Proof of the Riemann Hypothesis

Björn Tegetmeyer
arXiv:2201.06601v1 [math.GM] 17 Jan 2022

16.01.2022

Abstract
The Riemann hypothesis, stating that the real part of all non-trivial zero points fo the zeta function
must be 12 , is one of the most important unproven hypothesises in number theory. In this paper we
´∞
will proof the Riemann hypothesis by using the integral representation ζ(s) = s−1 s
− s 1 x−⌊x⌋
xs+1 dx
and solving the integral for the real part of the zeta function.

1 Introduction
In 1859 Bernhard Riemann found one the most eminent mathematical problems of our time: In his
paper “On the number of prime numbers less than a given quantity” [4] he formulated the assumption
that all non-trivial zero-points of the zeta function extended to the range of complex numbers C have
a real part of 12 . However, he did not provide a proof for this. Ever since David Hilbert in 1900
added this problem to his list of the 23 most important problems of 20th century, mathematicians have
been working on finding this proof. This paper aims to provide the proof and fill this gap in modern
mathematics.

2 Proof of the Riemann Hypothesis

The zeta-function ζ(s) in the complex range s ∈ C for a positive real-part of s can be formulated as
integral representation ˆ ∞
s x − ⌊x⌋
ζ(s) = −s dx (1)
s−1 1 xs+1
with s ∈ C, where s can be expressed by s = a + ib; a, b ∈ R and 0 < a < 1 as well as 0 < b. Be S0 a
zero point of the zeta function. From [1] we know, that the zeta-function is symmetrical in a way that
ζ(S0 ) = 0 ⇔ ζ(1 − S0 ) = 0 for all zero-points S0 ∈ C (explaination see appendix 1). In accordance to
equation 1 we can write ζ(1 − s) as
ˆ ∞
1−s x − ⌊x⌋
ζ(1 − s) = − (1 − s) dx (2)
−s 1 x2−s

The Riemann hypothesis states, that the real part of S0 would be 12 for all non-trivial zero-points of
zeta (i.e. all zero points of zeta with a positive real part). Furthermore, from [2] we know, that the
real part of all non-trivial zero points of the zeta function are located in the range between 0 and 1
(i.e. 0 < ℜ(S0 ) < 1).
Inserting S0 = a + ib into ζ(s) and using x−1−a−ib = x−1−a cos (b ln(x)) − ix−1−a sin (b ln(x)) and
defining {x} := x − ⌊x⌋ we get the following two equations 3 and 4 from ζ(s) and ζ(1 − s):
1
´ ∞ {x}
a+ib−1 = 1 xa+ib+1 dx
a−1 b
´ ∞ {x} (3)
(a−1)2 +b2 − i (a−1)2 +b2 = 1 x1+a (cos(b ln(x)) − i sin(b ln(x))) dx

1
and ´∞
1 {x}
−a−ib = 1
´∞ x2−a−ib dx (4)
−a b {x}
a2 +b2 + i a2 +b2 = 1 x2−a (cos(b ln(x)) + i sin(b ln(x))) dx
Thus, we get 4 equations, for the real- and imaginary-part out of ζ(S0 ) (being called here ℜ1 and ℑ1 )
and ζ(1 − S0 ) (being called here ℜ2 and ℑ2 ):
a−1
´∞ {x} b
´∞ {x}
ℜ1 : (a−1)2 +b2 = 1+a cos(b ln(x)) dx ,ℑ1 : (a−1)2 +b2 = x1+a sin(b ln(x)) dx
−a
´1∞ x{x} b
´1∞ {x} (5)
ℜ2 : a2 +b2 = 1 x2−a cos(b ln(x)) dx ,ℑ2 : a2 +b2 = 1 x2−a sin(b ln(x)) dx

In the following we want to solve the integrals of ℜ1 and ℜ2 by means of partial integration. As
commonly known, it is
ˆ ˆ
u(x) · v ′ (x) dx = u(x) · v(x) − u′ (x) · v(x) dx (6)

[3]. Be u(x) = {x} = x − ⌊x⌋ then u′ (x) = du

dx = 1. For solving the integral of ℜ1 we define
1
v ′ (x) := x1+a cos(b ln(x)), thus
´ cos(b ln(x))
v(x) = x1+a dx
x (b sin(b ln(x))−a cos(b ln(x)))
−a
= a2 +b2 (7)
x−a b sin(b ln(x))
− x aacos(b ln(x))
−a
= a2 +b2 2 +b2

u′ (x) · v(x) dx =
´ ´
Using equation 7 we can calculate 1 · v(x) dx as

x−a (b sin(b ln(x))−a cos(b ln(x)))

u′ (x) · v(x) dx
´ ´
= a2 +b2 dx
x1−a ((a2 −a−b2 ) cos(b ln(x))+(1−2a)b sin(b ln(x))) (8)
= (a2 +b2 )(a2 −2a+b2 +1)

Thus, using {1} = 0 and ln(1) = 0, we can write ℜ1 as

"
(b sin(b ln(x))−a cos(b ln(x))
= limN →∞ {x} x
−a
a−1
(a−1)2 +b2 a2 +b2
#N
1−a 2 2
− x ((a −a−b(a2)+b
cos(b ln(x))+(1−2a)b sin(b ln(x)))
2 )(a2 −2a+b2 +1)

" 1 (9)
{N } N (b sin(b ln(N ))−a cos(b ln(N ))
−a
= limN →∞ a2 +b2
#
1−a 2 2 2 2
− N ((a −a−b(a)2 cos(b ln(N ))+(1−2a)b sin(b ln(N )))
+b2 )(a2 −2a+b2 +1) + a −a−b
(a2 +b2 )(a2 −2a+b2 +1)

1
For solving the integral of ℜ2 we define v ′ (x) := x2−a cos(b ln(x)), therefore we have
´ cos(b ln(x))
v(x) = x2−a dx
x a−1
((a−1) cos(b ln(x))+b sin(b ln(x))) (10)
= (a−1)2 +b2

u′ (x) · v(x) dx =
´ ´
Using equation 10 we can calculate 1 · v(x) dx as

xa−1 ((a−1) cos(b ln(x))+b sin(b ln(x)))

u′ (x) · v(x) dx =
´ ´
(a−1)2 +b2 dx
xa ((a2 −a−b2 ) cos(b ln(x))+(2a−1)b sin(b ln(x)))
(11)
= (a2 +b2 )(a2 −2a+b2 +1)

2
In accordance to above, we can write ℜ2 as
"
a−1
((a−1) cos(b ln(x))+b sin(b ln(x)))
−a
a2 +b2 = limN →∞ {x} x (a−1)2 +b2
#N
a 2 2
− x ((a −a−b (a) 2cos(b ln(x))+(2a−1)b sin(b ln(x)))
+b2 )(a2 −2a+b2 +1)
" 1 (12)
a−1
= limN →∞ {N } N ((a−1) cos(b ln(N ))+b sin(b ln(N )))
(a−1)2 +b2
#
a 2 2
a2 −a−b2
− N ((a −a−b (a
) cos(b ln(N ))+(2a−1)b sin(b ln(N )))
2 +b2 )(a2 −2a+b2 +1) + (a2 +b2 )(a2 −2a+b2 +1)

As a next step we need to eliminate {N } in the upper equations 9 and 12 for ℜ1 and ℜ2 . Therefore,
keeping in mind the limN →∞ , we can formulate equation 9 as
(b sin(b ln(N ))−a cos(b ln(N )) a2 −a−b2
{N } N
−a
a−1
a2 +b2 = (a−1)2 +b2 − (a2 +b2 )((a−1)2 +b2 )
1−a 2 2
+ N ((a −a−b (a) cos(b ln(N ))+(1−2a)b sin(b ln(N )))
2 +b2 )((a−1)2 +b2 )
N 1−a 2 2
((a −a−b ) cos(b ln(N ))+(1−2a)b sin(b ln(N )))
(13)
= (a2 +b2 )((a−1)2 +b2 )
a3 −2a2 +ab2 +a
+ (a2 +b2 )((a−1)2 +b2 )

In the same way we can transform equation 12 to

a−1
((a−1) cos(b ln(N ))+b sin(b ln(N ))) a2 −a−b2
{N } N (a−1)2 +b2 = −a
a2 +b2 − (a2 +b2 )((a−1)2 +b2 )
a 2 2
+ N ((a −a−b )(acos(b ln(N ))+(2a−1)b sin(b ln(N )))
2 +b2 )((a−1)2 +b2 )
N a ((a2 −a−b2 ) cos(b ln(N ))+(2a−1)b sin(b ln(N )))
(14)
= (a2 +b2 )((a−1)2 +b2 )
3
+a2 −ab2 +b2
+ (a−a
2 +b2 )((a−1)2 +b2 )

Now we can cancel out {N } by deviding equation 13 and 14:

{N } N −a (b sin(b ln(N ))−a cos(b ln(N ))((a−1)2 +b2 )
{N } · N a−1 ((a−1) cos(b ln(N ))+b sin(b ln(N )))(a2 +b2 )
a3 −2a2 +ab2 +a+N 1−a ((a2 −a−b2 ) cos(b ln(N ))+(1−2a)b sin(b ln(N )))
= −a3 +a2 −ab2 +b2 +N a ((a2 −a−b2 ) cos(b ln(N ))+(2a−1)b sin(b ln(N )))
(15)
(b sin(b ln(N ))−a cos(b ln(N ))((a−1)2 +b2 )
= N −2a+1 ((a−1) cos(b ln(N ))+b sin(b ln(N )))(a2 +b2 )

Writing equation 15 as a single fraction and simplifying it, we obtain:

(((a − 1)2 + b2 )N 1−a (a cos(b ln(N )) − b sin(b ln(N )))((a − 1)(a2 + b2 ) + N a ((a − a2 + b2 ) cos(b ln(N )) + (1 − 2a)b sin(b ln(N )))))
=1
((a2 + b2 )((a − 1) cos(b ln(N )) + b sin(b ln(N )))(a((a − 1)2 + b2 )N a + ((a − 1)a − b2 )N cos(b ln(N )) + (1 − 2a)bN sin(b ln(N ))))

N −1
Dividing the numerator and denominator by N (i.e. multiplying the above equation by N −1 ) we have
(((a − 1)2 + b2 )N −a (a cos(b ln(N )) − b sin(b ln(N )))((a − 1)(a2 + b2 ) + N a−1 ((a − a2 + b2 ) cos(b ln(N )) + (1 − 2a)b sin(b ln(N )))))
= 1
((a2 + b2 )((a − 1) cos(b ln(N )) + b sin(b ln(N )))(a((a − 1)2 + b2 )N a−1 + ((a − 1)a − b2 ) cos(b ln(N )) + (1 − 2a)b sin(b ln(N ))))

Since 0 < a < 1 and N → ∞ we can state that N −a = 0 and N a−1 = 0. Thus, by fully expanding
the numerator and denominator of the above equation, cutting out all summands containing N −a or
N a−1 as well as cutting out all summands that are equal in numerator and denominator (valid, since
fraction = 1), then setting numerator = denominator and simplifying again (for individual steps of
this procedure see Appendix 2) we obtain

(−1 + 2a) −b2 + ((a − 1)a − 3b2 )((a − 1)a + b2 ) + ((a − 1)2 + b2 )(a2 + b2 ) cos(2b ln(N )) = 0 (16)

3
The product on the left part of equation 16 is 0 if one of its factors is zero. For the first factor (−1 + 2a)
we can easily see that a = 21 . By having a closer look at the second factor we now have to proof, that
this is the only valid solution. The second factor

−b2 + ((a − 1)a − 3b2 )((a − 1)a + b2 ) + ((a − 1)2 + b2 )(a2 + b2 ) cos(2b ln(N ))

can also be written as

a2 − 2a3 + a4 − b2 + 2ab2 − 2a2 b2 − 3b4 + cos(2b ln(N ))(a2 − 2a3 + a4 + b2 − 2ab2 + 2a2 b2 + b4 )

Since N → ∞ and limN →∞ [cos(2b ln(N ))] ∈ [−1, 1] ∀b ∈ R > 0 (i.e. the cos-function does not converge
to a certain limit), we have two cases to discuss:
1. If limN →∞ [cos(2b ln(N ))] 6= 0 then for the second factor to be 0 the following two equations have
to be fullfilled:
a2 − 2a3 + a4 − b2 + 2ab2 − 2a2 b2 − 3b4 = 0
(17)
a2 − 2a3 + a4 + b2 − 2ab2 + 2a2 b2 + b4 = 0
Since we know, that for all non-trivial zero-points of ζ(s) we have 0 < a < 1 and b > 0 (with
a, b ∈ R as defined above), the trivial solution of equation 17, namely a = b = 0, is not valid.
Thus, for fulfilling equation 17 it needs to be
r
1 1
a = ± −b4 − (18)
2 4
Since a, b ∈ R, equation 18 does not provide a valid result .
2. If limN →∞ [cos(2b ln(N ))] = 0 then it is already sufficient that

a2 − 2a3 + a4 − b2 + 2ab2 − 2a2 b2 − 3b4 = 0 (19)

for the second factor to be 0. Equation 19 has four solutions for a:

 q 
1 2
p
2 4
a= 1 − 1 + 4b − 4 b + 4b (20)
2
 q 
1 p
a= 1 + 1 + 4b2 − 4 b2 + 4b4 (21)
2
 
1
q p
a= 1 − 1 + 4b2 + 4 b2 + 4b4 (22)
2
 q 
1 2
p
2 4
a= 1 + 1 + 4b + 4 b + 4b (23)
2
Since a ∈ R and 0 < a < 1, all equations 20 to 23 do not provide a valid result (i.e. according
to equations 20 to 23, a would be either complex, or a ≤ 0, or a ≥ 1) .
1
Thus, the only valid solution is a = 2 and the Riemann Hypothesis is true, Q.E.D..

3 Conclusion
In this paper we have proven the Riemann hypothesis, stating that the real part of all zero points of
the zeta function is 12 , to be true. For this we have used the integral-representation of ζ(s) and solved
the real part of the integral. Thereby, we could show, that s must have a real part of 21 for all ζ(s) to
be zero.

4
Appendix 1
According to Gelbart et. al. (see [1]) ζ(s) and ζ(1 − s) are connected by a function G(s) via

2ζ(s) = 2G(s)ζ(1 − s) ⇒ ζ(s) = G(s)ζ(1 − s)

with s−1
1−s


π 2 Γ 2

G(s) = − s s
π 2Γ 2

Since π x 6= 0 and Γ(x) 6= 0 ∀ x ∈ C determines G(s) 6= 0 ∀ s ∈ C. Be s0 a zero-point of the

zeta-function. We now can state that

ζ(s0 ) = 0 ⇔ ζ(1 − s0 ) = 0

Appendix 2
By solving the integral of ℜ1 and ℜ2 and simplifying the resulting equations we could reduce the
problem to the following equation, we have seen above already:
(((a − 1)2 + b2 )N −a (a cos(b ln(N )) − b sin(b ln(N )))((a − 1)(a2 + b2 ) + N a−1 ((a − a2 + b2 ) cos(b ln(N )) + (1 − 2a)b sin(b ln(N )))))
= 1
((a2 + b2 )((a − 1) cos(b ln(N )) + b sin(b ln(N )))(a((a − 1)2 + b2 )N a−1 + ((a − 1)a − b2 ) cos(b ln(N )) + (1 − 2a)b sin(b ln(N ))))

Since 0 < a < 1 and N → ∞ we can state that N −a = 0 and N a−1 = 0. For simplification, we fully
expand the numerator, obtaining the following form:

−a3 N −a cos(b ln(N )) + 3a4 N −a cos(b ln(N )) − 3a5 N −a cos(b ln(N )) + a6 N −a cos(b ln(N ))
−ab2 N −a cos(b ln(N )) + 3a2 b2 N −a cos(b ln(N )) − 4a3 b2 N −a cos(b ln(N ))
+2a4 b2 N −a cos(b ln(N )) − ab4 N −a cos(b ln(N )) + a2 b4 N −a cos(b ln(N ))
+a2 cos2 (b ln(N )) − 3a3 cos2 (b ln(N )) + 3a4 cos2 (b ln(N )) − a5 cos2 (b ln(N ))
+ab2 cos2 (b ln(N )) − a2 b2 cos2 (b ln(N )) + ab4 cos2 (b ln(N )) + a2 bN −a sin(b ln(N ))
−3a3 bN −a sin(b ln(N )) + 3a4 bN −a sin(b ln(N )) − a5 bN −a sin(b ln(N )) + b3 N −a sin(b ln(N ))
(24)
−3ab3 N −a sin(b ln(N )) + 4a2 b3 N −a sin(b ln(N )) − 2a3 b3 N −a sin(b ln(N ))
+b5 N −a sin(b ln(N )) − ab5 N −a sin(b ln(N )) − a2 b cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N ))
+2a3 b cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N )) − a4 b cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N )) − b3 cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N ))
+2ab3 cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N )) − 2a2 b3 cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N )) − b5 cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N ))
−b2 sin2 (b ln(N )) + 4ab2 sin2 (b ln(N )) − 5a2 b2 sin2 (b ln(N )) + 2a3 b2 sin2 (b ln(N ))
−b4 sin2 (b ln(N )) + 2ab4 sin2 (b ln(N ))

Fully expanding the denominator, we obtain the following:

−a3 N a−1 cos(b ln(N )) + 3a4 N a−1 cos(b ln(N )) − 3a5 N a−1 cos(b ln(N )) + a6 N a−1 cos(b ln(N ))
−ab2 N a−1 cos(b ln(N )) + 3a2 b2 N a−1 cos(b ln(N )) − 4a3 b2 N a−1 cos(b ln(N ))
+2a4 b2 N a−1 cos(b ln(N )) − ab4 N a−1 cos(b ln(N )) + a2 b4 N a−1 cos(b ln(N )) + a3 cos2 (b ln(N ))
−2a4 cos2 (b ln(N )) + a5 cos2 (b ln(N )) + ab2 cos2 (b ln(N )) − a2 b2 cos2 (b ln(N ))
+b4 cos2 (b ln(N )) − ab4 cos2 (b ln(N )) + a3 bN a−1 sin(b ln(N )) − 2a4 bN a−1 sin(b ln(N ))
+a5 bN a−1 sin(b ln(N )) + ab3 N a−1 sin(b ln(N )) − 2a2 b3 N a−1 sin(b ln(N ))
+2a3 b3 N a−1 sin(b ln(N )) + ab5 N a−1 sin(b ln(N )) − a2 b cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N ))
+2a3 b cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N )) − a4 b cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N )) − b3 cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N ))
+2ab3 cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N )) − 2a2 b3 cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N )) − b5 cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N ))
+a2 b2 sin2 (b ln(N )) − 2a3 b2 sin2 (b ln(N )) + b4 sin2 (b ln(N )) − 2ab4 sin2 (b ln(N ))
(25)
With the argument stated above, due to 0 < a < 1 and N → ∞ that N −a = 0 and N a−1 = 0, we can
erase all summands in equations 24 and 25 containing either N −a or N a−1 . This leaves us with the

5
following summands for the numerator:

a2 cos2 (b ln(N )) − 3a3 cos2 (b ln(N )) + 3a4 cos2 (b ln(N )) − a5 cos2 (b ln(N )) + ab2 cos2 (b ln(N ))
−a2 b2 cos2 (b ln(N )) + ab4 cos2 (b ln(N )) − a2 b cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N ))
+2a3 b cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N )) − a4 b cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N )) − b3 cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N ))
(26)
+2ab3 cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N )) − 2a2 b3 cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N )) − b5 cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N ))
−b2 sin2 (b ln(N )) + 4ab2 sin2 (b ln(N )) − 5a2 b2 sin2 (b ln(N )) + 2a3 b2 sin2 (b ln(N ))
−b4 sin2 (b ln(N )) + 2ab4 sin2 (b ln(N ))

In the same way we are left with the following terms for the denominator:

a3 cos2 (b ln(N )) − 2a4 cos2 (b ln(N )) + a5 cos2 (b ln(N )) + ab2 cos2 (b ln(N )) − a2 b2 cos2 (b ln(N ))
+b4 cos2 (b ln(N )) − ab4 cos2 (b ln(N )) − a2 b cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N )) + 2a3 b cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N ))
−a4 b cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N )) − b3 cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N )) + 2ab3 cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N ))
−2a2 b3 cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N )) − b5 cos(b ln(N )) sin(b ln(N )) + a2 b2 sin2 (b ln(N ))
−2a3 b2 sin2 (b ln(N )) + b4 sin2 (b ln(N )) − 2ab4 sin2 (b ln(N ))
(27)
Since numerator divided by denominator = 1, it follows that numerator = denominator. Consequently,
we can skip all summands that are appearing in the same way in numerator and denominator, which
leaves us with the following numerator:

a2 cos2 (b ln(N )) − 3a3 cos2 (b ln(N )) + 3a4 cos2 (b ln(N )) − a5 cos2 (b ln(N )) + ab4 cos2 (b ln(N ))
−b2 sin2 (b ln(N )) + 4ab2 sin2 (b ln(N )) − 5a2 b2 sin2 (b ln(N )) + 2a3 b2 sin2 (b ln(N )) (28)
−b4 sin2 (b ln(N )) + 2ab4 sin2 (b ln(N ))

Doing so for the denominator leaves us with:

a3 cos2 (b ln(N )) − 2a4 cos2 (b ln(N )) + a5 cos2 (b ln(N )) + b4 cos2 (b ln(N )) − ab4 cos2 (b ln(N ))
(29)
+a2 b2 sin2 (b ln(N )) − 2a3 b2 sin2 (b ln(N )) + b4 sin2 (b ln(N )) − 2ab4 sin2 (b ln(N ))

Using the addition theoreme sin2 (x) + cos2 (x) = 1 [3] we can further simplify equation 29 to

a3 cos2 (b ln(N )) − 2a4 cos2 (b ln(N )) + a5 cos2 (b ln(N )) + b4 − ab4 cos2 (b ln(N ))
(30)
+a2 b2 sin2 (b ln(N )) − 2a3 b2 sin2 (b ln(N )) − 2ab4 sin2 (b ln(N ))

Now setting equation 28 = equation 30 and using the addition theoremes cos(2x) = −1 + 2 cos2 (x) =
cos2 (x) − sin2 (x) and cos(2x) = 1 − 2 sin2 (x) [3] we obtain equation 16:

(−1 + 2a) −b2 + ((a − 1)a − 3b2 )((a − 1)a + b2 ) + ((a − 1)2 + b2 )(a2 + b2 ) cos(2b ln(N )) = 0 (31)

whose trivial solution is a = 12 .

Literature
1 S. Gelbart and S. Miller. Riemann’s zeta function and beyond. Bulletin of the American Math-
ematical Society , 41:59 112, 2003
2 Yuri Heymann. An investigation of the non-trivial zeros of the riemann zeta function. arXiv
,1804.04700, 2020.
3 Bronstein, Semendjajew, Musiol, Muehlig. Taschenbuch der mathematik. 2008.
4 B. Riemann. Ueber die Anzahl der Primzahlen unter einer gegebenen Groesse. Monatsberichte
der Berliner Akademie , 1859.