Resonance wood [Picea abies (L.) Karst.

] – evaluation and
prediction of violin makers’ quality-grading
Christoph Buksnowitza兲 and Alfred Teischinger
University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna, Department of Material Sciences and
Process Engineering, Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Peter Jordanstr. 82, A-1190 Vienna,
Austria

Ulrich Müller
Compentence Center for Wood Composites and Wood Chemistry, St.-Peter-Str. 25, A-4021 Linz, Austria

Andreas Pahler
Holzforschung der TU Munich, Winzererstrasse 45, D-80797 Munich, Germany

Robert Evans
Ensis/CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, Private bag 10, Clayton South, Victoria 3169, Australia
共Received 28 September 2006; revised 13 December 2006; accepted 20 December 2006兲
The definition of quality in the field of resonance wood for musical instrument making has attracted
considerable interest over decades but has remained incomplete. The current work compares the
traditional knowledge and practical experience of violin makers with a material-science approach to
objectively characterize the properties of resonance wood. Norway spruce 关Picea abies 共L.兲 Karst.兴
has earned a very high reputation for the construction of resonance tops of stringed instruments and
resonance boards of keyboard instruments, and was therefore chosen as the focus of the
investigation. The samples were obtained from numerous renowned resonance wood regions in the
European Alps and cover the whole range of available qualities. A set of acoustical, anatomical,
mechanical and optical material properties was measured on each sample. These measurements
were compared with subjective quality grading by violin makers, who estimated the acoustical,
optical and overall suitability for violin making. Multiple linear regression models were applied to
evaluate the predictability of the subjective grading using the measured material characteristics as
predictors. The results show that luthiers are able to estimate wood quality related to visible features,
but predictions of mechanical and acoustical properties proved to be very poor. © 2007 Acoustical
Society of America. 关DOI: 10.1121/1.2434756兴
PACS number共s兲: 43.75.De 关NF兴 Pages: 2384–2395

I. INTRODUCTION
Music has always played an important role in mankind’s
evolution. Owing to its high emotional and cultural impor-
tance, generations of musicologists, acousticians, chemists
and material scientists have been inspired to investigate the
interrelations of materials, sound and music 共e.g., Bucur,
1983/2006; Holz, 1966/1984; Hori et al., 2002; Hutchins
1992; Schwalbe and Becker, 1920兲.
The development of music has been influenced by the
listeners’ tastes, by outstanding musicians and their style of
playing, by new trends in composition, but also by changes
in the construction and the performance of musical instru-
ments.
The superior sound of some masterpieces of instruments
has remained a mystery up to the present. Numerous studies
with different approaches have been performed to reveal
those secrets, e.g., Yano et al. 共1994兲 and Holz 共1996兲, with
their work on chemical treatment of resonance wood, Schu-
macher 共1988兲 with a paper on the compliances of wood for
a兲
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. Electronic mail:
christoph.buksnowitz@boku.ac.at
violin plates, and Anderson and Strong 共2005兲 with the idea
to investigate the effect of an inharmonic partial on the pitch
of pianos.
The delightful sound of, for example, the famous violins
of Stradivari can be explained in part by the high quality of
the construction and workmanship of the instruments. On the
other hand, there is no doubt that the sound of musical in-
struments also depends on the quality of the raw material as
well as the experience and intuition of the instrument maker
to “fine-tune” their construction to cope with a wide range of
resonance wood quality. Therefore it is worth taking another
close look at the resonance wood quality of Norway spruce
关Picea abies 共L.兲 Karst.兴, which has earned a very high repu-
tation for the construction of resonance tops of stringed in-
struments and resonance boards of keyboard instruments.
Most violin makers have only their senses to grade their
raw material. The present study aims at linking the experi-
ence and knowledge of craftsmen and instrument makers
with a basic material assessment to objectively define the
material properties of resonance wood. A collective of reso-
nance wood samples from numerous tone wood regions in
Europe was used for the material assessment, which covered
acoustical, anatomical, mechanical and optical properties on

2384 J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 121 共4兲, April 2007 0001-4966/2007/121共4兲/2384/12/$23.00 © 2007 Acoustical Society of America
FIG. 1. Cross section of a “hazel-growth” Norway spruce showing three
radial lines of indents.
several hierarchical levels. In addition the samples were sub-
jectively graded in their acoustical, optical and overall suit-
ability for violin making by instrument makers before they
have been dissected for scientific analysis. The following
questions should be answered by the comparison between
measurable material properties and subjective quality grad-
ing of instrument makers.
• Can the instrument makers’ choice for resonance wood be
related to material characteristics objectively measured?
• Which material properties are taken into account by instru-
ment makers?
• Which are the decisive criteria and governing factors for
the grading of the resonance wood?
II. MATERIAL
Eighty four samples of Norway spruce 共Picea abies. 共L.兲
Karst.兲 from numerous resonance wood regions in Europe
were collected. Seventy eight of them were raw violin tops,
with approximate dimensions of 40 cm in longitudinal direc-
tion, 15 cm radially and 3 – 5 cm tangentially on the bark
side. The samples were cut radially or split out of large di-
ameter Norway spruce logs. Approximately 44% of the
samples showed a growth anomaly called “hazel growth,”
“bear-claw” or “indented rings” 共Figs. 1 and 2兲. Hazel
growth is an abnormality in radial growth. The indentations
of the rings towards the pith occur irregularly and mostly in
adult wood 共Ziegler and Merz, 1961兲. The samples were cho-
sen to cover a representative variation of all available quali-
ties of spruce resonance wood. Six nonresonance wood
samples were added, which were graded as “joinery quality”
by the retailer. These samples extended the set towards the
lower qualities. The total sample set is shown in Table I
giving information on the growth patterns and the origin. All
J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 121, No. 4, April 2007
FIG. 2. Surface of a hazel-growth spruce log with removed bark.
samples were air dried and seasoned for at least one year.
This period is considered the minimum to reduce internal
growth stresses and drying stresses 共Holz, 1972兲. The raw
violin resonance tops 共Fig. 3兲 were converted into small
boards of identical thickness 共16 mm兲 and surface quality
共Fig. 4兲 prior to being graded by violin makers. Before dis-
secting the samples into the different specimens for subse-
quent tests 共tension, compression, bending, etc.兲 they were
conditioned at 65% relative humidity and 20 ° C until equi-
librium moisture content was achieved to guarantee precise,
stable dimensions. The cutting plan for the specimens is
shown in Fig. 5.
III. SUBJECTIVE GRADING
As a reference to the practical experience and the tradi-
tional knowledge of musical instrument makers, all reso-
nance wood samples were subjectively graded by 14 re-
nowned Austrian violin makers. To ensure an unbiased
result, grading of the boards was performed in a “blind,”
meaning that graders 共violin makers兲 had no information on
the samples, which were randomly arranged on the tables of
a lecture hall for the grading. The three separate grading
criteria were the suitability 共quality兲 for violins from an
acoustical point of view, the suitability in respect to aestheti-
cal 共optical兲 requirements and finally an overall appraisal of
the resonance wood quality. The participants were instructed
to evaluate the three criteria separately from each other not
using any tools. The violin makers were requested to grade
the samples just like they are used to doing in practice. The
parameters, which are used by violin makers to evaluate the
Buksnowitz et al.: Resonance wood - quality grading 2385
 TABLE I. Regions of origin and growth patterns of resonance wood samples.

GROWTH PATTERN

REGIONS of origin of the TOTAL

resonance wood samples NORMAL INDENTSa count

Austria Tyrol 0 14 14
Austria Salzkammergut 3 5 8
Austria Styria 1 0 1
Germany Allgaeu 4 0 4
Germany Upper Bavaria 13 0 13
Italy Val di Fiemme 12 15 27
Italy South Tyrol 3 3 6
Switzerland Lucerne 5 0 5
Reference samples - origin unknown 6 0 6
TOTAL 47 37 84
a
Hazelgrowth spruce.

samples, vary a lot. Some search for a specific feature others overview of the number of specimens per sample for each
integrate over many properties in a complex intuitional deci- parameter measured and lists their dimensions and the radial
sion. The following five grades were used: 1= perfectly suit- positions from which they were taken.
able for violin making, 2= very suitable for violin making,
3= suitable for violin making, 4= suitable for violin making
with restrictions, 5= not suitable for violin making.
The violin makers only used their senses, checked the
planed surfaces, the cross sections, the knocking tone pitch, A. Sound velocity
estimated weight and so forth. The participants filled in the
results into a uniform questionnaire. The grading results The sound velocity was measured at 54 kHz in the lon-
were averaged over the 14 participants before being used in gitudinal direction as well as the radial direction. Before test-
further statistical analysis. The three subjective grading cri- ing, the samples were conditioned until equilibrium moisture
teria 共acoustical quality, optical quality and overall quality兲 content 共20 ° C, 65% RH兲 was reached. The transit time was
served as the three dependent variables, which were to be determined by means of an ultrasonic tester 共PUNDIT-
predicted by the objectively measured material properties. In C.N.S. Electronics LTD. London, England兲 with a resolution
the following, the different testing methods are briefly de- of 0.1 ␮s. The transmitter was attached with constant pres-
scribed. A detailed description of the testing methods can be sure to all samples. No contact medium was used to transmit
found elsewhere 共Buksnowitz, 2006兲. sound waves from the transmitter to the board. The sound
velocity was calculated according to Eq. 共1兲.
IV. MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Most of the material properties were determined by test-
ing several specimens taken from different radial positions in
the same resonance wood sample. In the case of radially
oriented specimens some measurements were performed
quasi-continuously with a certain resolution 共step width兲. For
the purpose of statistical analysis the measurements were av-
eraged for the whole sample, to match the subjective grading
variables of the resonance wood boards. Table II gives an

FIG. 3. Raw material for violin resonance tops. FIG. 4. Machine planed boards for subjective grading by instrument makers.

2386 J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 121, No. 4, April 2007 Buksnowitz et al.: Resonance wood - quality grading

FIG. 5. Specimen cutting plan for experimental determination of material
characteristics; Z⫽longitudinal direction, Y⫽tangential direction, X⫽radial
direction. The specimen numbers refer to Table II, which gives the link to
the measured parameters.
l scaled down.
v= 共1兲
t
where v is the sound velocity 关m/s兴, l is the specimen length,
path length 关m兴, and t is the transit time of ultrasound 关s兴.
B. Logarithmic decrement „damping…
The logarithmic decrement 共related closely to the loss
tangent兲 was determined according to DIN EN ISO 6721-1
共2003兲 and DIN 6721-3 共1996兲. The specimens 共longitudinal
and radial strips of wood兲 were clamped on one end. The
remaining free end was deflected to a defined position. After
J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 121, No. 4, April 2007
the release of the flexed end a laser device 共M7L/2 sensor,
MEL Mikroelektronik GmbH兲 picked up the amplitude of
the damped vibration over time. The logged amplitude-time
signal was used to calculate the logarithmic decrement ap-
plying Eq. 共2兲:
xq
⌳ = ln , 共2兲
xq+1
where ⌳ is the logarithmic decrement 关兴, xq is the amplitude
q, and xq+1 is the amplitude q + 1 共directly following xq兲.
The logarithmic decrement was averaged over 15 oscil-
lations starting at a certain amplitude to avoid the noise in
the initial phase of vibration. This parameter was investi-
gated for longitudinal specimens 共vibration in tangential
plane兲 as well as for radial specimens 共vibration in the plane
of the cross section兲. Note that the relationship between the
logarithmic decrement and the loss tangent is ⌳
= 2␲ tan ␦ / 2 共Macdonald, 1966兲.
C. Resonance frequency
The resonance frequency 共first bending mode兲 was de-
rived from Fourier transform of the amplitude-time signal.
The resonance frequency was computed by a standard com-
puter program 共Diadem兲 using the signal from the test setup
described for derivation of logarithmic decrement.
D. Modulus of elasticity and modulus of rupture
„MOR…
All mechanical experiments were performed on a uni-
versal testing machine 共Zwick/Roell Z100兲. Before testing,
the samples were conditioned until equilibrium moisture
content 共20 ° C, 65% RH兲 was reached.
The limited material available per sample made it nec-
essary to scale down the sample dimensions specified in the
DIN standards. The following tests were performed to de-
scribe the stiffness of the material:
• three-point bending test according to DIN 52 186 共1978兲—
samples scaled down to half size.
• transversal bending test—three-point bending test—load
applied on the radial surface 共in the direction of bridge
pressure on the resonance top of a violin or guitar兲.
• tension test according to DIN 52 188 共1979兲—samples
scaled down to half size.
• compression test according to DIN 52 185—samples
Although strength 共MOR兲 is only of secondary importance in
the event of a constructional deficiency of the instrument or
an impact, MOR values were recorded for each sample.
E. Hardness
The hardness test was performed according to the stan-
dard ÖNORM EN 1534 共2000兲 with the constraint that the
sample sizes were scaled down. The assumption that the ratio
of the sample size to the indent diameter is still acceptable
was based on a publication by Gindl et al. 共2004兲.
Buksnowitz et al.: Resonance wood - quality grading 2387
TABLE II. Number of specimens per sample, their dimensions and the radial positions for each parameter measured. For longitudinally oriented specimens
five radial positions were possible. The applicable positions are marked x. Marks at all five positions indicate a radially oriented specimen. Pith⫽position
closer to pith, bark⫽outermost position. Use No. to link Table II with the cutting plan in Fig. 5.

DIMENSION
RADIAL POSITION OF SPECIMEN 关mm兴

NUMBER/
RESOLUTION
PARAMETER No. Pith Mid Bark of measurement LON RAD TAN

Sound velocity longitudinal 4 x x x 3x 320.0 20.0 3.5

Sound velocity radial 3 x x x x x 1x 18.5 120.0 3.0
Log. decr. longitudinal 4 x x x 3x 320.0 20.0 3.5
Log. decr. radial 3 x x x x x 1x 18.5 120.0 3.0
Res. freq. longitudinal 4 x x x 3x 320.0 20.0 3.5
Res. freq. radial 3 x x x x x 1x 18.5 120.0 3.0
MOE/MOR three-point bending 6 x x 2x 210.0 10.0 10.0
MOE/MOR bend. transversal 3 x x x x x 1x 18.5 120.0 3.0
MOE/MOR tension 5 x x x 3x 235.0 10.0 7.5
MOE/MOR compression 8 x x 2x 42.0 14.0 14.0
Hardness Brinell 7 x x 2x 14.0 14.0 10.0
Density conditioned 1 x x x x x 0.05 mm ⬃5.0 100.0 ⬃1.0
Ring width 1 x x x x x at ring boundaries ⬃5.0 100.0 ⬃1.0
Ring width variation coeff. 2 x x x x x ¯ 12.0 100.0 14.0
Late wood percentage 2 x x x x x ¯ 12.0 100.0 14.0
Tracheid diameter radial 1 x x x x x 0.05 mm ⬃5.0 100.0 ⬃1.0
Tracheid diameter tangential 1 x x x x x 0.05 mm ⬃5.0 100.0 ⬃1.0
Tracheid wall thickness 1 x x x x x 0.05 mm ⬃5.0 100.0 ⬃1.0
Fiber length 2 x x length in ␮m ⬃18.5 100.0 ⬃5.0
Microfibril angle 1 x x x x x 0.1 mm ⬃5.0 100.0 ⬃1.0
Brightness 1 x x x x x 6.0 mm/ 1.0 mm 12.0 100.0 ¯
Red component 1 x x x x x 6.0 mm/ 1.0 mm 12.0 100.0 ¯
Yellow component 1 x x x x x 6.0 mm/ 1.0 mm 12.0 100.0 ¯
Max. swelling radial 9 x x 2x 45.0 14.0 14.0

Abbreviations: log. decr. ⫽ logarithmic decrement 共damping兲; res. freq. ⫽ resonance frequency 1st mode; MOE ⫽ modulus of elasticity; MOR ⫽ modulus
of rupture 共strength兲; coeff. ⫽ coefficient.

F. Anatomical features 2. Tracheid diameter and wall thickness

Density, tracheid diameter, tracheid wall thickness, mi-
crofibril angle and ring width were measured by means of
SilviScan-3, a system of instruments for nondestructive
wood microanalysis. It combines x-ray densitometry 共Evans
et al. 1999; Gureyev and Evans, 1999; Washusen et al.,
2001兲, x-ray diffractometry 共Evans et al., 1996, Evans et al.,
1999兲 and image analysis 共Evans, 1994兲 to determine param-
eters such as density, fiber diameter and microfibril angle
共Evans et al., 1996; Evans, 1999; Stuart and Evans, 1995;
Evans and llic, 2001兲 at high resolution. In the current
project the parameters mentioned above were measured with
a radial resolution shown in Table II. For SilviScan measure-
ments radially oriented samples 共axial⫻ tangential= 7
⫻ 2 mm兲 were dissected from the specimen with a double
blade circular saw. One cross section was polished with a
series of sand papers to guarantee proper surface quality for
image analysis.
The high resolution video microscope of SilviScan-3
scanned the cross section of the samples. Subsequently the
diameter of the tracheids in radial and tangential direction
was derived from the scans by a special image analysis
共Evans, 1994, Evans et al., 1999兲. Tracheid wall thickness
was calculated from density and tracheid diameter according
to Evans 共1994兲.
3. Microfibril angle
The microfibril orientation in the S2 layer of the tracheid
cell wall was estimated using the SilviScan-3 x-ray diffrac-
tometry system 共Evans, 1999兲.
4. Ring width
The ring widths were determined from radial density
profiles generated by SilviScan-3 x-ray densitometry system.

1. Density 5. Ring width variation coefficient

The densities of the SilviScan specimens were deter- As an indicator for the growth ring regularity the ring
mined gravimetrically on conditioned samples at 40% rela- width variation coefficient 共␧j兲 proposed by Holz 共1972兲 was
tive humidity and 20 ° C. used—see Eq. 共3兲.

2388 J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 121, No. 4, April 2007 Buksnowitz et al.: Resonance wood - quality grading
 ␧j = 冋 1
兺
N−1
冉
200⌬b ji
N − 1 i=1 b ji + b j共i+1兲
冊册
2 1/2
, 共3兲
where b ji is the ring width 关mm兴 i = 1 , . . . , N, N is the total
number of rings, and ⌬b ji = b ji + b j共i+1兲 , i = 1 , . . . , N − 1.
The ring width as well as the latewood proportions were
measured using a dendrochronological setup 关stereo micro-
scope Zeiss Stemi 2000C, charge coupled device 共CCD兲
camera Sony CCD Iris, a screen, a table to move the speci-
men by micrometer兴 共Grabner and Wimmer 2006兲.
6. Late wood percentage
The measurements of the latewood and earlywood
widths were analyzed by using the software program TSAP-
win Professional 0.53. The latewood percentage was calcu-
lated according to Eq. 共4兲.
ᐉwp关%兴 =
兺 ᐉ ww · 100,
兺 rw
where ᐉwp is the latewood percentage 关%兴, ᐉww is the late-
wood width 关mm兴, and rw is the ring width 关mm兴.
7. Fiber length
The fiber length was separately determined for latewood
and earlywood. At two radial positions 共radially 10 mm
away from each end of the sample兲 small chips of earlywood
and latewood were isolated. If the ring at this position was
too narrow to gain enough material, the consecutive rings
were included. The wood was macerated in a solution of
2.65 g K2Cr2O7 + 5 ml 65% HNO3 + 25 ml H2O. A detailed
description of the maceration procedure is given by Jeffrey
共1917兲. The tracheid lengths were measured on images,
which were captured with a digital camera 共Olympus DP 10兲
mounted on an incident light microscope 共Olympus SZH 10
- research stereo兲 at a 20-fold magnification. The image
analysis program was Olympus DP Soft 3.0. For further sta-
tistical analysis the fiber lengths of the earlywood and the
latewood were averaged for the two radial positions and
weighted with the sample’s average earlywood and latewood
portion.
8. Dimensional stability - swelling
In order to describe the dimensional stability, the swell-
ing coefficients were determined according to the DIN 52
184 共1979兲 standard, with the constraint that the sample size
was reduced to 45 mm in the longitudinal direction and
14 mm in radial and the tangential directions.
The maximal swelling coefficient was calculated accord-
ing to Eq. 共5兲
␣max = 冋 ᐉw − ᐉ0
ᐉ0
册
· 100,
where ␣max is the maximal swelling coefficient 关%兴, ᐉw is
the specimen dimension in completely soaked state 关mm兴,
and ᐉ0 is the specimen dimension in completely oven-dry
state 关mm兴.
J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 121, No. 4, April 2007
The swelling coefficient in the longitudinal direction is
an order of magnitude smaller than in the radial direction,
and the resonance tops and boards of musical instruments are
only a few millimeters thick in the tangential direction; only
the swelling coefficient in the radial direction was considered
in the statistical analysis.
9. Color
Color measurements of the samples were performed ac-
cording to DIN 5033 using a CODEC 400 device 共Phyma
GmbH A-2531 Gaaden兲 with a 6 mm iris. One hundred over-
lapping and aligned measurement points across the radial
surface of the specimen were averaged for further analysis
and modeling. The color measurements were performed us-
ing the color model L쐓a쐓b쐓 of the Commission Internationale
d’Eclairage.
共4兲
V. ANALYSIS METHODS
For the analysis of the generated data matrix the soft-
ware package SPSS 11 was used. A multiple linear regression
model was applied to predict the value of a dependent scale
variable 共subjective grading by the violin makers兲 based on
its assumed linear relationship to one or several predictors
共measured material properties兲. In this study either the sub-
jective grading of the acoustical quality 共Model A兲, the sub-
jective grading of the optical quality 共Model B兲 or the sub-
jective grading of the overall quality 共Model C兲 by violin
makers served as the dependent variable 共marked with “x” in
Table III兲. The according group of predictors 共independent
variables兲 used in the three different models can be derived
from Table III 共indicated with figures 0, 1, 2, 3 in column A,
B and C兲. Although they are often applied for the assessment
of resonance wood quality, no “composite variables” such as
the radiation ratio: R = c / ␳ = 共E / ␳3兲0.5 were used as predictors
to prevent collinearity. A factor analysis routine was applied
to gain better insight into variable dependencies in order to
avoid collinearity.
The linear regression model assumes that there is a lin-
ear relationship between the dependent variable 共y兲 and each
predictor 共xn兲, which is described in Eq. 共6兲.
y = b1 · x1 + b2 · x2 + ¯ + bn · xn + a, 共6兲
where xi indicator independent variables, n is the number of
independent variables, bi is the coefficients of the indepen-
dent variables estimated by the model, and a is the intercept.
Numerous statements in literature 共Table III兲 point out
that the assumption of a linear relationship between the sub-
jective quality grading and the material characteristics is ad-
missible. Although there might be a deviance from the per-
fect linear relation in some cases, at least the trend in the
correlation can be revealed.
共5兲
The multiple linear regression model estimates the coef-
ficients of the linear equation, involving one or more inde-
pendent variables that best predict the value of the dependent
variable. The coefficients are estimated using the least-
squares method. Before applying the routine, the suitability
of data has to be considered. The dependent and independent
variables should be quantitative. Categorical variables need
Buksnowitz et al.: Resonance wood - quality grading 2389
TABLE III. Illustration of the experimental results, grading results and modeling results supplemented with corresponding values and suggestions from the
literature.

MODELING
LITERATURE DEPENDENT VARIABLES
VALUE AND PREDICTORS
QUALITY-CORRELATION 䉲
VARIABLES UNIT No. in CITATION-LIST 䉲 MEAN SDEV MIN MAX A B C

GRADING RESULTS
Grading: acoustical quality 关兴 ¯ ¯ 2.84 0.59 1.93 4.15 x
Grading: optical quality 关兴 ¯ ¯ 3.08 0.88 1.64 4.86 x
Grading: total quality 关兴 ¯ ¯ 3.07 0.76 1.93 4.71 x
GROWTH PATTERN
Hazel growth or normal 0/1a ¯ 关1兴 ± ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ 0 0
ACOUSTICS
Sound velocity longitudinal 关m/s兴 5500, max. 5600–6000 关2兴 + 6183 373 4906 6897 0 0
Sound velocity radial 关m/s兴 449, ⬎ 1000, 1681 关3兴 + 1889 210 1042 2194 0 0
Log. dec. longitudinal 关兴 as low as possible 关4兴 − 0.0404 0.0018 0.0366 0.0461 0 0
Log. dec. radial 关兴 as low as possible 关5兴 − 0.1030 0.0109 0.0839 0.1441 0 0
Res. freq. longitudinal 关Hz兴 high No. of res. freq. + 关6兴 * 29.38 1.79 23.51 32.68 0 0
Res. freq. radial 关Hz兴 high No. of res. freq. + 关7兴 * 63.25 6.80 39.60 79.74 0 0
MECHANICS
MOE 3-point bending 关N / mm2兴 12 992, 10 000– 12 000 关8兴 + 10718 1685 6422 14725 0
Strength 3-point bending 关N / mm2兴 101.2, 49. . . 78. . . 136 关9兴 + 78.8 9.3 57.8 100.3 0
MOE transverse 3-p. b. 关N / mm2兴 500–1000, 490 关10兴 ± 852 181 304 1283 0
Strength transverse 3-p. b. 关N / mm2兴 − 关11兴 + 10.2 1.9 6.0 15.1 0
MOE tension 关N / mm2兴 13 500 关12兴 共+兲 12340 2050 7224 16989 0
Strength tension 关N / mm2兴 90, 88 关13兴 + 101.3 14.9 70.6 136.2 0
MOE compression 关N / mm2兴 13 760 关14兴 共+兲 12834 2608 6401 19786 0
Strength compression 关N / mm2兴 50, 49 关15兴 + 36.9 4.1 28.2 45.4 0
Hardness Brinell 关N / mm2兴 12 关16兴 共+兲 9.88 1.70 6.18 13.28 0
DENSITY
Density conditioned 关g / cm3兴 0.47, 0.4, ⬎0.43, 0.427 关17兴 − 0.432 0.033 0.354 0.501 1 0 0
ANATOMY
Ring width 关mm兴 1–2, ⬍2 关18兴 ⬎⬍ 1.25 0.32 0.66 2.06 3 2
Ring width variation 关兴 26–28, ⬍30 关19兴 − 18.4 5.5 11.4 35.7 1 1
Latewood percentage 关%兴 20–36, 20–25 关20兴 − 20.2 3.9 13.9 28.6 0 0
Tracheid diameter radial 关␮m兴 35.5 共ew兲, 28.1 共lw兲 关21兴 共+兲 32.57 1.09 29.27 35.02 5 4
Tracheid diameter tangential 关␮m兴 20–40 关22兴 共兲 33.32 1.75 27.69 36.28 0 0
Tracheid wall thickness 关␮m兴 3.5 共ew兲, 10.7 共lw兲 关23兴 共−兲 2.49 0.18 2.07 2.84 0 0
Fiber length 关␮m兴 2800, max. 4800 关24兴 + 5040 382 4013 5929 0 0
Microfibril angle 关␮m兴 5–30, 2–44 关25兴 − 11.8 2.8 7.4 21.9 0 0
COLOR
Brightness 关兴 84.23 关26兴 + 89.887 1.45 85.96 92.24 2 3
Red 关兴 3.09 关27兴 − 2.093 0.788 0.895 4.783 0 0
Yellow 关兴 19.45 关28兴 + 21.217 1.220 18.534 24.103 4 0
SWELLING
Max. swelling radial 关%兴 3.7 关29兴 共−兲 3.63 0.82 1.74 5.58 0

MULTIPLE LINEAR REGRESSION MODELS - RESULTS

R Multiple correlation coefficient 0.300 0.800 0.802
R Square Coefficient of determination 0.090 0.640 0.643
Durbin Watson Autocorrelation test of residuals 1.027 1.616 1.535
Sig. Significance of the total model 共F-Test兲 0.006 0.000 0.000
VIF Highest out of the entered predictors; collinearity test 1.000 2.897 1.176

Abbreviations: MOE⫽modulus of elasticity,res. freq.⫽resonance frequency 1st mode,log. dec.⫽logarithmic decrement 共damping兲,VIF⫽variance inflation
factor,ew⫽earlywood,lw⫽latewood,3-p. b.⫽three point bending test.
0⫽normal growth pattern;1⫽“hazel growth” with indented rings.
Explanation of the columns 共column names in capitals兲: VARIABLES: All dependent variables and predictors that were used in this study, grouped in
categories. UNIT: Unit of the variable—valid for the according values in Table III. LITERATURE VALUE: Information from literature, giving typical ranges
or values for each parameter, to allow the evaluation of the measurements performed in the current study. Values and citations in italic style describe properties
of normal Norway spruce wood or wood in general. Values in standard style are resonance wood specific. CITATION LIST: Numbers in squared brackets link
to the references below the table. QUALITY CORRELATION: Gives basic information 共derived from literature兲 on the correlation between the measured
parameters and the resonance wood quality. 共+= the higher the better the quality, −= the lower the better the quality, 쐓= more complex relation, ±=
contradictory statements were found, ⬎ ⬍ = within the given range, 共兲= no statement available or an assumption兲. MEAN: mean value of the 84 valid cases
共resonance wood samples兲. SDEV, MIN, MAX: the associated standard deviation, the minimum value and the maximum value. MODELING: Illustrating the
results of the three different models A 共prediction of the acoustical grading兲, B 共prediction of the optical grading兲 and C 共prediction of the over all grading兲.
共x⫽dependent variable. 0,1,2,3...⫽independent variables 共predictors兲 admitted in the respective model. 0 means that the admitted variable did not enter the
model. 1,2,3... indicated the order of the variables that entered the model.兲
Citation list to Table III appears before list of references.

2390 J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 121, No. 4, April 2007 Buksnowitz et al.: Resonance wood - quality grading
to be recoded to binary 共dummy兲 variables or other types of
contrast variables. The only nonquantitative independent
variable was the binary variable of growth pattern indicating
if indented rings were observed or not.
Concerning the dependent variable itself, the measure
was actually ordinal covering five different categories
共grades兲. It was assumed that the difference in quality be-
tween grades 1 and 2 was as big as the difference in quality
between, e.g., grades 4 and 5. Furthermore, the averaging of
the 14 single grading results of the violin makers gave the
variable a “quasi-continuous” character. It has been con-
cluded that it is therefore admissible to apply a multiple lin-
ear regression routine instead of using discriminate analysis.
Before running a regression, a scatter plot between de-
pendent and independent variables overlaid with a best-fit
line was examined to determine whether a linear model is
reasonable for these variables. Additionally, the following
tests and assumptions were made: error term has a normal
distribution with a mean value of 0, normal distribution of
the dependent variable, independence of all observations, p-
p plots of residuals, test for heteroscedasticity, check for out-
liers, test for autocorrelation of residuals 共Durbin-Watson
test兲, collinearity test 共variance inflation factor兲—see Table
III. The predictor-variable selection method “stepwise for-
ward” included the variable with the highest partial correla-
tion in each step using the default significance level of 0.005
for entry and 0.01 for exclusion.
VI. RESULTS
The results from the test series, the subjective grading
by violin makers as well as the multiple linear regression
models, are shown in Table III. Generally the measurement
results obtained in this project are in accordance with the
resonance wood specific values that can be found in the lit-
erature 共Table III. Literature Value兲 as far as references are
available. The mean value with the corresponding standard
deviation and the minimum/maximum values shall provide
an insight into the characteristics of Norway spruce reso-
nance wood 共Picea abies 共L.兲 Karst.兲. Table III also shows
the concept of the three multiple linear regression models
that have been set up to answer the main questions of this
project.
The models A 共acoustical grading兲, B 共optical grading兲
and C 共total grading兲 have different dependent variables 共in-
dicated by “x” in Table III兲. The material properties, which
have been allowed as predictors in the respective model, are
marked with figures in column A, B or C. The predictors that
entered the model are made apparent by numbers higher than
zero indicating the order of entry. A brief summary of the
model results is given at the bottom of Table III. The mul-
tiple correlation coefficient R describes the strength of the
linear correlation between the observed and model-predicted
values of the dependent variable. R can reach values between
0 and 1. A high value indicates a strong relationship. R
Square, the coefficient of determination, is the squared value
of the multiple correlation coefficient. It shows the portion of
the variation, which is explained by the model. The coeffi-
cient of determination yielded by Model A 共r2 = 0.090, Table
J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 121, No. 4, April 2007
III兲 shows that the model cannot explain a reasonable part of
the variation within the subjective grading for acoustical
suitability of the resonance wood samples for violin making.
There is no significant correlation between acoustical mate-
rial characteristics and the violin makers’ grading. Model B
共r2 = 0.640兲 led to our conclusion that structural and optical
properties are accessible to the senses of the violin makers
and are used for the selection of the resonance wood in prac-
tice. The fact that neither mechanical wood properties nor
acoustical material characteristics were able to contribute to
the explanation of the variation within the subjective grading
of the overall resonance wood quality 共Model C; r2 = 0.643兲
indicates that violin makers cannot assess these features
without tools.
The Durbin-Watson is meant to detect serially correlated
共or autocorrelated兲 residuals. As a rough rule one can say that
values between 1.5 and 2.5 are acceptable. The variance in-
flation factor serves as a tool to detect collinearity in a linear
regression model. Values above 10 indicate the existence of
collinearity. Significance values of the F statistic below 0.05
mean that the variation explained by the model is not due to
chance.
VII. DISCUSSION OF THE SUBJECTIVE GRADING
MODELS
A. Model A: Prediction of the grading for acoustical
quality
The multiple linear regression model A shows that it is
not possible to predict the subjective grading of the acousti-
cal quality of Norway spruce 共Picea abies 共L.兲 Karst.兲 reso-
nance boards by using only acoustical characteristics.
Density entered the model as the only predictor, but den-
sity is rather a physical-anatomical parameter than an acous-
tical one. Nevertheless it determines acoustical and mechani-
cal properties to a high extent 共e.g., Kollmann and Côté,
1969; Niemz, 1993; Holz, 1967; Joppig, 2003; Bucur, 2006兲.
This indicates that the violin makers use nonacoustical pa-
rameters to estimate the acoustical quality of their raw ma-
terial.
From the inability of the model to describe a reasonable
portion of the variance of the dependent variable, it can be
assumed that the perception of acoustical properties without
tools is too difficult to be used in practice. This leads to the
conclusion that craftsmen seem to take a detour through
wood properties that are easier to estimate to appraise the
acoustical characteristics of resonance wood.
B. Model B: Prediction of the grading for optical
quality
The approach to predict the subjective quality grading
by optically perceptible material characteristics as predictors
in a multiple linear regression model leads to better results
than the acoustical model A.
The regression model B shows that violin makers
strongly take into account structural-anatomical parameters.
The annual ring structure is within the ambit of their ap-
proach. Special emphasis is not only on ring widths but also
on their regularity.
Buksnowitz et al.: Resonance wood - quality grading 2391
 Another property easy to consider is the color of the
wood. According to the model results, color components as-
sist the violin makers in their choice of resonance wood.
Both color components that entered the model can be inter-
preted. The brightness describes the latewood proportion, the
occurrence of compression wood as well as stain and decay,
that make the wood appear darker. Brighter wood is gener-
ally preferred, favoring homogeneity and lower density. The
color component yellow is positively correlated with the
quality estimations, because it is a clear sign that the reso-
nance wood sample does not contain compression wood,
which is intensely red. Furthermore, violin makers tend to
apply a yellow base coat onto the wood prior to varnishing.
High yellow color components assist this procedure.
Finally, the radial tracheid diameter entered the model
with a positive correlation to quality. This can be interpreted
as a substitute for the earlywood proportion and the density.
Tracheids in the earlywood zone have larger radial diameter
than in the latewood 共Burckel and Grissino-Mayer, 2003兲.
In general, a good model fit could be obtained with
simple parameters. It can be concluded that the violin mak-
ers’ decisions for the optical quality of the resonance wood
samples are well based on macroscopically perceptible struc-
tural characteristics and therefore predictable by a multiple
linear regression model to a reasonable extent.
C. Model C: Prediction of the grading for total quality
Prediction of the subjective total grading from the com-
plete set of measured material characteristics gives a result
similar to that from optical model B, indicating that violin
makers are mainly guided in their decisions by structural-
anatomical parameters. Tree ring related parameters are the
most important ones for luthiers when estimating the overall
quality for violin making. Special emphasis is not only on
ring widths but also on their regularity, as evidenced by the
fact that the ring width coefficient of variation entered the
model as the first variable.
Again the brightness entered the model, which can be
interpreted as in model B. The radial tracheid diameter en-
tered this model with a positive correlation to quality just as
in the optical model B, underlining its importance. The in-
terpretation is identical to that one in the optical model B.
Once again a good model fit could be obtained with
simple parameters. But it is surprising that none of the me-
chanical or acoustical predictors could enter the model. Only
a combination of numerous wood properties leads to a con-
siderably good correlation with the subjective grading
results—a fact that is well known from the visual strength
grading of timber, which yields correlation coefficients
within the same range.
D. General discussion and conclusions
The three models A, B and C demonstrated that the
acoustical and mechanical parameters do not influence the
selection of resonance wood in the practice of violin making.
It is, on the other hand, clearly noticeable that most
craftsmen make their decisions on the basis of optical per-
ception. Knocking on the small board to estimate sound ve-
2392 J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 121, No. 4, April 2007
locity or the pitch, or other methods to estimate acoustical
material constants like damping seems to be too difficult to
obtain a high correlation with the measurements of the cor-
responding parameter.
Would the transverse bending modulus of elasticity
transversal to fiber have entered the model, if the boards had
been thin enough to be bent as guitar makers do? We know
that all parameters that entered the models are detectable by
eye. As a result the speculation arises that the violin makers
in fact choose a certain piece of wood, because the piece
looks like one that was successfully turned into a good mu-
sical instrument in the past. The finding of a match is also
strongly influenced by traditional knowledge and practical
education of the craftsmen. Numerous descriptions and state-
ments of luthiers and guitar makers 共e.g., Borchardt, 2004;
Romanillos, 1998兲 point out that the construction of the in-
strument is of major importance if the raw material fulfills
certain minimum quality requirements. Instrument makers
react to the piece of resonance wood by shaping it according
to its unique properties.
The results at hand show that a prior estimation of
acoustical properties is not vital to build good musical instru-
ments, as the acoustical behavior can be modified during the
construction process. But only regularly structured 共Zieger,
1960; Holz, 1972; Holz, 1984兲, bright 共Buksnowitz, 2006兲,
stiff 共Ziegenhals, 1999; Bariska, 1978兲 and light 共Holz, 1966;
Bucur, 1983; Feuerstein, 1935; Rajcan, 1991, Ziegenhals,
2001兲 resonance wood holds the potential to be turned into a
good resonance top.
Master violins and other musical instruments can very
rarely be investigated by applying destructive measurement
techniques 共e.g., tensile test for the determination of the
modulus of elasticity兲, which limits new insights to cases
where instruments are, e.g., accidentally destroyed 共e.g.,
Schwalbe and Becker, 1920; Schwalbe and Schepp, 1925兲.
For industrial manufacturers of musical instruments, repro-
ducible quality plays an important role. Because the manu-
facturing process cannot react optimally to every single piece
of wood individually, the different material properties cannot
be compensated. In this case, knowledge of the correlation
between measurable material characteristics and acoustical
quality could serve as the basis for a new grading tool. The
assessment of optical parameters such as color, and annual
ring structure and material characteristics like density could
be used to mimic the subjective methods of the violin mak-
ers. Measurements of sound velocity, damping or stiffness
could be used as additional input data. Integrating acoustical
and mechanical material properties in the decision for con-
structional details and shape could partially substitute for the
individual treatment of every piece of resonance wood by
luthiers. The fact that instruments occasionally become fa-
mous without meeting the optical requirements 共e.g., they
contain irregularities or small defects兲 can be seen as a clear
sign that wood sounds good in an instrument for multiple
reasons. Hazel growth can be interpreted as a growth irregu-
larity occurring in very diverse specificity. Nevertheless, it is
seen as something special by most of the violin makers and
wood scientists 共Ziegler and Merz, 1961; Romagnoli et al.,
2003; Feuerstein, 1935; Bariska, 1978; Zimmermann, 1996;
Buksnowitz et al.: Resonance wood - quality grading
Zieger, 1960兲. On the other hand, hazel growth spruce is
sometimes rejected from an acoustical point of view 共Holz,
1966兲 and because it is more difficult with which to work.
The question arises if it is the violin maker with the better
developed skills, who dares to take the riskier piece of wood
and makes it something outstanding, or if it is the piece of
wood with some unique structure that was destined to de-
velop an outstanding sound.
Many interesting questions may be answered with the
data at hand. Taking a closer look at the parameters behind
the violin makers’ choice is just the first step to a better
understanding of resonance wood. The presentation and dis-
cussion of the study’s results at a meeting with the partici-
pating violin makers revealed that they are aware of a very
diverse interpretation of resonance wood quality. They gen-
erally agreed on the fact that a more objective approach to
evaluate the acoustical and mechanical potential of their raw
material 共resonance wood兲 is needed. Without the ability of
the craftsmen to react on a variation of wood properties, no
superior instruments could be built. The group agreed that
assisting tools or precise guidelines to help in choosing the
raw material, including mechanical and acoustical param-
eters, are desirable. The objective definition of quality
classes or grades giving ranges of suitability for each param-
eter will therefore be the next step.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank all violin makers who took part in the subjec-
tive grading of the resonance wood as well as numerous
resonance wood retailers and individual persons for the do-
nation of samples 共Ciresa Italy, IVALSA CNR, Provincia Au-
tonoma di Trento – Paneveggio state forest, Rivolta兲. Many
thanks for their contribution to the project also go to Holz-
cluster Tirol, Holzcluster Steiermark, Schaffer Sägewerk-
Holzexport GmbH and COST 共European Cooperation in the
field of Scientific and Technical Research兲.
CITATION LIST TO TABLE III
Note: For full citations refer to bibliography 共references兲.
Explanation: The Link number is followed by the citations to the values
cited in third column of Table III 共appearing in the same order as in the
table兲. A “/” separates these references from the ones that refer to the
information on the quality correlations in the fifth column. These are
followed by links to additional literature on that specific topic in squared
brackets. Dashes at any of these three positions indicate that no literature
was found on this topic.
1. —/Feuerstein 共1935兲, Bariska 共1978兲, Zieger 共1960兲, Holz 共1966兲
关Ramagnoli et al. 共2003兲, Ziegler and Merz 共1961兲, Zimmermann
共1996兲兴
2. Bucur et al. 共1999兲, Holz 共2000兲/Holz 共2000兲 关Bucur 共1983兲,
Feuerstein 共1935兲, Holz 共1984兲, Kollmann 共1951, 1983兲兴
3. Bucur et al. 共1999兲, Holz 共1984兲, Burmester 共1965, 1968兲/Holz 共1984兲
关see 1兴
4. Zieger 共1960兲/Bariska 共1978兲, Beldan and Pescaru 共1996兲, Gough
共2000兲 关Biernacki and Beall 共1993兲, Bucur 共1983兲, Bucur and Böhnke
共1994兲, Bucur and Feeney 共1992兲, Holz 共1967, 1972, 1973, 1984兲, Ille
共1975兲, Kollmann 共1983兲, Kollmann and Krech 共1960兲, Sakai et al.
共1990兲, Ziegenhals 共2001兲, Zieger 共1960兲兴
5. See 3.
J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 121, No. 4, April 2007
6. Holz 共1966兲/— 关Den Hartog 共1985兲, Niemz 共1993兲, Niemz et al.
共1997兲兴
7. See 5.
8. Niemz et al. 共1997兲, Sell 共1989兲/— 关Bariska 共1978兲, DIN 52 186
共1978兲, Holz 共1966, 1973, 1984兲, Niemz et al. 共1997兲, Koponen et al.
共2004兲兴
9. Niemz et al. 共1997兲, Wagenführ 共1996兲/—关—兴
10. Treu and Hapla 共2000兲, Hearmon 共1948兲/Ziegenhals 共1999兲,
Zimmermann 共1996兲 关Holz 共1984兲, Kollmann and Côté 共1968兲兴
11. —/—关—兴
12. Kollmann 共1951/1982兲/— 关Ashby 共1999兲, Bodig and Jayne 共1982兲兴
13. Wagenführ 共1996兲, Bosshard 共1982兲/—关—兴
14. Kollmann and Côté 1969/—关—兴
15. Wagenführ 共1996兲, Bosshard 共1982兲/—关—兴
16. ÖNORM B 3012 共2003兲, Burmester 共1968兲/—关—兴
17. Burmester 共1968兲, Bucur 共1983兲, Bucur et al. 共1989兲, Rajcan 共1991兲/
Feuerstein 共1935兲 关Beuting and Klein 共2003兲, Holz 1966, Joppig
共2003兲兲, Treu and Hapla 共2000兲, Zieger 共1960兲兴
18. Feuerstein 共1935兲, Holz 共1984兲/Yano et al. 共1994兲 关Beuting and Klein
共2003兲, Blossfeld et al. 共1962兲, Holz 共1966兲, Ille 共1976兲兴
19. Holz 共1984兲/Holz 共1972兲, Zieger 共1960兲 关Bariska 共1978兲, TGL 15799/
12 共1982兲, Ziegenhals 共2001兲兴
20. Holz 共1984兲/Zieger 共1960兲/关Beuting and Klein 共2003兲, Ziegenhals
共2001兲兴
21. 关Burckle and Grissino-Mayer 2003兴
22. Bosshard 共1982兲/—关—兴
23. Wagenführ 共1996兲/关—兴
24. Wagenführ 共1996兲/Schnur 共1985兲关Burmester 共1965兲, Ille 共1976兲,
Schultze-Dewitz 共1959兲兴
25. Wagenführ 共1984兲, Saranpää et al. 共1997兲/Hori et al. 共2002兲 关兴
26. Kucera et al. 共1998兲/personal communication to Cremonese and
Viennese Violin makers 关—兴
27. See 25.
28. See 25.
29. Mombächer 共1988兲/— 关DIN 52 186 共1978兲, Ille 共1975兲, Wagenführ
et al. 共2005兲兴
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