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Section2 Polarization PDF
Section2 Polarization PDF
Consider two orthogonally polarised plane waves travelling in the 𝑧-‐direction:
𝑬! = 𝒙𝐸! 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡
𝑬! = 𝒚𝐸! 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙
The
amplitudes
of
the
two
wave
(𝐸!
and
𝐸! )
and
their
relative
phase,
𝜙 ,
determine
the
resultant
polarization
state:
N.B.
For
an
observer
looking
toward
the
source
of
light,
𝑬
rotates
clockwise
for
right-‐hand
circularly
polarized
light,
and
anti-‐clockwise
for
left-‐hand
circularly
polarized
light.
The
emission
from
atoms
and
molecules
in
natural
light
sources
(e.g.
the
sun,
a
light
bulb,
a
candle
flame)
is
unsynchronised
and
so
produces
a
resultant
polarization
that
changes
randomly
and
too
rapidly
to
measure.
This
‘smears
out’
the
polarization
direction
over
360°.
We
describe
this
as
‘unpolarized
light’.
If
the
polarization
changes
rapidly
but
tends
to
spend
more
time
in
a
particular
direction
then
this
is
described
as
partially
polarized
light.
Both
are
the
consequence
of
the
anisotropic
emission
of
dipoles
(see
animation
in
Powerpoint
presentation);
in
particular,
dipoles
do
not
emit
in
the
direction
parallel
to
the
original
𝑬.
𝐸! 𝐸!
≠
𝐸! !"#!$%"& 𝐸! !"#$"%&'()
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PHYS20312
Wave
Optics
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Section
2:
Polarization
where
for
an
‘s-‐polarized’
wave
𝑬
is
perpendicular
to
the
plane
of
incidence
(as
defined
by
the
incident
and
reflected
rays),
and
for
a
‘p-‐polarized’wave
it
is
parallel
to
the
plane
of
incidence
–
see
Fig
1
below.
Figure
1
The
electric
field
orientation
of
the
incident,
transmitted
and
reflected
rays
for
(left)
an
s-‐polarised
wave
and
(right)
a
p-‐polarised
wave.
For
p-‐polarized
light,
at
a
certain
angle
of
incidence,
𝜃! ,
the
axis
of
the
induced
dipole,
which
is
perpendicular
to
the
transmitted
ray,
will
be
parallel
to
the
reflected
ray
and
thus
the
reflected
intensity
will
be
zero–see
Fig
2.
Figure
2
A
p-‐polarized
ray
incident
at
Brewster's
angle,
𝜽𝑩
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Wave
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Section
2:
Polarization
Remembering
that
𝜃!
is
also
the
angle
of
reflection,
we
see
that
this
is
equivalent
to
saying
that
zero
amplitude
will
occur
when
the
angles
of
incidence
and
transmission
sum
to
90°:
𝜃! + 𝜃! = 90°
This special angle of incidence is called ‘Brewster’s angle’ or the ‘polarization angle’.
𝑛! sin 𝜃! = 𝑛! sin 𝜃!
𝑛!
𝜃! = tan!!
𝑛!
(2.1).
Optical E-‐field induces dipole in an atom or molecule (e.g. air)
For
polarized
incident
light,
the
polarization
is
maintained
but
the
amplitude
of
scattered
light
changes
with
direction,
as
determined
by
the
dipole
emission
–
see
Figs
3
and
4.
In
particular,
horizontally
polarized
light
is
not
scattered
in
the
horizontal
plane,
and
vertically
polarized
light
not
in
the
vertical
plane
Figure
3
Scattering
of
horizontally
polarized
light.
Figure
4
Scattering
of
vertically
polarized
light
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Wave
Optics
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Section
2:
Polarization
For
unpolarized
light,
the
polarization
state
changes
with
direction,
see
fig
5,
the
effects
of
which
can
be
seen
in
nature
(see
Powerpoint).
Figure
5
The
scattering
of
unpolarized
light.
2.3
Dichroism.
Some
materials
selectively
absorb
one
polarization.
For
instance,
polaroid
sheets
consist
of
aligned,
long
and
thin
molecules
(e.g.
polyvinylalcohol).
The
E-‐field
parallel
to
the
long
axis
does
work
in
moving
charge
and
is
absorbed.
In
contrast,
the
E-‐field
perpendicular
to
this
axis
doe
slittle
work
and
passes
through
–
see
Fig
6.
Figure
6
Polarization-‐dependent
absorption
in
a
polaroid
sheet.
The transmitted field component is thus 𝐸 cos 𝜃 and the transmitted intensity is
𝐼 𝜃 = 𝐼! cos ! 𝜃
(2.2)
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Section
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2.4
Optical
Anisotropy.
2.4.1
Anisotropic
materials.
For
isotropic
dielectric
materials,
𝜀
is
a
scalar
and
hence
can
be
factored
out
of
Gauss’
equation:
∇. 𝑫 = 0
𝜀∇. 𝑬 = 0
∇. 𝑬 = 0
which is a result used in the derivation of the wave equation.
However,
the
structure
of
some
crystals
(e.g.
quartz,
ice,
calcite)
is
anisotropic,
which
means
that
it
is
easier
to
polarize
them
in
one
direction
compared
to
the
other
–
see
fig
7.
Figure
7
Anisotropic
polarization
in
calcite.
𝑫 = 𝜺𝑬
where we can choose axes so that this tensor is diagonalised
𝜀! 0 0
𝜀= 0 𝜀! 0 𝜀!
0 0 𝜀!
If 𝜀! = 𝜀! ≠ 𝜀! then the crystal is “uniaxial”, and we will restrict ourselves to this case for simplicity.
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Section
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Polarization
Now
as
before
∇. 𝑫 = 0
i.e.
𝜕𝐷! 𝜕𝐷! 𝜕𝐷!
+ + = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
∇. 𝑬 ≠ 0
which, as we will see in the next section, changes the wave equation.
We will now re-‐derive the wave equation taking into account that in anisotropic materials ∇. 𝑬 ≠ 0:
but
Ampere’s
law
is
∇×𝑩 = 𝜀𝜇𝑬
and
using
the
identity
∇× ∇×𝑬 = ∇ ∇. 𝑬 − ∇! 𝑬
yields
a
wave
equation:
∇! 𝑬 − ∇ ∇. 𝑬 = 𝜀𝜇𝑬
(2.3)
In
isotropic
materials,
the
second
term
on
the
LHS
is
zero
because
∇. 𝑬 = 0
but
for
anisotropic
materials
it
is
not
and
so
this
wave
equation
is
different
from
the
one
we’ve
met
previously.
This
suggests
that
light
will
propagate
in
a
different
way
through
anisotropic
materials
(and
it
does).
We
now
examine
what
happens
differently
by
considering
the
case
of
a
plane
wave
which,
because
any
optical
field
can
be
described
by
a
linear
combination
of
them,
is
quite
general.
Consider a plane wave of the following form propagating through thecrystal:
𝑬 = 𝑬𝟎 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑖 𝒌. 𝒓 − 𝜔𝑡
Hence,
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−𝑘 ! 𝑬 + 𝒌 𝒌. 𝑬 = −𝜇𝜀𝜔 ! 𝑬
−𝑘 ! 𝐸! + 𝑘! 𝒌. 𝑬 = −𝜇𝜀! 𝜀! 𝜔 ! 𝐸!
−𝑘 ! 𝐸! + 𝑘! 𝒌. 𝑬 = −𝜇𝜀! 𝜀! 𝜔 ! 𝐸!
(2.4)
−𝑘 ! 𝐸! + 𝑘! 𝒌. 𝑬 = −𝜇𝜀! 𝜀! 𝜔 ! 𝐸!
We can also write this set of the 3 equations in a matrix form:
𝑴. 𝑬 = 0
where
𝜔 ! 𝑛!!
− 𝑘 ! + 𝑘!! 𝑘𝒙 𝑘𝒚 𝑘𝒙 𝑘𝒛
𝑐!
𝜔 ! 𝑛!!
𝑴= 𝑘𝒙 𝑘𝒚 − 𝑘 ! + 𝑘!! 𝑘𝒚 𝑘𝒛
𝑐!
𝜔 ! 𝑛!!
𝑘𝒙 𝑘𝒛 𝑘𝒚 𝑘𝒛 − 𝑘 ! + 𝑘!!
𝑐!
!!!
N.B.
𝜇 𝜀! 𝜀! =
etc
!!
The solution to this set of equations is given by 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑴 = 0
(2.5)
Equation
2.5
thus
has
two
solutions:
solution
1
corresponds
to
when
the
first
bracket
is
zero
and
solution
2
to
when
the
second
bracket
is
zero.
As
we
will
see
in
the
next
sections,
these
distinct
solutions
to
the
wave
equation
correspond
to
different
rays,
which
behave
in
different
ways.
3.4.3.
Birefringence.
What is the refractive index for the rays corresponding to the two solutions of equation 2.5?
1 𝜔!
∴ =
𝑛! 𝑐 ! 𝑘 !
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Wave
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Section
2:
Polarization
First
consider
solution
1:
but
1 𝜔! 1 1
∴ ! = ! !
= !
𝑛! 𝑐 𝑘 𝑛
𝑛 = ±𝑛!
Now
we
can’t
find
a
common
factor
for
the
LHS
as
for
solution
so
instead
we
will
substitute
in
expressions
for
𝑘! ,
𝑘!
and
𝑘! ,
which
we
can
write
down
by
considering
Fig
8:
Figure
8
The
orientation
of
the
k,
Eo
and
Ee
relative
to
the
crystal
axes.
Hence,
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Wave
Optics
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Section
2:
Polarization
Substitute
these
into
solution
2:
1 sin! 𝜃 cos ! 𝜃
= +
𝑛! 𝑛!! 𝑛!!
(2.6)
Note
that
in
this
case
the
refractive
index
is
angle-‐dependent,
i.e.
𝑛 = 𝑓 𝜃
(we
write
𝑛 𝜃
from
now
on
to
reflect
this.
Hence,
a
beam
travelling
through
an
anisotropic
crystal
will
experience
two
different
refractive
indices,
𝑛!
and
𝑛 𝜃 ,
which
implies
different
velocities
and
different
phases.
In
other
words,
the
two
solutions
of
equation
3.5
correspond
to
two
distinct
rays.
A
beam
of
light
entering
an
anisotropic
crystal
will
thus
split
into
separate
rays:
1. The
ordinary
ray
or
“o-‐ray”,
corresponding
to
solution
1,
for
which
𝑛 = 𝑛!
2. The
extraordinary
or
“e-‐ray”,
corresponding
to
solution
1,
for
which
𝑛 = 𝑛 𝜃
Note
however
that
𝑛 𝜃 = 0° = 𝑛!
and
hence
at
this
angle
the
distinction
is
lost.
This
special
direction
of
𝜃 = 0°
is
called
the
“Optics
Axis”.
If
𝜀! = 𝜀! ≠ 𝜀!
then
there
will
be
one
optic
axis
and
then
hence
the
crystal
is
described
as
uniaxial.
However,
if
𝜀! ≠ 𝜀! ≠ 𝜀!
then
there
will
be
two
optic
axes
and
the
crystal
is
described
as
biaxial.
We
are
now
going
to
find
out
what
we
can
about
the
𝑬
vectors
associated
with
both
the
o-‐ray
and
the
e-‐ray:
From equation 2.4 we have for the 𝑥 -‐component (and a similar expression for the 𝑦-‐component):
𝑛!! !
−𝑘 ! 𝐸!,! + 𝑘! 𝒌. 𝑬𝒐 = −𝜇𝜀! 𝜀! 𝜔 ! 𝐸!,! = − 𝜔 𝐸!,!
𝑐!
but we have found in the previous section that for an o-‐ray (i.e. solution 1 of equation 2.5)
𝑛!! !
𝑘! = 𝜔
𝑐!
Hence
−𝑘 ! 𝐸!,! + 𝑘! 𝒌. 𝑬𝒐 = −𝑘 ! 𝐸!,!
and thus 𝒌. 𝑬𝒐 = 0
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Wave
Optics
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Section
2:
Polarization
Substituting
this
into
the
expression
for
the
𝑧-‐component
from
equation
2.4:
𝑛!! !
−𝑘 ! 𝐸!,! + 𝑘! 𝒌. 𝑬𝒐 = − 𝜔 𝐸!,!
𝑐!
yields 𝑛!! 𝐸!,! = 𝑛!! 𝐸!,! , which since 𝑛!! ≠ 𝑛!! implies 𝐸!,! = 0.
𝑘! 𝐸!,! + 𝑘! 𝐸!,! + 0 = 0
𝑘!
𝐸!,! = − 𝐸
𝑘! !,!
1 1
!!
so
𝑬! = − 𝐸!,! = − cot 𝜙 𝐸!,!
(2.7)
!!
0 0
So
since
𝒌. 𝑬𝒐 = 0
and
𝐸!,! = 0
we
conclude
the
𝑬𝒐
is
perpendicular
to
both
𝒌
and
the
𝑧-‐axis
–
as
shown
in
Fig
8.
Substituting this into the 𝑥 and 𝑦 parts of equation 2.4, we get:
𝑛!!
𝑘!! + 𝑘!! − 1 𝐸!,! + 𝑘! 𝒌. 𝑬𝒆 = 0
𝑛!!
𝑛!!
𝑘!! + 𝑘!! − 1 𝐸!,! + 𝑘! 𝒌. 𝑬𝒆 = 0
𝑛!!
and dividing the first of these by the second yields:
𝐸!,! 𝑘!
= = cot 𝜙
𝐸!,! 𝑘!
𝑛!! 𝜔 ! ! !
𝑛!! !
= 𝑘 ! + 𝑘 ! + 𝑘!
𝑐! 𝑛!!
and substituting this in to the 𝑧 part of equation 2.4
𝑛!!
𝑘!! − 1 𝐸!,! + 𝑘! 𝒌. 𝑬𝒆 = 0
𝑛!!
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Wave
Optics
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Section
2:
Polarization
Comparing
this
expression
with
the
one
for
𝑥 :
We can now write each of the components of 𝑬𝒆 in terms of 𝐸!,! :
1
𝑘! 1
tan 𝜙
𝑬𝒆 = 𝑘! 𝐸!,! = 𝑛!! tan 𝜃 𝐸!,!
𝑛!! 𝑘!! + 𝑘!! − !
− ! 𝑛! cos 𝜙
𝑛! 𝑘! 𝑘!
(2.8)
The direction of a ray corresponds to the Poynting vector, 𝑺 = 𝑬×𝑩
𝑩 = 𝑩𝟎 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑖 𝒌. 𝒓 − 𝜔𝑡
∇×𝑬 = −𝑩
𝑖𝒌×𝑬 = 𝑖𝜔𝑩
Hence,
1 1
𝑺 = 𝑬×𝑩 = 𝑬× 𝒌×𝑬 = 𝒌 𝑬. 𝑬 − 𝑬 𝑬. 𝒌
𝜔 𝜔
which
implies
that
𝑺
is
only
parallel
to
𝒌
if
𝑬. 𝒌 = 0
i.e.
when
cos 𝛼 = 0
where
𝛼
is
the
angle
between
𝑬
and
𝒌.
Let’s now calculate 𝛼 for both the o-‐ray and e-‐ray using
𝑬. 𝒌
cos 𝛼 =
𝑬 𝒌
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Section
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Polarization
for
the
o-‐ray:
and
!
where
the
identity
1 + tan! 𝜙 =
has
been
used
to
simplify
the
expression.
!"#! !
Hence
𝑛!!
sin 𝜃 1 −
𝑬. 𝒌 𝑛!!
cos 𝛼 = =
𝑬 𝒌
𝑛!!
1+ tan! 𝜃
𝑛!!
(2.9)
Hence,
the
o-‐ray
and
e-‐ray
propagate
in
different
directions
except
when
𝒌
is
parallel
to
or
perpendicular
to
the
optic
axis.
The
propgagtion
of
the
o-‐ray
and
e-‐ray
in
difference
directions
is
called
“double
refraction”
and
is
illustrated
in
Fig
9
below.
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Section
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Polarization
Figure
9
Double
refraction.
• A
beam
propagating
though
an
anisotropic
crystal
splits
into
two
components
of
orthogonal
polarization
–
the
o-‐ray
and
the
e-‐ray
• Each
ray
experiences
a
different
refractive
index,
which
is
called
birefringence,
and
hence
different
v!
and
phase,
where
for
the
o-‐ray
𝑛! =constant
and
for
e-‐ray
𝑛 = 𝑓 𝜃
• The
‘optic
axis’
is
that
direction
such
that
refractive
indices
for
the
two
rays
are
equal.
• The
o-‐
and
e-‐rays
travel
in
different
directions,
which
is
called
double
refraction,
except
when
𝒌
is
either
parallel
or
perpendicular
to
the
optic
axis.
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Section
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Polarization
2.4.6
The
Polarising
Beam-‐splitter.
For
total
internal
reflection,
the
angle
of
incidence,
𝜃! ,
must
be
greater
than
the
critical
angle,
𝜃! ,
where
𝑛!
𝜃! = sin!!
𝑛!
(2.10)
Hence,
in
a
birefringent
crystal,
𝜃! ,
will
be
different
for
the
o-‐ray
and
e-‐ray.
This
can
be
exploited
to
split
an
unpolarized
beam
into
two
orthogonally
polarized
components
–
as
shown
in
Fig
10
below.
Figure
10
A
polarizing
beam-‐splitter.
• The
optic
axis
is
oriented
so
that
the
rays
propagate
in
the
same
direction
until
they
reach
the
interface
i.e.
𝜃 = 90°
• The
second
piece
of
calcite
ensures
that
the
e-‐eay
is
parallel
to
the
input
beam.
• This
device
is
also
known
as
a
‘Glan-‐Thompson’
polarizer
or
a
‘Glan-‐Foucalt’
polarizer
if
no
cement
is
used
and
there
is
just
an
air
gap
between
the
calcite
pieces.
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Section
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2.4.7
Waveplates.
Consider
the
phases
of
the
o-‐
and
e-‐rays:
𝜙! = 𝑘! 𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 and 𝜙! = 𝑘! 𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡
but
!! !!
𝑘! = 𝑛!
and
𝑘! = 𝑛 𝜃
! !
Δ𝜙 = 𝜙! − 𝜙! = 𝑘! − 𝑘! 𝑧
2𝜋
Δ𝜙 𝜃 = 𝑑 𝑛! − 𝑛 𝜃
𝜆
If we orient the crystal such that 𝜃 = 90° then the rays will not separate and 𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑛!
hence,
2𝜋
Δ𝜙 𝜃 = 90° = 𝑑 𝑛! − 𝑛!
𝜆
This is called a waveplate and is shown below in Fig 11:
Figure
11
A
waveplate.
Terminology:
• The
direction
for
which
is
𝑛
is
a
minimum
and
hence
v!
is
a
maximum
is
called
the
‘fast
axis’
• The
direction
for
which
is
𝑛
is
a
maximum
and
hence
v!
is
a
minimum
is
called
the
‘slow
axis’
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PHYS20312
Wave
Optics
-‐
Section
2:
Polarization
Now
consider
two
special
cases:
1. Set
𝑑
so
that
Δ𝜙 = 2𝑚 + 1 𝜋
where
𝑚
is
an
integer.
This
produces
a
𝜆 2
phase
difference
between
the
o-‐
and
e-‐rays
and
is
hence
called
a
“half-‐wave
plate”.
In
the
example
sheet,
you
will
see
how
it
can
be
used
to
flip
the
polarization
direction
about
the
optic
axis.
2. Set
𝑑
so
that
Δ𝜙 = 4𝑚 + 1 𝜋 2
where
𝑚
is
an
integer.
This
produces
a
𝜆 4
phase
difference
between
the
o-‐
and
e-‐rays
and
is
hence
called
a
“quarter-‐wave
plate”.
In
the
example
sheet,
you
will
see
how
it
can
be
used
to
change
circular
polarization
to
linear
and
vice
versa.
The
plane
of
polarization
is
rotated
as
light
passes
through
a
length
of
material,
𝑑 ,
in
the
presence
of
a
magnetic
field,𝐵,
as
shown
below:
Figure
12
The
Faraday
Effect
(Image
from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday_effect).
𝛽 = 𝑉𝐵𝑑
where 𝑉 is the “Verdet” constant – some example values are given in the Table below:
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PHYS20312
Wave
Optics
-‐
Section
2:
Polarization
-1 -1
Material V (rad.T .m )
-4
Glass 9.2×10
-4
Water 3.8 ×10
-7
Air 1.8 ×10
-4
Quartz 4.8 ×10
Note
that
the
direction
of
rotation
depends
on
the
sign
of
both
𝑉
and
𝐵
but
not
on
the
direction
of
propagation
(
is
defined
as
positive
for
anticlockwise
rotation
for
𝐵
pointing
towards
the
viewer).
This
enables
an
“Optical
Diode”
to
be
produced
(otherwise
known
as
a
Faraday
Isolator)
i.e.
a
device
that
allows
light
to
pass
in
one
direction
but
not
the
other.
Consider
Fig
13:
Figure
13
Light
passing
through
(left)
and
being
blocked
by
(right)
an
optical
diode.
• light
passes
through
polariser
P1
(becoming
vertically
polarized
if
not
already)
and
then
through
the
material
in
the
presence
of
a
B-‐field
and
is
rotated
by
45°
clockwise
• this
allows
it
to
pass
without
loss
through
the
second
polarizer
P2
oriented
at
45°
to
the
vertical
For
the
right-‐hand
diagram:
• light
passes
through
P2
(and
thus
becomes
polarized
at
45°
to
the
vertical)
and
then
through
the
material
in
the
presence
of
a
B-‐field
and
is
rotated
by
45°
clockwise
• it
is
now
polarised
horizontally
and
so
is
blocked
by
P1
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