METEOROLOGY FOR 1ST TERM

1. Explain the terms SALR and DALR. State why SALR is less than DALR and why SALR
varies.

Adiabatic cooling & heating is defined as the cooling or heating of a parcel of moving air without the
exchange of heat. Heating and cooling is caused by an increase or decrease in the volume of a parcel of
air.

When air moves up, it is subjected to decreasing pressure (pressure decreases with height), this causes an
increase in volume, which results in a decrease in temperature. Exactly the opposite happens when air
moves down.

When air is forced upwards it cools adiabatically, the rate at which it cools when it is dry, is called the dry
adiabatic lapse rate and this is 100 C per km,

If air is saturated it cools at a rate of between 5 and 100 C per km. The average value being 6.50 C per km.

SALR is less than DALR as when the air is saturated, when it cools the excess water vapour condenses
into water, this releases heat, and reduces the rate of cooling.

The amount of heat released depends upon the amount of condensation, larger the amount of
condensation, greater the heat that is released.

Warm air can hold a greater amount of water vapour than cold air, the heat released when saturated warm
air cools (more vapour turns to water) is greater than for cold air, therefore heat released is greater. From
this we can infer SALR is less in tropical climates than in polar regions.

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2. Explain your understanding of the terms, geostrophic wind, gradient wind, pressure
tendency, cyclostrophic wind, isobar, pressure gradient, isallobar.

(1) Geostrophic Wind

 Refers to steady wind flow above the surface of the earth

 Occurs when the pressure gradient force and the geostrophic force are equal and opposite

 If you face the wind, LP lies to the right in the NH and left in SH

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(2) Gradient Wind

 When isobars are curved, one more force acts – the cyclostrophic force

 It acts radially outwards from the centre of rotation

 When the PG force is equal and opposite to the combined coriolis and cyclostrophic
(centrifugal) force, we get steady wind flow – the gradient wind

 It flows parallel to curved isobars

(3) Pressure Tendency

 Defined as the rate of change in pressure with time (3hrs before an observation)

 Read from a barograph

 Characteristic of barometric tendency refers to the trace of the barograph

(4) Cyclostrophic Wind

 Wind that blows parallel to crowded isobars of a TRS and tornado

 Blows in an anticlockwise direction in NH, clockwise in SH

(5) Isobar is a line joining places of equal pressure, drawn at intervals of 4mbs, smaller the
distance between isobars, greater the wind speed

(6) Pressure Gradient

 Defined as fall in pressure with distance

 Unit is mb/nautical mile

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  It acts at right angles to the isobars, towards the low pressure

 Greater the pressure gradient, greater the wind speed

(7) Isallobar is a line joining place having the same tendency, it shows the rate of change in
pressure with time.

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3. Describe with the aid of a sketch the diurnal variation of pressure in the atmosphere.

 Pressure varies, twice daily, that is there are two maxima and two minimas of pressure

 Maxima occurs at 1000 and 2200 hrs and minima at 0400 and 1600 hrs

 Variation greater at the tropics than at temperate latitudes (2mb in tropics, 1mb at
temperate latitudes

 Values can be found in a meteorological atlas or in Pilot books

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4. Describe with the aid of a sketch diurnal variation of relative humidity.

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Relative Humidity

Relative Humidity is the percentage ratio of the actual water vapour contained in a given sample of
air, to the maximum quantity of water vapour that the sample can hold at that temperature.

If the temperature of the sample of air is raised, its capacity to hold water vapour increases and
assuming that no water vapour is allowed to come in or go out of the sample of air, relative
humidity decreases – the air becomes relative drier. The opposite happens if the sample of air is
cooled – its relativehumidity increases.

Relative humidity changes at different time of a day and it is called the diurnal variation relative
humidity.

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5. Describe using assumed values and sketches ‘absolute stability’, ‘conditional stability’
and ‘absolute instability’.

(OR)

Draw following 3 diagrams –

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6. Describe the effect of friction of geostrophic wind and speed.

Effect of friction

 Reduces wind speed

 Causes an angle of indraft

 Speed reduced by one half (geostrophic wind speed) over land and one third over sea

 Angle of indraft 10 degrees over sea, 15 degrees over land

 Wind veers with height and at 600m it blows parallel to isobars (NH)

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  Friction reduces the speed of surface wind and deflects it towards low pressure. This
causes an angle of indraft (LP) and outdraft (HP).
 The effect of friction is greater over land than over the sea.

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7. State areas where there could be a high incidence of fog.

Generally fog occurs in areas where sea temperatures are much lower than the air temperature

 Examples

 Newfoundland area, caused by warm moist wind blowing over the labrador
current

 North West Pacific

 California – June to October

 Peru – caused by the low temperature of inshore water

 East coast of South America

 German Bight & Baltic

 Polar regions in summer

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8. Describe the weather characteristics of the pressure belts.

The weather belts

 Doldrums (Near the equator)

 Narrow belt, that varies with season

 Variable winds

 squalls,

 Thunderstorms

 Intertropical Convergence zone

 Convergence of the trade winds

 Cu cloud development

 Precipitation, thunderstorms common

 Position varies with season

 The trade winds belt

 Between 10 and 300 N&S of equator

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  Wind direction and speed varies

 Average strength about force 4

 Cu main cloud

 Area of the TRS and monsoon

 Subtropical anticyclone belt

 Light variable winds

 Between 30 and 400 N&S of equator

 Horse latitudes

 Westerlies

 Region of the depression, between 40 and 600N&S of equator

 Movement of wind from the west

 Roaring forties

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9. Describe with the aid of a sketch the formation of geostrophic and gradient wind.

Geostrophic wind

A hypothetical wind in the free atmosphere that would flow parallel to straight equidistant isobars if
they were stationary. The wind moves under the influence of two balanced forces, the pressure
gradient force and the geostrophic force.

Geostrophic wind has Low pressure to its right in the Northern hemisphere and to its left in the
Southern hemisphere.

For the purposes of Geostrophic wind we can say that free atmosphere is where there is no
frictional force. It occurs at a height above 600m above the earth’s surface.

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Gradient Wind

A hypothetical wind in the free atmosphere which would flow parallel to equidistant curved isobars
if it were stationary.

It is caused by the pressure gradient force, the cyclostophic force and the geostrophic force.

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10. Describe the meteorological conditions required for a TRS to develop.

 Conditions necessary

 A large sea area with a surface temperature of 260 C

 Away from the equator , latitude 50 and above

 A region of small vertical wind sheer

 A pre-existing depression

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11. Describe the typical weather signs that warn of the approach of a TRS.

 Weather signs

 Radio or storm warning

 Swell from the direction of storm

 Corrected barometric reading – 3mb below – expect – 5 mb below – confirmed

 Slow fall (500 to 120nm)

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  Marked fall (60 to 120 nm)

 Rapid fall (60 to 10nm)

 Appreciable change in strength and direction of wind

 Clear sky – preceding day

 Cirrus – altostratus – then cumulus clouds

 Rain squalls of increasing frequency and violence

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12. Sketch the pattern of a TRS in the North and South hemispheres.

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13. Describe the factors that govern the movement of a TRS and state its predictable
movement and possible speeds.

 Movement

 Generally east to west in lower Lats, steered by easterly tropospheric air flow

 Normally recurves between Lats of 20 and 300 N & S of equator (western edge of
anticyclone)

 Speeds about 10 knots before recurving, could be stationary for sometime after
recurving, then could move at about 20 knots

 Tracks after recurveing are Northerly and then in the North Easterly direction,
steered by the westerly tropospheric air flow

 It may not recurve, sometimes – caused by position and movement of the subtropical
anticyclone

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14. Describe the effect of friction on gradient wind.

Effect of friction on gradient wind –

 Reduces wind speed

 Causes an angle of indraft

 Speed reduced by one half (geostrophic wind speed) over land and one third over sea

 Angle of indraft 10 degrees over sea, 15 degrees over land

 Wind veers with height and at 600m it blows parallel to isobars (NH)

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15. Describe in your own words a geostrophic wind scale.

 Scale found on a weather chart

 Helps estimate the speed of geostrophic wind

 To use – place divider on two adjacent isobars

 Transfer to the wind scale according to lat and placing the left point of the divider on the ‘Y’
axis

 Read the speed by coming down onto the ‘x’ axis

 Interpolate if reqd

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16. Describe with the aid of a sketch of the forces that contribute to the formation of
gradient wind in the northern & southern hemisphere.

 When isobars are curved, one more force acts – the cyclostrophic force

 It acts radially outwards from the centre of rotation

 When the PG force is equal and opposite to the combined coriolis and cyclostrophic
(centrifugal) force, we get steady wind flow – the gradient wind

 It flows parallel to curved isobars

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17. Describe how tropical revolving storms are formed.

Caused when

 Latent heat released by condensation of moisture, when air moves up, available in
the tropics

 Unstable condition of atmosphere, extreme surface heating

 Evolution is only possible where wind shear has a small value – away from the jet
stream

 Eye initially appears in upper troposphere (a pre – existing depression) – air

descends – warms

 Causes a decrease in surface pressure – the TRS develops

 Continues to develop under favourable atmospheric and sea surface conditions

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  Normally decays over land due to lack of moisture, and in high Lats because of
decrease in surface temperature

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18. Explain your understanding of the following terms in relation to TRS – vortex, vertex,
trough, path, track, dangerous semicircle, navigable semicircle, dangerous quadrant.

 The Dangerous semicircle (DSC) – the vessel must not run before the wind
 The dangerous quadrant – advance quadrant of the DSC, wherein the TRS may recurve
over the vessel
 Navigable semicircle – wherein the vessel may run before the wind
 Eye (Vortex) – general area of calm
 Track – path over which the cyclone has passed
 Path – anticipated movement
 Trough – line of lowest pressure
 Vertex – point of re-curvature

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