PCA SP030
Table 7-1. Microscopical Interpretation of Clinkers
General Features of Clinkers
Observations
Evenly distributed phases; idiomorphic alite; rounded
belite; finely differentiated matrix; scarce, small, free-lime
crystals
Even distribution of silicates
Increase in alite content and crystal size, increasing
difficulty in burning, reduction in cement strength
Increase in silicate abundance, decrease in liquid, higher
temperature required for combination of feed ingredients,
decrease in alite size
Very heterogeneous clinkers as seen in degree of
burning, size, and distribution of minerals
Clinker shape: (a) single grains, (b) lumpy
Edges of alite damaged, notched and pitted belite, dark
intermediate material with low reflectivity
Prismatic alite; round belite; light-colored, highly reflective
intermediate material; dark prismatic aluminate
Nodule size greater than 25-mm diameter
Increasing clinker size
Chains of silicates
Large pores, wide bridges, and large solid areas
Numerous small pores, narrow bridges, crescent-shaped
voids
Pores with wide range of sizes, shape, and distribution;
abrupt size changes in adjacent pores; small bridges
Increasing roundness of pores, decrease in porosity;
higher ferrite and belite content at expense of aluminate
and alite; decrease in melt viscosity, increase in
grinding time
Extremely dense structure, large alite
Dense clinker structure, closed pore system
High clinker porosity
Highly porous clinker, open pores, 50-90 m alite
Compact clinker with spherical, closed pores;
10-20 m alite
64
Interpretations
Optimized manufacturing conditions: “correct”
chemical composition of raw feed, well mixed, no
particles too coarse, satisfactory maintenance of
sintering and cooling temperatures (Hofmänner, 1973)
Ideal clinker structure, good production conditions
(Fundal, 1980)
Relative increase in lime saturation factor (Long, 1982b)
Relatively higher silica ratio (Long, 1982b)
Wet process, introduction of precipitator dust after chain
system (Hawthorne, Richey, and Demoulian, 1981)
(a) rotary kiln, (b) shaft kiln (Gille and others, 1965)
Typical clinker from large kilns (5x185m) (Kolenova,
1974)
Typical clinker from small kiln (4.5x170m) (Kolenova,
1974)
Requires longer burning time or higher burning tempera-
ture (Heilmann, 1952)
Higher burning temperatures and larger amount of liquid
phase; more time for nodulation (Eby, 1985)
Bridging reaction between constituents, and between
burning zone and cooler inlet; easily eroded, producing
dust (Fundal, 1980)
Dry process (Krämer, 1960)
Pelletized raw mix (Krämer, 1960)
Wet process (Krämer, 1960)
Increasing MnO content (Knöfel, Strunge, and
Bambauer, 1983)
Kiln wall (Fundal, 1980)
Densification at temperature below melt formation
(Fundal, 1980)
Low degree of burning (Gille and others, 1965)
Sandy raw meal (Fundal, 1980)
Marl-type raw mix (Fundal, 1980)
 Microscopical Examination and Interpretation of Portland Cement and Clinker

Table 7-1. Microscopical Interpretation of Clinkers (continued)

General Features of Clinkers

Observations Interpretations
Large pores, nontwinned belite, large alites High SO3 (Tsuboi and Ogawa, 1972)
Rough pore surfaces Low temperature burning (Tsuboi and Ogawa, 1972)
Very porous clinker consisting of small bright grains with Underburned clinker (Törnebohm, 1897)
rounded edges
Porous, alite-rich, lumpy clinker, some with dense centers; Excessive hard burning (Long, 1982a)
dusty clinker, ring and “stalagmite” formation in kiln and
cooler; large alite crystals; sparkling luster of clinker;
lowered cement strength
Friable clinkers surrounded by a deposit of alite crystals Very hard burning of high silica ratio materials (Pollitt,
alone 1980)
Clinker nodules of varying composition Inadequate blending of feed or segregation in kiln
(Long, 1982a)
Clinker inhomogeneity Lower reactivity of ash, too short retention time at
clinkering temperature, high ash content, lump coal for
precalcining carbon-rich fly ash as a raw material,
waste-derived fuels containing graphite (Sprung, 1985)
Nests Excessive particle size in raw mix (greater than 0.1 mm)
(Gille and others, 1965)
Streaks and spots in clinker Nonhomogeneity of raw mix, segregation of dust in air
ducts during transfer to silo or in kiln (Gille and others,
1965)
Spots in clinker Local increase of individual components of raw material;
low burning degree (temperature too low or burning time
too short); low lime content (Gille and others, 1965)
Overall crystal size Function of temperature, time, and chemical composi-
tion of surrounding material; absorbed nests and prior
nonhomogeneities (Gille and others, 1965)
Large crystals High temperature, long burning time, surrounding
material is low lime (belite) (Gille and others, 1965)
Large crystal cements Unsatisfied charges on broken crystal surfaces resulting
in agglomerations, abnormal setting characteristics, and
increased grinding time (Hansen, 1977)
Large segregated silicates, belite nests, poor matrix Long burning zone, maximum temperature below
distribution, high free lime 1500o C, preheater kiln (DeHayes, Grady, and Vidergar,
1986)
Pronounced segregation of silicates and matrix Short residence time, high production rates, roller-mill
phases, wide alite size range, large crystals, raw grind, coarsely ground coal precalciner kiln
some > 100 11m, high porosity, relic coarse quartz grains (DeHayes, Grady, and Vidergar, 1986)
Large crystal size and narrow crystal size range Unfavorable grindability (Tachihata, Kotani, and Jyo,
1981)
Overall increase in crystal size; alite more than belite, Lowering of feed to speed ratio, thinning clinker bed
which tends toward yellow color depth as burning zone moves uphill (Rader, 1985)
Coarsely crystalline clinker High early strengths, abnormal setting problems
(Hansen, 1980)

65
 PCA SP030

Table 7-1. Microscopical Interpretation of Clinkers (continued)

General Features of Clinkers

Observations Interpretations

Coarsely crystalline clinker with a high degree of hydration High compressive strengths (Entin, Nekhoroshev,
and per unit specific surface Sorochkin, 1980)
Hard, dense clinker, with large alite, plus soft, porous Variable burning, flushing (passage of charge too
clinker with low alite content rapidly through kiln), or excessive feed (Long, 1982a)
Small, poorly formed phases; very high porosity; uneven Flushing or sintering temperature is too low (Hofmänner,
phase distribution; alite surrounded by large amounts of 1973)
liquid phase; belite in clusters
Increase in specific crystal surface (surface area of solid Results in an increase in specific pore surface and
particles/volume of solid particles) and reduction in melt reduction of power requirement for grinding (Petersen,
volume 1980)
Three zones in clinker: (a) Primary nodules (kiln ring fragments or nodules
(a) Dense core formed before burning zone)
(b) Intermediate porosity (b) Forms in burning zone
(c) Cokelike (c) Forms between burning zone and cooler due to
heavy dust load (Fundal, 1980)
Dense core, high-porosity shell Agglomeration of dust (less than 1.0 mm) on nodule
between burning zone and cooler inlet (Fundal, 1980)
Peripheral zones in clinkers Differentiation or segregation of melt during liquid stage of
groundmass (Gille and others, 1965)
Fine clinker Soft burning, insufficient liquid phase; extreme hard burn-
ing and abrasion of porous shells on clinkers; Mn mineraliser
(large alite crystals) (Long, 1984b)
Dusty clinker: high porosity, “breaded” nodules, (a) Decomposition of outer clinker shell and
agglomerated fine particles, alite-rich, large alite crystals, concentration of liquid phase in clinker core (Allegre
and relatively scarce liquid phase and Terrier, 1960)
(b) Recycling of precipitator dust, reducing zones, lack of
Al2O3 in raw slurry (Hofmänner, 1973)
Dusty clinker (poor nodulization) and snowmen (a) Unfavorable temperature distribution
(b) Too little melt
(c) Too much coarse quartz, lime, slag
(d) Heavy alkali circulation resulting in early crystal growth
of belite and free lime and large silicate crystal size
(Miller, 1980)
Belite nest with dense, thick layer of alite with very Typical in dust formation (Fundal, 1980)
porous outermost zones
Clinker dust with abundant belite clusters Inferior burnability (Fundal, 1980)
Dusty clinker, coarsely crystalline silicates, low-porosity Slow temperature rise, higher clinkering temperature,
nodules, poor grindability longer time in burning zone and transition zone (Wolter,
1985)
Coal ash shells on clinkers and nests at boundary zones Nonuniform combustion of fuel and partial reaction on
clinker surface; inadequate grinding of coal and distribu-
tion (Krämer, 1960)
Clinker color: earth brown to light brown to dark brown to In order of increasing degree of burning (Gille and others,
black with greenish brown hue 1965)

66
 Microscopical Examination and Interpretation of Portland Cement and Clinker

Table 7-1. Microscopical Interpretation of Clinkers (continued)

General Features of Clinkers

Observations Interpretations

(a) Reddish brown (a) Abundance of Fe++

(b) Dark gray with reddish hue (b) Fe partly replaced by Mn
(c) Slate gray (c) Normal clinker with Mg in greenish-brown ferrite
(Gille and others, 1965)
Gray-black clinker color Overall oxidizing environment (Long, 1982b)
Yellow-brown clinker colors Rapid cooling (Long, 1982b)
Gray color of clinker Burning under oxidizing or neutral conditions; MgO in
lattice of aluminoferrite, presence of trivalent iron (Sylla,
1981)
Gray color of clinker Burned under reducing conditions, cooled in air after
removal from kiln at temperature greater than 1250o C
(Sylla, 1981)
Brown clinker Burned under reducing conditions, cooled at approxi-
mately 1250o C under reducing conditions, further cooled in
air (Sylla, 1981)
Bleached region in clinker Localized extreme reduction due to partly burned coal
deposition (Long, 1982b)
Well-defined yellow band separating gray-black periphery Reducing environment with reoxidation (Long, 1982b)
from brownish black core
Black, oxidized parts of same sample show usual Moderate reducing conditions (Woermann, 1960)
features but with three sets of belite lamellae strictly
oriented crystallographically with host alite
Clinker is densely burnt, light brown; ferrite has distinctly Reducing conditions (Woermann, 1960)
lower reflectivity than in normal clinker; calcium and
iron sulfides
Disappearance of ferrite phase, iron transformed to Extreme reducing conditions (Woermann, 1960)
metallic state, clinker color changes to white, alite
decomposition structures vanish
Brown-centered clinkers, larger alite, lower birefringence Reducing conditions; longer, cooler flame; reductions in
set control and strength (Brugan, 1979)
Spotty, banded coloration Chemical differences or varying burning conditions
(Gille and others, 1965)
Green clinker nodules, chromium-rich green belite, Consumption of refractory brick during production at less
gehlenite matrix than optimum kiln capacity or excessive flame length for
rated capacity conditions (Brugan, 1979)
Greenish brown—greenish yellow Entrapped magnesium (Gille and others, 1965)
Clinker weight (liter) Varies as a function of total porosity (Gille and others,
1965)
High liter weight High alite content (Brown, 1948); increased time of burning
at high temperature (Hawkins, 1979)
Low liter weight MgO slightly high, CaO distinctly high; aggregated clinkers
(Brown, 1948)
Hydration shells on clinker Air-exposed piles of clinker with “roofs” of partial hydration
(Krämer, 1960).

66
 PCA SP030

Table 7-1. Microscopical Interpretation of Clinkers (continued)

General Features of Clinkers

Observations Interpretations

Green, yellow, and brown clinkers Addition of Cr+3, Ti+4, and Fe+3/Mn+2, respectively (Laxmi,
Ahluwalia, and Chopra, 1984)
Weathered clinker and low Blaine fineness of cement Problems in thickening time and free water in oil-well
cement (Reeves, Bailey, and McNabb, 1984)

PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF GENERAL FEATURES OF CLINKERS

Photograph 7-1 Porous outer zone of clinker,

surrounding relatively dense clinker core. Evenly
distributed, round, clear belite crystals and angular
alite. Pores filled with epoxy. Moderately high
maximum temperature, long burning time, slow heating
rate, quickly cooled. Dry-process kiln with flash
calciner, 5000 tons/day. (S#A6621)

Thin section
Transmitted, plane-polarized light
Field dimensions = 0.53x0.53 mm

Photograph 7-2 Polished section of cement in

epoxy, illustrating large multiphase (composite)
particles and small, single phase particles, a typical
relationship for most portland cements. (S#A6622)

Nital etch
Field dimensions = 0.38x0.38 mm

68