Professional Documents
Culture Documents
net/publication/223752908
CITATIONS READS
162 2,897
3 authors, including:
Dilek Cetindamar
University of Technology Sydney
117 PUBLICATIONS 1,051 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
All content following this page was uploaded by Dilek Cetindamar on 28 January 2018.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Abstract
This paper explores the topic of technology management (TM) through the lens of dynamic capabilities theory. Technological
changes are continuously creating new challenges and opportunities new product, service, process and organisational develop-
ment. However, these opportunities need to be captured and converted into value through effective and dynamic TM. This requires
a new way of understanding TM that captures its dynamic nature as well as managerial aspects. A TM framework is presented
that is based on dynamic capabilities theory, emphasising the development and exploitation of technological capabilities that are
changing on an ongoing base. Dynamic capabilities theory is not primarily concerned with fixed assets, but rather aims to explain the
way in which a firm allocates resources for innovation over time, how it generates and deploys its existing resources, and where it
obtains new resources. This is highly relevant for developing an approach to TM that can explain how combinations of
resources and processes can be developed, deployed and protected for each TM activity. A framework is proposed that posi-
tions TM activities with respect to the wider business context, supported by a case study to illustrate the value of the TM
framework.
r 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Technology management; Dynamic capabilities; Technology management activities; Framework; Case study
0166-4972/$ - see front matter r 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.technovation.2008.10.004
Author's personal copy
ARTICLE IN PRESS
238 D. Cetindamar et al. / Technovation 29 (2009) 237–246
effective and dynamic TM. This, however, requires a new organisation’s management a set of decision options for
way of understanding TM that captures its dynamic nature producing significant outputs of a particular type’ (Winter,
as well as the managerial features. An appropriate 2000, p. 983). A routine refers to a ‘repetitive pattern of
paradigm or perspective for understanding TM could be activity’. Similarly, competencies refer to activities to be
the dynamic capabilities theory. In its most elaborate form, performed by assembling firm-specific assets/resources
dynamic capabilities are the ability to reconfigure, redirect, such as miniaturisation and systems integration. Consider-
transform, and appropriately shape and integrate existing ing that competence describes routines/activities and
core competences with external resources and strategic and capability comprises both dynamic and operational abil-
complementary assets to meet the challenges of a time- ities, these two terms are used interchangeably in the
pressured, rapidly changing Schumpeterian world of literature (Teece et al., 1997). That is why dynamic
competition and imitation (Teece et al., 2000). capabilities are conceived as routines/activities/competen-
There are three main reasons why dynamic capabilities cies embedded in firms (Eisenhardt and Martin, 2000;
theory could enhance the understanding of TM. Firstly, it Bergek et al., 2008). Defined as such, technological
is not specific technological innovations but rather the capabilities consist of both dynamic and operational
capability to generate a stream of product, service and capabilities that are a collection of routines/activities to
process changes that matter for long-term firm perfor- execute and coordinate the variety of tasks required to
mance (Rush et al., 2007). Secondly, it becomes possible to manage technology. Thus, this article will analyse the core
break with highly aggregated and static models in favour of activities by which firms perform in order to achieve
observing the dynamics taking place in the organisation of effective TM.
firms since the unit of analysis becomes the capabilities Dynamic capabilities theory is not interested in fixed
(Best, 2001). Thirdly, this theory does not take the market assets per se, but rather it aims to explain the way in which
or the product as given, but as objects of strategic a firm allocates resources for innovation over time, how it
reconstitution, emphasising the key role of strategic deploys its existing resources, and where it obtains new
management in appropriately adapting, integrating, and resources (Teece et al., 1997). This is highly relevant for
re-configuring internal and external organisational skills, understanding TM that aims to explain how combinations
resources, and functional competences towards a changing of resources and processes can be developed, deployed and
environment (Teece et al., 1997). Putting together these protected for each TM activity.
three advantages, the dynamic capabilities theory helps to The quest of TM becomes the quest of TM activities that
highlight the most critical capabilities management needs will help to build technological capabilities. Therefore, the
to sustain for competitive advantage. main elements of a TM system in this article are TM
TM can be conceived as the development and exploita- activities. In order for the performance of an activity to
tion of technological capabilities that are changing constitute a capability, the capability must have reached
continuously (Best, 2001; NRC, 1987). There are many some threshold level of practiced or routine activity. Each
definitions in the literature regarding technological cap- TM activity is related to a certain technological capability,
abilities. Some consider it as an ability to find and use comprising one or more processes/routines/competencies.
technology to secure and sustain competitive advantage Process can be described as an approach to achieving a
(Rush et al., 2007), while others use a narrower definition managerial objective, through the transformation of inputs
of executing all technical functions entailed in operating, into outputs. So, the term activity is used interchangeably
improving and modernising a firm’s productive facilities with process or routine even though it refers rather to an
(Lall, 1990). A recent study defines TM as the capability to aggregate level as an umbrella term to associate it with the
make effective use of technical knowledge and skills, not concept of capability.
only in an effort to improve and develop products and Every firm is a collection of activities that are performed
processes but also to improve existing technology and to to design, produce, deliver and support its products and
generate new knowledge and skills in response to the services. Individual activities are a reflection of their
competitive business environment (Jin and Zedtwitz, 2008). history, strategy, resources, approach to implementing
This latter definition emphasises the difficulty of managing their strategy, and the underlying economics of the
technology compared with developing technology itself, as activities themselves. Dynamic capabilities theory does
indicated by Teece (2007): ‘‘the invention and implementa- not imply that any particular dynamic capability is exactly
tion of business models and associated enterprise boundary alike across firms. While dynamic capabilities are certainly
choices involve issues as fundamental to business success as idiosyncratic in their details, specific dynamic capabilities
the development and adoption of the physical technologies exhibit common features that are associated with effective
themselves’’. processes across firms (Eisenhardt and Martin, 2000).
Capabilities might be dynamic or operational (Helfat
and Peteraf, 2003). Dynamic capabilities build, integrate, 1.2. Historical developments in TM
or reconfigure operational capabilities that are defined as ‘a
high-level routine (or collection of routines) that, together The TM discipline has a history of over 50 years, as
with its implementing input flows, confers upon an indicated in the special issues of the IEEE Transactions on
Author's personal copy
ARTICLE IN PRESS
D. Cetindamar et al. / Technovation 29 (2009) 237–246 239
Engineering Management Journal in 2004 and Research- source of many misperceptions about TM as well.
Technology-Management journal in 2007 (Roberts, 2004; Secondly, the study of Hidalgo and Albors (2008) gives
Larson, 2007). TM has become a self-sustained discipline an account of innovation management tools based on an
in the last 20 years with the emergence of specialised understanding that innovation management is related to
professional organisations (such as IAMOT, PICMET and six specific areas in the management of technology
EITIM) and the rapid increase in the number of publica- innovation: R&D, new product development, commercia-
tions and degree programs in the field that came about lisation of innovation, operations and production, techno-
after the late 1980s (Allen, 2004; Roberts, 2004; Ball and logical collaboration and technology strategy.
Rigby, 2005). Initial studies had a limited view of TM The increased use of TM and innovation management in
activities/processes. The main focus was research and an interchangeable fashion is also observed in practice. For
development (R&D) activities in firms. Since then, the example, BP developed an innovation process with its
discipline of TM has evolved from R&D management to Engineering and Production Technology (EPT) group in
strategic TM, in terms of three dimensions: scope (i.e. 2000 (Brown and Markham, 2007). The EPT set up an
R&D, corporate and strategic focus), view of technology ‘‘Innovation Board’’ in order to seek innovative ideas from
(as a tool, system or source of value in the business), and any member of EPT, which would then be supported to
associated issues (product development, development of develop the project to the point where it represented
other technologies and integration of technology) (Drejer, enough value for development by a formal R&D pro-
1996). The evolution of TM is observed to take place from gramme or practical application by a business unit. As the
a stable and predictable situation within an R&D depart- example shows, TM and innovation management practices
ment to a discontinuous and unpredictable situation taking are increasingly becoming intertwined. An analysis of the
place at the strategic level. last 50 years (Larson, 2007) shows that R&D central labs
If the observation of the changes in the TM discipline is are still considered essential in the 2000s, but that these labs
expanded to the period of 1996–2008, it becomes clear that are now known as Global R&D Centres or Global
innovation has become the leading topic in TM (Cetinda- Innovation Centres. This confusion is further strengthened
mar et al., forthcoming). For example, a study which with a new business buzzword: open innovation systems
examined papers published in the journal of Technovation (Chesbrough, 2003). The central idea behind open innova-
has identified two major themes (Nambisan and Wilemon, tion is that in a world of widely distributed knowledge,
2003): technology innovation and TM. The former theme companies cannot afford to rely entirely on their own
covers 84% of the journal’s articles and deals with issues research, but should instead buy or license processes or
related to technology innovation process or policies that inventions (i.e. patents) from other companies. In addition,
inhibit or stimulate that process. The second theme, TM, internal inventions not being used in a firm’s business
takes the form of organisational structures intended to should be taken outside the company (e.g., through
facilitate innovation. Another example comes from a licensing, joint ventures, spin-offs). Described as such, the
different journal, IEEE on Transactions on Engineering concepts of innovation, knowledge and technology all
Management. The study of co-citations in this journal become confusing, necessitating a clarification.
indicates that academic antecedents of TM fall into one of In simple terms, innovation is doing something new (i.e. a
four themes (Pilkington, 2006): new product development, product, process or service), but this newness is not limited
diffusion, innovation and technological development. In to the world or market, including newness to the firm
short, innovation as a broad topic dominates the content of (Hobday, 2005). Although it is implicit in this definition, the
important journals in the field. critical issue is the fact that innovation is not limited to
The innovation theme is pervasive across the board in technology. Innovations might be organisational and come
almost all areas of management as well as in TM. But the from many sources, i.e. a marketing or financial innovation.
dominance of one topic starts to misrepresent the field, For example, Amazon’s offering of book delivery over the
resulting in confusion. Two recent articles further illustrate Internet was a service-related innovation.
the level of confusion. Firstly, the study of Levin and As a further clarification, technology and knowledge are
Barnard (2008) categorises the routines/processes used by different concepts. Knowledge constitutes not only the
technology managers around the innovation processes. cognition or recognition (know-what), but also capacity to
Accordingly, TM processes fall into three innovation act (know-how) as well as understanding (know-why) that
processes identified by Pavitt (2002) plus an additional resides within the mind (Desouza, 2005). Knowledge
category, listed, respectively as follows (Levin and Bar- management aims to add and create value by more actively
nard, 2008): producing scientific and technological knowl- leveraging know-how, experience, and judgment resident
edge; transforming knowledge into working artefacts, within and outside of an organisation (Easterby-Smith and
reflecting that technological or scientific possibility does Lyles, 2003). It comprises a range of practices used by
not necessarily imply practical feasibility; matching arte- organisations to identify, create, represent, and distribute
facts with user requirements, whether internal or external; knowledge for reuse, awareness and learning. Therefore,
and organisational support routines. This might be an the TM field includes aspects of both innovation manage-
interesting way of classifying TM activities but it can be a ment and knowledge management, as shown in Fig. 1.
Author's personal copy
ARTICLE IN PRESS
240 D. Cetindamar et al. / Technovation 29 (2009) 237–246
2. The TM framework
ARTICLE IN PRESS
D. Cetindamar et al. / Technovation 29 (2009) 237–246 241
companies lack R&D departments and they are followers, techniques are needed to carry out these activities. So, this
so the TM framework can be applicable in these sets of study tries to offer a simple and generic TM activities
firms as well. model that helps to develop and implement a set of core
The framework is based on the idea that technology is a technological capabilities. This model aims to understand
resource and the technology base of a company represents the dynamic interaction among the elements of a TM
the technological knowledge that needs to be turned into system. The firm’s knowledge base includes its technolo-
products, processes and services through technological gical competencies as well as its knowledge of customer
capabilities developed by effective TM. needs and supplier capabilities. These competencies reflect
The framework emphasises the dynamic nature of the individual skills and experiences as well as distinctive ways
knowledge flows that must occur between the commercial of doing things inside firms. As Rush et al. (2007) explain:
and technological functions in the firm, linking to the ‘‘Capability results from an extended learning process
strategy, innovation and operational processes, if TM is to gradually accumulating processes, procedures, routines
be effective (Phaal et al., 2004). An appropriate balance and structures, which, when embedded, is often referred
must be struck between market ‘pull’ (requirements) and to in practice as ‘the way we do things around here’.’’ Thus,
technology ‘push’ (capabilities). Regardless of the trigger of the goal is to identify various common processes/routines
technological change, managers need to link both domains, forming the key technological capabilities that reflect what
namely market and technology. Various ‘mechanisms’ can goes on within companies. An emphasis is given to
support the linkage of commercial and technical perspec- processes since the dynamic capabilities approach empha-
tives, including traditional communication channels, cross- sise the process rather than the asset per se.
functional teams/meetings, management tools, business Although the proposed models do not necessarily cover
processes, staff transfers and training. all possibilities, at least they provide ‘a guide to action’. As
The TM framework concentrates on broad-level core long as firms tailor the models to suit their own particular
business processes: strategy, innovation and operations. circumstances, resources and purposes they can be a
The reason behind this is to identify a small set of processes valuable input into TM. So, the purpose is to achieve four
that address fundamental but common business tasks that major goals:
are critical to achieve the organisation’s goals (Porter,
1990). It is clear that organisations design and execute (1) To develop a core set of generic TM activities that can
many work practices/routines/activities, most commonly be customised by any organisation (manufacturing or
referred to as ‘business or operating processes’ and each of services) and applicable at any level (i.e. R&D unit or
these processes demand integration of a sequence of related business unit) and at any size (small or large firms).
work tasks to accomplish goals that vary a lot from one (2) To reduce confusion between TM and other manage-
organisation to another. Strategy, innovation and opera- ment activities such as innovation.
tions are macro-level processes that subsume a large (3) To avoid linear and limited perceptions on TM
number of sub-processes, each being shaped within the activities, highlighting the dynamic links between them.
organisation to address its particular aims and context. (4) To show managers as well as engineers and manage-
Firms vary widely in size and scope, ranging from a one- ment students who want to pursue careers in TM
person firm to a company with multi-department/multi- what skills and knowledge are necessary to manage
country operations. In each case, this basic TM framework technology.
can be applied, adapted appropriately for the particular
organisational context. After identifying the actual busi-
ness processes behind strategy, innovation, and operations, 3.1. Literature review
managers could integrate TM processes into these business
processes. Section 3 will focus on the generic TM processes Similar to business processes, there are many particular
that can be observed within firms. TM activities, but it is possible to identify a small set of
processes/routines that addresses the fundamental and
3. TM activities behind technological capabilities common tasks needed to manage technologies and build
technological capabilities. As shown in Fig. 2, the
Even though there are a number of TM handbooks, they technology base lies at the heart of the TM framework
do not offer any clear set of TM activities and in fact, many (Phaal et al., 2004), on which five generic TM processes
of them result in confusion on what technology managers operate: identification, selection, acquisition, exploitation
need to do, since their coverage consists of numerous and protection (as originally developed by Gregory,
managerial tasks that are very general and have no explicit 1995)—this study aims to expand this five-process model.
link to specific TM concepts (Dorf, 1999). The National Research Council’s (NRC) definition in
This paper considers that the management of technology 1987 puts a clear emphasis on understanding TM as a
is a professional task, and thus it focuses on the micro-level process, which can be conceptualised as an approach to
analysis of TM in order to understand, particularly how achieving a managerial objective, through the transforma-
firms carry out their TM activities and what tools and tion of inputs into outputs. This Council further sets the
Author's personal copy
ARTICLE IN PRESS
242 D. Cetindamar et al. / Technovation 29 (2009) 237–246
key processes of TM in industrial practice as: (1) the Gregory (1995) and Rush et al. (2007). The final model has
identification and evaluation of technological options; six generic TM activities, as follows:
(2) management of R&D itself, including determining
project feasibility; (3) integration of technology into the (1) Identification of technologies which are (or may be) of
company’s overall operations; (4) implementation of new importance to the business. Identification is not limited
technologies in a product and/or process; and (5) to technological developments alone, including market
obsolescence and replacement (National Research Council, changes as well. Identification includes search, auditing,
1987). data collection and intelligence processes.
Further analysis of the literature shows that there are a (2) Selection of technologies that should be supported by
number of lists of TM processes/activities/capabilities the organisation. Selection is a de cision-making
(Cotec, 1998; Levin and Barnard, 2008; Dogson, 2000; process that takes account of relevant strategic issues,
Roberts, 1988; Rush et al., 2007). As shown in Table 1, which requires effective assessment or appraisal capa-
many of these activities might have different names but in city. This is why selection starts with a good grasp of
practice they are actually trying to achieve technological strategic objectives and priorities developed at the
capabilities. For example, what Roberts’s study (1988) business strategy level, and then it helps to align
refers to as ‘commercialisation’ is in fact in line with what technology with business strategy.
Gregory (1995) calls ‘exploitation’. The diversity of (3) Acquisition of selected technologies. Acquisition deci-
language in the academic literature is also reflected in sions are concerned with choices among buy-collabo-
practice. For example General Electric recently renamed its rate-make alternatives, since technologies might be
Global Research Centre as the House of Magic (Larson, developed internally, in some form of collaboration, or
2007). acquired from external developers.
The capability-based model described here is not (4) Exploitation of technologies to generate profit or other
intended to replace any process names existing in benefits the firm desires to achieve. Exploitation refers
companies or in literature; its main aim is to simplify the to commercialisation but it is a wider managerial
TM concept in order to provide a general understanding of function, since the expected benefits might be accrued
what kind of core activities form the body of TM. through implementation, absorption and operation of
Choosing the unit of analysis as technological capabilities, the technology within the firm. Clearly, after acquisi-
this article uses the terminology given in the first column in tion, there is a need for assimilation that includes
Table 1. By doing so, the goal is to simplify the links technology transfer either from R&D to manufactur-
between activities and capabilities. In the proposed model, ing, or from external company/partner to internal
the activity name is the same as the specific technological manufacturing department. Other example processes
capability it aims to develop. include incremental developments, process improve-
Analysis of Table 1 shows that there might be consensus ments and marketing.
on a general TM model. The resulting list of activities is (5) Protection of knowledge and expertise embedded in
particularly a combination of two major studies, namely products and manufacturing systems. To achieve this
Table 1
TM activities in the literature.
Terminology Gregory Rush et al. NCR Sumanth Dogson Cotec Roberts Levin and Barnard
of the article
ARTICLE IN PRESS
D. Cetindamar et al. / Technovation 29 (2009) 237–246 243
ARTICLE IN PRESS
244 D. Cetindamar et al. / Technovation 29 (2009) 237–246
input–output relationships in a deterministic way. Any within the pharmaceutical company Glaxo Wellcome
process might be the starting point that triggers a number (GW). This adopted a process-based framework, incorpor-
of TM activities to take place. For example, in contrast to ating aspects of the five TM process model developed by
the traditional product development approach, where the Gregory (1995), developed in a series of cross-functional
starting point for concept creation is the improvement of workshops facilitated by the authors of the paper. The GW
functional benefits and the reduction of associated TM system builds on active technology networks within
negatives, it is possible to develop research, products and the company, with some parallels to open innovation,
invention ideas from the patent strategy, regardless of providing a rich case to illustrate the use of the TM
whether or not there are functional benefits (Nissing, 2007). framework presented in this paper.
The flexibility of the jigsaw puzzle pieces indicates that In early 2000, GW was a multinational pharmaceutical
each organisation will have their specific set of pieces that company with revenue exceeding £8 billion and R&D
show their own reality/picture. If the organisation is a large expenditures of over £1 billion. The company decided to
company with lots of R&D activity, the story/completed implement a TM strategy across the development
picture might include all pieces/elements in the TM and manufacturing interface prior to the merger with
activities model. However, if the organisation has no SmithKline Beecham to form GlaxoSmithKline (GW).
R&D and the innovation at hand is rather an incremental This was to augment the New Product Delivery Process
innovation and/or a design, the activities needed will be that was being introduced.
different, naturally its jigsaw puzzle picture too.
The recent critiques on innovation models focus on two 4.1. TM activities
critical concerns (Hobday, 2005): their static nature and their
deterministic approach by explicitly indicating the non-linear The resulting TM process is presented in Fig. 4. When
feature of innovation activities. That is why the recent this process is compared with the six TM activities, it is
literature is increasingly interested in understanding the observed that neither acquisition nor protection process is
dynamic nature of innovations and technological change explicit in GW’s TM processes. Even though names are
(Dercole et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2008). The TM activities different, the ‘‘innovate, search and survey’’ step is similar
model avoids these two critiques at least for TM. And further, to identification activity; the ‘‘evaluate and select’’ step is
the new model classifies TM activities in two categories: like the selection activity; the ‘‘develop and execute’’ step
primary/core and supporting activities and by doing so it corresponds to both acquisition and exploitation activities;
helps draw the boundaries between different disciplines. the ‘‘demonstrate benefits’’ step resembles the exploitation
activity. The process model is depicted in a linear format,
4. A case illustrating the TM framework without showing any feedback/learning loops—in this
regard Fig. 4 is a simplification of the real situation,
The characteristics of a TM system based on the TM aiming to provide an easy-to-understand framework for
activities can be easily observed in real-life cases. Farrukh organising the complex set of TM activities and interac-
et al. (2004) describe how a TM system was developed tions in the organisation.
Projects
Business Strategy
Manufacturing, IT,
Proposal
(Product, R&D,
ARTICLE IN PRESS
D. Cetindamar et al. / Technovation 29 (2009) 237–246 245
TM studies face two main problems: (1) a lack of Allen, T., 2004. 50 years of engineering management through the lens of
the IEEE transactions. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Manage-
distinction between concepts and practice in innovation, ment 51 (4), 391–395.
knowledge management and TM; and (2) a lack of Ball, D.F., Rigby, J., 2005. Disseminating research in management of
universally accepted conceptual models or frameworks to technology: journals and authors. R&D Management 36 (2), 205–216.
Author's personal copy
ARTICLE IN PRESS
246 D. Cetindamar et al. / Technovation 29 (2009) 237–246
Bell, M., 2003. Knowledge resources, innovation capabilities and Larson, C.F., 2007. 50 Years of change in industrial research and
sustained competitiveness in Thailand. Final report to NSTDA. technology management. Research Technology Management 50 (1),
SPRU, Brighton. 26–31.
Bergek, A., Tell, F., Berggren, C., et al., 2008. Technological capabilities Lawson, B., Samson, D., 2001. Developing innovation capability in
and late shakeouts: industrial dynamics in the advanced gas turbine organizations: a dynamic capabilities approach. International Journal
industry, 1987–2002. Industrial and Corporate Change 17 (2), of Innovation Management 5 (3), 377–400.
335–392. Levin, D.Z., Barnard, H., 2008. Technology management routines that
Best, M.H., 2001. The New Competitive Advantage: The Renewal of matter technology managers. International Journal of Technology
American Industry. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Management 41 (1–2), 22–37.
Brown, C., Markham, S., 2007. Innovation learning at BP. Research Nambisan, S., Wilemon, D., 2003. A global study of graduate manage-
Technology Management 50 (3), 9–14. ment of technology programs. Technovation 23, 949–962.
Cetindamar, D., Ansal, H., Pamuksuz, N.W., Beyhan, B., forthcoming. Nissing, N., 2007. Would you buy a purple orange? Research Technology
Does technology management research diverge or converge in Management 50 (3), 35–39.
developing and developed countries? Technovation, in press. NRC/National Research Council, 1987. Management of Technology:
Chesbrough, H.W., 2003. Open Innovation. Harvard Business School The Hidden Competitive Advantage. National Academy Press,
Press, Boston, MA. Washington, DC.
Cotec, 1998. Temaguide: A Guide to Technology Management and OECD, 1995. The Oslo Manual. OECD, Paris.
Innovation for Companies. EC Funded Project, Brussels. Pavitt, K., 2002. Innovating routines in the business firm: what corporate
Dercole, F., Dieckmann, U., Obersteiner, M., Rinaldi, S., 2008. Adaptive tasks should they be accomplishing? Industrial and Corporate Change
dynamics and technological change. Technovation 28 (6), 335–348. 11 (1), 117–133.
Desouza, K.C., 2005. New Frontiers of Knowledge Management. Pilkington, A., 2006. Conceptualizing the management of technology. In:
Palgrave Macmillan. Proceedings of the Second European Conference on Management of
Dogson, M., 2000. The Management of Technological Innovation. Oxford Technology: Technology and Global Integration, 10–12 September
University Press, Oxford. 2006, Birmingham, UK.
Dorf, R.C., 1999. The Technology Management Handbook. CRC Press & Phaal, R., Farrukh, C.J.P., Probert, D.R., 2004. A framework for
IEEE Press, Florida. supporting the management of technological knowledge. International
Drejer, A., 1996. The discipline of management of technology, based on Journal of Technology Management 27 (1), 1–15.
considerations relating to technology. Technovation 17 (5), 253–265. Porter, M., 1990. The competitive advantage of nations. Harvard Business
Easterby-Smith, M., Lyles, M.A. (Eds.), 2003. The Blackwell Handbook of Review 68 (2), 73–93.
Organisational Learning and Knowledge Management. Blackwell, Oxford. Roberts, E.B., 1988. Managing invention and innovation. Research-
EITIM, 2001. European Institute of Technology Management. Available Technology Management 50 (1), 35–54 Research Management,
from /http://www.mmd.eng.cam.ac.uk/ctm/eitm/index.htmlS. Jan–Feb: 11–29, Reprinted in 2007.
Eisenhardt, K.M., Martin, J.A., 2000. Dynamic capabilities: what are Roberts, E.B., 2004. A perspective on 50 years of the engineering
they? Strategic Management Journal 21 (10–11), 1105–1112. management field. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management 51
Farrukh, C.J.P., Phaal, R., Probert, D.R., 1999. Tools for technology (4), 398–403.
management: dimensions and issues. In: Proceedings of the Portland Rush, H., Bessant, J., Hobday, M., 2007. Assessing the technological
International Conference on Management of Engineering and capabilities of firms: developing a policy tool. R&D Management 37
Technology (PICMET 99), Portland, 25–29 June 1999. (3), 221–236.
Farrukh, C., Fraser, P., Hadjidakis, D., Phaal, R., Probert, D., Tainsh, Teece, D.J., 2007. Explicating dynamic capabilities: the nature and
D., 2004. Developing an integrated technology management process. microfoundations of (sustainable) enterprise performance. Strategic
Research-Technology Management July–August, 39–46. Management Journal 28 (13), 1319–1350.
Gregory, M.J., 1995. Technology management—a process approach. Teece, D.J., Pisano, G., Shuen, A., 1997. Dynamic capabilities and
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers 209, 347–356. strategic management. Strategic Management Journal 18 (7), 509–533.
Helfat, C.E., Peteraf, M.A., 2003. The dynamic resource-based view: Teece, D.J., Pisano, G., Shuen, A., 2000. Dynamic capabilities and
capability lifecycles. Strategic Management Journal 24 (10), 997–1010. strategic management. Nature and Dynamics of Organizational
Hidalgo, A., Albors, J., 2008. Innovation management techniques and tools: Capabilities, 334–363.
a review from theory and practice. R&D Management 38 (2), 113–127. Tödtling, F., Lehner, P., Kaufmann, A., 2008. Do different types of
Hobday, M., 2005. Firm-level innovation models: perspectives on research innovation rely on specific kinds of knowledge interactions? Techno-
in developed and developing countries. Technology Analysis and vation, in press, Corrected proof, Available online 24 June 2008.
Strategic Management 17 (2), 121–146. Wang, C.-H., Lu, I.-Y., Chen, C.-B., 2008. Evaluating firm technological
Jin, J., Zedtwitz, M. von., 2008. Technological capability development in innovation capability under uncertainty. Technovation 28 (6),
China’s mobile phone industry. Technovation 28, 327–334. 349–363.
Lall, S., 1990. Building Industrial Competitiveness in Developing Winter, S.G., 2000. The satisficing principle in capability learning.
Countries. OECD, Paris. Strategic Management Journal 21 (10–11), 981–996.