Appendix 1

Greek letters with pronunciations

Upper case letter Lower case letter Pronounced

A a alpha

B b beta

g gamma

d delta

E e epsilon

Z z zeta

H Z eta

 y theta

I i iota

K k kappa

 l lambda

M m mu

N n nu

 x xi

O o omicron

 p pi

P r rho

 s sigma

T t tau

 u upsilon

 f phi

X w chi

c psi

o omega
Appendix 2
Abbreviations and symbols for
quantities and units
For ligand structures, see Table 7.7. Where a symbol has more than one meaning, the context of its use should make the
meaning clear. For further information on SI symbols and names of units, see: Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical
Chemistry (1993) IUPAC, 2nd edn, Blackwell Science, Oxford.

a cross-sectional area bpy 2,2’-bipyridine

ai relative activity of a component i Bq becquerel (unit of radioactivity)

n
a0 Bohr radius of the H atom Bu n-butyl
t
A ampere (unit of current) Bu tert-butyl
A absorbance c coefficient (in wavefunctions)
A frequency factor (in Arrhenius equation) c concentration (of solution)
A Madelung constant c speed of light
A mass number (of an atom) c-C6 H11 cyclohexyl
A hyperfine coupling constant (EPR) C Curie constant
Ar relative atomic mass C coulomb (unit of charge)
Að;Þ angular wavefunction Ci curie (non-SI unit of radioactivity)
AAS atomic absorption spectroscopy Cn n-fold rotation axis
Å ångstrom (non-SI unit of length, used for
bond distances) ccp cubic close-packed
acacH acetylacetone CFC chlorofluorocarbon
ADP adenosine diphosphate CFSE crystal field stabilization energy
Ala alanine cm centimetre (unit of length)
aq aqueous cm3 cubic centimetre (unit of volume)
1
Arg arginine cm reciprocal centimetre (wavenumber)
Asn asparagine conc concentrated
Asp aspartic acid Cp cyclopentadienyl
atm atmosphere (non-SI unit of pressure) cr crystal
ATP adenosine triphosphate CT charge transfer
ax axial CVD chemical vapour deposition
B magnetic field strength Cys cysteine
B Racah parameter d bond distance or internuclear separation
bar bar (unit of pressure) d- dextro- (see Box 19.3)
bcc body-centred cubic d day (non-SI unit of time)
bp boiling point D bond dissociation enthalpy
1112 APPENDIX 2 . Abbreviations and symbols for quantities and units


D average bond dissociation enthalpy FID free induction decay

D mechanism dissociative mechanism FT Fourier transform

D debye (non-SI unit of electric dipole G Gibbs energy
moment)
Dcb mechanism conjugate–base mechanism g gas
dec decomposition g gram (unit of mass)
DHA 9,10-dihydroanthracene g Landé g-factor
dien 1,4,7-triazaheptane (see Table 7.7) Gln glutamine
dil dilute Glu glutamic acid
dm3 cubic decimetre (unit of volume) Gly glycine
DME dimethoxyethane H enthalpy
DMF N,N-dimethylformamide H magnetic field
dmgH2 dimethylglyoxime Hc critical magnetic field of a superconductor
DMSO dimethylsulfoxide h Planck constant
DNA deoxyribonucleic acid h hour (non-SI unit of time)
E energy hcp hexagonal close-packed
E identity operator HIPIP high-potential protein
E bond enthalpy term His histidine
e charge on the electron HMPA hexamethylphosphoramide (see structure
11.5)
e electron HOMO highest occupied molecular orbital
EA electron affinity Hz hertz (unit of frequency)
Ea activation energy h high-frequency radiation (for a photolysis
reaction)
Ecell electrochemical cell potential I nuclear spin quantum number
Eo standard reduction potential i centre of inversion
EDTAH4 N;N;N’;N’-ethylenediaminetetraacetic Ia mechanism associative interchange mechanism
acid (see Table 7.7)
en 1,2-ethanediamine (see Table 7.7) Id mechanism dissociative interchange mechanism
EPR electron paramagnetic resonance IE ionization energy
eq equatorial Ile isoleucine
ESR electron spin resonance IR infrared
Et ethyl IUPAC International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry
eV electron volt j inner quantum number
EXAFS extended X-ray absorption fine structure J joule (unit of energy)
F Faraday constant J spin–spin coupling constant
FAD flavin adenine dinucleotide J total (resultant) inner quantum number
fcc face-centred cubic k force constant
 APPENDIX 2 . Abbreviations and symbols for quantities and units 1113

k rate constant m3 cubic metre (unit of volume)

k Boltzmann constant me electron rest mass

K kelvin (unit of temperature) mi molality
K equilibrium constant mi o standard state molality
Ka acid dissociation constant ml magnetic quantum number
Kb base dissociation constant ML total (resultant) orbital magnetic quantum
number
Kc equilibrium constant expressed in terms ms magnetic spin quantum number
of concentrations
Kp equilibrium constant expressed in terms MS magnetic spin quantum number for the
of partial pressures multi-electron system
Kself self-ionization constant Mr relative molecular mass
Ksp solubility product constant Me methyl
Kw self-ionization constant of water Mes mesityl (2,4,6-Me3 C6 H2 )
kg kilogram (unit of mass) Met methionine
kJ kilojoule (unit of energy) min minute (non-SI unit of time)
kPa kilopascal (unit of pressure) MLCT metal-to-ligand charge transfer
L Avogadro’s number MO molecular orbital
L total (resultant) orbital quantum number MOCVD metal–organic chemical vapour deposition
L ligand mol mole (unit of quantity)
l liquid mp melting point
l length Mt megatonne
l orbital quantum number MWNT multi-walled (carbon) nanotube
l- laevo- (see Box 19.3) N normalization factor
‘ path length N number of nuclides
LCAO linear combination of atomic orbitals n neutron
LED light-emitting diode n Born exponent
Leu leucine n number of (e.g. moles)
LFER linear free energy relationship n principal quantum number
LFSE ligand field stabilization energy n nucleophilicity parameter
þ
LGO ligand group orbital [NAD] nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
LMCT ligand-to-metal charge transfer NASICON Na super ionic conductor
Ln lanthanoid nm nanometre (unit of length)
LUMO lowest unoccupied molecular orbital NMR nuclear magnetic resonance
Lys lysine OLED organic light-emitting diode
M molarity oxH2 oxalic acid
m mass P pressure
m metre (unit of length) Pa pascal (unit of pressure)
1114 APPENDIX 2 . Abbreviations and symbols for quantities and units

PES photoelectron spectroscopy s second (unit of time)

Ph phenyl s solid
Phe phenylalanine s spin quantum number
phen 1,10-phenanthroline s nucleophilicity discrimination factor
pKa  log Ka Sn n-fold improper rotation axis
pm picometre (unit of length) SN 1cb mechanism conjugate–base mechanism
ppb parts per billion Ser serine
ppm parts per million soln solution
ppt precipitate solv solvated; solvent
Pr propyl SQUID superconducting quantum interference device
i
Pr iso-propyl SWNT single-walled (carbon) nanotube
Pro proline T tesla (unit of magnetic flux density)
PVC polyvinylchloride T temperature
py pyridine Tc critical temperature of a superconductor
pzH pyrazole TC Curie temperature
q point charge TN Néel temperature
Q reaction quotient t tonne (metric)
R general alkyl or aryl group t time
R molar gas constant t12 half-life
R Rydberg constant THF tetrahydrofuran
R resistance Thr threonine
R- sequence rules for an enantiomer
(see Box 19.3) TMEDA N;N;N’;N’-tetramethylethylenediamine
r radial distance TMS tetramethylsilane
r radius TOF catalytic turnover frequency
R(r) radial wavefunction TON catalytic turnover number
rcov covalent radius tppH2 tetraphenylporphyrin
rion ionic radius tpy 2,2’:6’,2’’-terpyridine
rmetal metallic radius trien 1,4,7,10-tetraazadecane (see Table 7.7)
rv van der Waals radius Trp tryptophan
RDS rate-determining step Tyr tyrosine
RF radiofrequency U internal energy
S entropy u atomic mass unit
S overlap integral UV ultraviolet
S total spin quantum number UV–VIS ultraviolet-visible
S screening (or shielding) constant V potential difference
S- sequence rules for an enantiomer V volume
(see Box 19.3)
 APPENDIX 2 . Abbreviations and symbols for quantities and units 1115

V volt (unit of potential difference)
H o standard enthalpy change

v vapour
H ‡ enthalpy change of activation

v velocity
a H enthalpy change of atomization
Val valine
c H enthalpy change of combustion
VB valence bond
EA H enthalpy change associated with the gain of an
electron
ve valence electrons (in electron counting)
f H enthalpy change of formation
VIS visible
fus H enthalpy change of fusion
VSEPR valence-shell electron-pair repulsion
hyd H enthalpy change of hydration

lattice H enthalpy change for the formation of an ionic
[X] concentration of X lattice
XRD X-ray diffraction
r H enthalpy change of reaction
yr year (non-SI unit of time)
sol H enthalpy change of solution
z number of moles of electrons transferred in
solv H enthalpy change of solvation
an electrochemical cell
Z atomic number
vap H enthalpy change of vaporization
o
Z effective collision frequency in solution
G standard Gibbs energy change
Zeff effective nuclear charge
G‡ Gibbs energy of activation
jz j modulus of the negative charge
f G Gibbs energy change of formation
jzþ j modulus of the positive charge
r G Gibbs energy change of reaction
ZSM-5 a type of zeolite (see Section 25.8)
S entropy change
o
 polarizability of an atom or ion
S standard entropy change
½ specific rotation
S ‡ entropy change of activation
 stability constant
U(0 K) internal energy change at 0 K
 ‡
b beta-particle
V volume of activation
bþ positron " molar extinction (or absorption) coefficient
 chemical shift "max molar extinction coefficient corresponding to an
absorption maximum (in an electronic spectrum)
d- label for an enantiomer (see Box 19.3) "0 permittivity of a vacuum
 partial negative charge "r relative permittivity (dielectric constant)
þ
 partial positive charge  hapticity of a ligand (see Box 19.1)

change in l- label for an enantiomer (see Box 19.3)

- label for enantiomer with right-handedness spin–orbit coupling constant
(see Box 19.3)

heat (in a pyrolysis reaction) wavelength

oct octahedral crystal field splitting energy max wavelength corresponding to an absorption
maximum (in an electronic spectrum)

tet tetrahedral crystal field splitting energy - label for enantiomer with left-handedness
(see Box 19.3)
1116 APPENDIX 2 . Abbreviations and symbols for quantities and units

electric dipole moment o
or o standard state

reduced mass z (called a ‘double dagger’) activated complex;
transition state

refractive index 8 degree

(spin only) spin-only magnetic moment > is greater than

B Bohr magneton  is much greater than

eff effective magnetic moment < is less than

i chemical potential of component i  is much less than

i o
standard chemical potential of i  is greater than or equal to
m- bridging ligand  is less than or equal to
 total number of particles produced per  is approximately equal to
molecule of solute
 frequency ¼ is equal to
 wavenumber 6¼ is not equal to
ne neutrino Ð equilibrium
 density / is proportional to
 mirror plane multiplied by
1 spin relaxation time (in NMR 1 infinity
spectroscopy)
 magnetic susceptibility
plus or minus
pffiffiffi
m molar magnetic susceptibility square root of
p
3
ffiffiffi
 electronegativity cube root of
AR Allred–Rochow electronegativity jxj modulus of x
M P
 Mulliken electronegativity summation of
P
 Pauling electronegativity
change in (for example,
H is ‘change in
enthalpy’)
wavefunction n angle

ohm (unit of resistance) log logarithm to base 10 (log10 )
2c-2e 2-centre 2-electron ln natural logarithm, i.e. logarithm to base e (loge )
ð
3c-2e 3-centre 2-electron integral of

(þ)- label for specific rotation of an enantiomer d

differential with respect to x
(see Box 19.3) dx
()- label for specific rotation of an enantiomer @
partial differential with respect to x
(see Box 19.3) @x
Appendix 3
Selected character tables
The character tables given in this appendix are for some commonly encountered point groups. Complete tables are available
in many physical and theoretical chemistry texts, e.g. see Chapter 3 reading list.

C1 E Cs E h
A 1
A’ 1 1 x, y, Rz x2 , y2 , z2 , xy
A’’ 1 1 z, Rx , Ry yz, xz

C2 E C2

A 1 1 z, Rz x2 , y2 , z2 , xy
B 1 1 x, y, Rx , Ry yz, xz

C2v E C2 v ðxzÞ v ’ðyzÞ

A1 1 1 1 1 z x2 , y2 , z2
A2 1 1 1 1 Rz xy
B1 1 1 1 1 x, Ry xz
B2 1 1 1 1 y, Rx yz

C3v E 2C3 3v

A1 1 1 1 z x2 þ y2 , z2
A2 1 1 1 Rz
E 2 1 0 (x; y) (Rx , Ry ) (x2  y2 , xy) (xz, yz)

C4v E 2C4 C2 2v 2d

A1 1 1 1 1 1 z x2 þ y2 ; z2
A2 1 1 1 1 1 Rz
B1 1 1 1 1 1 x2  y2
B2 1 1 1 1 1 xy
E 2 0 2 0 0 ðx; yÞðRx ; Ry Þ ðxz; yzÞ
1118 APPENDIX 3 . Selected character tables

C5v E 2C5 2C52 5v

A1 1 1 1 1 z x2 þ y2 ; z2
A2 1 1 1 1 Rz
E1 2 2 cos 728 2 cos 1448 0 ðx; yÞðRx ; Ry Þ ðxz; yzÞ
E2 2 2 cos 1448 2 cos 728 0 ðx2  y2 ; xyÞ

D2 E C2 ðzÞ C2 ðyÞ C2 ðxÞ

A 1 1 1 1 x2 ; y2 ; z2
B1 1 1 1 1 z; Rz xy
B2 1 1 1 1 y; Ry xz
B3 1 1 1 1 x; Rx yz

D3 E 2C3 3C2

A1 1 1 1 x2 þ y2 , z2
A2 1 1 1 z, Rz
E 2 1 0 (x; y) (Rx , Ry ) (x2  y2 , xy) (xz, yz)

D2h E C2 ðzÞ C2 ðyÞ C2 ðxÞ i ðxyÞ ðxzÞ ð yzÞ

Ag 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 x2 ; y2 ; z2
B1g 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Rz xy
B2g 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Ry xz
B3g 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Rx yz
Au 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
B1u 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 z
B2u 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 y
B3u 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 x

D3h E 2C3 3C2 h 2S3 3v

A1 ’ 1 1 1 1 1 1 x2 þ y2 , z2
A2 ’ 1 1 1 1 1 1 Rz
E’ 2 1 0 2 1 0 (x; y) (x2  y2 , xy)
A1 ’’ 1 1 1 1 1 1
A2 ’’ 1 1 1 1 1 1 z
E’’ 2 1 0 2 1 0 (Rx ; Ry ) (xz, yz)
 APPENDIX 3 . Selected character tables 1119

D4h E 2C4 C2 2C2 ’ 2C2 ’’ i 2S4 h 2v 2d

A1g 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 x2 þ y2 , z2
A2g 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Rz
B1g 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 x2  y2
B2g 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 xy
Eg 2 0 2 0 0 2 0 2 0 0 (Rx ; Ry ) (xz; yz)
A1u 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
A2u 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 z
B1u 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
B2u 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Eu 2 0 2 0 0 2 0 2 0 0 (x; y)

D2d E 2S4 C2 2C2 ’ 2d

A1 1 1 1 1 1 x2 þ y2 ; z2
A2 1 1 1 1 1 Rz
B1 1 1 1 1 1 x2  y2
B2 1 1 1 1 1 z xy
E 2 0 2 0 0 ðx; yÞðRx ; Ry Þ ðxz; yzÞ

D3d E 2C3 3C2 i 2S6 3d

A1g 1 1 1 1 1 1 x2 þ y2 ; z2
A2g 1 1 1 1 1 1 Rz
Eg 2 1 0 2 1 0 ðRx ; Ry Þ ðx2  y2 ; xyÞ; ðxz; yzÞ
A1u 1 1 1 1 1 1
A2u 1 1 1 1 1 1 z
Eu 2 1 0 2 1 0 ðx; yÞ

Td E 8C3 3C2 6S4 6d

A1 1 1 1 1 1 x2 þ y2 þ z2
A2 1 1 1 1 1
E 2 1 2 0 0 ð2z2  x2  y2 ; x2  y2 Þ
T1 3 0 1 1 1 (Rx ; Ry ; Rz )
T2 3 0 1 1 1 (x; y; z) (xy; xz; yz)
1120 APPENDIX 3 . Selected character tables

Oh E 8C3 6C2 6C4 3C2 i 6S4 8S6 3h 6d

ð¼ C42 )

A1g 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 x2 þ y2 þ z2
A2g 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Eg 2 1 0 0 2 2 0 1 2 0 ð2z2  x2  y2 , x2  y2 Þ
T1g 3 0 1 1 1 3 1 0 1 1 ðRx ; Ry ; Rz Þ
T2g 3 0 1 1 1 3 1 0 1 1 ðxz; yz; xyÞ
A1u 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
A2u 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Eu 2 1 0 0 2 2 0 1 2 0
T1u 3 0 1 1 1 3 1 0 1 1 ðx; y; zÞ
T2u 3 0 1 1 1 3 1 0 1 1

C1v E 
2C1 ... 1v

A1  þ 1 1 ... 1 z x2 þ y2 ; z2

A2   1 1 ... 1 Rz
E1   2 2 cos  ... 0 ðx; yÞðRx ; Ry Þ ðxz; yzÞ
E2   2 2 cos 2 ... 0 ðx2  y2 ; xyÞ
E3   2 2 cos 3 ... 0
... ... ... ... ...

D1h E 
2C1 ... 1v i 
2S1 ... 1C2

g þ 1 1 ... 1 1 1 ... 1 x2 þ y2 ; z2

g 1 1 ... 1 1 1 ... 1 Rz
g 2 2 cos  ... 0 2 2 cos  ... 0 ðRx ; Ry Þ ðxz; yzÞ
g 2 2 cos 2 ... 0 2 2 cos 2 ... 0 ðx2  y2 ; xyÞ
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
þ
u 1 1 ... 1 1 1 ... 1 z

u 1 1 ... 1 1 1 ... 1
u 2 2 cos  ... 0 2 2 cos  ... 0 ðx; yÞ
u 2 2 cos 2 ... 0 2 2 cos 2 ... 0
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Appendix 4
The electromagnetic spectrum
The frequency of electromagnetic radiation is related to its wavelength by the equation:
Speed of light ðcÞ
Wavelength ðÞ ¼
Frequency ðÞ
where c ¼ 3:0  108 m s1 .
1
Wavenumber ð
Þ ¼
Wavelength
with units in cm1 (pronounced ‘reciprocal centimetre’)
Energy ðEÞ ¼ Planck’s constant ðhÞ  Frequency ðÞ where h ¼ 6:626  1034 J s
(continued over the page)
1122 APPENDIX 4 . The electromagnetic spectrum

The energy given in the last column is measured per mole of photons.

Frequency Wavelength Wavenumber Type of Energy

 / Hz /m  / cm1 radiation E / kJ mol1
Appendix 5
Naturally occurring isotopes
and their abundances
Data from WebElements by Mark Winter. Further information on radioactive nuclides can be found using the Web link
www.webelements.com

Element Symbol Atomic number, Z Mass number of isotope (% abundance)

Actinium Ac 89 artificial isotopes only; mass number range 224–229

Aluminium Al 13 27(100)
Americium Am 95 artificial isotopes only; mass number range 237–245
Antimony Sb 51 121(57.3), 123(42.7)
Argon Ar 18 36(0.34), 38(0.06), 40(99.6)
Arsenic As 33 75(100)
Astatine At 85 artificial isotopes only; mass number range 205–211
Barium Ba 56 130(0.11), 132(0.10), 134(2.42), 135(6.59), 136(7.85), 137(11.23), 138(71.70)
Berkelium Bk 97 artificial isotopes only; mass number range 243–250
Beryllium Be 4 9(100)
Bismuth Bi 83 209(100)
Boron B 5 10(19.9), 11(80.1)
Bromine Br 35 79(50.69), 81(49.31)
Cadmium Cd 48 106(1.25), 108(0.89), 110(12.49), 111(12.80), 112(24.13), 113(12.22),
114(28.73), 116(7.49)
Caesium Cs 55 133(100)
Calcium Ca 20 40(96.94), 42(0.65), 43(0.13), 44(2.09), 48(0.19)
Californium Cf 98 artificial isotopes only; mass number range 246–255
Carbon C 6 12(98.9), 13(1.1)
Cerium Ce 58 136(0.19), 138(0.25), 140(88.48), 142(11.08)
Chlorine Cl 17 35(75.77), 37(24.23)
Chromium Cr 24 50(4.345), 52(83.79), 53(9.50), 54(2.365)
Cobalt Co 27 59(100)
Copper Cu 29 63(69.2), 65(30.8)
Curium Cm 96 artificial isotopes only; mass number range 240–250
Dysprosium Dy 66 156(0.06), 158(0.10), 160(2.34), 161(18.9), 162(25.5), 163(24.9), 164(28.2)
Einsteinium Es 99 artificial isotopes only; mass number range 249–256
Erbium Er 68 162(0.14), 164(1.61), 166(33.6), 167(22.95), 168(26.8), 170(14.9)
Europium Eu 63 151(47.8), 153(52.2)
Fermium Fm 100 artificial isotopes only; mass number range 251–257
Fluorine F 9 19(100)
Francium Fr 87 artificial isotopes only; mass number range 210–227
Gadolinium Gd 64 152(0.20), 154(2.18), 155(14.80), 156(20.47), 157(15.65), 158(24.84),
160(21.86)
1124 APPENDIX 5 . Naturally occurring isotopes and their abundances

Element Symbol Atomic number, Z Mass number of isotope (% abundance)

Gallium Ga 31 69(60.1), 71(39.9)

Germanium Ge 32 70(20.5), 72(27.4), 73(7.8), 74(36.5), 76(7.8)
Gold Au 79 197(100)
Hafnium Hf 72 174(0.16), 176(5.20), 177(18.61), 178(27.30), 179(13.63), 180(35.10)
Helium He 2 3(<0.001), 4(>99.999)
Holmium Ho 67 165(100)
Hydrogen H 1 1(99.985), 2(0.015)
Indium In 49 113(4.3), 115(95.7)
Iodine I 53 127(100)
Iridium Ir 77 191(37.3), 193(62.7)
Iron Fe 26 54(5.8), 56(91.7), 57(2.2), 58(0.3)
Krypton Kr 36 78(0.35), 80(2.25), 82(11.6), 83(11.5), 84(57.0), 86(17.3)
Lanthanum La 57 138(0.09), 139(99.91)
Lawrencium Lr 103 artificial isotopes only; mass number range 253–262
Lead Pb 82 204(1.4), 206(24.1), 207(22.1), 208(52.4)
Lithium Li 3 6(7.5), 7(92.5)
Lutetium Lu 71 175(97.41), 176(2.59)
Magnesium Mg 12 24(78.99), 25(10.00), 26(11.01)
Manganese Mn 25 55(100)
Mendelevium Md 101 artificial isotopes only; mass number range 247–260
Mercury Hg 80 196(0.14), 198(10.02), 199(16.84), 200(23.13), 201(13.22), 202(29.80),
204(6.85)
Molybdenum Mo 42 92(14.84), 94(9.25), 95(15.92), 96(16.68), 97(9.55), 98(24.13), 100(9.63)
Neodymium Nd 60 142(27.13), 143(12.18), 144(23.80), 145(8.30), 146(17.19), 148(5.76),
150(5.64)
Neon Ne 10 20(90.48), 21(0.27), 22(9.25)
Neptunium Np 93 artificial isotopes only; mass number range 234–240
Nickel Ni 28 58(68.27), 60(26.10), 61(1.13), 62(3.59), 64(0.91)
Niobium Nb 41 93(100)
Nitrogen N 7 14(99.63), 15(0.37)
Nobelium No 102 artificial isotopes only; mass number range 250–262
Osmium Os 76 184(0.02), 186(1.58), 187(1.6), 188(13.3), 189(16.1), 190(26.4), 192(41.0)
Oxygen O 8 16(99.76), 17(0.04), 18(0.20)
Palladium Pd 46 102(1.02), 104(11.14), 105(22.33), 106(27.33), 108(26.46), 110(11.72)
Phosphorus P 15 31(100)
Platinum Pt 78 190(0.01), 192(0.79), 194(32.9), 195(33.8), 196(25.3), 198(7.2)
Plutonium Pu 94 artificial isotopes only; mass number range 234–246
Polonium Po 84 artificial isotopes only; mass number range 204–210
Potassium K 19 39(93.26), 40(0.01), 41(6.73)
Praseodymium Pr 59 141(100)
Promethium Pm 61 artificial isotopes only; mass number range 141–151
†
Protactinium Pa 91 artificial isotopes only; mass number range 228–234
Radium Ra 88 artificial isotopes only; mass number range 223–230
†
See discussion in Section 27.5.
 APPENDIX 5 . Naturally occurring isotopes and their abundances 1125

Element Symbol Atomic number, Z Mass number of isotope (% abundance)

Radon Rn 86 artificial isotopes only; mass number range 208–224

Rhenium Re 75 185(37.40), 187(62.60)
Rhodium Rh 45 103(100)
Rubidium Rb 37 85(72.16), 87(27.84)
Ruthenium Ru 44 96(5.52), 98(1.88), 99(12.7), 100(12.6), 101(17.0), 102(31.6), 104(18.7)
Samarium Sm 62 144(3.1), 147(15.0), 148(11.3), 149(13.8), 150(7.4), 152(26.7), 154(22.7)
Scandium Sc 21 45(100)
Selenium Se 34 74(0.9), 76(9.2), 77(7.6), 78(23.6), 80(49.7), 82(9.0)
Silicon Si 14 28(92.23), 29(4.67), 30(3.10)
Silver Ag 47 107(51.84), 109(48.16)
Sodium Na 11 23(100)
Strontium Sr 38 84(0.56), 86(9.86), 87(7.00), 88(82.58)
Sulfur S 16 32(95.02), 33(0.75), 34(4.21), 36(0.02)
Tantalum Ta 73 180(0.01), 181(99.99)
Technetium Tc 43 artificial isotopes only; mass number range 95–99
Tellurium Te 52 120(0.09), 122(2.60), 123(0.91), 124(4.82), 125(7.14), 126(18.95), 128(31.69),
130(33.80)
Terbium Tb 65 159(100)
Thallium Tl 81 203(29.52), 205(70.48)
Thorium Th 90 232(100)
Thulium Tm 69 169(100)
Tin Sn 50 112(0.97), 114(0.65), 115(0.36), 116(14.53), 117(7.68), 118(24.22), 119(8.58),
120(32.59), 122(4.63), 124(5.79)
Titanium Ti 22 46(8.0), 47(7.3), 48(73.8), 49(5.5), 50(5.4)
Tungsten W 74 180(0.13), 182(26.3), 183(14.3), 184(30.67), 186(28.6)
Uranium U 92 234(0.005), 235(0.72), 236(99.275)
Vanadium V 23 50(0.25), 51(99.75)
Xenon Xe 54 124(0.10), 126(0.09), 128(1.91), 129(26.4), 130(4.1), 131(21.2), 132(26.9),
134(10.4), 136(8.9)
Ytterbium Yb 70 168(0.13), 170(3.05), 171(14.3), 172(21.9), 173(16.12), 174(31.8), 176(12.7)
Yttrium Y 39 89(100)
Zinc Zn 30 64(48.6), 66(27.9), 67(4.1), 68(18.8), 70(0.6)
Zirconium Zr 40 90(51.45), 91(11.22), 92(17.15), 94(17.38), 96(2.8)
Appendix 6
Van der Waals, metallic, covalent
and ionic radii
Data are given for the s-, p- and first row d-block elements. The ionic radius varies with the charge and coordination number
of the ion; a coordination number of 6 refers to octahedral coordination, and of 4 refers to tetrahedral unless otherwise speci-
fied. Data for the heavier d-block metals and the lanthanoids and actinoids are listed in Tables 22.1 and 27.1.

Element Van der Metallic radius for Covalent Ionic radius

Waals radius, 12-coordinate metal, radius,
rv / pm rmetal / pm rcov / pm Ionic Charge Coordination
radius, on ion number of
rion / pm the ion

Hydrogen H 120† 37‡

Group 1 Li 157 76 1þ 6
Na 191 102 1þ 6
K 235 138 1þ 6
Rb 250 149 1þ 6
Cs 272 170 1þ 6
Group 2 Be 112 27 2þ 4
Mg 160 72 2þ 6
Ca 197 100 2þ 6
Sr 215 126 2þ 8
Ba 224 142 2þ 8

Group 13 B 208 88
Al 143 130 54 3þ 6
Ga 153 122 62 3þ 6
In 167 150 80 3þ 6
Tl 171 155 89 3þ 6
159 1þ 8
Group 14 C 185 77
Si 210 118
Ge 122 53 4þ 6
Sn 158 140 74 4þ 6
Pb 175 154 119 2þ 6
65 4þ 4
78 4þ 6
Group 15 N 154 75 171 3 6
P 190 110
As 200 122
Sb 220 143
Bi 240 182 152 103 3þ 6
76 5þ 6
Group 16 O 140 73 140 2 6
S 185 103 184 2 6
Se 200 117 198 2 6
Te 220 135 211 2 6
†
The value of 120 pm may be an overestimate; an analysis of intermolecular contacts in organic structures suggests a value of 110 pm. See: R.S. Rowland
and R. Taylor (1996) J. Phys. Chem., vol. 100, p. 7384.
‡
Sometimes it is more appropriate to use a value of 30 pm in organic compounds.
 APPENDIX 6 . Van der Waals, metallic, covalent and ionic radii 1127

Element Van der Metallic radius for Covalent Ionic radius

Waals radius, 12-coordinate metal, radius,
rv / pm rmetal / pm rcov / pm Ionic Charge Coordination
radius, on ion number of
rion / pm the ion

Group 17 F 135 71 133 1 6

Cl 180 99 181 1 6
Br 195 114 196 1 6
I 215 133 220 1 6
Group 18 He 99
Ne 160
Ar 191
Kr 197
Xe 214
First row Sc 164 75 3þ 6
d-block
elements
Ti 147 86 2þ 6
67 3þ 6
61 4þ 6
V 135 79 2þ 6
64 3þ 6
58 4þ 6
53 4þ 5
54 5þ 6
46 5þ 5
Cr 129 73 2þ 6 (low-spin)
80 2þ 6 (high-spin)
62 3þ 6
Mn 137 67 2þ 6 (low-spin)
83 2þ 6 (high-spin)
58 3þ 6 (low-spin)
65 3þ 6 (high-spin)
39 4þ 4
53 4þ 6
Fe 126 61 2þ 6 (low-spin)
78 2þ 6 (high-spin)
55 3þ 6 (low-spin)
65 3þ 6 (high-spin)
Co 125 65 2þ 6 (low-spin)
75 2þ 6 (high-spin)
55 3þ 6 (low-spin)
61 3þ 6 (high-spin)
Ni 125 55 2þ 4
44 2þ 4 (square planar)
69 2þ 6
56 3þ 6 (low-spin)
60 3þ 6 (high-spin)
Cu 128 46 1þ 2
60 1þ 4
57 2þ 4 (square planar)
73 2þ 6
Zn 137 60 2þ 4
74 2þ 6
Appendix 7
Pauling electronegativity values
(P) for selected elements of the
periodic table
Values are dependent on oxidation state.

Group 1 Group 2 Group 13 Group 14 Group 15 Group 16 Group 17

H
2.2

Li Be B C N O F
1.0 1.6 2.0 2.6 3.0 3.4 4.0

Na Mg Al(III) Si P S Cl
0.9 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.6 3.2

K Ca Ga(III) Ge(IV) As(III) Se Br

0.8 1.0 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.6 3.0

Rb Sr (d-block In(III) Sn(II) Sb Te I

0.8 0.9 elements) 1.8 1.8 2.1 2.1 2.7
Sn(IV)
2.0

Cs Ba Tl(I) Pb(II) Bi Po At
0.8 0.9 1.6 1.9 2.0 2.0 2.2
Tl(III) Pb(IV)
2.0 2.3
Appendix 8
Ground state electronic
configurations of the elements and
ionization energies
Data are given for the first five ionizations.† IE(n) in kJ mol1 for the processes:
IE(1) MðgÞ  Mþ ðgÞ"

IE(2) Mþ ðgÞ  M2þ ðgÞ

"

IE(3) M2þ ðgÞ  M3þ ðgÞ"

IE(4) M3þ ðgÞ  M4þ ðgÞ"

IE(5) M4þ ðgÞ  M5þ ðgÞ"

Atomic number, Z Element Ground state electronic configuration IE(1) IE(2) IE(3) IE(4) IE(5)

1 H 1s1 1312
2 He 1s2 ¼ ½He 2372 5250
1
3 Li [He]2s 520.2 7298 11820
2
4 Be [He]2s 899.5 1757 14850 21010
5 B [He]2s2 2p1 800.6 2427 3660 25030 32830
2 2
6 C [He]2s 2p 1086 2353 4620 6223 37830
2 3
7 N [He]2s 2p 1402 2856 4578 7475 9445
8 O [He]2s2 2p4 1314 3388 5300 7469 10990
9 F [He]2s2 2p5 1681 3375 6050 8408 11020
2 6
10 Ne [He]2s 2p ¼ ½Ne 2081 3952 6122 9371 12180
1
11 Na [Ne]3s 495.8 4562 6910 9543 13350
12 Mg [Ne]3s2 737.7 1451 7733 10540 13630
2 1
13 Al [Ne]3s 3p 577.5 1817 2745 11580 14840
2 2
14 Si [Ne]3s 3p 786.5 1577 3232 4356 16090
15 P [Ne]3s2 3p3 1012 1907 2914 4964 6274
2 4
16 S [Ne]3s 3p 999.6 2252 3357 4556 7004
2 5
17 Cl [Ne]3s 3p 1251 2298 3822 5159 6540
18 Ar [Ne]3s2 3p6 ¼ ½Ar 1521 2666 3931 5771 7238
19 K [Ar]4s1 418.8 3052 4420 5877 7975
2
20 Ca [Ar]4s 589.8 1145 4912 6491 8153
21 Sc [Ar]4s2 3d 1 633.1 1235 2389 7091 8843
2 2
22 Ti [Ar]4s 3d 658.8 1310 2653 4175 9581
2 3
23 V [Ar]4s 3d 650.9 1414 2828 4507 6299
24 Cr [Ar]4s1 3d 5 652.9 1591 2987 4743 6702
†
Values are from several sources, but mostly from the Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (1993) 74th edn, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, and
from the NIST Physics Laboratory, Physical Reference Data. The values in kJ mol1 are quoted to four significant figures or less depending upon
the accuracy of the original data in eV. A conversion factor of 1 eV ¼ 96:485 kJ mol1 has been applied.
1130 APPENDIX 8 . Ground state electronic configurations of the elements and ionization energies

Atomic number, Z Element Ground state electronic configuration IE(1) IE(2) IE(3) IE(4) IE(5)

25 Mn [Ar]4s2 3d 5 717.3 1509 3248 4940 6990

2 6
26 Fe [Ar]4s 3d 762.5 1562 2957 5290 7240
27 Co [Ar]4s2 3d 7 760.4 1648 3232 4950 7670
2 8
28 Ni [Ar]4s 3d 737.1 1753 3395 5300 7339
1 10
29 Cu [Ar]4s 3d 745.5 1958 3555 5536 7700
30 Zn [Ar]4s2 3d 10 906.4 1733 3833 5730 7970
2 10 1
31 Ga [Ar]4s 3d 4p 578.8 1979 2963 6200
2 10 2
32 Ge [Ar]4s 3d 4p 762.2 1537 3302 4411 9020
33 As [Ar]4s2 3d 10 4p3 947.0 1798 2735 4837 6043
2 10 4
34 Se [Ar]4s 3d 4p 941.0 2045 2974 4144 6590
2 10 5
35 Br [Ar]4s 3d 4p 1140 2100 3500 4560 5760
36 Kr [Ar]4s2 3d 10 4p6 ¼ ½Kr 1351 2350 3565 5070 6240
1
37 Rb [Kr]5s 403.0 2633 3900 5080 6850
2
38 Sr [Kr]5s 549.5 1064 4138 5500 6910
2 1
39 Y [Kr]5s 4d 599.8 1181 1980 5847 7430
40 Zr [Kr]5s2 4d 2 640.1 1267 2218 3313 7752
1 4
41 Nb [Kr]5s 4d 652.1 1382 2416 3700 4877
1 5
42 Mo [Kr]5s 4d 684.3 1559 2618 4480 5257
43 Tc [Kr]5s2 4d 5 702 1472 2850
44 Ru [Kr]5s1 4d 7 710.2 1617 2747
1 8
45 Rh [Kr]5s 4d 719.7 1744 2997
46 Pd [Kr]5s0 4d 10 804.4 1875 3177
1 10
47 Ag [Kr]5s 4d 731.0 2073 3361
2 10
48 Cd [Kr]5s 4d 867.8 1631 3616
49 In [Kr]5s2 4d 10 5p1 558.3 1821 2704 5200
2 10 2
50 Sn [Kr]5s 4d 5p 708.6 1412 2943 3930 6974
2 10 3
51 Sb [Kr]5s 4d 5p 830.6 1595 2440 4260 5400
52 Te [Kr]5s2 4d 10 5p4 869.3 1790 2698 3610 5668
2 10 5
53 I [Kr]5s 4d 5p 1008 1846 3200
2 10 6
54 Xe [Kr]5s 4d 5p ¼ ½Xe 1170 2046 3099
1
55 Cs [Xe]6s 375.7 2234 3400
56 Ba [Xe]6s2 502.8 965.2 3619
2 1
57 La [Xe]6s 5d 538.1 1067 1850 4819 5940
1 2 1
58 Ce [Xe]4f 6s 5d 534.4 1047 1949 3546 6325
59 Pr [Xe]4f 3 6s2 527.2 1018 2086 3761 5551
4 2
60 Nd [Xe]4f 6s 533.1 1035 2130 3898
5 2
61 Pm [Xe]4f 6s 538.8 1052 2150 3970
62 Sm [Xe]4f 6 6s2 544.5 1068 2260 3990
7 2
63 Eu [Xe]4f 6s 547.1 1085 2404 4120
7 2 1
64 Gd [Xe]4f 6s 5d 593.4 1167 1990 4245
65 Tb [Xe]4f 9 6s2 565.8 1112 2114 3839
10 2
66 Dy [Xe]4f 6s 573.0 1126 2200 3990
11 2
67 Ho [Xe]4f 6s 581.0 1139 2204 4100
 APPENDIX 8 . Ground state electronic configurations of the elements and ionization energies 1131

Atomic number, Z Element Ground state electronic configuration IE(1) IE(2) IE(3) IE(4) IE(5)

68 Er [Xe]4f 12 6s2 589.3 1151 2194 4120

13 2
69 Tm [Xe]4f 6s 596.7 1163 2285 4120
70 Yb [Xe]4f 14 6s2 603.4 1175 2417 4203
14 2 1
71 Lu [Xe]4f 6s 5d 523.5 1340 2022 4366
14 2 2
72 Hf [Xe]4f 6s 5d 658.5 1440 2250 3216
73 Ta [Xe]4f 14 6s2 5d 3 728.4 1500 2100
74 W [Xe]4f 14 6s2 5d 4 758.8 1700 2300
14 2 5
75 Re [Xe]4f 6s 5d 755.8 1260 2510
76 Os [Xe]4f 14 6s2 5d 6 814.2 1600 2400
14 2 7
77 Ir [Xe]4f 6s 5d 865.2 1680 2600
14 1 9
78 Pt [Xe]4f 6s 5d 864.4 1791 2800
79 Au [Xe]4f 14 6s1 5d 10 890.1 1980 2900
14 2 10
80 Hg [Xe]4f 6s 5d 1007 1810 3300
14 2 10 1
81 Tl [Xe]4f 6s 5d 6p 589.4 1971 2878 4900
14 2 10 2
82 Pb [Xe]4f 6s 5d 6p 715.6 1450 3081 4083 6640
83 Bi [Xe]4f 14 6s2 5d 10 6p3 703.3 1610 2466 4370 5400
14 2 10 4
84 Po [Xe]4f 6s 5d 6p 812.1 1800 2700
14 2 10 5
85 At [Xe]4f 6s 5d 6p 930 1600 2900
86 Rn [Xe]4f 14 6s2 5d 10 6p6 ¼ ½Rn 1037
87 Fr [Rn]7s1 393.0 2100 3100
2
88 Ra [Rn]7s 509.3 979.0 3300
89 Ac [Rn]6d 1 7s2 499 1170 1900
90 Th [Rn]6d 2 7s2 608.5 1110 1930 2780
2 2 1
91 Pa [Rn]5f 7s 6d 568 1130 1810
92 U [Rn]5f 3 7s2 6d 1 597.6 1440 1840
4 2 1
93 Np [Rn]5f 7s 6d 604.5 1130 1880
6 2
94 Pu [Rn]5f 7s 581.4 1130 2100
95 Am [Rn]5f 7 7s2 576.4 1160 2160
7 2 1
96 Cm [Rn]5f 7s 6d 578.0 1200 2050
9 2
97 Bk [Rn]5f 7s 598.0 1190 2150
10 2
98 Cf [Rn]5f 7s 606.1 1210 2280
99 Es [Rn]5f 11 7s2 619 1220 2330
100 Fm [Rn]5f 12 7s2 627 1230 2350
13 2
101 Md [Rn]5f 7s 635 1240 2450
102 No [Rn]5f 14 7s2 642 1250 2600
14 2 1
103 Lr [Rn]5f 7s 6d 440 (?)
Appendix 9
Electron affinities
Approximate enthalpy changes,
EA H(298 K), associated with the gain of one electron by a gaseous atom or anion. A
negative enthalpy (
H), but a positive electron affinity (EA), corresponds to an exothermic process (see Section 1.10).

EA Hð298 KÞ 
Uð0 KÞ ¼ EA

Process  DEA H / kJ mol1

Hydrogen HðgÞ þ e  H ðgÞ

"
73
 
Group 1 LiðgÞ þ e  Li ðgÞ
"
60
 
NaðgÞ þ e  Na ðgÞ "
53
KðgÞ þ e  K ðgÞ
"
48
RbðgÞ þ e  Rb ðgÞ "
47
 
CsðgÞ þ e  Cs ðgÞ "
45
Group 15 NðgÞ þ e  N ðgÞ
"
0
 
PðgÞ þ e  P ðgÞ "
72
 
AsðgÞ þ e  As ðgÞ "
78
SbðgÞ þ e  Sb ðgÞ "
103
BiðgÞ þ e  Bi ðgÞ
"
91
 
Group 16 OðgÞ þ e  O ðgÞ "
141
O ðgÞ þ e  O2 ðgÞ"
þ798
 
SðgÞ þ e  S ðgÞ "
201
 
S ðgÞ þ e  S ðgÞ "
2
þ640
SeðgÞ þ e  Se ðgÞ "
195
TeðgÞ þ e  Te ðgÞ "
190
 
Group 17 FðgÞ þ e  F ðgÞ "
328
ClðgÞ þ e  Cl ðgÞ
"
349
BrðgÞ þ e  Br ðgÞ "
325
 
IðgÞ þ e  I ðgÞ "
295
Appendix 10
Standard enthalpies of atomization
(
aHo) of the elements at 298 K
Enthalpies are given in kJ mol1 for the process:
1
E (standard state)  EðgÞ
"

n n
Elements (E) are arranged according to their position in the periodic table. The lanthanoids and actinoids are excluded.
The noble gases are omitted because they are monatomic at 298 K.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

H
218

Li Be B C N O F
161 324 582 717 473 249 79

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
108 146 330 456 315 277 121

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br
90 178 378 470 514 397 283 418 428 430 338 130 277 375 302 227 112

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I
82 164 423 609 721 658 677 651 556 377 285 112 243 302 264 197 107

Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At
78 178 423 619 782 850 774 787 669 566 368 61 182 195 210 146 92
Appendix 11
Selected standard reduction
potentials (298 K)
The concentration of each aqueous solution is 1 mol dm3 and the pressure of a gaseous component is 1 bar (105 Pa).
(Changing the standard pressure to 1 atm (101 300 Pa) makes no difference to the values of E o at this level of accuracy.)
Each half-cell listed contains the specified solution species at a concentration of 1 mol dm3 ; where the half-cell contains
[OH] , the value of E o refers to ½OH  ¼ 1 mol dm3 , hence the notation E o ½OH2  ¼ 1 (see Box 8.1).

Reduction half-equation E o or E o ½OH2  ¼ 1 / V

Liþ ðaqÞ þ e Ð LiðsÞ 3.04

Csþ ðaqÞ þ e Ð CsðsÞ 3.03
þ 
Rb ðaqÞ þ e Ð RbðsÞ 2.98
þ 
K ðaqÞ þ e Ð KðsÞ 2.93

Ca ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð CaðsÞ
2þ
2.87
Naþ ðaqÞ þ e Ð NaðsÞ 2.71

La ðaqÞ þ 3e Ð LaðsÞ
3þ
2.38

Mg ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð MgðsÞ
2þ
2.37
Y3þ ðaqÞ þ 3e Ð YðsÞ 2.37

Sc ðaqÞ þ 3e Ð ScðsÞ
3þ
2.03

Al ðaqÞ þ 3e Ð AlðsÞ
3þ
1.66
½HPO3 2 ðaqÞ þ 2H2 OðlÞ þ 2e Ð ½H2 PO2  ðaqÞ þ 3½OH ðaqÞ 1.65
Ti2þ ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð TiðsÞ 1.63
 
MnðOHÞ2 ðsÞ þ 2e Ð MnðsÞ þ 2½OH ðaqÞ 1.56
Mn2þ ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð MnðsÞ 1.19

V ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð VðsÞ
2þ
1.18

TeðsÞ þ 2e Ð Te ðaqÞ 2
1.14
2½SO3 2 ðaqÞ þ 2H2 OðlÞ þ 2e Ð 4½OH ðaqÞ þ ½S2 O4 2 ðaqÞ 1.12
 
½SO4  ðaqÞ þ H2 OðlÞ þ 2e Ð ½SO3  ðaqÞ þ 2½OH ðaqÞ
2 2
0.93

SeðsÞ þ 2e Ð Se ðaqÞ 2
0.92
Cr2þ ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð CrðsÞ 0.91
  
2½NO3  ðaqÞ þ 2H2 OðlÞ þ 2e Ð N2 O4 ðgÞ þ 4½OH ðaqÞ 0.85
 
2H2 OðlÞ þ 2e Ð H2 ðgÞ þ 2½OH ðaqÞ 0.82

Zn ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð ZnðsÞ
2þ
0.76
Cr3þ ðaqÞ þ 3e Ð CrðsÞ 0.74
SðsÞ þ 2e Ð S2 ðaqÞ 0.48
  
½NO2  ðaqÞ þ H2 OðlÞ þ e Ð NOðgÞ þ 2½OH ðaqÞ 0.46
Fe2þ ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð FeðsÞ 0.44

Cr ðaqÞ þ e Ð Cr ðaqÞ
3þ 2þ
0.41

Ti ðaqÞ þ e Ð Ti ðaqÞ
3þ 2þ
0.37
PbSO4 ðsÞ þ 2e Ð PbðsÞ þ ½SO4 2 ðaqÞ 0.36
 APPENDIX 11 . Selected standard reduction potentials (298 K) 1135

Reduction half-equation E o or E o ½OH2  ¼ 1 / V

Tlþ ðaqÞ þ e Ð TlðsÞ 0.34


Co ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð CoðsÞ
2þ
0.28
þ 
H3 PO4 ðaqÞ þ 2H ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð H3 PO3 ðaqÞ þ H2 OðlÞ 0.28
V3þ ðaqÞ þ e Ð V2þ ðaqÞ 0.26
Ni2þ ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð NiðsÞ 0.25
þ 
2½SO4  ðaqÞ þ 4H ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð ½S2 O6  ðaqÞ þ 2H2 OðlÞ
2 2
0.22
O2 ðgÞ þ 2H2 OðlÞ þ 2e Ð H2 O2 ðaqÞ þ 2½OH ðaqÞ 0.15

Sn ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð SnðsÞ
2þ
0.14

Pb ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð PbðsÞ
2þ
0.13
Fe3þ ðaqÞ þ 3e Ð FeðsÞ 0.04
2Hþ ðaq; 1 mol dm3 Þ þ 2e Ð H2 ðg; 1 barÞ 0
   
½NO3  ðaqÞ þ H2 OðlÞ þ 2e Ð ½NO2  ðaqÞ þ 2½OH ðaqÞ þ0.01
½S4 O6 2 ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð 2½S2 O3 2 ðaqÞ þ0.08

½RuðNH3 Þ6  ðaqÞ þ e Ð ½RuðNH3 Þ6  ðaqÞ
3þ 2þ
þ0.10

½CoðNH3 Þ6  ðaqÞ þ e Ð ½CoðNH3 Þ6  ðaqÞ
3þ 2þ
þ0.11
SðsÞ þ 2Hþ ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð H2 SðaqÞ þ0.14
2½NO2  ðaqÞ þ 3H2 OðlÞ þ 4e Ð N2 OðgÞ þ 6½OH ðaqÞ þ0.15
 þ
Cu ðaqÞ þ e Ð Cu ðaqÞ
2þ
þ0.15

Sn ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð Sn ðaqÞ
4þ 2þ
þ0.15
½SO4 2 ðaqÞ þ 4Hþ ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð H2 SO3 ðaqÞ þ H2 OðlÞ þ0.17
 
AgClðsÞ þ e Ð AgðsÞ þ Cl ðaqÞ þ0.22

½RuðOH2 Þ6  ðaqÞ þ e Ð ½RuðOH2 Þ6  ðaqÞ
3þ 2þ
þ0.25
½CoðbpyÞ3 3þ ðaqÞ þ e Ð ½CoðbpyÞ3 2þ ðaqÞ þ0.31

Cu ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð CuðsÞ
2þ
þ0.34
þ 
½VO ðaqÞ þ 2H ðaqÞ þ e Ð V ðaqÞ þ H2 OðlÞ
2þ 3þ
þ0.34
½ClO4  ðaqÞ þ H2 OðlÞ þ 2e Ð ½ClO3  ðaqÞ þ 2½OH ðaqÞ þ0.36

½FeðCNÞ6  ðaqÞ þ e Ð ½FeðCNÞ6  ðaqÞ
3 4
þ0.36
 
O2 ðgÞ þ 2H2 OðlÞ þ 4e Ð 4½OH ðaqÞ þ0.40
Cuþ ðaqÞ þ e Ð CuðsÞ þ0.52
 
I2 ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð 2I ðaqÞ þ0.54
þ 
½S2 O6  ðaqÞ þ 4H ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð 2H2 SO3 ðaqÞ
2
þ0.56
H3 AsO4 ðaqÞ þ 2Hþ ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð HAsO2 ðaqÞ þ 2H2 OðlÞ þ0.56
½MnO4  ðaqÞ þ e Ð ½MnO4 2 ðaqÞ þ0.56
  
½MnO4  ðaqÞ þ 2H2 OðaqÞ þ 3e Ð MnO2 ðsÞ þ 4½OH ðaqÞ þ0.59
 
½MnO4  ðaqÞ þ 2H2 OðlÞ þ 2e Ð MnO2 ðsÞ þ 4½OH ðaqÞ
2
þ0.60
½BrO3  ðaqÞ þ 3H2 OðlÞ þ 6e Ð Br ðaqÞ þ 6½OH ðaqÞ þ0.61
O2 ðgÞ þ 2Hþ ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð H2 O2 ðaqÞ þ0.70
   
½BrO ðaqÞ þ H2 OðlÞ þ 2e Ð Br ðaqÞ þ 2½OH ðaqÞ þ0.76
Fe3þ ðaqÞ þ e Ð Fe2þ ðaqÞ þ0.77
Agþ ðaqÞ þ e Ð AgðsÞ þ0.80
   
½ClO ðaqÞ þ H2 OðlÞ þ 2e Ð Cl ðaqÞ þ 2½OH ðaqÞ þ0.84
2HNO2 ðaqÞ þ 4Hþ ðaqÞ þ 4e Ð H2 N2 O2 ðaqÞ þ 2H2 OðlÞ þ0.86
½HO2  ðaqÞ þ H2 OðlÞ þ 2e Ð 3½OH ðaqÞ þ0.88
1136 APPENDIX 11 . Selected standard reduction potentials (298 K)

Reduction half-equation E o or E o ½OH2  ¼ 1 / V

½NO3  ðaqÞ þ 3Hþ ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð HNO2 ðaqÞ þ H2 OðlÞ þ0.93


Pd ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð PdðsÞ
2þ
þ0.95
 þ 
½NO3  ðaqÞ þ 4H ðaqÞ þ 3e Ð NOðgÞ þ 2H2 OðlÞ þ0.96
HNO2 ðaqÞ þ Hþ ðaqÞ þ e Ð NOðgÞ þ H2 OðlÞ þ0.98
½VO2 þ ðaqÞ þ 2Hþ ðaqÞ þ e Ð ½VO2þ ðaqÞ þ H2 OðlÞ þ0.99

½FeðbpyÞ3  ðaqÞ þ e Ð ½FeðbpyÞ3  ðaqÞ
3þ 2þ
þ1.03
½IO3  ðaqÞ þ 6Hþ ðaqÞ þ 6e Ð I ðaqÞ þ 3H2 OðlÞ þ1.09
 
Br2 ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð 2Br ðaqÞ þ1.09

½FeðphenÞ3  ðaqÞ þ e Ð ½FeðphenÞ3  ðaqÞ
3þ 2þ
þ1.12
Pt2þ ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð PtðsÞ þ1.18
 þ  
½ClO4  ðaqÞ þ 2H ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð ½ClO3  ðaqÞ þ H2 OðlÞ þ1.19
 þ 
2½IO3  ðaqÞ þ 12H ðaqÞ þ 10e Ð I2 ðaqÞ þ 6H2 OðlÞ þ1.20
O2 ðgÞ þ 4Hþ ðaqÞ þ 4e Ð 2H2 OðlÞ þ1.23
þ 
MnO2 ðsÞ þ 4H ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð Mn ðaqÞ þ 2H2 OðlÞ 2þ
þ1.23
 þ
Tl ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð Tl ðaqÞ
3þ
þ1.25
2HNO2 ðaqÞ þ 4Hþ ðaqÞ þ 4e Ð N2 OðgÞ þ 3H2 OðlÞ þ1.30
þ 
½Cr2 O7  ðaqÞ þ 14H ðaqÞ þ 6e Ð 2Cr ðaqÞ þ 7H2 OðlÞ
2 3þ
þ1.33
 
Cl2 ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð 2Cl ðaqÞ þ1.36
 þ 
2½ClO4  ðaqÞ þ 16H ðaqÞ þ 14e Ð Cl2 ðaqÞ þ 8H2 OðlÞ þ1.39
½ClO4  ðaqÞ þ 8Hþ ðaqÞ þ 8e Ð Cl ðaqÞ þ 4H2 OðlÞ þ1.39
½BrO3  ðaqÞ þ 6Hþ ðaqÞ þ 6e Ð Br ðaqÞ þ 3H2 OðlÞ þ1.42
 þ  
½ClO3  ðaqÞ þ 6H ðaqÞ þ 6e Ð Cl ðaqÞ þ 3H2 OðlÞ þ1.45
2½ClO3  ðaqÞ þ 12Hþ ðaqÞ þ 10e Ð Cl2 ðaqÞ þ 6H2 OðlÞ þ1.47
 þ 
2½BrO3  ðaqÞ þ 12H ðaqÞ þ 10e Ð Br2 ðaqÞ þ 6H2 OðlÞ þ1.48
þ  
HOClðaqÞ þ H ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð Cl ðaqÞ þ H2 OðlÞ þ1.48
½MnO4  ðaqÞ þ 8Hþ ðaqÞ þ 5e Ð Mn2þ ðaqÞ þ 4H2 OðlÞ þ1.51
Mn3þ ðaqÞ þ e Ð Mn2þ ðaqÞ þ1.54
þ 
2HOClðaqÞ þ 2H ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð Cl2 ðaqÞ þ 2H2 OðlÞ þ1.61
½MnO4  ðaqÞ þ 4Hþ ðaqÞ þ 3e Ð MnO2 ðsÞ þ 2H2 OðlÞ þ1.69
PbO2 ðsÞ þ 4Hþ ðaqÞ þ ½SO4 2 ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð PbSO4 ðsÞ þ 2H2 OðlÞ þ1.69

Ce ðaqÞ þ e Ð Ce ðaqÞ
4þ 3þ
þ1.72
½BrO4  ðaqÞ þ 2Hþ ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð ½BrO3  ðaqÞ þ H2 OðlÞ þ1.76
H2 O2 ðaqÞ þ 2Hþ ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð 2H2 OðlÞ þ1.78

Co ðaqÞ þ e Ð Co ðaqÞ
3þ 2þ
þ1.92

½S2 O8  ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð 2½SO4  ðaqÞ
2 2
þ2.01
O3 ðgÞ þ 2Hþ ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð O2 ðgÞ þ H2 OðlÞ þ2.07
þ 
XeO3 ðaqÞ þ 6H ðaqÞ þ 6e Ð XeðgÞ þ 3H2 OðlÞ þ2.10
þ 
½FeO4  ðaqÞ þ 8H ðaqÞ þ 3e Ð Fe ðaqÞ þ 4H2 OðlÞ
2 3þ
þ2.20
H4 XeO6 ðaqÞ þ 2Hþ ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð XeO3 ðaqÞ þ 3H2 OðlÞ þ2.42
F2 ðaqÞ þ 2e Ð 2F ðaqÞ þ2.87
Appendix 12
Selected bond enthalpy terms

Bond Bond enthalpy / kJ mol1 Bond Bond enthalpy / kJ mol1 Bond Bond enthalpy / kJ mol1

HH 436 FF 159 CF 485

CC 346 ClCl 242 CCl 327

C¼C 598 BrBr 193 CBr 285

CC 813 II 151 CI 213

SiSi 226 CH 416 CO 359

GeGe 186 SiH 326 C¼O 806

SnSn 152 GeH 289 CN 285

NN 159 SnH 251 CN 866

N¼N 400 NH 391 CS 272

NN 945 PH 322 SiO 466

PP 200 AsH 247 Si¼O 642

PP 490 OH 464 NF 272

AsAs 177 SH 366 NCl 193

OO 146 SeH 276 NO 201

O¼O 498 FH 570 PF 490

SS 266 ClH 432 PCl 319

S¼S 425 BrH 366 PO 340

SeSe 193 IH 298 SF 326