Elton John D.

Delos Santos, RN, MAEd, MAN

Instructor, UB-SN

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=It occurs when fluids seep out from the
lumen of a vessel into the surrounding tissue

Causes:
1.Damage to the posterior wall of the vein
2.Occlusion of the vein proximal to the
injection site
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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

• Arrhenius acid: Hydrogen-

containing compound that
produces H+ ions in solution
HNO3  H + NO3+ –

• Arrhenius base: Hydroxide-

containing compound that
produces OH– ions in solution
NaOH  Na   OH –
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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Ionization
• The process in which
individual positive and
negative ions are produced
from a molecular compound
that is dissolved in solution
–Arrhenius acids
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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Dissociation
• The process in which
individual positive and
negative ions are released
from an ionic compound
that is dissolved in solution
–Arrhenius bases Return to TOC

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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory
Figure 10.1 - Difference Between Ionization and
Dissociation

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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

• Brønsted–Lowry acid: Substance that

can donate a proton (H+ ion) to some other
substance
– Proton donor
• Brønsted–Lowry base: Substance that
can accept a proton (H+ ion) from some
other substance
– Proton acceptor

HCl  H 2 O  Cl – + H 3 O +
Acid Base Return to TOC

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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Amphiprotic Substance

• A substance that can either lose or accept a

proton and thus can function as either a
Brønsted–Lowry acid or a Brønsted–Lowry base
‒ Example
‒ H2O, H3O+, H2O, OH–

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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Diprotic Acid

• An acid that supplies two protons (H+ ions) per

molecule during an acid–base reaction

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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Strong Acid

• Transfers
~100% of its
protons to
water in an
aqueous
solution
• Equilibrium
position lies far
to the right
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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Weak Acid

• Transfers
only a small
percent of its
protons to
water in an
aqueous
solution
• Equilibrium
position lies
far to the left
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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory
Figure 10.5 - Differences Between Strong and Weak Acids in
Terms of Species Present

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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

• Ionic compounds containing a metal

or polyatomic ion as the positive ion
and a nonmetal or polyatomic ion
(except hydroxide) as the negative
ion
• All common soluble salts are
completely dissociated into ions in
solution
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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Neutralization Reaction
• The chemical reaction between an
acid and a hydroxide base in which a
salt and water are the products
HCl + KOH → HOH + KCl

H2SO4 + 2 KOH → K2SO4 + 2 H2O

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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Figure 10.7 - Formation of Water

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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Self-Ionization

• An extremely small percentage of water

molecules in pure water interact with one
another to form ions

H2O + H2O H3O+ + OH–

• Net effect is the formation of equal amounts of

hydronium and hydroxide ions

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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Figure 10.8 - Self-Ionization of Water

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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Salts
• Ionic compounds
• When dissolved in water, break up into
their ions
• Hydrolysis is defined as the reaction of a
salt with water to produce:
– Hydronium ions
– Hydroxide ions
– Both hydronium and hydroxide ions
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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Types of Salt Hydrolysis

1.The salt of a strong acid and a strong base

does not hydrolyze, so the solution is
neutral
 NaCl, KBr

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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Types of Salt Hydrolysis

4. The salt of a weak acid and a weak base

hydrolyzes to produce a slightly acidic, neutral,
or slightly basic solution, depending on the
relative weaknesses of the acid and base

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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Table 10.7 - Neutralization “Parentage” of Salts

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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Key Points about Buffers

• Buffer: An aqueous solution

containing substances that prevent
major changes in solution pH when
small amounts of acid or base are
added to it
• Typically, a buffer system is
composed of a weak acid and its
conjugate base
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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Buffers Contain Two Active

Chemical Species

1.A substance to react with

and remove added base
2.A substance to react with
and remove added acid
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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Addition of Base [OH– ion] to the Buffer

The added OH– ion reacts with H3O+ ion,

producing water (neutralization)
• The neutralization reaction produces the stress
of not enough H3O+ ion because H3O+ ion was
consumed in the neutralization
• The equilibrium shifts to the right to produce
more H3O+ ion, which maintains the pH close to
its original level

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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Addition of Acid [H3O+ ion] to the Buffer

• The added H3O+ ion increases the

overall amount of H3O+ ion present
• The stress on the system is too much
H3O+ ion
• The equilibrium shifts to the left
consuming most of the excess H3O+
ion and resulting in a pH close to the
original level Return to TOC

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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

• Acids, bases, and soluble salts all

produce ions in solution; thus
they all produce solutions that
conduct electricity
• Electrolyte: Substance whose
aqueous solution conducts
electricity
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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Nonelectrolytes
• They do not
conduct
electricity
• Example -
Table sugar
(sucrose) and
glucose
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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Strong Electrolytes
• They
completely
ionize/
dissociate into
ions
• Example -
Strong acids,
bases, and
soluble salts Return to TOC

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 Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Weak Electrolytes

• They
incompletely
ionize/
dissociate into
ions
• Example -
Weak acids and
bases
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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory
Table 10.8 - Concentrations of Major Electrolytes in
Blood Plasma*

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 Condensation reactions
•Chemical Evolution, simple molecules condense to form more complex
forms (polymers)

Reaction of a carboxylic acid with an amine

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 Specific pairing of
functional groups gives
rise to complementarity
 More complex molecules
increases chemical
versatility
 Complementarity makes
it possible for
macromolecules to
replicate
 Over time natural
selection favored
molecules that made
accurate copies of
themselves
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1. DIGESTION
- Breakdown of large
foodstuffs into smaller
particles
a. Physical
b. Chemical
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 Diffusion or movement of nutrients
and other ingested materials from
small intestines (esp. JEJUNUM) into
the blood stream.
 The process is facilitated by
MICROVILLI: mobile, finger like
projections which increase the
absorptive area of the GIT

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 Selectiveuptake of a
specific nutrient by an
organ of the body. In other
words, absorbed nutrients
ARE NOT uniformly
distributed in the body

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 Process by which the
absorbed nutrients are
USED by the different cells
for specific purpose or
function
 Example: ATP- for energy

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 Processby which the absorbed
nutrients are included or
incorporated into the
STRUCTURAL FRAMEWORK of
the body like bones, muscles,
teeth, hair, skin, joint,
ligaments, etc.
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 Process by which ALL HARMEFUL &
POTENTIAL TOXIC materials
introduced into the body (like food,
preservatives, food colorings & other
chemicals like FORMALIN) are
INACTIVATED or DETOXIFIED by the
LIVER into something non-toxic or
less toxic, thus no significant harm is
done on the body
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 Process by which metabolic
waste products are finally
expelled or removed from the
body. These waste products
when allowed to circulate
inside will destroy cells and
tissues so they must be
disposed of fast
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 Kidneys- urine- most important
 Lungs- volatile acids, form of CO2
 Skin- sweat – hypotonic, NaCl
 GIT- stool/feces (defecation)
*stool- undigested residue of
food

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