy rainfall takes place along with thunder &
lightening, but does not last for long.
• Common in Equatorial & Tropical regions in summers daily.

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2. Orographic or Relief Rainfall

• When a warm & moist air currents is obstructed by a mountain range, it
is forced to ascent along its slopes.
• It gets cooled while ascending & when its temp. falls below dew point, it
causes rainfall on windward slope of mountain range.
• However, when these winds cross mountain range & descend along its
leeward side.
• Here, they get warm & dry & causes only little rain (Rain shadow areas)
• This type of rainfall may occur in any season.
3. Cyclonic or Frontal Rainfall
• Rainfall associated with cyclone is known as cyclonic or frontal rainfall.
• Occurs along the fronts of the cyclone viz. cold front & warm front.
• At the warm front, the warm lighter wind rises gently over the heavier
cold air, which being heavy stays close to the ground
• As the warm air rises, it cools, and the moisture present in it condenses to
form clouds altostratus clouds.
• This rain falls steadily for a few hours to a few days.
Planetary Winds • Planetary winds are also known as permanent or prevailing winds
• Blow from high to low pressure, over the earth surface & oceans
throughout the year & in a particular direction
• These winds are divided into 3 categories viz.
1. Trade Winds (Tropical Easterlies)
2. Westerlies
3. Polar winds (Polar Easterlies)
Trade Winds • Winds blowing from subtropical high pressure area to equatorial low
(Tropical pressure area (Extremely steady winds).
Easterlies) • Since they travel from high latitude to low latitude area, they become
gradually hot & dry and hence have a great capacity to hold moisture.
• They cause considerable rainfall on eastern margins of the continents
as they get moisture after blowing over oceans.
• These winds converge near equator & form ITCZ, Here these winds rises
& causes heavy rainfall
• Absent in N Indian Ocean which is dominated by Monsoon winds.
Westerlies • Winds blowing from subtropical high pressure belts towards
subtropical low pressure belts.
• Blow from S – W to N – E under Coriolis effect in Northern
Hemisphere & from N – W to S – E in Southern Hemisphere
• Blow from lower latitudes to higher latitudes
• Cause considerable rainfall particularly on western margins of the
continents
• More consistent in direction & blow with stronger force in S –
Hemisphere due to lesser obstructions from continents.

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• Also known as brave winds or roaring forties, furious fifties &

shrieking sixties according to the varying degree of storminess in the
latitudes in which they blow.
• It must be noted that not all the western coast of the temperate zone (30
degree – 60 degree) receive.
• Westerlies throughout the year due to shifting of wind belts coz of
earth’s inclination.
• In June, when the overhead sun is over the tropic of cancer, all the belts
move about 5 degree – 10 degree north of their average position. The
Mediterranean parts of continents that comes under the effect of
werterlies, receive rain in June & vice a versa in December, when sun is
overhead tropic of Capricorn.
Polar Winds • Winds blowing from polar high to sub polar low pressure belt.
• Are very cold in nature as originate in polar areas & do not cause much
rainfall.
• These winds give birth to cyclones when they come in contact with
westerlies.
• Brings frequent change in weather conditions & causes heavy rainfall
Shifting of Wind • Wind belts described above keep on shifting northward & southward
Belts depending upon the movement of the sun.
• March 21 & Sep 23 (Equinoxes).
• Sun shines vertically over equator.
• Equatorial low pressure belt lies between 5 degree North – 5 degree
South.
• After March 21, sun moves northward & with it whole system of
pressure belts moves northward.

June 21
• Sun shines vertically over Tropic of cancer & all the pressure belts move
5 – 10 degree northward from original position.
Dec 21
• Sun shines vertically over Tropic of Capricorn & all the pressure belts
move 5 – 10 degree southward from original position.
• Thus, shifting of world’s pressure belts also causes shifting of world’s
wind system.
Periodic / Seasonal winds
• Winds which change their direction periodically.
• Examples -Monsoon Winds, Land & Sea Breeze, Mountain & Valley
Breeze.
Monsoon Winds • Refers to system of winds which reverses their direction completely
with change of seasons
• Blow from sea to land during summers & land to sea during winters, due

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to differential in heating of continents & oceans-Halley’s law

• In summers, sun shines vertically over Tropic of cancer resulting in high
temp. & low pressure in central Asia, while pressure is sufficiently high
at Bay of Bengal & Arabian Sea.
• This induces air flow from Sea to land & induces heavy rainfall in India
& neighbouring countries.
• In winters, sun shines vertically over tropic of Capricorn, hence North –
West part of India grows colder than Arabian Sea & Bay of Bengal which
results in reversal of monsoon in India.
• Above theory of differential heating was replaced by shifting of ITCZ
for monsoon in India & neighboring countries
Land and Sea • Influence only a narrow strip of 20 – 30 km along the coast
Breeze • During day sun shines hence sea breeze moves from sea to land (Sea
Breeze)
• In night it reverses its direction i.e. from land to sea (Land Breeze)
Mountain & • During day, mountain slopes gets heated more than valley floor hence air
Valley Breeze from valley floor blows up the slope (Valley Breeze)
• After sunset pattern is reversed i.e. Mountain Breeze
Fohn Winds & • Both the Fohn & Chinook winds are local hot & dry winds experienced
Chinook Winds on the leeward side of the mountains when descending air become
compresses with increased pressure.
• Fohn wind is experienced in the valleys of northern Alps, particularly in
Switzerland in spring.
• Chinook winds are experienced on the eastern slopes of the Rockies in
USA & Canada in winters.
• While descending, most of the moisture of the wind is lost & hence it
becomes dry & hot, which may lead to rise in temperature of leeward
side.
• In North America, it is called Chinook which means the snow eater, as it
melts the snow & causes avalanches.
• It has blessings too, it enhances the growth of crops & fruits & thaws
the snow covered pastures by raising temperature of the region quite
quickly.
Cyclones • A low pressure area surrounded by high pressure area from all from
all the sides along with winds moving from all the sides towards central
low.
• Cyclones moves in Anti clockwise in North Hemisphere & in
Clockwise direction in South – Hemisphere under the effect of
westerlies due to coriolis effect.
• No Cyclones at equator as coriolis force is 0 there.
Temperate • Also known as wave cyclones or Extra Tropical
• Originate mainly in zones between 35 degree – 65 degree North &

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Cyclone South of latitudes

Polar Front Theory
• Forms due to collision of 2 air masses of contrasting characteristics (in
terms of temp. & humidity at about 60 degree latitude).
• Here they do not meet each other readily but forms a front known as
polar front
• Cold air mass pushes the warm air mass upwards & a void is created due
to decrease in pressure.
• Air from surrounding area rushes to fill the void & a temperate cyclone
if formed
• Average speed of extra tropical cyclone is 32 km/hr in summer & 49
km/hr in winters.
Tropical Cyclone • Also known as Typhoons or Hurricanes
• Originate mainly in zones between 5 degree – 30 degree North & South
of latitudes
• Are the violent storms that originate over oceans in tropical areas &
move to coastal areas
• Bring large scale destruction, caused by violent winds, heavy rainfall &
storm surges
• Favorable conditions for formation of tropical cyclones are
• Large sea surface with temp. > 27 degree Celsius
• Presence of coriolis force
• Small variation in vertical wind speed
• Upper divergence above sea level
• Pre-existing weak low pressure area or low level cyclonic circulations
• Energy that intensifies the storm comes from the condensation process
in towering cumulonimbus clouds, surrounding center of the storm.
• Hence, with constant supply of moisture from the sea, storm is further
strengthened
• On reaching land, moisture supply is cut off & the storm dissipates
• Place where tropical cyclone crosses the land is called landfall of the
cyclone.
• Central low pressure is known as eye of the cyclone → Calm with
subsiding air having lowest pressure & highest temp.
• Surrounding this area is zone of strong winds with clouds extending
vertically.
• Surrounding the eye is eye wall, a place of strong spirally ascending
winds to a height reaching tropopause, having max. wind velocity
Tropical Cyclone 1. Cyclone
Distribution & its • Indian ocean, Arabian sea & Bay of Bengal
various names 2. Hurricane

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world wide • Atlantic sea (West indies) & USA

3. Typhoons
• China sea + Japan sea
4. Willy Willies
• Western Australia

Difference between Tropical Cyclones Extra Tropical Cyclones

Tropical & Extra
Moves from east to west Moves from west to east
Tropical Cyclones
Wind velocity is very high & Low wind velocity & less
more destructive destructive

Originate only on sea & Affect much larger area & can
dissipates on reaching land. originate on land as well as sea.

Anticyclones • An anticyclone is just opposite to a cyclone.

• Basically it is a large-scale circulation of winds around a central region
of high atmospheric pressure
• Clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere.
• Anticyclones are form from air masses, cooling more than their
surroundings, which causes the air to contract slightly making the air
denser.
• Since dense air weighs more, the weight of the atmosphere overlying a
location increases, causing increased surface air pressure.
• Anticyclones herald fair weather, clearing skies, calm air with high
temperature in summers & cold in winters.
• Fog can also form overnight within a region of higher pressure.

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