Anshu Welding PDF

A STUDY MATERIAL ON
WELDING
TECHNOLOGY
OCTOBER 3, 2016
NETTUR TECHNICAL TRAINING FOUNDATION
LEARN & EARN AT TATA MOTORS, JAMSHEDPUR
LEARN AND EARN, AT TATA MOTORS, JAMSHEDPUR
A STUDY MATERIAL ON
WELDING
TECHNOLOGY
COMPILED BY: APPROVED

BY:
ANSHU SOURABH A C SUNDER

TRAINING OFFICER UNIT HEAD
LEARN AND EARN, NTTF LEARN AND EARN, NTTF
Welding Technology
PREPARED BY: ANSHU SOURABH Page | 1
CONTENT
SL NO TOPIC PAGE
01 INTRODUCTION 03
02 SAFETY IN WELDING 07
03 GAS WELDING 13
04 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING 19
05 RESISTANCE WELDING 30
06 WELD JOINTS AND POSITION 37
07 WELDING DEFECTS AND PRECAUTION 41
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01.
INTRODUCTION
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FABRICATION PROCESS:
Joining two or more elements to make a single part is termed a fabrication process.
A fairly large number of industrial components are made by fabrication processes. The
various fabrication processes can be classified as follows:
 Mechanical joining by means of bolts, screws and rivets.
 Adhesive bonding by employing synthetic glues.
 Welding, brazing and soldering.
INTRODUCTION:
Welding is the process of joining the similar or dissimilar metals by
 application of heat
 with or without application of pressure and
 With or without addition of filler material.
The result is continuity of homogeneous material of the composition and characteristic of
two parts which are being joined together.
TYPES OF WELDING
Modern method of welding may be classified into two types
1) Pressure welding
2) Fusion welding
Pressure Welding
In the plastic welding or pressure welding, the pieces of metal to be joined
are heated to a plastic state and then forced together by external pressure. Examples are
forge welding, resistance welding, thermit welding.
Fusion welding
In the fusion welding or non-pressure welding, the material at the joint is
heated to molten state and allowed to solidify. This includes gas welding, arc welding.
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CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING
Welding
Fusion
Pressure
Welding
Resistance Brazing Electric Chemic
Soldering Gas
Welding Arc al
Spark Welding
Welding Welding
Welding
Spot SMAW
Welding
Seam Carbon Arc
Welding Weld Arc
Submerged
Projection
Welding Weld
MIG
TIG
TYPE OF WELDING (material basis) EXAMPLE

Autogenous Laser Beam Welding
(A fusion weld made without filler metal) Resistance Welding
Homogeneous SMAW
(A fusion weld made with filler , where filler is similar to TIG
metal in chemical & mechanical properties) MIG
Heterogeneous Brazing
(A fusion weld made with filler material which is different Soldering
from the parent material)
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CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING
TYPES HEAT SOURCE

GAS Heat required for melting of plates can be obtained by burning
of gases.
ELECTRIC ARC Heat required for melting of plates can be obtained through
electric arc.
CHEMICAL Heat required for melting of plates can be obtained through

exothermic chemical reaction.
ADVANTAGES
• No holes is required for welding. So structural members are more effective in
taking load.
• This joints are more economical as less labour & less material is required.
• Efficiency of welding joints is more than any other joints.
• Any shape of joints can be made with ease.
DISADVANTAGES
• Welded joints are more brittle & therefore their fatigue strength is less.
• Due to uneven heating & cooling of members, it may distorted resulting in
additional stresses.
• Skilled labour & electricity are required for welding.
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02.
SAFETY IN
WELDING
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INTRODUCTION:
• Welding of metals involve the application of intense heat to the objects being
welded. This intense heat is obtained from the use of inflammable gases, (e.g.,
acetylene, hydrogen etc.) or electricity.
• The intense welding heat and the sources employed to produce it can be potentially
hazardous.
• Therefore, to protect persons from injury and to protect building and equipment
against fire, gases as well as electric shock also. So a set of recommendations
concerning safety of the equipment have been published by ISI and other
International organizations.
• By keeping in mind these recommendations or precautions, the risks associated
with welding can be largely reduced.
• It can’t be dissembled when required.
SAFETY RECOMMENDATIONS:
It is suggested that the beginner in the field of welding must go through and familiar
with these recommendations which also have been discussed below:
• Safety recommendations for installing and operation of Gas welding.
• Safety recommendations for installing and operation of Arc welding.
• Explosion, fire and other hazards and protection against them.
• Protection of welders.
• Ventilation and health protections.
SAFETY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GAS WELDING:

A. Gas Cylinders
 Gas cylinders must be prevented from sharp impact with one another or with
the ground.
 Acetylene cylinders must always be kept upright.
 Cylinders should be well fastened at their places so that they do not fall.
 Cylinders should be stored in a well-protected, well ventilated, dry locations,
well away from highly combustible materials such as oil.
 One should not smoke at the place where gas cylinders have been stored.
 Cylinders containing acetylene and oxygen should be stored separately or quite
far apart from each other.
 Don’t use a hammer or wrench to open any valve on a cylinder.
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 Cylinder valves shall be closed before moving cylinders.

 Water, dirt, oil or grease should not be permitted to come in contact with oxygen
cylinder, valves, regulators and hoses or fit things.
 Cylinder valve shall be closed when work is finished or when the cylinder is
empty.
 Never attempt to mix gases in a cylinder.
 Never use oxygen or acetylene without proper pressure regulators.
B. Torches and Tips:
 Gas torches and tips should be stored in clean boxes to avoided gas holes from
becoming burred and choked with dirt.
 Never use a gas torch as a lever or hammer.
 Gas holes must be clean, smooth and of correct size.
 During working, if the heat becomes overheated it may be cooled by plunging
the torch into water.
 Never hang a torch with its hose on regulators or cylinder valves.
C. Pressure Regulator:
 Use the correct pressure regulator for a gas. For example, never use acetylene
pressure regulator with any other gas.
 A pressure regulator shall be used, only at pressures for which it is intended.
 Handle pressure regulators carefully. Cylinder valves should be opened slowly
to avoid straining the mechanism of pressure regulator.
D. Other General Precautions:
 Before starting gas welding remove all the combustible material from the
neighbourhood or anything that might be damaged by heat.
 Do not pick up hot jobs or objects.
 Use goggles with non-flammable lenses and frames.
 Never do any chipping or grinding without suitable goggles.
 Do not use matches for lighting torches. This may result in hand burns.
E. Hose or Gas Tubing:
 Use correct colour hose for oxygen (green/black) and acetylene (red) and never
use oxygen hose for acetylene or vice versa.
 Protect hose from flying sparks, hot slag, hot work piece and open flame.
 If dirt goes into hose, blow through before connect it to torch or regulator.
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SAFETY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ARC WELDING:
A. Arc Welding Machine:

 Arc welding should be of the suitable quality.
 Arc welding machines should be properly ground (earthed).
 Proper terminals should be used on the arc welding machines for the power line
voltage connection.
 Lubricate regularly, but over greasing may foul the commutator.
 Switch contacts should be cleaned periodically.
B. Electrode Holder:
 Electrode holders shall be provided with discs or shields to protect the hands of
the welder from heat of the arc.
 Insulation of all metallic or current carrying parts, including the jaws which grip
the electrodes, is recommended.
 Hot electrode holders shall not be permitted to dip in water because the retained
moisture may cause an electric shock.
C. Welding Cables:
 Welding cables shall be of completely insulated, flexible type.
 They should be capable of handling the maximum current requirements of the
work in progress.
 In case the cable insulation is damaged, do not operate the equipment.
 It shall be kept dry and free from grease and oil to avoid premature breakdown
of insulation.
 The body or the frame of the welding machine shall be efficiently earthed.
D. Working Area:
 Working area and floor should
be kept clean and clear of
electrode stubs, metal scrap,
etc.
 Before starting welding ensure
that the welding equipment is adequately earthed.
 One should not look at an electric arc with the naked eye. To prevent welder’s
head from radiation, spatter and hot slag, a helmet or hand shield must be worn.
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 Welder should be completely insulated from the floor/work when changing

electrodes.
 Welder should make use of goggles with clear glasses while he is chipping off
scale, slag, etc.
 Welding operation should preferably be carried out in clean, dry locations.
EXPLOSION, FIRE, AND OTHER HAZARDS:

Explosion and fire hazards are by far the greatest in connection with gas welding and
flame cutting
A. Explosion takes place when:
 Oil or grease is likely to come into contact with any pipe,
valve, etc., carrying oxygen.
 Gas or arc welding of a closed vessel, containing
inflammable liquid or gas, is carried out.
 Backfire from welding blowpipes reaches an acetylene
generator. Backfire is caused by the accidental blocking
up of the flame nozzle in the tip, either by molten weld metal or by the tip of
blowpipe being dipped into the weld pool.
 Fuel gas cylinders are exposed to high temperatures. This may happen if
cylinder is kept in the sun, or a lighted blowpipe.
B. Other Hazards:
 Fire Hazards.
 Shock Hazards.
 Overheating Hazards.
 Fire Hazards: Fire hazards involve loss of life and damage to property. Fire
hazards result due to:
a. Burns from freshly welded metal.
b. Welding cable of inadequate capacity.
c. Leaking valves on fuel gas cylinders and blowpipes.
d. Leaking fuel gas rubber hoses.
 Shock Hazards: Shock hazards cause severe burns and loss of life. Shock
hazards result due to:
a. Damaged insulation of cables.
b. Lack of welding earth/lack of adequate earthing.
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 Overheating Hazards: Overheating causes damage to equipment and leads to

fire. Overheating hazards result due to:
a. Oversize fuses.
b. Welding cable of inadequate capacity.
c. Inadequate connections which result in overheating and lead to severe
burns and fire.
PROTECTION OF WELDERS:
Workers need to be protected from
 The welding rays.
 Flying sparks, motel globules (spatter), hot slag particles and hot electrode stubs.
 Protection from Welding Rays, Sparks and Spatter:

 Welding arc, in addition to being very bright, is a source of infrared and ultra-
violet light also; consequently the operator must use either a helmet or a hand
shield fitted with special filter glass.
 Gloves protect the hands of a welder.
 Leather or asbestos apron is very useful to protect welder’s clothes.
 Leather jackets and leather leggings are also available as clothes for body
protection.
 Safety boots are necessary to protect the feet of the welder from hot slag.
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03.
GAS
WELDING
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INTRODUCTION
Gas welding, also called as Oxy-Fuel Welding, is a fusion welding process wherein
the joint is completely melted to obtain the fusion. It joins metals, using the heat produced
by combustion of an oxygen and fuel gas mixture.
There are following types of fuels which can be used in Oxy-Fuel welding.
FUEL CHEM. FORMULA HEAT (in MJ/m3) TEMPERATURE
Acetylene C2H2 55 3100
Propylene C3H6 88 2500
Propane C3H8 93 2450
Hydrogen H2 10 2390
Natural Gas CH4 + H2 37 2350
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
 The fuel gas generally used is acetylene because of the high temperature generated
in the flame. All of the fuel gases used contain carbon and hydrogen in different
amounts as shown by their chemical formulae (above the table), which burn in
combustion with oxygen and release the required heat for melting the metal.
 When acetylene is mixed with oxygen in correct proportions in the welding torch
and ignited, the flame resulting at the tip of the torch is sufficiently hot to melt and
join the parent metal.
 Combustion of oxygen & acetylene in welding torch produces a temperature in
following reaction.
 C2H2 + 5⁄2 O2 2CO2 + H2O + Heat (Tip of torch)
 The oxy-acetylene flame reaches a temperature of about 3200 0C and thus can melt
all the commercial metals.
WELDING EQUIPMENT:
• The apparatus used in gas welding consists basically of
– An oxygen source (cylinder)
– A fuel gas source (usually contained in cylinders),
– Two pressure regulators (both for C2H2 & O2 )
– Two flexible hoses (one for each cylinder), and
– Torch
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FLAME AND ITS TYPES:

In oxy-acetylene welding, flame is the most
important tool. The flame must be of the proper
size, shape and condition in order to operate with
maximum efficiency for satisfactory welds. In gas
welding there are mainly three types of flame:
 Neutral Flame
 Oxidizing Flame
 Carburizing Flame
A. Neutral Flame:
 A neutral flame is produced when
approximately equal amount of oxygen and
acetylene are mixed in the welding torch and
burnt at the torch tip. The temperature of neutral
flame is of the order of about 3300OC.
 The flame has a nicely defined inner cone,
which is light blue in colour. It is surrounded by
an outer flame envelope.
 A neutral flame is named so because it effects no Neutral Flame
chemical change in the molten metal and therefore
will not oxidize or carburize the metal.
 The neutral flame is commonly used for the welding of :
 Mild Steel
 Cast Iron
 Stainless Steel
 Copper
 Aluminium
B. Oxidizing Flame:
 If, after the neutral flame has been established, the supply of oxygen is further
increased, the result results will be an oxidizing flame.
 An oxidizing flame can be recognized by the small white cone which is shorter,
much bluer in colour and more pointed than that of the neutral flame.
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 An oxidizing flame tends to be hotter than

the neutral flame. This is because of excess
oxygen and which causes the temperature to
rise as high as 38000C.
 An oxidizing flame is helpful when we have
to weld
 Copper based alloy
 Zinc based alloy
Oxidizing Flame
C. Reducing Flame:
 If, the volume of oxygen supplied to the neutral
flame is reduced, the resulting flame will be a
carburizing or reducing flame (i.e. rich in
acetylene)
 A reducing flame has an approximately
temperature of 28000C to 30000C.
 An oxidizing flame is helpful when we have to
weld Reducing Flame
 Lead and High Carbon Steel
NOTE:
 For most welding operations the neutral flame is correct, but the other types
of flames are sometimes needed for special welds.
 In neutral flame, amount of oxygen and acetylene taking part in reaction is
approximately equal.
 In oxidizing flame, amount of oxygen is slightly more than that of acetylene
taking part in reaction.
 Because of high temperature generated in case of Oxidizing flame, it can be
used for joining of high melting point materials.
 In reducing flame, amount of oxygen is slightly less than that of acetylene
taking part in reaction.
 In case of reducing flame, because of short supply of oxygen, complete
combustion of acetylene is not possible. So that is why in this case
intermediate feather is shown between inner cone and outer cone, also called
acetylene feather.
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TORCH AND TORCH ANGLE:

Oxygen and the fuel gas having been reduced in pressure by the gas regulators are
fed through suitable hoses to a welding torch which mixes and controls the flow of gases.
 Torch Angle:
 Angle made by the axis of the torch with axis of work piece is called torch angle.
 With variation of torch angle the energy density will get changed.
 With increase of torch angle, the exposing area of torch tip will reduced and as
a result energy density increases.
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑

Energy Density =
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
 Factors affecting selection of torch angles:

o Thickness of plates to be weld
 As thickness of plate increases, heat required for melting of plates is increases.
Hence torch angle is to be increases.
o Melting Point of metal to be joined
 As melting point of plates increases, heat required for melting of plates also
increases. Therefore torch angle increases.
o Thermal conductivity (K) of plates
 As thermal conductivity increases, heat loss by conduction is also increases. So
net heat available at welding zone decreases. Therefore torch angle increases.
o Place of welding
 On the beginning of welding the plates are at room temperature. To raise the
temperature of plates above the melting point temperature large heat required
to be supplied and hence large torch angle is to be used on the beginning of
welding and small torch angle is used at the end of welding.
FILLER RODS:
 Filler metal is the material that is added to the weld pool to assist in filling the gap.
It is usually available in rod form. These rods are called Filler rods.
 Filler rods have the same or nearly the same chemical composition as the base
metal.
 Whenever the thickness of plates to be joined is less than 5mm, in that case no extra
metal is to be required. So no filler rod is used in this case.
 Gas welding without use of filler rods is called Puddling operation.
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Properties of Filler Rods:

 The density of filler rod material must be nearly equal to density of parent material.
 Melting Point of filler rod material must be less than melting point of parent
material.
 The liquid molten metal of filler rod can be readily mixed with molten metal of
parent material.
WELDING TECHNIQUE:
Depending upon the ways in which welding rod and the welding torch
may be used, there are two usual techniques in gas welding, namely:
1. Leftward technique or Forehand welding method.
2. Rightward technique or Backhand welding method.
 Leftward technique or Forehand welding method:
o Forehand welding is more effective and efficient
when it is done from right to left.
o The welding flame is directed away from the
finished weld, i.e., towards the unwelded part of
the joint.
o Since the flame is pointed in the direction of the
welding, it preheats the edges of the joint.
o Good control and a neat appearance are
characteristics of the leftward method.
o Leftward technique is usually used on relatively thin metals (having thickness
less than 5 mm).
 Rightward technique or Backhand welding method:
o Welding begins at the left-hand end of the joint
and proceeds towards the right, hence the name
rightward technique.
o The torch flame in rightward technique is
directed towards the completed weld and the
filler rod remains between the flame and
completed weld section.
 Rightward technique has got certain Advantages over Leftward technique:
 It reduces the filler rod consumption.
 Weld quality is better than leftward technique.
 Cheaper than leftward technique.
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04.
ARC
WELDING
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INTRODUCTION
In welding, generation of heat by an arc is one of the most efficient methods.
The electric- arc welding process makes use of the heat produced by the electric arc to
fusion weld-metallic pieces. This is one of the most widely used welding process, mainly
because of the ease of use and high production rates.
PRINCIPLE OF ARC
An arc is generated
between two conductors of
electricity, cathode and anode.
When they are touched to establish
the flow of current and then
separated by a small distance. It is
generally believed that electrons
liberated from the cathode move
towards anode and are accelerated
in their movement. When they
strike the anode at high velocity, a
large amount of heat is generated.
The positively charged ions, moving from the anode and would be impinging on the
cathode, thus liberating heat. About 70% of the total heat is liberated at the anode by the
striking electrons.
ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT

The main requirement in an arc-welding set-up is the source of electric
power. They are essentially of two types.
1. Alternating Current (AC)
a. Transformer.
b. Motor or Engine Driven Alternator.
2. Direct Current (DC)
a. Transformer with DC rectifier.
b. Motor or Engine Driven Generator.
In DC arc welding, a rectifier or a generator can be used to supply the required DC
power.
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In the rectifier type, the power supply is first stepped down by means of transformer
to the required voltage and then Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) is used to convert AC
to DC.
In DC generator, which is driven by either an induction motor running on AC or
an oil engine. This combination is less efficient, more expensive and noisy in operation.
SL NO EQUIPMENT TYPES PURPOSE
Step-Up Increase the voltage from Lower to Higher
01 Transformer
Step-Down Decrease the voltage from Higher to Lower
02 Rectifier NA It converts AC to DC
03 Generator It converts Mechanical to Electrical
04 Inverter It converts DC to AC
POWER SUPPLY:
To supply the electrical energy, necessary for Arc welding process, a no.
of different power supply can be used. The welding machines can also be divided into
two types, based on the characteristics.
1. Constant Current Power Supply
2. Constant Voltage Power Supply
In arc welding, Voltage is directly related to the length of arc. Current is related to
amount of heat input.
 Constant Current Power Supply
In this type of power supply, the
welding voltage may be vary to account for
the change in the arc gap, thus maintain the Voltage α Length of Arc
arc length. This is very essential for manual Current α Heat Input
arc-welding processes, since the
maintenance of constant arc is nearly impossible by a human welder because it can be
difficult to hold the electrode perfectly and steady and as a results the arc length (voltage)
tends to fluctuate.
– Examples:
• Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW).
• Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW).
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 Constant Voltage Power Supply

Constant voltage power supply holds the voltage constant and vary the current, and
as a result most often used automated welding processes since they become self-
corrective. For example when the electrode comes a bit closer to the work, the voltage
drops rising the output current to a very high value. This current instantly melts the
electrode and thus maintains the arc gap.
So, in constant voltage processes, arc length is kept constant, since any fluctuation
in the distance between the wire and the base metal is quickly rectified by a large change
in current.
– Examples:
• Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW).
• Submerged Arc Welding (SAW).
POLARITY:
Though DC arc welding is more expansive than AC welding, it is generally
preferred because of the control of heat input offered by it. As explained earlier, about
70% of the heat is liberated near the anode in DC arc welding. Hence, if more heat is
required at the work piece side, such as thicker sheets or for material which have high
melting point, the work piece can be made as anode, liberating large heat near it. This is
termed as “Straight Polarity” or DCEN (Direct Current Electrode Negative).
• Features of DCEN:
• In DCSP, the heat generation at the work
piece is higher, therefore high melting
point material and higher thickness plates
can be easily weld.
• In DCSP, higher depth of penetration is
possible.
• Because of lower heat generation at the
electrodes, melting rate of electrode is
lower. Hence only low welding speeds are
possible.
However, for thinner materials, where less heat is required in the weld zone,
the polarity could be reversed by making the work piece as negative. This is termed as
Reverse Polarity or DCEP (Direct Current Electrode Positive).
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• Features of DCEP:
• In DCRP, the heat generation at the work piece is lower, therefore only low
melting point material and lower thickness plates can be easily weld.
• In DCRP, depth of penetration is small.
• Because of higher heat generation at the electrodes, melting rate of electrode is
higher. Hence high welding speeds are possible.
ELECTRODE:
The electrodes used for providing heat input in arc welding. It has mainly having
two function, mentioned below:
 Act as an electrical element for closing the electrical circuit.
 Sometime electrode is getting melt and supplying additional molten metal to
welding.
Electrode are generally of two types:
1. Consumable Electrode.
2. Non-consumable Electrode.
• Consumable Electrode:
 If electrode satisfy both the conditions then it is called consumable electrode.
 Melting point of electrode material should be less than weld material.
 Since electrode continuously melts, it also act as the filler rod to provide the filler
metal into the joint.
 Material used: steel, cast iron, Cu, Al, Cast iron, etc.
 When this electrode is used the process is called Metal Arc Welding.
• Non Consumable Electrode:

 If electrode satisfies only one condition (first one) then it is called Non
Consumable electrode.
 Must passes high melting point temperature and high electrical conductivity.
 Material used: Carbon, Graphite, Tungsten.
 When this electrode is used then they are termed by electrode material used.
Carbon Arc Welding & Tungsten Arc Welding are the best examples.
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Shielded Metal Arc Welding
Carbon Arc Welding

Arc Welding
Submerged Arc Welding
MIG or GMAW
TIG or GTAW
Electro-slag Welding
Plasma Arc Welding
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING
Shielded Metal Arc Welding also known as:

– Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMAW).
– Manual Arc Welding (MAW).
– Flux Shielded Arc Welding (FSAW).
The work piece and the electrode melts forming the weld pool that cools to form a
joint. This process is called fusion.
At high temperatures in SMAW, metals are chemically reactive to oxygen,
nitrogen, and hydrogen in air. Mechanical properties of joint can be degraded by these
reactions. To protect operation, arc must be shielded from surrounding air in AW
processes.
Arc shielding is accomplished by Shielding gases, e.g., argon, helium, CO2
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WORKING PRINCIPLE
Heat required for welding is
obtained from the arc struck between
a coated electrode and the work
piece. The arc temperature and thus
the arc heat can be increased or
decreased by employing higher or
lower arc currents. A high current arc
with a smaller arc length produces a
very intense heat.
The arc melts the electrode end
and the job. Material droplets are transferred from the electrode to the job, through the
arc, and are deposited along the joint to be welded. The flux coating melts, produces a
gaseous shield and slag to prevent atmospheric contamination of the molten weld metal.
CARBON ARC WELDING
INTRODUCTION
Carbon Arc Welding (or Single Carbon
Electrode Arc Welding) is an arc welding wherein
heat is produced by heating the work piece with an
electric arc struck between a carbon electrode and
the work piece. Welding may be carried out in air
or in an inert atmosphere. Filler material may or
may not be used.
Carbon arc welding may be classified as:
CARBON ARC WELDING
1. Single Carbon Electrode Arc Welding.
2. Twin Carbon Electrode Arc Welding.
In twin carbon arc welding the arc struck between two carbon electrodes produces
coalescence. The work piece doesn’t form a part of the electric circuit.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
Here in Single Carbon Arc Welding, the arc in maintained between the job and
the carbon electrode held in a holder and ground to specific geometry. DC straight polarity
is preferred to restrict electrode disintegration and the amount of carbon going into the
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weld metal. Though carbon or graphite electrodes are not expected to melt as does the
consumable electrodes, they do get heated to a red-hot temperature because of the heat
from the arc which causes a slow disintegration of the electrode tip as also its oxidation.
The arc is struck by touching the electrode with the job momentarily and then
taking away the electrode a definite distance apart. The arc is allowed to impinge on the
surface to be welded till a molten pool forms and then the holder is steady moved along
the joint. Filler metal and flux may or may not be used, depending upon the type of joint
and material to be welded.
In case of Twin Carbon Arc
Welding, the arc is maintained between
two carbon electrodes held in a special
holder. Current is switched on and by
operating the mechanism of arc length
adjustment the two electrodes are bought
together. The two electrodes touch
momentarily, part away and thus an arc
establishes. The size of the arc depends
upon the distance between the electrode
tips, electrode diameters and welding currents. The heat input to the job can be varied by
changing the arc size and distance between the arc and work piece.
TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING

INTRODCTION
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding also known as:
– Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW).
– Argon Arc Welding (AAW).
Tungsten inert gas welding process also called as Gas Tungsten Arc Welding is
named so because it uses
a) electrode primarily made of tungsten and
b) Inert gas for shielding the weld pool to prevent its contamination from
atmospheric gases
Welding Technology
Tungsten is a metal with a fusion

point of more than 3300oC, which means
more than double the fusion point of the
metals which are usually welded. Inert Gas
is the same thing as inactive gas, which
means a type of gas that will not to
combine with other elements.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
The Principle of TIG
welding is an electric arc welding
process in which the fusion energy
is produced by an electric arc
burning between the work piece
and the tungsten electrode.
During the welding process
the electrode, the arc and the weld
pool are protected against the
damaging effects of the
atmospheric air by an inert
shielding gas. By means of a gas
nozzle the shielding gas is lead to the welding zone where it replaces the atmospheric air.
TIG welding differs from the other arc welding processes by the fact that the electrode is
not consumed like the electrodes in other processes such as MIG/MAG and MMA.
As mentioned before the fusion energy in TIG welding is produced in the arc
burning between the tungsten electrode and the work piece. The wire feeding can be done
manually or mechanically.
In DC TIG welding the tungsten electrode is usually connected to negative polarity
and the work piece to positive polarity. According to the theory of electrons the negatively
charged electrons and positively charged ions will migrate when the arc is ignited.
The electrons will migrate from the negative pole to the positive pole while the
ions will travel in the opposite direction. In the arc there will therefore be a collision
between the electron and the ions and this collision produces heat energy.
Welding Technology
ADVANTAGES
The TIG welding process has a very large area of application due to its many
advantages:
 It provides a concentrated heating of the work piece.
 It provides an effective protection of the weld pool by an inert shielding gas.
 It can be independent of filler material.
 The filler materials do not need to be finely prepared if only the alloying is all right.
 There is no need for after treatment of the weld as no slag or spatter are produced.
 Places of difficult access can be welded
MATERIALS FOR TIG WELDING

The most important area of application is:
• Welding of thin materials in stainless steels
• Aluminium
• Nickel
• Nickel alloys
METAL INERT GAS WELDING

INTRODUCTION
Metal Inert Gas (MIG)
arc welding, more appropriately
called as Gas Metal Arc
Welding (GMAW), utilises a
consumable electrode and
hence, the term ‘metal’ appears
in the title. Though Gas
Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
can be used to weld all type of
metals, it is suitable for thin
sheets. When thicker sheets are
to be welded, filler metal
requirement makes GTAW
difficult to use. In this situation,
GMAW comes handy.
Welding Technology
WORKING PRINCIPLE
The typical set-up for GMAW
process is shown in fig. The consumable
electrode is in the form of a wire reel,
which is fed at a constant rate, through the
feed rollers. The welding torch is
connected to the gas supply cylinder,
which provides the necessary inert gas.
The electrode and the work piece are
connected to the welding power supply.
The power supplies are always of the constant voltage type only.
Normally, DC arc welding machines are used for GMAW with electrode positive
(DCEP). The DCEP increases the metal deposition rate and also provides for a stable
arc and smooth electrode metal transfer.
With DCEN, the arc becomes highly unstable and also results in a large spatter.
But special electrodes having calcium and titanium oxide mixtures as coatings are found
to be good for welding steel with DCEN.
ADVANTAGE
 Higher welding speeds.
 Greater deposition rates.
 Low cost equipment.
 Better weld pool visibility.
 The process is easily automated.
DISADVANTAGE
 Higher initial setup cost.
 Higher maintenance costs due to extra electronic components.
 Radiation effects are more severe.
Welding Technology
05.
RESISTANCE
WELDING
Welding Technology
INTRODUCTION
In Resistance Welding process both heat and pressure are applied on the joint but
no filler metal or flux is added. The heat necessary for the melting of the joint is obtained
by the heating effect of the electrical resistance of the joint and hence, the name resistance
welding.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
In resistance welding (RW), a low voltage and very high current typically around
15000 A, is passed through the joint for a very short time. This high amperage heats the
joint, due to the contact resistance at the joint and melts it. The pressure on the joint is
continuously maintained and the metal fuses together under this pressure. The heat
generated in resistance welding can be expressed as:
H = I2Rt
Where, H = Total heat generated in the work, J
I = Electric Current, A
R = Resistance of joint, ohms
t = Time for which the electric current is passing through the joint, s
The resistance of the joint R is a complex factor

to know because it is composed of:
 The resistance of the electrodes.
 The contact resistance between the
electrode and the work piece.
 The contact resistance between the two
work piece plates.
 The resistance of the work piece.
The amount of heat released is directly proportional to the resistance. It is likely to

be released at all of the above-mentioned points, but the only place where large amount
of heat is to be generated to have an effective fusion is at the interface between the two
work piece plates.
Welding Technology
ELECTRODE FOR RESISTANCE WELDING

The electrode in resistance welding carry very high currents required for fusion, as
also transmit the mechanical force to keep the plates under pressure and in alignment
during fusion. They also help to remove the heat from the weld zone thus preventing
overheating and surface fusion of the work. For both these purposes, the electrodes should
have higher electrical conductivity as well as higher hardness.
ADVANTAGE OF RESISTANCE WELDING

Some of the very important advantages of the resistance welding process are the
following:
 Very little skill is required to operate the resistance welding machine.
 These are very well suited for mass production, as they give high production
rate.
 Heating of work piece is confined to a very small part, which results in less
distortion.
 It is possible to weld dissimilar metals as well as metal plates of different
thickness.
CLASSIFICATION OF RESISTANCE WELDING
RESISTANCE WELDING
SPOT SEAM WELDING PROJECTION

WELDING WELDING
Welding Technology
RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING

INTRODUCTION
Resistance spot welding is a process in which
contacting metal surfaces are joined by the heat obtained from
resistance to electric circuit. Work pieces are held together
under pressure exerted by electrodes. This is the most common
resistance welding process. This is essentially done to join two
sheet metal jobs in lap joint forming a small nugget at the
interface of the two plates.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
A typical resistance spot welding machine shown in fig. It
essentially consists of two electrodes, out of which, one is
fixed. The other electrode is fixed to a rocker arm for
transmitting the mechanical force from a pneumatic
cylinder. This is the simplest type of arrangement. The other
possibility is that of a pneumatic or hydraulic cylinder being
directly connected to the electrode without any rocker arm.
In spot welding, a satisfactory weld is obtained when a proper current density is
maintained. The current density depends on the contact area between the electrode and
the work piece. With the continuous use, if the tip becomes upset and the contact area
increases, the current density will be lowered and consequently the weld is obtained over
a large area.
SPOT WELDING ELECTRODE

Function
 To conduct the welding current to the work pieces.
 To transmit to the work pieces in the weld area the amount of force needed to
produce a satisfactory weld.
 To dissipate the heat from the weld zone and thus prevent surface fusion of the
work.
Requirements
A spot welding electrode must:
 Be a good conductor of electricity.
 Be a good conductor of heat.
 Have a good mechanical strength and hardness at high temperatures.
Welding Technology
ADVANTAGES:
 High production rate.
 Very economical process.
 High skill not required.
 Dissimilar metals can be welded.
DISADVANTAGES:
 Suitable for thin sheets only.
 High equipment cost.
APPLICATIONS:
Spot welding is widely used for fabricating sheet metal products. Examples of its
applications range from attaching handles to stainless-steel cookware to rapid spot
welding of automobile bodies, using multiple electrodes.
RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING

INTRODUCTION
Resistance seam welding is a specialised process
of spot welding. It is a process that produces a weld at
the faying surfaces of two similar metals. The seam
may be a butt joint or an overlap joint and is usually an
automated process.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
Like spot welding, seam welding relies on two
electrodes, usually made from copper, to apply pressure
(5kN to 6 kN) and current (2000-5000 A). Here the
cylindrical electrodes are replaced by disc electrodes.
The disc electrodes are continuously rotated so that the
work pieces passes between them. This allow the
electrodes to stay in constant contact with the material
to make long continuous welds. So, the electrodes need not be separated at any time. The
electrodes may also move or assist the movement of the material.
Welding Technology
ADVANTAGES
o Gas tight as well as liquid tight joints can be made.
o The Overlap is less than spot or projection welding.
o The production of single seam weld and parallel seams can be got
simultaneously.
DISADVANTAGES
o The welding process is restricted to a straight
line or uniformly curved line.
o The metals sheets having thickness more than
3mm can cause problems while welding.
o The design of the electrodes may be needed to
change to weld metal sheets having
obstructions.
APPLICATIONS
It is employed on many types of pressure tanks, for oil switches, transformers,
refrigerators, evaporators and condensers, aircraft tanks, paint and varnish containers, etc.
RESISTANCE PROJECTION WELDING

INTRODUCTION
Projection Welding, is another variation of
spot welding, where one of the sheets to be joined,
is provided with a number of projections to help
localise the current at a predetermined spot as show
in fig.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
Like spot welding, seam welding relies on
two electrodes, usually made from copper, to apply
pressure and current. Here the cylindrical electrodes
are replaced by disc electrodes. The disc electrodes
are continuously rotated so that the work pieces passes between them. This allow the
electrodes to stay in constant contact with the material to make long continuous welds.
Welding Technology
So, the electrodes need not be separated at any time. The electrodes may also move or
assist the movement of the material.
APPLICATIONS
The process is used chiefly to join the workpiece by pressings together since it is
relatively simple to make the press-tools so that the projections are produced during the
main forming operation in the press.
ADVANTAGES
 A number of welds can be made simultaneously.
 Projection welds can be made in metals that are too thick to be joined by spot
welding.
 Scale, rust, oil and work metal coatings interfere less with projection welding than
with spot welding.
 Projection welding electrodes possess longer life than spot welding ones because of
less wear and maintenance resulting from fusion and overheating.
DISADVANTAGES
 The projection welding is limited to combinations of metal thickness and
composition which can be embossed.
 Forming of projection on one of the work pieces is an extra operation.
 Metals that are not strong enough to support projections cannot be projection
welded satisfactorily.
Welding Technology
06.
WELD
JOINT AND
POSITION
Welding Technology
INTRODUCTION OF WELD JOINTS

The type of joint is determined by the relative position of the two pieces being
joined. The following are the five basic types of commonly used joints:
1. Lap joint.
2. Butt joint
3. Corner joint
4. Edge joint
5. T joint
LAP JOINT
 The lap joint is obtained by overlapping the plates and then welding the edges of
the plates.
 The lap joints may be single traversed, double traverse and lap joints.
 These joints are employed on plates having thickness less than 3 mm.
BUTT JOINT
 The butt joint is obtained by placing the plates edge to edge.
 In this types of joints, if the plate thickness is less than 5mm, bevelling is not
required. When the thickness of the plates ranges between 5 mm to 12.5mm, the
edge is required to be bevelled to V or U-groove, while the plates having thickness
above 12.5 mm should have a V or U-groove on both sides.
CORNER JOINT
 A corner joint is obtained by joining the edges of two plates whose surfaces are at
an angle of 900 to each other.
 In some cases corner joint can be welded, without any filler metal, by melting off
the edges of the parent metal.
 This joint can be used for both light and heavy gauge sheet metal.
EDGE JOINT
 This joint is obtained by joining two parallel plates.
 It is economical for plates having thickness less than 6 mm.
 It is unsuitable for members subjected to direct tension or bending.
Welding Technology
T JOINT
 It is obtained by joining two plates whose surfaces are approximately at right
angles to each other.
 These joints are suitable up to 3 mm thickness.
 T-joint is widely used to weld stiffeners in aircraft and other thin walled
structures.
 It is economical for plates having thickness less than 6 mm.
 It is unsuitable for members subjected to direct tension or bending.
INTRODUCTION ON WELD POSITIONS

It is easiest to make welds in flat positions i.e. both the parent metal pieces lying in
horizontal plane over a flat surface. But several times it becomes unavoidable to weld the
work pieces in some other positions also. The common welding positions are:
1. Flat position.
2. Horizontal position.
3. Vertical position.
4. Overhead position.
FLAT POSITION
 In this welding position, the welding is done from the upper side of the joint and the
welding material is normally applied in the downward direction.
 On account of the downward direction of application of welding material this
position is also sometimes called as downward position.
HORIZONTAL POSITION
The axis of a weld is a line through the length of the weld, perpendicular to the
cross section at its centre of gravity.
a. Fillet Weld.
In this position, welding is performed on the upper side of an approximately
horizontal surface and against an approximately vertical surface. View B, figure 6-
31, illustrates a horizontal fillet weld.
b. Groove Weld.
In this position, the axis of the weld lies in an approximately horizontal plane and
the face of the weld lies in an approximately vertical plane. View B, figure 6-30,
illustrates a horizontal groove weld.
Welding Technology
VERTICAL POSITION
 In this position, the axis of the weld remains either vertical or at an inclination of
less than 450 with the vertical plane.
 The welding commences at the bottom and proceeds upwards.
 The tip of the torch is kept pointing upwards so that the pressure of the out coming
gas mixture forces the molten metal towards the base metal and prevents it from
falling down.
OVERHEAD POSITION
 In this case, the welding is performed from the underside of the joint. The work
pieces remain over the head of the welder.
 The work pieces as well as axis of the weld all remain in approximately horizontal
plane.
 It is reverse of flat welding.
Welding Technology
07.
WELDING
DEFECTS
Welding Technology
INTRODUCTION
Some of the defects encountered in the weld metal are
1. Porosity and blow holes.
2. Inclusions.
3. Undercut
4. Cracks.
5. Spatter
POROSITY AND BLOW HOLES
These defects are produced during solidification and cooling when the gases like
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen get entrapped during the solidification process. These
gases are absorbed by the molten weld metal from various sources including the
atmosphere, fluxes and electrode coatings.
Gas porosity is detrimental to the quality of welds and represents discontinuity in
the metal structure. Super saturation of molten metal with gases and an excessively high
cooling rate of the weld metal lead to the formation of blow holes.
Causes
 Moisture, rust, grease or paint on the plate edges.
 Excessive hydrogen, nitrogen, or oxygen in welding atmosphere.
 Improper coating on the electrode.
 Longer arcs.
 Faster arc travel speeds.
 Too high currents.
Remedies
 Dry or clean plate edges.
 Preheat the base metal.
 Change welding conditions. POROSITY
SLAG INCLUSION
Inclusion may be in the form of slag or any other foreign material, which doesn’t
get a chance to float on the surface of the solidifying weld metal and thus gets entrapped
inside the same. Inclusions lower the strength of the joint and make it weaker.
Causes
 Too high arc current.
 Too large electrode diameter.
 Longer arcs.
Welding Technology
 Insufficient chipping and cleaning of previous passes in multi pass welding.

 High viscosity of metal.
 Rapid solidification.
Remedies
 Clean surface and previous weld bead.
 Provide proper gas shielding.
 Use undamaged electrodes.
UNDERCUT
In undercut, a groove gets formed in the parent metal along the sides of the weld
bead. Groove reduces the thickness of the plate and thus the area along the bead, which
in turn weakens the weld. This is generally attributed to the improper welding technique
or excessive welding currents.
Causes
 Too large electrode diameter.
 Longer arcs.
 Faster electrode movement.
 Rusty and scaly job surfaces.
Remedies
 Lower arc voltage.
 Reduce arc length.
 Use smaller diameter
electrodes.
UNDERCUT
 Reduce travel speed.
CRACKS
Cracks may be on microscopic scale or macroscopic scale depending upon their
sizes. Cracks may appear in the base metal, base metal-weld metal boundary, or in the
weld metal. Cracks may be on the weld surface or under the weld bead. Cracks may
appear in the crater or in the root.
Causes
 Rigidity of the joint.
 Concave weld bead.
 Electrode with high hydrogen content.
 Rusty and scaly job surfaces.
Welding Technology
Remedies
 Select cleaner parent material.
 Increase joint angle.
 Use lower welding current.
 Use electrode of smaller diameter.
SPATTER
Spatter are the small metal particles which are thrown out of the arc during welding and
get deposited on the base metal around the weld bead along its length.
Causes
 Excessive arc current.
 Longer arcs.
 Arc blow making the arc uncontrollable.
 Damp electrodes.
Remedies
 Reduce welding current.
 Check use of correct polarity.
 Clean gas nozzle. SPATTER
Welding Technology

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A STUDY MATERIAL ON

COMPILED BY: APPROVED

ANSHU SOURABH A C SUNDER

TYPE OF WELDING (material basis) EXAMPLE

TYPES HEAT SOURCE

CHEMICAL Heat required for melting of plates can be obtained through

SAFETY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GAS WELDING:

 Cylinder valves shall be closed before moving cylinders.

SAFETY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ARC WELDING:

A. Arc Welding Machine:

 Welder should be completely insulated from the floor/work when changing

EXPLOSION, FIRE, AND OTHER HAZARDS:

 Overheating Hazards: Overheating causes damage to equipment and leads to

 Protection from Welding Rays, Sparks and Spatter:

FLAME AND ITS TYPES:

 An oxidizing flame tends to be hotter than

TORCH AND TORCH ANGLE:

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑

 Factors affecting selection of torch angles:

Properties of Filler Rods:

ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT

 Constant Voltage Power Supply

• Non Consumable Electrode:

Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Carbon Arc Welding

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

Shielded Metal Arc Welding also known as:

CARBON ARC WELDING

TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING

Tungsten is a metal with a fusion

MATERIALS FOR TIG WELDING

METAL INERT GAS WELDING

The resistance of the joint R is a complex factor

The amount of heat released is directly proportional to the resistance. It is likely to

ELECTRODE FOR RESISTANCE WELDING

ADVANTAGE OF RESISTANCE WELDING

CLASSIFICATION OF RESISTANCE WELDING

SPOT SEAM WELDING PROJECTION

RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING

SPOT WELDING ELECTRODE

RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING

RESISTANCE PROJECTION WELDING

INTRODUCTION OF WELD JOINTS

INTRODUCTION ON WELD POSITIONS

 Insufficient chipping and cleaning of previous passes in multi pass welding.

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