Professional Documents
Culture Documents
New Book of Coursera Topic
New Book of Coursera Topic
1 Introduction
These are notes for the class that was supposed to have been taught on March
9, 2020, will discuss online March 11, 2020.
F1 (x + 1) = F1 (x)
1
∞
X
g(x) = ĝ(n)ei2πnx
n=−∞
X∞ Z 1
= f (x + n)e−i2πmx dx
n=−∞ 0
X∞ Z n+1
= f (x + n)e−i2πmx dx
n=−∞ n
Z ∞
= f (x)e−i2πmx dx
−∞
= fb(m)
Proof: The left hand side is the definition of F1 (x), the right hand side is its
expression as the sum of its Fourier series.
What most often gets used is the special case x = 0, with the general case
what you get from this when translating by x:
Corollary. If f ∈ S(R)
∞
X ∞
X
f (n) = fb(n)
n=−∞ n=−∞
2
Applying the Poisson summation formula to Ht,R gives
∞ ∞
2
n2 t 2πinx
X X
Ht,R (x + n) = e−4π e = Ht,S 1 (x) (1)
n=−∞ n=−∞
At the time we were unable to prove this, but using the above relation with the
simpler Ht,R in equation 1, we can now show that Ht,S 1 has the desired three
properties:
• Z 1
Ht,S 1 (x)dx = 1
0
The first term is a Gaussian that has the concentration property for t →
0+ . The second term goes to 0 as t → 0+ for |x| ≤ 21 (see Stein-Shakarchi,
pages 157).
3
For continuous functions f on the circle bounding the unit disk, a unique
harmonic function u(r, θ) on the disk with that boundary condition is given by
Applying Poisson summation to Py,R one gets a relation between these two
kernels
∞
X ∞
X
Py,R (x + n) = Pby,R (n)e2πinx
n=−∞ n=−∞
X∞
= e−2π|n|y e2πinx
n=−∞
= Pe−2πy ,S 1 (2πx)
which is the Poisson kernel on the disk, with r = e−2πy and θ = 2πx.
3 Theta functions
One can define a fascinating class of functions called “theta functions”, with the
simplest example
∞
X 2
θ(s) = e−πn s
n=−∞
Here s is real and the sum converges for s > 0, but one can also take s ∈ C, with
Re(s) > 0. Applying the Poisson summation formula to the Schwarz function
2 1 p2
f (x) = e−πsx , fb(p) = √ e−π s
s
gives
∞
X
θ(s) = f (n)
n=−∞
X∞
= fb(n)
n=−∞
∞
1 X −π n2
=√ e s
s n=−∞
1 1
= √ θ( )
s s
4
which is often called the “functional equation” of the theta function. We will
later see that this can be used to understand the properties of the zeta function
in number theory.
Definition (Jacobi theta function). The Jacobi theta function is the function
of two complex variables given by
∞
X 2
Θ(z, τ ) = eiπn τ ei2πnz
n=−∞
This sum converges for z, τ ∈ C, with τ in the upper half plane. Note that
the heat kernel is given by
~ t + i
St (x) = lim Θ(x, )
→0+ 2m π
The Jacobi theta function has the following properties:
Θ(z + 1, τ ) = Θ(z, τ )
5
since
∞
X 2
Θ(z + τ, τ ) = eπin τ e2πin(z+τ )
n=−∞
∞
X 2
= eπi(n +2n)τ 2πinz
e
n=−∞
∞
X 2
= eπi(n+1) τ e−πiτ e2πinz
n=−∞
∞
X 2
= eπi(n+1) τ e−πiτ e2πi(n+1)z e−2πiz
n=−∞
• Periodicity in τ
Θ(z, τ + 2) = Θ(z, τ )
since
∞
X 2
Θ(z, τ + 2) = eπin (τ +2) 2πinz
e
n=−∞
∞
X 2 2
= e2πin eπin τ e2πinz
n=−∞
∞
X 2
= eπin τ e2πinz
n=−∞
= Θ(z, τ )
• The following property under inversion in the τ plane, which follows from
the functional equation for θ(s).
r
1 τ πiτ z2
Θ(z, − ) = e Θ(zτ, τ )
τ i
6
Definition (Riemann zeta function). The Riemann zeta function is given by
∞
X 1
ζ(s) = s
n=1
n
(−1)n+1
ζ(2n) = B2n (2π)2n
2(2n)!
Here Bn are the Bernoulli numbers, which can be defined as the coefficients of
the power series expansion
∞
x X xn
x
= Bn
e − 1 n=0 n!
One can consider the zeta function for complex values of s, in which case
the sum defining it converges in the half-plane Re(s) > 1. This function of s
can be uniquely extended as a complex valued function to parts of the complex
plane with Re(s) ≤ 1 by the process of “analytic continuation”. This can be
done by finding a solution of the Cauchy-Riemann equations which matches the
values of ζ(s) for values of s where the sum in the definition converges, but also
exists for other values of s. This analytically extended zeta function then has
the following properties:
• ζ(s) has a well-defined analytic continuation for all s except s = 1. There
1
is a pole at s = 1 with residue 1, meaning ζ(s) behaves like 1−s near
s = 1.
•
1
ζ(0) = −
2
7
Note that if you tried to define ζ(0) using the sum, this would imply
1
− = 1 + 1 + 1 + ···
2
• At negative integers
(
0 n even
ζ(−n) =
(−1)n Bn+1
n+1
n odd
1
In particular, ζ(−1) = − 12 which motivates claims one sometimes sees
that
1
− = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ···
12
• In the Fourier transform case, the function eipx behaves simply (multipli-
cation by a scalar) under the transformation:
xs → (ax)s = as xs
8
• In the Fourier transform case, the integral
Z ∞
(·)dx
−∞
d(ax) dx
=
ax x
Using the Mellin transform, one can define the gamma function by
Definition (Gamma function). The gamma function is
Z ∞
Γ(s) = (Mex )(s) = e−x xs−1 dx
0
and Z ∞ ∞
Γ(1) = e−x dx = −e−x 0 = 1
0
9
For another example of the Mellin transform, one can take the transform of
a Gaussian and get a gamma function:
Z ∞
2 2
(Me−x )(s) = e−x xs−1 dx
Z0 ∞
1 dy
= e−y (y 2 )s−1 √
0 2 y
Z ∞
1 s
= e−y y 2 −1 dy
2 0
1 s
= Γ( )
2 2
where in the second line we have made the substitution
dy
y = x2 , dy = 2xdx, dx = √
2 y
n=−∞
10
with the result
Z ∞ Z ∞
2 u s−1 du
e−πn x xs−1 dx = e−u (
)
0 0 πn2 πn2
Z ∞
1 1
= ( 2 )s−1 2 e−u us−1 du
πn πn 0
1
= s 2s Γ(s)
π n
and one finally gets for the Mellin transform of w(x)
∞
X 1 1
(Mw)(s) = s n2s
Γ(s) (2)
n=1
π
1
= Γ(s)ζ(2s + 1) (3)
πs
11
which implies (changing s to 2s ) that
s s 1−2 1−s
π − 2 Γ( )ζ(s) = π − 2 Γ( )ζ(1 − s)
2 2
and thus
Λ(s) = Λ(1 − s)
To show equation 4, we will use the fact that the functional equation for the
theta function
1 1
θ(s) = √ θ( )
s s
implies
1
w(x) = (θ(x) − 1)
2
1 1 1
= ( √ θ( ) − 1)
2 x x
1 1 1
= ( √ (2w( ) + 1) − 1)
2 x x
1 1 1 1 1
= √ w( ) + √ −
x x 2 x 2
Breaking the integral for the Mellin transform of w(x) into two parts and using
the above relation for w(x) in the first part we find
Z 1 Z ∞
(Mw)(s) = w(x)xs−1 dx + w(x)xs−1 dx
0 1
Z 1 Z ∞
1 1 1 1 1
= ( √ w( ) + √ − )dx + w(x)xs−1 dx
0 x x 2 x 2 1
Z ∞ Z ∞
1 1 1 1
= u−1−s (u 2 w(u) − + u 2 )du + w(x)xs−1 dx
1 2 2 1
Z ∞ Z ∞
− 21 −s 1 1
= u w(u)du − − + w(x)xs−1 dx
1 2s 1 − 2s 1
Z ∞
1 1 1
= w(u)(u− 2 −s + us−1 )du − − 1
2 − s)
1 2s 2(
1
This is symmetric under the interchange of s and 2 − s, which gives equation
4. In the second step we used the substitution
1
u= , du = −x−2 dx = −u2 dx
x
5 References
12