BALANCING BALL

PLATE SYSTEM
EENG291_Final Year Project I

Phoenicia University_ PU
Department of Electrical and Communication Engineering

Submitted By: Maysoon Ali Ghandour

Kawthar Imad Awada
Ahmad Gharib

Advised By: Dr. Mervat Madi

Spring 2018_2019
Acknowledgment
We would like to express our gratitude for everyone who helped in achieving this final year

project.

We are appreciated for Dr. Mirvat Madi, our supervisor, for following with us the work

progress and for the motivation, positive vibes and the extensive support that she was

providing to us throughout this semester.

We are grateful for Dr. Salem Salem, the head of Electrical and Communication

department, for his enthusiastic guidance and his precious support throughout the work

progress also for his advice for choosing this topic for our project.

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Abstract
Controlling an open-loop unstable system presents many inimitable and remarkable

challenges. An excellent example of an open-loop unstable system is the Ball-on-plate

system specified by two-dimensional extension of the ball and beam problem. One of the

challenges of this system is the indirect control of the ball using the positions on the plate.

This paper covers the physical system behind the controller design (PID), modeling, and

conception.

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Table of Contents
Chapter 1 : Introduction and Background .................................................................................. 6
A. Literature Review ....................................................................... 7
B. Challenges .............................................................................................. 11
Chapter 2 : Design Technical Requirement ............................................................................... 11
A. Idea of Design .................................................................................... 11
B. Software and Equipment .............................................. 12
a. Resistive touch screen ................................................. 12
b. Servomotors ................................................................................ 13
c. Arduino Uno............................................................................... 14
d. Plates ....................................................................................................... 15
e. Joints ....................................................................................................... 15
f. Software ............................................................................................. 15
C. Alternative Approaches .................................................. 15
a. Ball Position Detection Mechanism ..... 15
b. Actuation Mechanism: ............................................... 16
c. Control Mechanism........................................................ 16
Chapter 3 : Design Analysis......................................................................................................... 17
Types of Systems ....................................................................................................................... 17
a. Linear control system ................................................. 17
b. Nonlinear Control System................................... 17
c. Open Loop Systems ........................................................ 18
d. Closed Loop Control System .......................... 19
Proportional, Integral, and Derivative controller (PID) ....................................................... 19
a. Effect of
proportional, integral, and derivative components 21
b. Tuning of PID Controller .................................... 22
B. Model Development ............................................................... 23
a. Equation of Motion......................................................... 24
C. Control Development .......................................................... 28
a. Determining Transfer
Function of the System: 28
b. Desired Control Parameters: ......................... 29
c. Ball and beam cascade control design
30
d. PID design ...................................................................................... 32
D. Resistive Touch Screen
Subsystem Development 35

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 a. Excitation and measurement method
38
b. Connections with MATLAB ........................... 39
c. Requirements for a touch screen
controller 41
E. Servomotor ........................................................................................... 43
a. Definition ......................................................................................... 43
b. Features .............................................................................................. 44
c. Types of Servomotor ................................................. 45
Chapter 4 : Economical and Safety Issues ................................................................................. 49
A. Estimation of the Cost of the Project ....... 49
B. Safety of the Design................................................................. 49
Chapter 5 : Project Management ................................................................................................ 50
A. Work done in First Semester ................................... 50
B. Work to be done in Second Semester....... 50
Chapter 6 : Conclusion and Future Work ................................................................................. 51
References ..................................................................................................................................... 52

List of Tables
Table 1: Specification of Resistive Touch Screen .......................................................................... 13
Table 2: Effect of Increasing gain coefficients on system parametes ............................................ 22
Table 3: PID Gain Parameters ........................................................................................................ 34
Table 4: 5-wire touch screens scanning.......................................................................................... 37

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List of Figures
Figure 1: Ball on Balancing Beam’ Built by Berkeley Robotics Laboratory (Arroyo 2005).......... 8
Figure 2: Ball and Beam Balancer’ Built by University of Lakehead .............................................. 9
Figure 3: Ball and Beam Module Presented by ‘Quanser’ (Quanser 2006) ..................................... 9
Figure 4: Ball on Beam System (Hirsch 1999)............................................................................... 10
Figure 5: A Robotic Ball Balancing Beam (Lieberman 2004) ....................................................... 10
Figure 6: Resistive Touch Screen ................................................................................................... 12
Figure 7: Servomotor to be used .................................................................................................... 13
Figure 8: Motor's specifications ..................................................................................................... 14
Figure 9: Arduino Uno ................................................................................................................... 15
Figure 10: Block Diagram of PID Controller ................................................................................. 20
Figure 11: Block Diagram of the open loop system ....................................................................... 23
Figure 12: Block Diagram representing one axis of system ........................................................... 24
Figure 13: Free Body Diagram of Ball on Beam............................................................................ 25
Figure 14: Complete Free Body Diagram ...................................................................................... 26
Figure 15: Cascade Control Design ................................................................................................ 30
Figure 16: Block Diagram of the Inner Loop ................................................................................. 31
Figure 17 Block Diagram Representing the Outer Loop ................................................................ 32
Figure 18: 5-wire pins .................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 19: Electrodes in 5- wire touch screens............................................................................... 38
Figure 20: The layout of the voltage ranges with the corresponding digital values ....................... 39
Figure 21: Design suggestion for 5-wire touch screens ................................................................. 43
Figure 22: Servomotor Wires and their Connections ..................................................................... 44
Figure 23: Types of Servomotors ................................................................................................... 45
Figure 24: Two Phase of two phase squirrel cage AC servomotor ................................................ 45
Figure 25: Torque and speed characteristics .................................................................................. 46
Figure 26: Separately excited DC motor ........................................................................................ 46
Figure 27: Armature MMF and excitation field MMf .................................................................... 47

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 Chapter 1 : Introduction and Background

The aim of this project is to develop a ball-on-plate balancing system. This type of projects

can be found in many universities due to their importance in teaching the basics of control

system. It plays a major role in solving problems such as horizontally stabilizing an airplane

during landing and in turbulent airflow.

The ball and plate system is one of the popular models developed by control engineers in

order to understand different control strategies and concepts. This system is of particular

interest to the control community because it allows the user to study and validate a wide

class of both linear and nonlinear control schemes before applying them to real-life

applications that reveal similar dynamics. Balancing ships or the Ping-Pong table in water

are some of the real life application.

The horizontal plate will be titled along two horizontal axis (x, y) in order to control the

position of the ball. Each of the two axis will be operated and controlled using:

 Electric motor (servo motors) with a position feedback for control.

 Software (mat lab, Arduino).

The position of the ball on the plate will be detected through a Resistive Touch Screen. At

first, a decision about using a camera and image processing was taken because we thought

that resistive touch screen is not available at affordable cost but after some researches, we

found that the price is reasonable so we decided to use resistive touch screen for simplicity

and more accuracy.

The main objective of this project is to maintain a static ball position on the plate besides

rejecting position disturbances. It’s all about moving to specified positions on the system:

1. The position is given.

2. A trajectory is plotted.

3. The ball is moved to the new location.

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The control signal can be derived by feeding back the position information of the ball. One

of its challenges is that the open loop system in unstable. This can be solved by closing the

open loop by a feedback controller.

The characterizing of the specs in this system is difficult, especially because the motion of

the piece is indirectly controlled.

This project can be divided into three parts:

- The sensor system

- The physical system

- The controller

These will be integrated together into a complete system.

The sensor subsystem consists of the circuitry and software that generate coordinates from

the touch screen.

The physical system refers to the design and machining of parts needed to construct the

large yoke and axle (x and y plane), as well as the new motor bracket, that bears the weight

of the touch screen.

Note: the sensor and physical system will be implemented in FYP 2 through fall semester.

The control system consists of modeling, simulation of the system as a whole, and the

design of the controllers: one for the ball position and another for the plate angles.

A. Literature Review

A ball-and-beam system is one of the challenging control systems integrated into many

practices and techniques. This project concept initially was resolved from the ball-and beam

concept and then it was extended into the ball-and-plate balancing system. This control

challenge originated in the mid-1990s from Rockwell laboratory of Czechoslovakia

University.

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This project has been implemented by many organizations and electrical engineers around

the world.

In this section a brief background of the ball and beam projects will be covered.

In 2005, Arroyo designed a system called “Ball on Balancing Beam in 2005.” It consists of

resistive wire sensor to measure the position of the ball. This sensor acts like a wiper that

is similar to a potentiometer resulting in the position of the ball [1]. Check figure (1).

Figure 1: Ball on Balancing Beam’ Built by Berkeley Robotics Laboratory (Arroyo 2005)

In 2006 Quanser worked on processing the signal from the sensor in a DSP. Besides that,

a DC motor with reduced gear was used. PD controller was used to control the system. This

controller was easy to design, also the overall project was easy to implement. The

disadvantage of this project: the beam was made of acrylic glass that is too hard for a

sudden impact. In addition, the tilting angle of the beam was not measured and was not

takin into consideration in the calculations. Hence the system was not very strong [2].

In 2006, the department of Electrical Engineering at Lakehead University constructed a

system named “Ball and Beam Balancer” (Ambalavanar, Moinuddin & Malyshev 2006). It

includes a DC motor with an integrated gearbox, a resistive wire position sensor, and a

digital encoder. It was controlled by Linear Quadratic Regulator "LQR" controller. It also
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consists of one input (the voltage input of the motor), and two outputs (first the position of

the ball and the second for the tilt angle of the beam). Due to the excellent state space in

the LQR controller that is good at controlling MIMO (multiple input, multiple output), the

system is very robust. Besides that the beam was heavy because it was made of aluminum.

It has high density compared w/ acrylic [3]. See figure (2).

Figure 2: Ball and Beam Balancer’ Built by University of Lakehead

In the same year, Quanser presents a product called “ball and beam module”, it contains of

a position sensor made by a resistive wires and DC servo motor with reducing gearbox. It

was controlled by a PID controller. The configurations were more complicated than “Ball

and Beam Balancer” due to the leverage effect coming from the relative small motor [2].

See figure (3).

Figure 3: Ball and Beam Module Presented by ‘Quanser’ (Quanser 2006)

In 1999, Hirsch constructed his “Ball on Beam System.” It employed an ultrasonic sensor

to measure the position of the ball. However, the angle of the beam was measured using

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potentiometer. Also, where was a motor with a gearbox w/ a high power op-amp circuits.

It was controlled using PD controller. The system was easy to design because of the

simplicity in the mechanical configuration. However, one of its disadvantages is that the

shaft (that supports the weight beam) was too long for the motor bearing leading to a large

moment for the beam [4]. See figure (4).

Figure 4: Ball on Beam System (Hirsch 1999)

In 2004, Rosales built the ball and beam system very similar to the “Ball and Beam

Balancer.” But it was made of acrylic not aluminum. In the same year Lieberman

constructed a system called “A robotic ball balancing beam.” It was similar to (Hirsch

1999) project but the main difference was that Lieberman system used resistive wire

position while Hirsch used ultrasonic [5]. See figure (5).

Figure 5: A Robotic Ball Balancing Beam (Lieberman 2004)

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 B. Challenges

Several challenges in the design and construction of this system can be predicted. First of

all, a method for keeping the ball on the plate rolling when in motion rather than sliding is

necessary.

Secondly, the challenge of balancing is a problem under continuous study for applications

from robotics to transportation, often extensions of the inverted pendulum project.

Therefore, the system can present many challenges and opportunities as an educational tool

to university students studying control systems engineering.

Having a high speed motor and making a system with a small delay since it should respond

directly. Basically, having a system with fast response and increasing the accuracy of the

system are other predicted challenges.

Finally, the basic challenges that will be addressed by our design are the method used to

find the ball position in real time, the mechanisms to tilt the plate accordingly and the design

of the control itself that will be used between sensors and actuators.

Chapter 2 : Design Technical Requirement

A. Idea of Design

The main idea of the design will be illustrated briefly in this section. A reference signal is

given to the system this is the position coordinate that we want the ball to be on. Then the

position of the ball will be measured by a resistive touch screen. The position of the ball is

subtracted from the reference and this is the "error". This error is sent to the PID controller

that is a commonly used controller in industry, and the PID will give the output for the

servo motor this output is the angle of the plate. Then the servo motor will change its angle

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to return the ball back to its initial position and this process will repeat from step 1. All this

process will be illustrated by details through this report.

B. Software and Equipment

In this section, equipment that will be used in this project with their specifications are listed.

a. Resistive touch screen

Our project includes one 5-wires resistive touch screen

Four wires are connected to the electrodes, these are referred to UL (Upper Left), UR

(Upper Right), LL (Lower Left), and LR (Lower Right). The fifth wire is used for sensing

the electrode voltage and referred to (Sense) wire, it is embedded in the top sheet.

This screen is coated with a thin metallic electrically conductive and resistive layer that

causes a change in the electrical current which is registered as a touch event and sent to the

controller for processing.

Figure 6: Resistive Touch Screen

The specifications of the 19 inches resistive touch screen that will be used are:

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 Table 1: Specification of Resistive Touch Screen

Length 323 mm

Width 396 mm

Thickness 2.3 mm

Wires 5 wires resistive touch screen

USB Controller kit Included

b. Servomotors

Our project includes two DSS-M15 servomotors which are positional rotation. (Figure 7)

Figure 7: Servomotor to be used

This motor have the following specification (figure 8):

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 Figure 8: Motor's specifications

c. Arduino Uno

Our project includes one Arduino board which is a microcontroller board. It has 14 digital

input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz

quartz crystal, a USB connection, power jack, an ICSP header and a reset button. Arduino

controls the system by receiving ball location’s data from the screen and control the

servomotors based on it through PID controller. (Figure 9)

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 Figure 9: Arduino Uno

d. Plates

The system has two plates, the lower and the higher. The lower one holds the servomotors

while the higher one holds the resistive screen.

e. Joints

The system has three joints, one is universal, and it is fixed from lower plate to the higher.

The other two joints are connected between the servomotors and the higher plate.

f. Software

Matlab/ Simulink in combination with Arduino will be used for controlling the system

and connecting the components.

C. Alternative Approaches

In this section a summary of the alternative approaches that were encountered before other

than using PID control with resistive touch screen.

a. Ball Position Detection Mechanism

In order to detect the location of the ball these approaches may be taken:

- An overhead digital Camera with processing software, and then calculating the

position by image processing techniques. But this is expensive and require special

software.

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 - Two Cameras on top of the plate, and then calculate the position by image

processing techniques.

- Grid of infrared sensors, this is not expensive but there is limited resolution and

there is excessive wiring.

- 3D motion tracking by attaching an infrared-ultrasonic sensor to the ball and track

the ball in 3D dimension.

- Resistive or capacitive touchscreen grid.

- Photo-transistor sensors

b. Actuation Mechanism:

The actuation mechanism can be done through:

- DC motors attached to cables and pulleys.

- Servo motors attached to arms.

- Linear actuators.

c. Control Mechanism

- PID control on a single micro-controller.

- Matlab/Simulink-based real-time control prototyping application on a single micro-

controller.

- PC-Based Controller, RT Linux.

- Fuzzy Logic

- Robust control

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 Chapter 3 : Design Analysis

In this chapter, a design for controlling the balancing ball system is done. First a

mathematical model of the system will be derived, then the design of the controller will

be set according to specified limitation that are appropriate for the system.

A deep analysis of two important components: servo motors and resistive touch screen

will be covered also.

But before starting, a brief discussion about the types of systems and the effect of the PID

controller on the system will take place.

Types of Systems

a. Linear control system

A linear control system is the system that follows the principle of superposition. This

principle states that the system should include two properties: homogeneity and

additivity. The first property mention that if we multiply the input with a certain constant

then the output is also multiplied by this constant. The second property mention that if the

output of the system to input a1 is b1 and that for a2 is b2 , additivity means when you add

the two inputs the output should be the sum of the two outputs. So the response for

several inputs in linear system is treated by dealing with each input separately and then

adding them.

b. Nonlinear Control System

In real life not every system is linear. Nonlinear systems are systems where the principle

of superposition cannot be applied. So the inputs cannot be treated each one separately

and then adding the outputs of each. In practice, most of the systems are nonlinear even

though they are represented by linear equations. In fact, most systems are linear only in

specific operating ranges. For example, dampers in physical systems are linear at low

| P a g e 17
velocities but they may become nonlinear as velocity increase and the damping force

might become equal to the square of the velocity [6].

i. Linearization of Nonlinear System:

The normal operation of a system is around the equilibrium point because the signal at

this point are considered small. So if the system is operating around equilibrium point

with a small signal, then we can approximate the nonlinear system by a linear one and

this is called linearization of nonlinear system. The new model that involves a linearized

time invariant system is very important in control engineering.

The nonlinear function can be expanded into Taylor series about the operating point and

this in turn will linearize the function. The higher order terms of Taylor series will be

neglected because they are considered small enough [6].

c. Open Loop Systems

In these systems the output has no effect on the input or on the control action. So the

output is not measured and it is not fed back in order to be compared with the input. For

example the washing machine that operates on time basis and don’t measure the output

which is how clean the clothes are. In general, any system operating on time basis is open

loop system.

The accuracy of the open loop control system depends on calibration since the input is not

compared with the reference input. Because the open loop control system is not able to

perform the desired task in the presence of disturbance so in practical life it is used only if

there is no internal or external disturbances. Also, it used in case the relationship between

input and output is known.

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Open loop control system is easy to build because stability is not a main problem. So for

systems with known inputs and with no disturbance it is advisable to use open loop

system.

d. Closed Loop Control System

Closed loop systems are considered to be feedback control systems and in practice these

two terms are used interchangeably. The difference between input signal and the feedback

signal which is the output signal and its derivatives and integrals is called actuating error.

This actuating error is fed back to the controller in order to reduce the error and to bring

the output of the system to the desired value. Hence the closed loop system, is the system

that uses feedback action to reduce error in the system.

One advantage of using closed loop control system is that the system is not sensitive to

external or internal disturbance due to the use of feedback. So this allow us to use

inexpensive or inaccurate components and still we can obtain an accurate control.

But stability in closed loop control system is a major problem because it might allow the

system to overcorrect the error and this will cause oscillations.

The closed loop system is advisable when the system have unpredictable disturbances or

variations are presented in system components.

The number of components used in closed loop is high so it costs more and it consumes

more power and in order to decrease the power of the system it is more applicable to use

open loop control system.

Proportional, Integral, and Derivative controller (PID)

Nowadays, half of the industrial controllers used are PID or modified PID controllers.

PID calculates the difference between the measured value and the desired one and this is

| P a g e 19
called "error value" or e(t). PID attempts to minimize this error and to do a correction

using P, I, and D terms.

Each of the terms P, I, and D has its own purpose and sometimes one can be removed

because it is not needed in the design. So in total we may have: P, PI, PD and PID

controllers.

The block diagram of PID controller is shown in figure (10). As shown in the block

diagram, the PID controller is calculating the error e(t) that is the difference between the

desired value r(t) and the measured one y(t). The controller minimize the error by

adjusting the control variable u(t) which is the summation of the integral, proportional,

and derivative terms. The overall control function is:

𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑝 ∗ 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾𝑖 𝑒(𝑡 )𝑑𝑡 + 𝑘𝑑
𝑑𝑡

Where Kp, Ki, and Kd are the coefficients for the proportional, integral, and derivative

terms respectively.

Figure 10: Block Diagram of PID Controller

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a. Effect of proportional, integral, and derivative components

i. Proportional Control Action

The term proportional means that the output is proportional to the current error value. The

relationship between the controller output u(t) and the error signal e(t) is :

𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑝 ∗ 𝑒(𝑡)

Where Kp is the proportional gain.

Therefore the proportional controller is an amplifier with a proportional gain regardless of

the actual mechanism or the operating power of the system. If Kp is too high then the system

may become unstable. Also small Kp is not advantageous because it will result in small

output for a high input and hence a less responsive controller and the control action might

be too small when responding to disturbance. Increasing kp causes the system to react

quickly but the overshoot will increase. It will also reduce the error but it will not eliminate

it.

ii. Integral Control Action

Whenever an integral action is added to the system then the output, the controller output

u(t) is changed proportionally to the error signal e(t). That is the relation between them is:

𝑢 (𝑡) = 𝐾𝑖 𝑒(𝑡 )𝑑𝑡

Where Ki is an adjustable constant.

The integral action lead to a faster system with eliminating the steady state error that occurs

when having proportional controller. However, the integral action increase the overshoot

of the system.

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 iii. Derivative Control Action

Derivative of error is calculated by determining the slope of the error and multiplying this

rate by the derivative gain Kd. Hence the output is:

𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑘𝑑
𝑑𝑡

The derivate term predicts the behavior of the system in the future, so it improves the

settling time and the stability of the system and the overshoot decrease. But it has no effect

on the error.

Hence each control action has its own advantages and drawbacks. Combining the three

control actions can allow us to have a better control over the system but the decision is

taken according to the specifications and requirements of the system. When designing the

designer should take care when choosing the controller coefficients. Table (2), will

summarize the effect of increasing each of the coefficients kp, ki, and kd independently on

the parameters of the system.

Table 2: Effect of Increasing gain coefficients on system parametes

Coefficient Rise Time Settling Time Overshoot Steady State Error

Kp Decrease Small change Increase Decrease

Kd No change Decrease Decrease Small effect

Ki Decrease Increase Increase Eliminate

b. Tuning of PID Controller

Tuning of controller means adjusting the control parameters (proportional, integral, and

derivative gain) in order to get the most appropriate values that will lead for the best

response of the system. Usually having a stable system is one of the most important and

| P a g e 22
basic requirements that we aim for but it is a matter of fact that different systems have

different requirements according to the applications of the system.

B. Model Development

In order to construct the PID controller of the system, first the transfer function of the

system will be established. Then a design for proportional velocity PV that is responsible

for controlling the position of servo load shaft will be determined.

Also a PID design will be formed, this design is responsible for controlling the position of

ball on plate.

Both the PV and the PID controller are responsible for controlling the whole system.

To begin with, the block diagram that represents the open loop system of the ball balancing

system is shown in figure (11) below:

Vm,x(s) Servo x_axis θ1,x(s) Pbb(s) X(s)

(s)Ps

Servo y_axis
Vm,y(s) θ1,y(s) Pbb(s) X(s)
(s)Ps

Figure 11: Block Diagram of the open loop system

Where Ps(s) is the dynamic between servo input motor voltage and resulting load angle and

Pbb(s) is the dynamic between angle of servo load gear and position of ball.

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It is important to mention that x_axis actuator does not affect y_axis, but the dynamic of

each axis is the same. So modeling one axis only is acceptable.

The block diagram that represent one axis of the system is shown in figure (12) and it is

noted as 1DBB:

Servo Plant
Vm(s) θ1(s) Pbb(s) X(s)
Ps (s)

Figure 12: Block Diagram representing one axis of system

The complete transfer function of system P(s), is:

𝑃(𝑠) = 𝑃 (𝑠) 𝑃 (𝑠) [1]

Where 1DBB transfer function, Pbb(s) and servo transfer function Ps(s) are:

( )
𝑃 (𝑠 ) = ( )
[2]

( )
𝑃 (𝑠 ) = ( )
[3]

Knowing that voltage to load angle is given by:

𝑃 (𝑠 ) = ( )
[4]

Where k is the proportional gain and τ is time constant [6].

a. Equation of Motion

Equation that describes motion of ball (x) with respect to angle of beam (α) is represented

as:

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑓(𝛼(𝑡)) [5]

Noting that f(α(t)) is nonlinear function.

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 Figure (13) presents the free body diagram of ball on beam. Applying Newton's law of

motion:

∑𝑓 = 𝑚 𝑥(𝑡) [6]

Where mb is the ball mass. Neglecting friction the equation ends up as:

𝑓, −𝑓, = 𝑚 𝑥(𝑡) [7]

Where fx,t is the translational force caused by gravity and fx,r is the force generated from

ball's inertia.

Figure 13: Free Body Diagram of Ball on Beam

For the ball to be in equilibrium, i.e. stationary at certain moment, force from ball

momentum should be equal to force produced by gravity.

i. Force caused by gravity along beam in x-direction, f x,t

Consider the free body diagram shown in figure (14) with forces on ball presented on it.

Then force acting on positive x_direction is:

𝑓 , = 𝑚 𝑔 sin 𝛼(𝑡) [8]

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 mb g sin( α )

Figure 14: Complete Free Body Diagram

ii. Force caused by rotational inertia of ball in x-direction, fx,r

To convert between linear and angular displacement, sector formula is used and it states:

𝑥 (𝑡 ) = 𝛾 (𝑡) 𝑟 [9]

Where γb represents angle of ball, and rb is the radius of ball.

Force caused by rotational spin of ball is:

𝐹, = [10]

τb presents torque of the ball and it is equal to:

𝜏 = 𝐽 𝛾 (𝑡 ) [11]

Where Jb is moment of inertia of ball.

( )
Using EQ [9], 𝛾 (𝑡) =

Then EQ [10] can be rewritten as:

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 ( )
𝐹, = 𝐽 [12]

Hence, the nonlinear equation of ball and beam is:

( )
𝑚 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑚 𝑔 sin 𝛼(𝑡) − 𝐽 [13]

Solving for linear acceleration the equation of motion becomes:

( )
𝑥(𝑡) = [14]

It is important to mention that this obtained equation is not linear due to the presence of

trigonometric terms in it and we shall linearize it. This will be done using the below steps:

1. Obtain a relation between servo load gear angle θ1 and beam angle α.

Consider that servo angle change the height of beam by h given the length of plate (L)

Then sine of balance table angle is:

sin(𝛼(𝑡)) = [15]

Now, taking the sine of servo load angle gives:

sin(𝜃 (𝑡)) = [16]

Substituting ℎ = sin 𝜃 (𝑡) 𝑟 in EQ (15) gives:

( ( ))
sin 𝛼(𝑡) = [17]

2. Linearize the equation of motion that represent ball's motion with respect to servo

angle θ1 at θ1=0.

( ( ))
𝑥 (𝑡 ) = [18]
( )

| P a g e 27
At angle zero , sin(θ1(t))= θ1(t)

 Substituting this in the nonlinear equation of motion results in linear equation of

motion. (For 1D plant)

( )
𝑥 (𝑡 ) = [19]
( )

3. Simplify the equation

Parameter Kbb is the model gain and it is the coefficient of θ1. Hence Kbb is:

𝐾 = [20]
( )

Note: moment of inertia of a solid sphere is:

𝐽= [21]

The numerical value of Kbb can be obtained whenever the mass of ball is known.

Hence the final linear equation of motion of 1D balancing ball system is:

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐾 𝜃 (𝑡) [22]

C. Control Development

a. Determining Transfer Function of the System:

The transfer function that describes servo voltage to ball position displacement (for single

axis is obtained in this section.

Assuming initial conditions are zero, then the Laplace Transform of the linear equation of

motion is:

𝑠 𝑋(𝑠) − 𝐷𝑋 (0) − 𝑆 𝑋(0) = 𝐾 𝜃 (𝑠) [23]

( )
𝑋(𝑠) = [24]

| P a g e 28
The transfer function Pbb(s) of 1D using EQ (2) is:

𝑃 (𝑠 ) = [25]

The complete transfer function that includes both servo and 1D is:

𝑃(𝑠) = 𝑃 (𝑠) 𝑃 (𝑠) = [26]

( )

Servo voltage to x_axis ball displacement transfer function is:

( )
𝑋(𝑠) = [27]
( )

b. Desired Control Parameters:

1. Time domain specifications for controlling position of servo load shaft are:

ess = 0 [28]

tp < 0.15 s [29]

% overshoot < 5% [30]

These are the transient response when tracking the load shaft with a step

reference.

2. Time domain specification for controlling the position of the ball for both x and y

axis are:

|ess| < 0.001 s [31]

ts < 2.5 s [32]

cts =0.04 [33]

% overshoot < 7.5% [34]

So it is desired that the ball should not overshoot more than 7.5 % after 2.5 sec and it must

settle within 4% of its s.s value. And the s.s should be within 1mm of desired location.

| P a g e 29
 It is important to note that the formulas for calculating % overshoot, peak time, and settling

time are as below:

𝑡 = [35]

𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑡 = 𝑒 [36]

( )
𝑡 = [37]

Where ζ is the damping ratio of the system and ωn is the natural frequency.

c. Ball and beam cascade control design

The block diagram of the system is shown in figure (15). This block diagram consists of

two loops: inner and outer loop. The inner loop is responsible for controlling the servo

motor. So the servo compensator Cs(s) calculates motor's voltage, Vm(s) required for the

load angle to track the given desired load angle. The outer loop is responsible for controlling

the plate angle according to the desired ball location. So the needed servo load angle, θd is

computed by the ball balancer compensator, Cbb(s) based on the ball position, X(s) in order

to attain the desired ball position Xd(s).

1D Compensator Servo Compensator Servo Plant 1D Plant

E(s) Cbb(s) Θd(s) Es(s) Vm(s) Θ1(s)
+ + Cs(s) Ps(s) Pbb(s)
Xd(s) - -
X(S)

Figure 15: Cascade Control Design

| P a g e 30
i. Inner Loop Design (position control of PV)

PV controller gain are computed for servo when it is in high gear configuration and based

on time domain specifications.

The block diagram that describes the inner loop is shown in figure (16).

Θd(s) Es(s) Cs(s) Vm(s) Θ1(s)

Ps(s)

Figure 16: Block Diagram of the Inner Loop

The steady state gain K and time constant τ should be computed at high gear configuration.

These are to be calculated based on the device parameters. That’s why this part will be

postponed until next semester so that all calculations will be done according to the approved

servo motor that will be used. Kp and Kv are also dependent on the value of K.

Damping ratio and natural frequency of the inner loop should also be computed.

The damping ratio is calculated from the desired % of overshoot that is PO < 5%

After some calculation we get 𝜁 =

( )
Where 𝑎 =

 𝜁 = 0.69 [38]

Similarly the natural frequency is calculated from the peak time, and after some

calculations the resulting 𝜔 𝑖𝑠:

𝜋
𝜔 =
𝑡 1−𝜁

 𝜔 = 28.93 rad/sec [39]

| P a g e 31
ii. Outer loop control design

In this section, it is assumed that the desired load angle is equal to the actual load angle,

i.e.

𝜃 (𝑡) = 𝜃 (𝑡) [40]

This assumption is due to the fact that the dynamics of servo dynamics can be considered

negligible after computing the position of servo load shaft from the inner loop.

The block diagram showing the outer loop is shown in figure (17), a PID will be designed

in order to control this loop will control and thereafter the position of the ball along the x-

axis will be controlled.

1D Compensator 1D Plant
Xd(s) E(s) Cbb(s) Θd(s) Θ1(s) X(S)
+ Gs(s) Pbb(s)
-

Figure 17: Block Diagram Representing the Outer Loop

d. PID design

The equation representing the PID compensator that will be used is:

𝜃 (𝑡) = 𝑘 𝑥 (𝑡) − 𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑘 𝑥 (𝑡) − 𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑘 ∫ 𝑥 (𝑡) − 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 [41]

Where kp,bb, kd,bb, and ki,bb are the proportional gain, derivative gain, and integral gain

respectively.

Now, taking the Laplace of EQ (41) and doing some manipulation the closed loop equation

will be obtained.

The resulting Laplace equation is:

| P a g e 32
 𝜃 (𝑠 ) = 𝑘 + 𝑋 (𝑠 ) − 𝑋 (𝑠 ) + 𝑘 𝑠 𝑋 (𝑠) − 𝑋(𝑠) [42]

Since as mentioned before, there is no servo dynamics then the actual angle is equal to the

desired angle, i.e.

𝜃 (𝑠 ) = 𝑘 + 𝑋 (𝑠 ) − 𝑋 (𝑠 ) + 𝑘 𝑠 𝑋 (𝑠) − 𝑋(𝑠)

The closed loop equation can be found by substituting the equation of θ1 in equation (24),

this will results to the following equation:

( )
( )
= [43]

 This is a third order equation and it can be simplified into second order system and

1st order system in order to do the transient response analysis. To do so, first

consider the 3rd order characteristic equation:

(𝑠 + 2 𝜁 𝜔 𝑠 + 𝜔 )(𝑠 + 𝑃 ) [44]

Where P0 is the pole location. ζ, ωn, and P0 determine the response of the 3rd order system

and they are calculated in order to satisfy the time domain specification stated.

The PID gain parameters should be calculated.

 Expanding the 3rd order characteristic equation results in the following equation:

𝑠 +𝑠 (𝑃 + 2𝜁𝜔 ) + 𝑠(2 𝜁 𝜔 𝑃 + 𝜔 ) + 𝜔 𝑃 [45]

 Comparing this characteristic equation with the system's characteristic equation,

i.e.

𝑠 +𝑘 𝑘 𝑠+𝑘 +𝑘 𝑠 [46]

And equating for the coefficients of sn results in:

| P a g e 33
 Table 3: PID Gain Parameters

S0 𝑘 𝑘 = 𝜔 𝑃

S1 𝑘 𝑘 = 2𝜁𝜔 𝑃 +𝜔

S2 𝑘 𝑘 = 𝑃 + 2𝜁𝜔

 PID controller gain parameters are:

𝑘 = [47]

𝑘 = [48]

𝑘 = [49]

Using time domain specifications to calculate the natural frequency and damping ratio of

the system results in:

𝑎
𝜁=
1+𝑎

( )
Where 𝑎 = and PO is 7.5%

( )
And 𝜔 = with ts = 2.5 and cts = 0.04.

 𝜁 = 0.636 [50]

 𝜔 = 2.187 rad/ sec [51]

Substituting these values in equations (47), (48), and (49), gives the control gain

parameters. With stating that P0 is specified according to the pole decay time constant, Tp.

Note: because we decided to leave the calculation of Kbb until we get the ball that we will

use, these parameters will be in terms of Kbb just for now.

| P a g e 34
  For Tp = 1 sec (P0= 1), PID gain parameters are as below:
.
𝑘 = [52]

.
𝑘 = [53]

.
𝑘 = [54]

To sum up, the linearized equation of motion was determined using newton's law. Since

the position of the ball in x direction is independent of that in y direction then similar but

independent controllers can be used for controlling the coordinates of ball on plate in both

directions. So in this section a design of one controller was discussed and the second is the

same.

The controller is designed with the concept of loop within a loop. The design of the inner

loop is achieved where a feedback is sent to the servo motor to achieve a servo position

control. This loop should have a very high response speed and the design of the controller

should take this into consideration. This inner loop is then placed in an outer loop that

controls the position of the ball on the plate by determining the transfer function that relates

the ball position with the plate angle.

Therefore, the controller receives the ball position from the resistive touch screen, while

the outer loop is computing the angle by which the plate should be tilted to return the ball

to its position the inner loop is giving the order to the servo motor to actually move the

plate by that angle.

D. Resistive Touch Screen Subsystem Development

Ball position feedback is accomplished using an analog resistive touch screen element.

Those types of screen are mainly used in public information kiosks (a small open-fronted

| P a g e 35
hut from which newspaper and tickets are sold) and cashier stations. It allows the user to

interact with the screen directly.

Based on the feedback of the system, the touch screen will read the application of pressure

by a steel ball and track it as it moves within the active portion of the screen.

The design of the resistive touch screen consists of:

1. Two layers of material are coated with Indiumtin oxide (ITO) to give them a known

resistance, something between 100 and 500 /sq. depending on the manufacturer and

the application.

2. The two layers are replaced 90_ offset from each other on top of a glass or

polycarbonate substrate, with a grid of transparent insulating dots separating the

layers.

3. Silver bus bars are placed at the edges to allow the application of voltage across the

layers [7].

To generate a touch position, the force of the ball must exceed the activation force of the

screen, pressing the two layers together. This creates an electrical connection between the

two layers. However, both X and Y axes cannot be read simultaneously, because the

concept works by applying a voltage across one layer, and looking for the voltage that

appears on the other layer. Therefore, the system works by alternately applying a voltage

to one layer and reading of the other. After that the voltages can be read using analog-to-

digital (A/D) converter to be used as a coordinate value.

There are several types of analog resistive touch screens that differ in the number of wires

between the screen and the screen controller. Some of them are 4-wires, 5-wires, and 8-

wires.

To start by the specifications of 4-wires screens: they operate by applying voltage across

the two wires for one layer, and reading the voltage from the ground wire of the other layer.

| P a g e 36
The 5-wire screens use the bottom layer for both axes measurements, applying voltage

across the top layer only. This simplifies measurement and voltage application duties over

the 4-wire screen.

The 8-wire screen is an extension of the 4-wire screen, using the additional 2-wires per

layer to provide a stable voltage gradient. The number of wires effect on the stability while

testing.

In this project we are going to use 5-wire analog resistive touch screen based on our

requirements, applications, and specifications.

It consists of a conductive glass bottom layer and conductive top film layer. In the 5-wire

construction, all the electrodes are on the bottom layer and the top layer acts as a voltage-

measuring probe. When the screen is touched, it pushes the ITO film to have an electrical

contact with ITO glass (both on the ITO coating side). It then produces a voltage which is

the analog representation of the position touched. With this structure, the touch screen may

still work properly even when the top layer is slightly scratched or damaged. The result is

an accurate, durable and reliable touch screen that offers a higher touch life. [7]

Figure 18: 5-wire pins

Table 4: 5-wire touch screens scanning

ULexcite URexcite LLexcite LRexcite Sense

Standby Gnd Hi-Z Hi-Z Hi-Z Pull up/int
x-coordinate Grd Vcc Gnd Vcc Hi-Z/ADC
y-coordinate Grd Gnd Vcc Vcc Hi-Z/ADC

| P a g e 37
A 5-wire touch screen only uses the top sheet for measuring. Referring to figure (18) and

table (4) that shows the connections while measuring the coordinates on 5-wire touch

screens. 5-wires connect to the electrodes these are referred to as UL (Upper Left), UR

(Upper Right), LL (Lower Left), and LR (Lower Right). The fifth wire is used for sensing

the electrode voltage and is referred to as the “sense” wire. The sense wire is embedded in

the top sheet.

Figure 19: Electrodes in 5- wire touch screens

5-wire touch screens have circular electrodes (see Figure 19). Since all of them reside in

the substrate ITO there is a need for linearization pattern (conductive) to make an applied

voltage gradient uniform.

To get a complete set of coordinates, the voltage gradient is applied on the substrate layer

once in horizontal direction to determine the Y coordinate and once in vertical direction to

determine the X coordinate. In both cases the top sheet layer is used to do a high-impedance

measurement after the sensing voltage has settled.

a. Excitation and measurement method

The method for measuring the pressure point is based upon a preferably homogenous

resistive surface (ITO). When applying a voltage to the electrode pair in the resistive

surface a uniform voltage gradient appears across the surface. A second ITO layer is

necessary to do a high-resistance voltage measurement. A resistive touch screen can thus

| P a g e 38
be seen as an electrical switch requiring a small amount of pressure (0.1 – 1.5 Newton) to

close.

Using 10-bits of resolution enables the controller to have a maximum theoretical

1024x1024 positions on the surface of the touch screen. This, however, is limited to a subset

of the full range, (100-900)x(100-900) positions, due to losses in drive voltage from the

various transmission lines leading to the screen itself. The layout of the voltage ranges with

the corresponding digital values is shown in figure (20):

Figure 20: The layout of the voltage ranges with the corresponding digital values

b. Connections with MATLAB

Every touch controller “report” consists of an X-Y coordinate pair.

The SC3 controller takes these X-Y coordinate pairs it produces and converts them into

sets of three 8-bit packets which can be converted into coordinate pairs.

These packets can be sent asynchronously and without prompting: as soon as the touch

screen receives sufficient pressure for the controller to register a touch, the system begins

to send data. A serial interface needs to be created in MATLAB Simulink that can be

| P a g e 39
compiled for the xPC Target system in order to process this data, and get the resultant

coordinate information into the real-time computer. Normally, Simulink is unable to utilize

binary numbers; however, the Communications Toolbox allows conversion to and from

binary [7].

This makes possible the individual bit manipulation necessary to move the 8-bit packets

from the controller into the 10-bit binary words that the controller’s A/D converter creates.

After assembling the Simulink system and using the steel ball to generate coordinate paths,

it becomes obvious that while the touch screen does generate a great many points, it

generates a number of coordinates in the same area due to settling time settings in the

controller.

The easiest alternative was to pass the generated coordinates is through a low-pass filter.

The rapid changes in the output coordinates are equivalent to a step command, so in order

to smooth it; we added first order low pass filter, with a cutoff at 50 radian/second.

Moreover, with the coordinates been smoothed, the remaining work is to scale and map of

coordinates. First of all, the coordinates generated by the touch screen are based on a

reference point of (0,0) in the top left corner, as seen in Figure3. The controller, however,

assumes (0,0) to be the center of touch screen, which is really coordinate point (512,512).

So, to map the coordinates to this new space, each generated coordinate is reduced by 512

to find the new coordinate. The controller is also expecting displacements from the center

(0,0) point in meters. To scale the coordinates to meters, the known resolution and size of

the touch screen is utilized to find the meters per digital level generated by the touch screen

controller as below:

= 2.356 (𝑋) [55]

| P a g e 40
 = 1.860 (𝑌) [56]

Finally, due to the calculation done by the controller, the error is calculated and the new

position will be sent to the controller of the servomotor to calculate the angle that the touch

screen must be tilted by to relocate the ball in the desired location.

c. Requirements for a touch screen controller

i. ADC

An (A/D) converter with a resolution of 10 bits and the absolute inaccuracy far under the

linearity error of the touch screen is required for the conversion of the analog values into

digital values.

The conversion time of the ADC must be applied when the minimum detection time for

applying pressure on the screen is considered and the coordinates are changed. Also, the

CPU must be able to process the ADC readings with sufficient computational accuracy to

not reduce the detection rate.

ii. I/O pins

The pins driving the touch screen must be able to sink and source in the range of 525mA

(depending on the value of the ITO resistance and the voltage used).

We need 4 digital IO pins and two analog inputs (ADC channels).

A 5-wire touch screen controller just needs one analog input line – to measure the sense

line.

iii. Timer

A timer is used as a scheduler for different purposes, since the proposed method is interrupt

driven; there is no need for additional delays. And it also can be used to trigger the ADC

and set the I/O pins in the correct order immediately before a measurement starts, create a

| P a g e 41
 timeout function; which sets the controller in sleep mode when there are no activities to be

detected on the touch screen for a certain time.

iv. Activity detection

As touch screens are often used in portable applications, the power consumption of the

touch screen controller should be taken into account

To reduce the power consumption, the touch screen controller must enter a low power

consumption when there is no activity is detected on the touch screen. This operation called

“standby.” Therefore, to enable the use of “standby,” level-change detection should be

implemented using a pin change interrupt combined with an internal pull-up. In this case

the touch screen will be allowed to enter low power mode while waiting for any activity on

the screen, and to wake up when the pin is change is been trigged.

1. Connecting the touch screen to the AVR

Figure 4 shows how to connect the ATmega88 to respectively a 5-wire touch screen. In

order to drive a 5-wire touch screen one have to connect the sense line to an ADC channel

input of the AVR. The remaining lines should be connected to any I/Os. As voltage

reference it is recommended to use AVCC with an external capacitor on the AREF pin. To

minimize noise signals it is common to add capacitors from the touch screen drivers to

ground forming a low-pass filter (typical value 0.01µF), but it might will increase the time

constant of your system.

| P a g e 42
 Figure 21: Design suggestion for 5-wire touch screens

E. Servomotor

In this section, a discussion about the servo motors and their specifications and importance

will be covered. Servomotors find wide applications in radar, tracking and guidance

systems, process controllers, computers and machine tools.

a. Definition

Servomotors are rotary actuators or motors that allow for a precise control in terms of

angular position, acceleration and velocity.

Servomotors have three wires:

1. Power wire: is typically red, it should be connected to the 5V pin on the Arduino or

Genuino board.

2. Ground wire: is typically black or brown, it should be connected to a ground pin on the

board.

3. Signal wire: is typically yellow, orange or white, it should be connected to a PWM pin

on the board.

| P a g e 43
 Figure 22: Servomotor Wires and their Connections

b. Features

Servomotors:

- Produce high torque at all speeds including zero speed.

- Capable of holding static position.

- Do not overheat at standstill or lower speeds.

- Due to low-inertia, are able to reverse directions quickly.

- Are able to accelerate and decelerate quickly.

- Are able to return to a given position time after time without any drift.

| P a g e 44
c. Types of Servomotor

Figure 23: Types of Servomotors

1. AC Servo Motor:

These motors are either two-phase squirrel cage induction type or three-phase one.

First type is used for low power applications while the second one is used for high

power applications.

The stator has two distributed windings which are displaced from each other by

90º. The main winding is supplied from a constant voltage source, Vin∠ 0º. The

other winding is supplied with a variable voltage of the same frequency as the

reference phase but is phase-displaced by 90º. The control phase voltage is

controlled by an electronic controller.[8] (figure 24)

Figure 24: Two Phase of two phase squirrel cage AC servomotor

| P a g e 45
 DC: These motors are either separately excited DC motors or permanent magnet

DC motors. The torque/speed characteristics were shown in Figure 25 and the

schematic diagram of a separately-excited DC motor along with its armature and

field MMFs shown in Figure 26.

Figure 25: Torque and speed characteristics

Figure 26: Separately excited DC motor

The speed of DC servomotors is normally controlled by varying the armature voltage. Their

armature is deliberately designed to have large resistance so that torque speed

characteristics are linear and have a large negative slope.

| P a g e 46
The negative slope serves the purpose of providing the viscous damping for the servo drive

system. As shown in Figure 27 the armature MMF and excitation field MMF are in

quadrature.

Figure 27: Armature MMF and excitation field MMf

Note: both AC and DC types have two types:

a. Positional Rotation Servo Motor

This is a most common type of motor and the o/p of the shaft rotates in about 180°.

It comprises physical stops situated in the gear device to stop revolving outside

limits to protect the rotation sensor.

b. Continuous Rotation Servo Motor

This motor is quite correlated to the common positional rotation servo motor, but it

can move in any direction indefinitely. As per the speed & direction of rotation, the

control signal rather than set the static position of the servo is assumed. The range

of potential commands causes the motor to rotate clockwise or anticlockwise as

chosen, at varying speed, depending on the command signal.

In our project two dc servomotors will be used one for each direction (x and y). These servo

motors will be connected as below:

| P a g e 47
Motor 1:

- PWM wire to pin (9)-PWM pin

- Power wire to +ve pole of batteries’ set

- Ground wire to –ve pole of batteries’ set

Motor 2:

- PWM wire to pin (10)-PWM pin

- Power wire to +ve pole of batteries’ set

- Ground wire to –ve pole of batteries’ set

The decision for choosing the servo motor was upon the need of high speed that’s why the

DSS-M15 servomotor was chosen for having operating speed 0.18 sec/ 60° and for being

a displacement motors i.e. having 180° rotation.

| P a g e 48
Chapter 4 : Economical and Safety Issues

A. Estimation of the Cost of the Project

In this section the cost of f each component is presented:

The price of the resistive plate is approximately: 70$

The price of the motor is approximately: 70$

Arduino: 5$

The price of joints: 20$

Plates: 10$

The total is 175 $

Then estimated cost for this project is approximately 200$.

B. Safety of the Design

In any project wherever the domain was, or the technique used we have to take into

consideration the safety. Design decisions must emphasize the goal of a safe product that

could be used for educational purposes.

- Metal edges must be filed and screw heads countersunk to prevent injury during

possible system instability.

- To protect the user if the touch pad become damaged we can use a polycarbonate

plate placed across the rotational axis to protect the glass substrate of the touch

screen.

- A further level of safety is to shut the system down upon retrieval of 0s to the

coordinate generator in case the ball break contact with the plate or the ball left

the plate entirely.

- Regarding the software, torque thresholds could be added to prevent violent

behavior under unstable conditions.

| P a g e 49
Chapter 5 : Project Management

A. Work done in First Semester

In this semester, a research about the topic was done. We discovered different

approaches for implementing the design until we took the final decision.

A decision about the components that should be used was taken according to the

specification of the project and to parameters of the components.

A model of the system is set and the design of the PID controller is covered.

A meeting every week was done so that the group members can share the latest updates

with each other besides to the meeting with the advisor.

B. Work to be done in Second Semester

In next semester when the ordered equipment are received the implementation will be done.

The codes needed will be written and a further study for improving the system and adding

some specifications such as allowing the ball to move in a predefined direction.

| P a g e 50
Chapter 6 : Conclusion and Future Work

The objective of the project was to control the position of the ball on the plate for static

positions and smooth paths, as well as have the system capable of correcting for

disturbances in ball position. It was about two servo motor connected to the beneath of the

plate. These servo motor are with high speed. Also, the position of the ball on the plate was

detected through a resistive touch screen. Thus, the overall system consists of two distinct

processing units, one running the PID control and controls the servo motors while the other

one that does the reading from the resistive touch screen to track the ball position. The

project was divided into three parts the sensor system, physical system, and controller

system. They were integrated together into a complete system since the sensor subsystem

consists of the circuitry and software that generate coordinates from the touch screen.

Finally, the goal of this project is to be taught as a basic for control system in universities

and to be used in many fields that require balancing and controlling issues.

| P a g e 51
References

[1] Arroyo, S. (2005). Ball on Balancing Beam. Viewed December 12, 2006.

[2] Quanser (2006). Q4 hardware in the loop board. Viewed September10, 2006.

[3]Ambalavanar, S., Moinuddin, H. M. &Malyshev, A. (2006). Ball and beam balancer.

BA Thesis, Lakehead University.

[4] Bang, H. (2018). Implementation of a Ball and Plate Control System using Sliding

Mode Control. Viewed May 2018.

[5] Lieberman, J. (2004). A robotic ball balancing beam. Viewed September 12, 2006.

[6] Ogata, K. (1990). Modern Control Engineering.

[7] Andrews, G., Colasuonno, C., Herrmann, A. (2004). Ball on plate balancing system.

Viewed April 28, 2004.

[8] Wang, W. (2007). Control of a Ball and Beam System. School of Mechanical

Engineering, the University of Adelaide. . Viewed June 5, 2007.

[9] Cazzolato, B. (2006). Lecture notes distributed in the unit, 3028 Dynamics & Control

II. School of Mechanical Engineering, the University of Adelaide.

| P a g e 52