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010102 Початкова освіта (заочна форма навчання, НП-2013)

ПП 3.5 Теоретичний курс іноземної мови (англійська)

Theme 1. Introduction. Grammar in the systematic conception of language

Theme 1. Introduction. Grammar in the systematic conception of

language

Plan
Grammar as a field of linguistics. Syntax and Morphology
Purpose of the Theoretical Course of English Grammar
Theoretical and Normative Grammar. Types of Theoretical Grammar
General principles of grammatical analysis
Grammatical Homonymy, Synonymy, Polysemy
Notions of ‘system’ and ‘structure’. General characteristics of linguistic
units
The morphological level has two level units:
Language and Speech.

Література
1. B.Ilyish. The Structure of Modern English.
2. M.Blokh. A Course in Theoretical Grammar.
3. E.Morokhovskaya. Fundamentals of Theoretical Grammar.
4. И.П.Иванова, В.В.Бурлакова, Г.Г.Почепцов. Теоретическая
грамматика современного англ. яз..
5. Уманець А.В. Theoretical Grammar.

Grammar as a field of linguistics. Syntax and Morphology

Grammar is a field of linguistics which studies the grammatical system
of thelanguage. Grammar is the result of a long time abstract work of
human mind.
The term “grammar” goes back to a Greek word that may be
translated as the “art of writing”. But later this word acquired a much
wider sense and came to embrace the whole study of language. Now it is
often used as the synonym of linguistics. A question comes
immediately to mind: what does this study involve?
The main object of Grammar as one of the main linguistic disciplines is
thegrammatical structure of language, i.e. the system of laws of word
changing andsentence building. Rules of Grammar govern the ways in
which words are joined together to express feelings, emotions, attitudes,
etc. The Grammar of each language constitutes a system of its own, each
element of which stands in certain
relationships to other elements.Grammar is divided into morphology
and syntax. Morphology is the science of forms and structures (Greek:
"morphe"' which means "form" and "logos"-knowledge). Syntax deals

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Theme 1. Introduction. Grammar in the systematic conception of language

with the arrangement Those forms and structures (Greek: "syn", which
means "with" and "lasso" - to put in order). Morphology also originates
from the word "Morpheus'" (the god of dreams). They thought the god of
dreams gave shape to their chaotic visions in sleep.
Therefore morphology deals with forms of words. It includes parts of
speech and their morphological categories. Morphological categories are
represented in word forms. Morphology studies the system of forms of word
change. E.g.: case and number for the noun; person, number, tense,
aspect, voice, mood for the verb, etc. Syntax envisages the sentence and
the parts of the sentence; it makes the study of ways of connection words
and phrases in the sentences. Morphology and syntax are two independent
parts of Grammar, and they have their own objects of study. They are
closely connected, for the morphological characteristics of the word are
realized through its syntactical relations with other words. On the other
hand, the syntactical relations of the word may effect the morphological
characteristics of parts of speech in the course of development of the
grammatical structure of the language. E.g.: substantivisation of adjectives.
It is not easy to draw a clear-cut line between morphology and syntax
for one thing, and for another thing, we have many instances of their
overlapping. E.g. "misunderstanding" is a word, while "stand here" is a
phrase. The first falls under the heading of morphology, the second falls
under syntax. "Have been taken" consists of three words and should be
treated as a phrase (syntax). But it is also a form of the verb "to take"1 and
therefore represents morphology. "Has been often taken" - must be referred
to both morphology and syntax because of the word "often", which is not a
constituent of the form of the verb "to take". The grammar of any language
has a system o f forms and syntactical combinations whose structure allows
us to express our thoughts or attitude to reality. The domain of Morphology
is the Paradigmatics of the word, whereas the Syntagmatics is
recognized to be the domain of Syntax.

Purpose of the Theoretical Course of English Grammar

The main purpose of the theoretical course of English grammar is to
give a profound theoretical analysis of the English grammatical structure in
the light of general principles of linguistics. In the course of the history of
linguistics different views on different language problems have been put
forward and in a great number of cases there is not a single agreed on the
opinion acceptable to all scholars. In view of this students are supposed to
study and compare the most important points, and determine the most
convincing ones.

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Theme 1. Introduction. Grammar in the systematic conception of language

As the teaching of a language to foreigners requires a strict system of

rules to be observed, many grammars tend to have numerous samples of
exaggeration. For example, treatment of verbs of perception and emotions
as verbs which cannot be used in any of the continuous forms though under
some circumstances they can (as in the sentence "He was being polite to
you"). The second example is a blunt formulation of the rule "In a
conditional if-clause the present tense is used instead of the future". The
rule formulated in such a way is much too strict, and requires some
modification. The group "will (shall) + Infinitive" may, in fact, be found in
conditional if-clauses (e.g.: "Twenty thousand francs for you. Madame, if
you'll stop breathing on my neck and go away" (R.West)). Indeed it is
difficult to find examples of such a use where a certain trace of the lexical
meaning of the verb' will1 is preserved. Therefore the rule is formulated with
a high degree of probability.

Theoretical and Normative Grammar. Types of Theoretical

Grammar
Both theoretical and normative grammar describe the grammatical
system of the language. All the rules according to which people construct
their speech are based on normative grammar. Normative grammar is the
collection of rules of the given language which provide the students with a
manual of practical mastering the grammar. Thus Normative grammar is of
a prescriptive character. The theoretical grammar is a field of linguistics
which studies forms of the words and their relations in the sentences in a
more abstract way, giving the profound description of existing grammatical
laws and tendencies. Every theoretical description presents the studied
parts of language in an isolated form, so as to look inside into their structure
and expose the mechanisms of their functioning, i.e. the mechanisms of the
formation of utterances out of words in the process of speaking. The aim of
Theoretical grammar is to present a scientific description of a certain
system of a certain language. Thus, Theoretical grammar is of a descriptive
character.
Therefore a practical description is aimed at providing the student with
a set of rules (laws) of practical mastering of a language, while Theoretical
grammar presents a theoretical description of the system of the language,
i.e. analyzes grammatical categories and studies the mechanisms of
grammatical formation of utterances.
As far as the types of theoretical grammar are concerned there
appeared Functional and Structural grammar, the first based on the
external and the second - on the internal linguistic analyses. Categorial
grammar is a logico-linguistic study of the nature of grammatical categories.

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Theme 1. Introduction. Grammar in the systematic conception of language

Communicative grammar studies communicative grammatical theories

differing in the domains and frameworks: Communicative syntax,
Pragmatic syntax, Generative grammar, Modal syntax. The sphere of
lingually coded message is the sphere of text. It is the domain of
Textlinguistics, of the Text grammar in particular. Typological grammar
is based on the principles of contrasting and comparing.

General principles of grammatical analysis

According to the Bible: ‘In the beginning was the Word’. In fact, the
word is considered to be the central (but not the only) linguistic unit
(одиниця) of language. Linguistic units (or in other words – signs) can go
into three types of relations:
a) The relation between a unit and an object in the world around us
(objective reality). E.g. the word ‘table’ refers to a definite piece of
furniture. It may be not only an object but a process, state, quality,
etc.
b) This type of meaning is called referential meaning of a unit. It is
semantics that studies the referential meaning of units.
c) The relation between a unit and other units (inner relations
between units). No unit can be used independently; it serves as an
element in the system of other units. This kind of meaning is called
syntactic. Formal relation of units to one another is studied by
syntactics (or syntax).
d) The relation between a unit and a person who uses it. As we know
too well, when we are saying something, we usually have some
purpose in mind. We use the language as an instrument for our
purpose (e.g.). One and the same word or sentence may acquire
different meanings in communication. This type of meaning is
called pragmatic. The study of the relationship between linguistic
units and the users of those units is done by pragmatics.
Thus there are three models of linguistic description: semantic,
syntactic and pragmatic. To illustrate the difference between these
different ways of linguistic analysis, let us consider the following
sentence: Students are students.
The first part of the XXth century can be characterized by a formal
approach to the language study. Only inner (syntactic) relations between
linguistic units served the basis for linguistic analysis while the reference
of words to the objective reality and language users were actually not
considered. Later, semantic language analysis came into use. However,
it was surely not enough for a detailed language study. Language
certainly figures centrally in our lives. We discover our identity as

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Theme 1. Introduction. Grammar in the systematic conception of language

individuals and social beings when we acquire it during childhood. It

serves as a means of cognition and communication: it enables us to
think for ourselves and to cooperate with other people in our community.
Therefore, the pragmatic side of the language should not be ignored
either. Functional approach in language analysis deals with the
language ‘in action’. Naturally, in order to get a broad description of the
language, all the three approaches must be combined.

Grammatical Homonymy, Synonymy, Polysemy

Grammatical elements of language present a unity of content and
expression, i. e. a unity of form and meaning. The correspondence between
the planes of content and expression is very complex, and is typical of any
language. This complex phenomenon is vividly shown in grammatical
polysemy, homonymy and synonymy.
In case of_polysemy, two or more units of the plane of content
correspond to one unit of the plane of expression. For example, the verbal
form of the Present Simple (one unit in the plane of expression) renders the
following grammatical meanings:
1. customary action;
2. universal truths;
3. qualitative characteristics of a person, etc.
When we deal with grammatical homonymy one unit in the plane of
expression homonymically renders some grammatical meanings. E. g.
The morpheme s (es) is found:
1. In the plural of nouns;
2. In the possessive case of nouns;
3. In the 3d person singular in verbs of the Present Simple;
4. In some absolute form of possessive pronouns (ours, yours).
The morpheme (ed) is found in:
1. Past Simple of regular verbs;
2. Participle II of regular verbs;
3. Subjunctive II present.
The morpheme (en) is found in:
1. Participle II of irregular verbs;
2. In the plural form of such nouns as oxen, children, brethren;
3. In the absolute form of possessive pronouns (mine,).
The morpheme (ing) is found in Participle I, Gerund, verbal noun.
The meanings they render are quite different.
In cases of synonymy two or more units of the plane of expression
correspond to one unit of the plane of content. For instance, the forms of the
Future Simple,

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Theme 1. Introduction. Grammar in the systematic conception of language

Future Progressive and Present Progressive can synonymically render

the meaning of a future action.

Notions of ‘system’ and ‘structure’. General characteristics

of linguistic units
Language is regarded as a system of elements (or: signs, units)
such as sounds, words, etc. These elements have no value without each
other, they depend on each other, they exist only in a system, and they
are nothing without a system. System implies the characterization of a
complex object as made up of separate parts (e.g. the system of
sounds). Language is a structural system. Structure means hierarchical
layering of parts in `constituting the whole. In the structure of language
there are four main structural levels: phonological, morphological,
syntactical and supersyntatical. The levels are represented by the
corresponding level units:
The phonological level is the lowest level. The phonological level
unit is the`phoneme. It is a distinctive unit (bag – back).

The morphological level has two level units:

a) the `morpheme – the lowest meaningful unit (teach – teacher);
b) the word - the main naming (`nominative) unit of language.
The syntactical level has two level units as well:
a) the word-group – the dependent syntactic unit;
b) the sentence – the main communicative unit.
The supersyntactical level has the text as its level unit.
All structural levels are subject matters of different levels of linguistic
analysis. At different levels of analysis we focus attention on different
features of language. Generally speaking, the larger the units we deal
with, the closer we get to the actuality of people’s experience of
language.
To sum it up, each level has its own system. Therefore, language is
regarded as a system of systems. The level units are built up in the same
way and that is why the units of a lower level serve the building material
for the units of a higher level. This similarity and likeness of organization
of linguistic units is called isomorphism. This is how language works – a
small number of elements at one level can enter into thousands of
different combinations to form units at the other level.
We have arrived at the conclusion that the notions of system and
structure are not synonyms – any system has its own structure
(compare: the system of Ukrainian education vs. the structure of
Ukrainian education; army organization).

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Theme 1. Introduction. Grammar in the systematic conception of language

Any linguistic unit is a double entity. It unites a concept and a sound

image. The two elements are intimately united and each recalls the
other. Accordingly, we distinguish the content side and the expression
side. The forms of linguistic units bear no natural resemblance to their
meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention, and
conventions differ radically across languages. Thus, the English word
‘dog’ happens to denote a particular four-footed domesticated creature,
the same creature that is denoted in Ukrainian by the completely
different form. Neither form looks like a dog, or sounds like one.

Language and Speech.

The Swiss scholar Ferdinand de Saussure was the first who spoke of
the necessity of distinguishing language and speech. Language in the
narrow sense of the word is a system of means of expression. Speech
should be understood as the manifestation of the system of language in the
process of intercourse.
There is no other way for linguists to get to language than through
speech.
Language characterizes a certain human community. It is used in the
community; it is understood by all the members of the community; so it is
called a social code.
And by its nature language is social. Speech, on the contrary, is
individual, but it is based upon language which exists in the minds of all
speaking community.
We cannot see language, neither hear it. We can get to it only through
speech. As we are concerned with Grammar only, we do not have to deal
with phonological and lexical parts of language. We shall only concentrate
on the system of Grammar and its manifestation. Language and Speech are
closely connected and intermingled. They may come a unity. Language is
realized through Speech. The life of language consists in oral and written
intercourse within two or more people.
This linguistic intercourse is manifested through connected
communications chiefly in the form of sentences, though not always so
complete and well-arranged.
The object in teaching Grammar is not only rules, which must be
obeyed if one wants to speak and write the language correctly. It also aims
at finding out what is actually said and written by the speakers of the
language.
According to Ferdinant de Saussure: "Language is a treasure, formed
by way of speaking practice and preserved in the minds of the people who
belong to a certain speaking community".

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Theme 1. Introduction. Grammar in the systematic conception of language

Units of language form a hierarchy of levels(Phonemic

level,Morphemic level, Lexemic level, Phrasemic level , proposemic level,
supra-proposemic ), which are characterized by isomorphic and allomorphic
features.

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