esi

t tio

AWWA MANUAL MI1

Second Edit~on

American Water Works Association

 Contents

Foreword, vi
Chapter 1 History, Uses, a n d Physical Characteristics of Steel Pipe.. . ... .. 1
Uses, 2 1
Hlstory,
12
1.1
1.3 Phys~calCharactcrist;r% 3
1.4 Ducrtliry and Ylcld Strength, 3
1.5 Streci and Stratn. 4
1.6 Stratn in Design, 7
1.7 Analysis Bawd on Strain, 8
1.8 Ductility in Destgn, 10
1.9 Effects of Cold Working on Strength and Ductility, 10
1 . 0 Brtttle Fracture Considerations in Structural Design, 12
1.1 1 Good Practice, 15
Chapter 2 Manufacture and Testing . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . .. . . . . .. . .. . . . .. . . . . 16
2.1 Manufacture, 16
2.2 Testing, 19
Chapter 3 . . ......... . ................ ..... . 21
Hydraulics of Pipelines . . . .
3.1 Formulas, 21
3.2 Calculations, 26
3.3 Economtcal Dlamcrcr of Pipc, 32
3.4 Distribution Systems, 33
3.5 Air Entratnment and Release, 33
3.6 Good Practtce, 33
Chapter 4 Determination of Pipc Wall Thickness . ....................... 36
4.1 Internal Prcssurc, 36
4.2 Working Tension Stress in Steel, 37
4.3 Tolerance, 38
4.4 Corrosion Allowance, 39
4.5 External Pressure-Uniform and Radial, 39
4.6 Minimum Wall Thickness, 40
4.7 Good Practicc, 40
Chapter 5 Water H a m m e r and P r e s s u r e S u r g e .. ..... .................. . 51
5.1 Basic Relationships, 51
5.2 Checklist for Pumping Mains, 54
5.3 Gcncral Studrcs for Watcr Hammer Control, 54
5.4 Allowance for K'atcr Hammer, 55
- 5.5 Prcssurc Risc Calculations, 55
Chapter 6 . .. . .. .. .. ............. .... ...... 57
External Loads . . . . . . . ... . . .
6.1 Load Dctermlnation, 57
6.2 Deflectton Dctcrmtnatlon, 58
6.3 Ruckling, 61
6.4 Extreme Eitcrnal Loadmg Conditions, 62 '
h5 Computer Programs. 63
 Contents

Foreword, vi
Chapter 1 History, Uses, a n d Physical Characteristics of Steel Pipe.. . ... .. 1
Uses, 2 1
Hlstory,
12
1.1
1.3 Phys~calCharactcrist;r% 3
1.4 Ducrtliry and Ylcld Strength, 3
1.5 Streci and Stratn. 4
1.6 Stratn in Design, 7
1.7 Analysis Bawd on Strain, 8
1.8 Ductility in Destgn, 10
1.9 Effects of Cold Working on Strength and Ductility, 10
1 . 0 Brtttle Fracture Considerations in Structural Design, 12
1.1 1 Good Practice, 15
Chapter 2 Manufacture and Testing . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . .. . . . . .. . .. . . . .. . . . . 16
2.1 Manufacture, 16
2.2 Testing, 19
Chapter 3 . . ......... . ................ ..... . 21
Hydraulics of Pipelines . . . .
3.1 Formulas, 21
3.2 Calculations, 26
3.3 Economtcal Dlamcrcr of Pipc, 32
3.4 Distribution Systems, 33
3.5 Air Entratnment and Release, 33
3.6 Good Practtce, 33
Chapter 4 Determination of Pipc Wall Thickness . ....................... 36
4.1 Internal Prcssurc, 36
4.2 Working Tension Stress in Steel, 37
4.3 Tolerance, 38
4.4 Corrosion Allowance, 39
4.5 External Pressure-Uniform and Radial, 39
4.6 Minimum Wall Thickness, 40
4.7 Good Practicc, 40
Chapter 5 Water H a m m e r and P r e s s u r e S u r g e .. ..... .................. . 51
5.1 Basic Relationships, 51
5.2 Checklist for Pumping Mains, 54
5.3 Gcncral Studrcs for Watcr Hammer Control, 54
5.4 Allowance for K'atcr Hammer, 55
- 5.5 Prcssurc Risc Calculations, 55
Chapter 6 . .. . .. .. .. ............. .... ...... 57
External Loads . . . . . . . ... . . .
6.1 Load Dctermlnation, 57
6.2 Deflectton Dctcrmtnatlon, 58
6.3 Ruckling, 61
6.4 Extreme Eitcrnal Loadmg Conditions, 62 '
h5 Computer Programs. 63
 Chaptcr 7 Supports for Pipe.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . 66 1 12 3 Installation of P i p , 123
71 Saddle Supports, 66 I2 4 .4nchnr< and Thrust Rlwks, 127
72 P I P Deflectron as Beam, 70 / I2 5 F~cldCoating of joints, 128
7.3 Methods of Calculation, 70 12.6 Pipe-Zone Lkdding and Backfill, 128
7.4 Gradrcnt of Supported Pipelines to Prevent Pockctrng, 71 12.7 Hydrostatic F~cldTest, I29
7.5 Ring-Girder Construction, 71
7.6 Rrng-Girder Construction for Low-Pressure P i p , 77 Chaptcr 13 .
Supplementary Dcsign Data a n d Details . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . .. 131
7.7 Installat~onof Rmg-G~rderSpans, 78 13.1 Layout of Piylrnes, 131
13.2 Calculation of Angle of Fabricated P i p Bend, 132
Chapter 8 . .
Pipe Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ... .. . ... . ... . . . .., ... .. .. .. . 86
, 13 3 Reinforcement of Fitting, 134
81 Bcll-and-Sp~gotJornt w ~ t hR u b k r Gasket, 86 13 4 Collar Plate Dcsign, 136
82 Weldcd Jo~nts,8 i 13.5 Wrapper-Flare Design, 138
83 S l c c ~ cCouphngs, 88 13 6 Crotch-Plate (W'yc-Branch) Design, 140
84 Flanges, 89 13.7 Nomograph Use in Wyc-Branch Devgn, 141
8.5 Grwtcd-and-Shouldered Couplings, 89 13.8 Thrust Restraint. 147
86 Expansran and Contraction-General, 90 13.9 Anchor Rings, I51
87 Ground Frrctron and Lme Tens~on,91 13.10 Joint Harnesses, 151
88 G w d Practtce, 92 13 11 Special and Valw Connections and Other Appurtenances, 154
Chapter 9 .
Fittings a n d Appurtenances . . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. ....... ... .. .. ... 93 13.12
13.13
Freezing in Piplines, 160
Iksign of Circumferential Ftllet Welds. 166
9.1 Lktgnatton of Ftttrngs, 93
9.2 Bolt Hole Pocrtron, 95 13.14 Submarine P~pelincs,I68
93 Desrgn of Wyc Branches, 95 Index, 171
94 Testtng of Fitt~ngs,95
9.5 Unbalanced Thrust Forces, 95
96 Frict~onalResrstance Between Soil and P i p , 96
9.7 Anchor Rrngs, 96
9.8 h'o7zlc Outlets, 96
9.9 Conncct~onto Other Pipe Materral, %
9 10 Flanged Connecr~ons,97
9 11 I'alw Connectrons, 97
9.12 Blowoff Connecttons, 97
9.13 hlanholcs, 97
9.14 Insulatrng Jo~nts,98
9.15 Arr-Release Valves and Air-and-Vacuum Valws, 98
9. I6 Good Practtce, 99
Chaptcr 10 Principles of Corrosion a n d Corrosion C o n t r o l . . ......... ... 101
10.1 General Theory, 101
10.2 Internal Corroston of Steel Ptpe, I I I
10.3 Atmotpherrc Corrosion, 1I1
10.4 Alethods of Corros~onCantrol, l 1 l
10.5 Cathodrc Protcctron. I1 1
. . . . ....... . . 115
C h a p t c r 11 Protective Coatings a n d Linings.. . .. . . . . .. ... .
11.1 Rcqu~rcmcntsof Good Prpcl~neCoatrngs and Lininps, 115
1 1 2 Srlccrron of the Proper Coatrng and Lining, 115
11 3 Rccomrnendcd Coattngs and Lrntngs, 117
l l 4 Coattng Appl~cauon,119
11.5 Good Pracllcc, 119
.
Chaptcr 12 Transportation. Installation, and Testing.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
I I 'I'rm~porratrnnand Handltng of Cnatcd Steel P~pc,121
I2 ? 'I'rrtir h q . 122
 Chaptcr 7 Supports for Pipe.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . 66 1 12 3 Installation of P i p , 123
71 Saddle Supports, 66 I2 4 .4nchnr< and Thrust Rlwks, 127
72 P I P Deflectron as Beam, 70 / I2 5 F~cldCoating of joints, 128
7.3 Methods of Calculation, 70 12.6 Pipe-Zone Lkdding and Backfill, 128
7.4 Gradrcnt of Supported Pipelines to Prevent Pockctrng, 71 12.7 Hydrostatic F~cldTest, I29
7.5 Ring-Girder Construction, 71
7.6 Rrng-Girder Construction for Low-Pressure P i p , 77 Chaptcr 13 .
Supplementary Dcsign Data a n d Details . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . .. 131
7.7 Installat~onof Rmg-G~rderSpans, 78 13.1 Layout of Piylrnes, 131
13.2 Calculation of Angle of Fabricated P i p Bend, 132
Chapter 8 . .
Pipe Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ... .. . ... . ... . . . .., ... .. .. .. . 86
, 13 3 Reinforcement of Fitting, 134
81 Bcll-and-Sp~gotJornt w ~ t hR u b k r Gasket, 86 13 4 Collar Plate Dcsign, 136
82 Weldcd Jo~nts,8 i 13.5 Wrapper-Flare Design, 138
83 S l c c ~ cCouphngs, 88 13 6 Crotch-Plate (W'yc-Branch) Design, 140
84 Flanges, 89 13.7 Nomograph Use in Wyc-Branch Devgn, 141
8.5 Grwtcd-and-Shouldered Couplings, 89 13.8 Thrust Restraint. 147
86 Expansran and Contraction-General, 90 13.9 Anchor Rings, I51
87 Ground Frrctron and Lme Tens~on,91 13.10 Joint Harnesses, 151
88 G w d Practtce, 92 13 11 Special and Valw Connections and Other Appurtenances, 154
Chapter 9 .
Fittings a n d Appurtenances . . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. ....... ... .. .. ... 93 13.12
13.13
Freezing in Piplines, 160
Iksign of Circumferential Ftllet Welds. 166
9.1 Lktgnatton of Ftttrngs, 93
9.2 Bolt Hole Pocrtron, 95 13.14 Submarine P~pelincs,I68
93 Desrgn of Wyc Branches, 95 Index, 171
94 Testtng of Fitt~ngs,95
9.5 Unbalanced Thrust Forces, 95
96 Frict~onalResrstance Between Soil and P i p , 96
9.7 Anchor Rrngs, 96
9.8 h'o7zlc Outlets, 96
9.9 Conncct~onto Other Pipe Materral, %
9 10 Flanged Connecr~ons,97
9 11 I'alw Connectrons, 97
9.12 Blowoff Connecttons, 97
9.13 hlanholcs, 97
9.14 Insulatrng Jo~nts,98
9.15 Arr-Release Valves and Air-and-Vacuum Valws, 98
9. I6 Good Practtce, 99
Chaptcr 10 Principles of Corrosion a n d Corrosion C o n t r o l . . ......... ... 101
10.1 General Theory, 101
10.2 Internal Corroston of Steel Ptpe, I I I
10.3 Atmotpherrc Corrosion, 1I1
10.4 Alethods of Corros~onCantrol, l 1 l
10.5 Cathodrc Protcctron. I1 1
. . . . ....... . . 115
C h a p t c r 11 Protective Coatings a n d Linings.. . .. . . . . .. ... .
11.1 Rcqu~rcmcntsof Good Prpcl~neCoatrngs and Lininps, 115
1 1 2 Srlccrron of the Proper Coatrng and Lining, 115
11 3 Rccomrnendcd Coattngs and Lrntngs, 117
l l 4 Coattng Appl~cauon,119
11.5 Good Pracllcc, 119
.
Chaptcr 12 Transportation. Installation, and Testing.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
I I 'I'rm~porratrnnand Handltng of Cnatcd Steel P~pc,121
I2 ? 'I'rrtir h q . 122
 FOREWORD vii

G,~nrrulIirrerzsc Mrr~.i.zrs
W R. Brunzcll D C. Schrocder
W.H. Caws R.K.f atkins
R.D. Dickson W.W. U'cbstcr
Foreword R.E. Gilmor K.G. Wilkcs
L.E. Hanson Mike Yoshii
G.K. Hickox Rohcrt Young
L.T. Schaper

Prohcer .\lni~krr
This manual was first authorized in 1943. In 1949, committee 83101) appointed one of it5 CJ. Arch H.R. Stoner
mcmbcrs, Russel E. Barnard, to act as editor in chief in charge oicollcct~ngand compiling Allen Harder R F. Strobel
thc available data on stcel pipe. The first draft of the report was complctcd by January 1957; C.R. AlcCormick G J. Tupac
thcdraft was rcvicucd by thecommlttecand other authorit~eson stecl pipe. Thc firct edition J.R.Pcgucs J A. Wise
of thls manual was iswcd in 1964 with the title Swel Pipe-Design m d liisrull~~r~nn. G.D. Plant
This revision of thc manual usasapprovcd in June 1984. The principal changes relate to
cxrcrnal loads on p i p , reinforccmcnt of fittings, and joint harnesses. In some cases, rigorouq
dcscriptions, formulas, and calculations wcrc eltminatcd from the 1964 manual whcrc
adcquatc rcfcrcnccs of such dcscriptions, formulas, and calculations arc availablc.
Somc chapters of the 1964 manual haw hccn combincd and the numhcr of chapters
reduced from 19 to 13. In addinon to the tahlc of contcnts, this rcvision includes a
comprchcnsivc index.
Thc r~tlcof the manual has been changed to Srcel Pip-A Guide far Dcsifft and
Insrallorion. The manual provides a renew of wide expericncc and design theory regarding
stecl pipc for conr'cying aatcr. Application of the principles and proccdurcs di9cu~ccdIn t h ~ s
manual must k based on rcsponmsihlc judgment.

T h ~ revision
s of Manual M 11 was made by the following members of the Stccl Ufatcr Pipe
Manufacturcn Technical Advisory Cornmittcc (SUfPMTAC):
Roturt E. Gilmor, Task Gmirp Chairnron
Herman Adcon Gerald G. Emerson
C.J. Arch H.R. Malone Jr.
Frank C~rrcllcs.ia C.R McGrmick
D.J. Cnuling R.F. Strobcl
R. Dcwcy Dichon Gcorgc J. Tupac
.41dcn D. Elherson

Thc rcvkion \la< approved by the Standard\ Commtttcc on Stccl P I P and thc Standards
Council. T l x Standards Committee on Stcel P ~ p had
c thc following pcrsonncl at thc timcof
approval: .
..
R. Dcwcy Dickton, Chairnwn
Gcorgc 1. Tupac, Sccrcro<v
 FOREWORD vii

G,~nrrulIirrerzsc Mrr~.i.zrs
W R. Brunzcll D C. Schrocder
W.H. Caws R.K.f atkins
R.D. Dickson W.W. U'cbstcr
Foreword R.E. Gilmor K.G. Wilkcs
L.E. Hanson Mike Yoshii
G.K. Hickox Rohcrt Young
L.T. Schaper

Prohcer .\lni~krr
This manual was first authorized in 1943. In 1949, committee 83101) appointed one of it5 CJ. Arch H.R. Stoner
mcmbcrs, Russel E. Barnard, to act as editor in chief in charge oicollcct~ngand compiling Allen Harder R F. Strobel
thc available data on stcel pipe. The first draft of the report was complctcd by January 1957; C.R. AlcCormick G J. Tupac
thcdraft was rcvicucd by thecommlttecand other authorit~eson stecl pipe. Thc firct edition J.R.Pcgucs J A. Wise
of thls manual was iswcd in 1964 with the title Swel Pipe-Design m d liisrull~~r~nn. G.D. Plant
This revision of thc manual usasapprovcd in June 1984. The principal changes relate to
cxrcrnal loads on p i p , reinforccmcnt of fittings, and joint harnesses. In some cases, rigorouq
dcscriptions, formulas, and calculations wcrc eltminatcd from the 1964 manual whcrc
adcquatc rcfcrcnccs of such dcscriptions, formulas, and calculations arc availablc.
Somc chapters of the 1964 manual haw hccn combincd and the numhcr of chapters
reduced from 19 to 13. In addinon to the tahlc of contcnts, this rcvision includes a
comprchcnsivc index.
Thc r~tlcof the manual has been changed to Srcel Pip-A Guide far Dcsifft and
Insrallorion. The manual provides a renew of wide expericncc and design theory regarding
stecl pipc for conr'cying aatcr. Application of the principles and proccdurcs di9cu~ccdIn t h ~ s
manual must k based on rcsponmsihlc judgment.

T h ~ revision
s of Manual M 11 was made by the following members of the Stccl Ufatcr Pipe
Manufacturcn Technical Advisory Cornmittcc (SUfPMTAC):
Roturt E. Gilmor, Task Gmirp Chairnron
Herman Adcon Gerald G. Emerson
C.J. Arch H.R. Malone Jr.
Frank C~rrcllcs.ia C.R McGrmick
D.J. Cnuling R.F. Strobcl
R. Dcwcy Dichon Gcorgc J. Tupac
.41dcn D. Elherson

Thc rcvkion \la< approved by the Standard\ Commtttcc on Stccl P I P and thc Standards
Council. T l x Standards Committee on Stcel P ~ p had
c thc following pcrsonncl at thc timcof
approval: .
..
R. Dcwcy Dickton, Chairnwn
Gcorgc 1. Tupac, Sccrcro<v
 Notice of Proposed Changes to AWWA MI1
(1985 edition) Errata to AWWA M11 (1985 edition)
Steel Pipe-A Guide for Design and Installation
(June 1986)
Steel Pipe-A Guide for Design and Installation
(June1986)

The Steel Pipe Committee is currently considering changes to IM I I. An addendum will be

issued as soon as consensus is established in accordance with AWWA procedures. Approval Page IS, Reftrcnces, Item 5, Line 2: Changc "Not" to "Nut"
of this addendum will be announced in AWWAJOL'R.VAL. P o p 23, Figure 3-1: In two places in the parenthetical expression following the title,
change "Cm"to 'C"
The areas in MI 1 where changes are under consideration are as follows:
- \
Page 34, in the definition of s under Hydraulic Symbols: Delere -
" H
- "

1. Page 33, Eq 3-12 and Eq 3-13. -\-.y. 1 0 0 0 ~-

;. . \ and insert '2=
H="
2. Page 38, Sec. 4.3 Tolerance. - . .I L loo0
' :.'
I .

3. Page 59, definitions for %C5., Page 39, 2nd line under Atmosphere of Fluid Emirammtr: Change reference
notation "developed.'" to "developed.*"
4. Page 61, form"lr for E',kcond iine from bottom of the page.
Page 39, Sec. 4.5: Change title of See. 4.5 to "External Fluid Pressure-Uniform
5. Page 87, Sec,8.2 wF1dd Joints, k t paragraph: joint efticiencies. and Radial"
\ \ '-
6. PPge 99, last sentcncc/of first paragraph at the top of the page. Page 41, Table 4-2, 4th line under 10% OD: Changc "85.19" to "83.19"
irq . " i
7. Page 125, Table 12-1 and footnote to the table. Page 62, 4th line under Normal Pip Installariars: Change the definition for hw to
c%
8. Page 151, Sec. 13.10 Joint Harnesses and Figure 13-17 Harness Lug Derail. "height of water surface above conduit (in.)"
Page 86, 1st lint under Sec. 8.1 Bell and Spigot Joint With Rubkr Gasket: Insen
"8-IE, 8-1F" between "Figurcs" and "8-1 G"
Page 87, Figure 8-1 1: Dekte "M3816" in front of "Modified Carnegie Shape"
Page 88, Figure 8-2: Delete the arrow between "PIPE OD" and the steel plate. Add
a vertical dimension line to the right of "PIPE OD," with a single arrowhead
touching the outside of the pipe wall. Corrected figure appears below:

FLANGE SLEEVE

u-L,

GASKETS PIPE OD J

Rgure 8-2 Sleeve Coupling

 Notice of Proposed Changes to AWWA MI1
(1985 edition) Errata to AWWA M11 (1985 edition)
Steel Pipe-A Guide for Design and Installation
(June 1986)
Steel Pipe-A Guide for Design and Installation
(June1986)

The Steel Pipe Committee is currently considering changes to IM I I. An addendum will be

issued as soon as consensus is established in accordance with AWWA procedures. Approval Page IS, Reftrcnces, Item 5, Line 2: Changc "Not" to "Nut"
of this addendum will be announced in AWWAJOL'R.VAL. P o p 23, Figure 3-1: In two places in the parenthetical expression following the title,
change "Cm"to 'C"
The areas in MI 1 where changes are under consideration are as follows:
- \
Page 34, in the definition of s under Hydraulic Symbols: Delere -
" H
- "

1. Page 33, Eq 3-12 and Eq 3-13. -\-.y. 1 0 0 0 ~-

;. . \ and insert '2=
H="
2. Page 38, Sec. 4.3 Tolerance. - . .I L loo0
' :.'
I .

3. Page 59, definitions for %C5., Page 39, 2nd line under Atmosphere of Fluid Emirammtr: Change reference
notation "developed.'" to "developed.*"
4. Page 61, form"lr for E',kcond iine from bottom of the page.
Page 39, Sec. 4.5: Change title of See. 4.5 to "External Fluid Pressure-Uniform
5. Page 87, Sec,8.2 wF1dd Joints, k t paragraph: joint efticiencies. and Radial"
\ \ '-
6. PPge 99, last sentcncc/of first paragraph at the top of the page. Page 41, Table 4-2, 4th line under 10% OD: Changc "85.19" to "83.19"
irq . " i
7. Page 125, Table 12-1 and footnote to the table. Page 62, 4th line under Normal Pip Installariars: Change the definition for hw to
c%
8. Page 151, Sec. 13.10 Joint Harnesses and Figure 13-17 Harness Lug Derail. "height of water surface above conduit (in.)"
Page 86, 1st lint under Sec. 8.1 Bell and Spigot Joint With Rubkr Gasket: Insen
"8-IE, 8-1F" between "Figurcs" and "8-1 G"
Page 87, Figure 8-1 1: Dekte "M3816" in front of "Modified Carnegie Shape"
Page 88, Figure 8-2: Delete the arrow between "PIPE OD" and the steel plate. Add
a vertical dimension line to the right of "PIPE OD," with a single arrowhead
touching the outside of the pipe wall. Corrected figure appears below:

FLANGE SLEEVE

u-L,

GASKETS PIPE OD J

Rgure 8-2 Sleeve Coupling

 I I. Page 89, 7th line under Pressure Ratings: Change "Class A" to "ASA" 21. Page 135, Table 13-2: In the 3rd line, change ">4000" to "<4000"; in the 5th line,
12. Page 94, FFigure 9-1: Add the following note "Refer to A W V A C208 for additional change "54000" to "<4000"; and also in the 5th linc, change "0.7" to "50.7"
information"
13. Page 100, Refercnccs, hem 4, 2nd line: Change "Nomograph" to "Monograph"
22. Page 141, E9 13-2: Change
I'
-A"

360
to -
"A
360
"

14. Page 117, under Sec. 11.3 Recommmded Coatings and Linings: Delete the two 23. Page 143, Figure 13-9: In the center of the diagram, change "PDEG 30" to
paragraphs describing AWWA Standard C204; this standard has been withdrawn. "ADEG 30"
Page 119, 2nd lint under Coating o/Special Sccriar. Connecrions, and Firrings: Delete 24. Page 145, Figure 13-11: On the left-hand diagram, change the angle designation
"C204" from "A" to "A"
16. Page 119, 1st lint of 2nd paragraph under Sec. 11.5 Good Pracrice: Delete "C204" 25. Pagc 145, equation at borrom ofpage: Change "L"to 'Ib"

17. Page 120, Rcjerences: Dclcte Item 13 in its entirety. 360 360
A " A "
26. Page 146, equation on 4th linc/rom borrom: Change - to -
" "
18. Page 130, Rrfermces, I m 3: In the 4th line, change "T99-74" to "T99-81"; also, in
the 5th linc, change "1974" to "1981" 360 360
19. Page 130, References: Delete Item I1 in its entirety. 27. Page 150, Figure 13-14.4: Change " T = 2PA SIN A/2" to " T = 2PA SIN A/2"
and show arrowhead at end of force line next to T = 2PA SIN A/2.
20. Page 135, Feure 13-3: Add a dimension linc on the upper arrowhead above D;add Corrected figurc appears below:
dimension lines on the arrowheads on either side of d; change "d/SIN A" to read
"d/SIN A"; and change central deflection angle from "A" to "A." In the same
figure, dekte aU indications ofu.elds; extend the branch linc to the inner surface of
the main linc; and add the following cautionary note: "NOTE: Figure does not show
the location of necessary welds." Corrected figure appears below:

NOTE.F~gureDoes Not Show the

Location of Necessary Welds

Figure 1 3 - 1 4 ~ Frictional Forces

Developed &tween Pipe and Soil

28. Page 150, FFigure 13-148: Change the deflection angle designation from "A"to "A";
also, change "P J COS A" to "PA COS A"
29. Page 153, Figure 13-17: Under each plan detail, inren "T = Thickness of steel
harness plates" and change definition of r to "r = PIP wall thickness and s i x of
fillet attachment weld"
30. Page 164, Table 13-14: Above "k" column, insert "Thermal Conductivity"

D - rnamltne ptpe oulslde dfameter . I, = requ~redbranch cyllndtr Ihlckness iin I

Ty
T,
d
.
-
mamlme cyllnder thtckness 8n '
reqwred mamltne cylmder lhtckness
branch ptpe oulslde d~ameler tn s
I
A = branch detlrchon anal- degrees
T = wrapper lh8ckness ~n
W = overall wrapper wldlh on I

fv branch cyltnder thtckness ln w -

wrapper edoe wldlh in

Figure 13-3 Reinforcement of Openings in W e l d e d Steel Pipe

 I I. Page 89, 7th line under Pressure Ratings: Change "Class A" to "ASA" 21. Page 135, Table 13-2: In the 3rd line, change ">4000" to "<4000"; in the 5th line,
12. Page 94, FFigure 9-1: Add the following note "Refer to A W V A C208 for additional change "54000" to "<4000"; and also in the 5th linc, change "0.7" to "50.7"
information"
13. Page 100, Refercnccs, hem 4, 2nd line: Change "Nomograph" to "Monograph"
22. Page 141, E9 13-2: Change
I'
-A"

360
to -
"A
360
"

14. Page 117, under Sec. 11.3 Recommmded Coatings and Linings: Delete the two 23. Page 143, Figure 13-9: In the center of the diagram, change "PDEG 30" to
paragraphs describing AWWA Standard C204; this standard has been withdrawn. "ADEG 30"
Page 119, 2nd lint under Coating o/Special Sccriar. Connecrions, and Firrings: Delete 24. Page 145, Figure 13-11: On the left-hand diagram, change the angle designation
"C204" from "A" to "A"
16. Page 119, 1st lint of 2nd paragraph under Sec. 11.5 Good Pracrice: Delete "C204" 25. Pagc 145, equation at borrom ofpage: Change "L"to 'Ib"

17. Page 120, Rcjerences: Dclcte Item 13 in its entirety. 360 360
A " A "
26. Page 146, equation on 4th linc/rom borrom: Change - to -
" "
18. Page 130, Rrfermces, I m 3: In the 4th line, change "T99-74" to "T99-81"; also, in
the 5th linc, change "1974" to "1981" 360 360
19. Page 130, References: Delete Item I1 in its entirety. 27. Page 150, Figure 13-14.4: Change " T = 2PA SIN A/2" to " T = 2PA SIN A/2"
and show arrowhead at end of force line next to T = 2PA SIN A/2.
20. Page 135, Feure 13-3: Add a dimension linc on the upper arrowhead above D;add Corrected figurc appears below:
dimension lines on the arrowheads on either side of d; change "d/SIN A" to read
"d/SIN A"; and change central deflection angle from "A" to "A." In the same
figure, dekte aU indications ofu.elds; extend the branch linc to the inner surface of
the main linc; and add the following cautionary note: "NOTE: Figure does not show
the location of necessary welds." Corrected figure appears below:

NOTE.F~gureDoes Not Show the

Location of Necessary Welds

Figure 1 3 - 1 4 ~ Frictional Forces

Developed &tween Pipe and Soil

28. Page 150, FFigure 13-148: Change the deflection angle designation from "A"to "A";
also, change "P J COS A" to "PA COS A"
29. Page 153, Figure 13-17: Under each plan detail, inren "T = Thickness of steel
harness plates" and change definition of r to "r = PIP wall thickness and s i x of
fillet attachment weld"
30. Page 164, Table 13-14: Above "k" column, insert "Thermal Conductivity"

D - rnamltne ptpe oulslde dfameter . I, = requ~redbranch cyllndtr Ihlckness iin I

Ty
T,
d
.
-
mamlme cyllnder thtckness 8n '
reqwred mamltne cylmder lhtckness
branch ptpe oulslde d~ameler tn s
I
A = branch detlrchon anal- degrees
T = wrapper lh8ckness ~n
W = overall wrapper wldlh on I

fv branch cyltnder thtckness ln w -

wrapper edoe wldlh in

Figure 13-3 Reinforcement of Openings in W e l d e d Steel Pipe

 AWM'A M A N U A L

Chapter 1
History, Uses, and
Physical Characteristics
of Steel Pipe

1.1 HISTORY
Srcel pipe has bccn used for aatcr lincs in the United Statcs since thc carly 18505! Thc pipe
uas first manufactured by rolling stccl shccts or plates into shape and riveting thc scams.
This mcthod of fabrication, wcll suited to production of pipe, continued with improt~cmcnts
into the 1930s. Pipe wall thickncsscs could be readily vaned to fit the d~ffcrentpressure
heads of a pipclinc profile.
Becauscof the relatively low tcnsilc strength of the early srecls,and the loacfficicncyof
cold-rivctcd scams and rivetcd or drive stovepipe joints, cngtnccrs initially set a safe dcsign
stress at 10 000 psi. Over the years, as rivctcd-pipe fabrication mcthods improved and
higher strcngth stccls u + mdcvelopcd, dcsign stresses progrcsscd generally on a 4-10-1
safety factor of tcnsilc strcngth, increasing from 10 000 to 12 500, to 13 750, and finally to
15 000 psi, adjusted as ncccssary to account for the efficiency of the rivctcd scam. Thc pipe
u.as furnishcd in diameters ranging from 4 in. through 144 in. and in thickness from 16
gauge to 1.5 in. Fabrication methods consisted of single-, douhlc-, triplc-, and even
quadruplc-ri~etcdscams, varytng in efficiency from 45 pcrccnt to 90 pcrccnt depcnd~ngon
thc dcsign.
Lock-Bar pipe, introduced in 1905, had nearly supplanted rivctcd p i p by 1930.
Fabrication inrolvcd planing 3 0 4 long platcs to a width approximately cqual to half thc
intcndcd circumfcrcnce, upsetting the longitudinal cdges, and rolling the platcs into 30-ft
long half-circlc troughs. H-shaped bars of spccial configuration appltrd to thc mating
cdges of two 3 0 4 troughs and clamped into position to form a full-circle pipc sccuon.
Follou.inp rhc gcneral proccdurc of the times, a 55 000-ps~tcnsilc-strcngth stccl was
used. U'ith a 4-10-1 safety factor, this rcsultcd In a 11750-psi dc+n ctrcss. Lock-Bar p ~ p c
had notahlc advantagesover rivctcd PIP: I t had onlynnc or t\vo qtra~ght\cam\ and no round
 AWM'A M A N U A L

Chapter 1
History, Uses, and
Physical Characteristics
of Steel Pipe

1.1 HISTORY
Srcel pipe has bccn used for aatcr lincs in the United Statcs since thc carly 18505! Thc pipe
uas first manufactured by rolling stccl shccts or plates into shape and riveting thc scams.
This mcthod of fabrication, wcll suited to production of pipe, continued with improt~cmcnts
into the 1930s. Pipe wall thickncsscs could be readily vaned to fit the d~ffcrentpressure
heads of a pipclinc profile.
Becauscof the relatively low tcnsilc strength of the early srecls,and the loacfficicncyof
cold-rivctcd scams and rivetcd or drive stovepipe joints, cngtnccrs initially set a safe dcsign
stress at 10 000 psi. Over the years, as rivctcd-pipe fabrication mcthods improved and
higher strcngth stccls u + mdcvelopcd, dcsign stresses progrcsscd generally on a 4-10-1
safety factor of tcnsilc strcngth, increasing from 10 000 to 12 500, to 13 750, and finally to
15 000 psi, adjusted as ncccssary to account for the efficiency of the rivctcd scam. Thc pipe
u.as furnishcd in diameters ranging from 4 in. through 144 in. and in thickness from 16
gauge to 1.5 in. Fabrication methods consisted of single-, douhlc-, triplc-, and even
quadruplc-ri~etcdscams, varytng in efficiency from 45 pcrccnt to 90 pcrccnt depcnd~ngon
thc dcsign.
Lock-Bar pipe, introduced in 1905, had nearly supplanted rivctcd p i p by 1930.
Fabrication inrolvcd planing 3 0 4 long platcs to a width approximately cqual to half thc
intcndcd circumfcrcnce, upsetting the longitudinal cdges, and rolling the platcs into 30-ft
long half-circlc troughs. H-shaped bars of spccial configuration appltrd to thc mating
cdges of two 3 0 4 troughs and clamped into position to form a full-circle pipc sccuon.
Follou.inp rhc gcneral proccdurc of the times, a 55 000-ps~tcnsilc-strcngth stccl was
used. U'ith a 4-10-1 safety factor, this rcsultcd In a 11750-psi dc+n ctrcss. Lock-Bar p ~ p c
had notahlc advantagesover rivctcd PIP: I t had onlynnc or t\vo qtra~ght\cam\ and no round
 scams. The w a ~ g h tseams were considered 100-percent effic~enta< compared to the 1.3 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
15-percent to 70-percent efficiency generally appl~cdto rncred scams .Hanufactured in
sizes from 20 In. through 74 in., from plate ranglng In thrckncss from '/16 In to '/2 In., The propcrlles of stccl that make it so useful are 11s great strength, Its ah111uto !~cldor
Lock-Bar p l a y d an increasingly greater role rn the market untd the advent of automatlc denect under a load while still offer~ngfull rectstancc to It, Its abllltv to bend ulthout
electric welding in the mid 1920s. hrcakmg, and 11s rc\istance to shock. The water uthty englnccr thould understand thtsc
By the early 1930s, both riveting and Lock-Bar methods gradually passed out of the propcrrles, how they are measured, what they udldo,and to what exrent the! can be rcl~cd
picture, and wcld~ngdominated thc field. Pipe produced u s q automatlc electr~cfuslon on.
welding offered the advantages of fewer p~cces,fewer operations, faster ~roducrron,smaller
seam protrusion, and 100-pcrccnt weldcd-scam effic~cncy.Fabr~catorcof fus~on-ueldcd 1.4 DUCTILITY A N D YIELD STRENGTH
pipe followed somewhat the same inltial product~onsequences as for Lock-Bar Through
the 1930s and into the 1940s, 30-ft plates werc used By the 1950s. \omc firm$ had obtalncd Solid matcr~alscan he differentiated into two classes ductde and br~ttle In cnpneertng
4041 rolls, and a few formed 40-ft lengths in presses. yracrtcc, thctc twoclasscs must be treated diffcrcntl! hccauqe the! hehave diifrrentl> under
D u r ~ n gthe developtng dccadc of acldlng In the 1930s, a new approach was taken to load A duct~lemater~alexh~bltsa marked plastic deformat~onor flow at a fairly dcfinite
design stresses Prior to that timc, it had been common practtce to uork u ~ t ah safer\ factor
of4-to-l based on the tenstle strength As ucldcd p p e came Into prcdornmance. the concept
of uslng 50 prrccnt of the yicld became gcnerallv accepted
Spirally formed and welded plpc \vat de\cloped In the early 1930s and sac wed
extens~velyIn d~amctersfrom 4 In. through 36 In Welding uas b) the electrlc fucron
method After Vorid War 11, German machlncs werc ~ m p r t c dand , ~ubscquentl! domewc
ones w r c dc\eloped that could sprrally form and weld through dlamerer< of 144 In

1.2 USES
Steel water pipe meeting the rcquircmcntsofappropriatcAWWA standards has becn found
satisfactory for many applications, some of uhlch are as follows
Aqueducts Treatment-plant piping (F~gure1-1
Supply lines Self-supprr~ngspans
Transmiss~onmains Force mains
Distribution mains Circulating-water lines
Penstocks 'L-'ndcrwatcrcrossings, intakes. and outfalls
General data on some of the notable steel pipelines havc been p u b l i ~ h e d . ~Data
. ~ on
numerous orhcrs havc appcared in the3011rndAIl"lt"A and other periodicals, as well as in
many textbooks and engineering handbooks.

~h~ p,Oe,pan 01the Bouwel Ca-v@n

p r o l e ~ l LOS Angeles. IS 80-94on
In
d,amr~er. 3 PI' %atn ~nplate
t h , ~ k n ~an0~ sunder
. a marlmum
head 01 8.10 11

Figure 1-2 Welded-Steel

ripe Siphon Across Sdn
Franc~squ~roCanyon
 scams. The w a ~ g h tseams were considered 100-percent effic~enta< compared to the 1.3 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
15-percent to 70-percent efficiency generally appl~cdto rncred scams .Hanufactured in
sizes from 20 In. through 74 in., from plate ranglng In thrckncss from '/16 In to '/2 In., The propcrlles of stccl that make it so useful are 11s great strength, Its ah111uto !~cldor
Lock-Bar p l a y d an increasingly greater role rn the market untd the advent of automatlc denect under a load while still offer~ngfull rectstancc to It, Its abllltv to bend ulthout
electric welding in the mid 1920s. hrcakmg, and 11s rc\istance to shock. The water uthty englnccr thould understand thtsc
By the early 1930s, both riveting and Lock-Bar methods gradually passed out of the propcrrles, how they are measured, what they udldo,and to what exrent the! can be rcl~cd
picture, and wcld~ngdominated thc field. Pipe produced u s q automatlc electr~cfuslon on.
welding offered the advantages of fewer p~cces,fewer operations, faster ~roducrron,smaller
seam protrusion, and 100-pcrccnt weldcd-scam effic~cncy.Fabr~catorcof fus~on-ueldcd 1.4 DUCTILITY A N D YIELD STRENGTH
pipe followed somewhat the same inltial product~onsequences as for Lock-Bar Through
the 1930s and into the 1940s, 30-ft plates werc used By the 1950s. \omc firm$ had obtalncd Solid matcr~alscan he differentiated into two classes ductde and br~ttle In cnpneertng
4041 rolls, and a few formed 40-ft lengths in presses. yracrtcc, thctc twoclasscs must be treated diffcrcntl! hccauqe the! hehave diifrrentl> under
D u r ~ n gthe developtng dccadc of acldlng In the 1930s, a new approach was taken to load A duct~lemater~alexh~bltsa marked plastic deformat~onor flow at a fairly dcfinite
design stresses Prior to that timc, it had been common practtce to uork u ~ t ah safer\ factor
of4-to-l based on the tenstle strength As ucldcd p p e came Into prcdornmance. the concept
of uslng 50 prrccnt of the yicld became gcnerallv accepted
Spirally formed and welded plpc \vat de\cloped In the early 1930s and sac wed
extens~velyIn d~amctersfrom 4 In. through 36 In Welding uas b) the electrlc fucron
method After Vorid War 11, German machlncs werc ~ m p r t c dand , ~ubscquentl! domewc
ones w r c dc\eloped that could sprrally form and weld through dlamerer< of 144 In

1.2 USES
Steel water pipe meeting the rcquircmcntsofappropriatcAWWA standards has becn found
satisfactory for many applications, some of uhlch are as follows
Aqueducts Treatment-plant piping (F~gure1-1
Supply lines Self-supprr~ngspans
Transmiss~onmains Force mains
Distribution mains Circulating-water lines
Penstocks 'L-'ndcrwatcrcrossings, intakes. and outfalls
General data on some of the notable steel pipelines havc been p u b l i ~ h e d . ~Data
. ~ on
numerous orhcrs havc appcared in the3011rndAIl"lt"A and other periodicals, as well as in
many textbooks and engineering handbooks.

~h~ p,Oe,pan 01the Bouwel Ca-v@n

p r o l e ~ l LOS Angeles. IS 80-94on
In
d,amr~er. 3 PI' %atn ~nplate
t h , ~ k n ~an0~ sunder
. a marlmum
head 01 8.10 11

Figure 1-2 Welded-Steel

ripe Siphon Across Sdn
Franc~squ~roCanyon
 strcss h e 1 (yreld p r n t or yreld strength) and shows a convderable total elongat~on,stretch,
or plastic deformation before final breakage. With a hrittle matcrtal, the plastrcdeformarton
IS not well defined, and the ultimate elongat~onbefore breakage IS small. htild steel.such as I
rs used in stcel water prpe, is typical of the ductrle matertals. (The hehavtor of hrittle
ULTIMATE
materrals ulll not be examined in this manual.)
It is because of steel's ductrlity, its ability to yield or flcx but not break, that the
Bouquet Canyon ptpeline shown in Figures 1-2 and 1-3 still operates satisfactorily in 1963 PROPORTIONAL
after 50years ofscrvrce. It is ductility that all~~scomparatively thin-walled stcel pipe,even LIMIT FRACTURE 1
I
though decreased in vcrtrcal diamctcr 2-5 percent by earth pressures. to perform I
satisfactorily uhcn burred in deep trenches or undcr high fills, pronded the true rcqurred
strength has been tncorprated In the dcsrgn. It IS also because ofducrtlrry that stcel ptpe
with theoretically high localized stresses at flanges, saddles, supports. and lo~nt-harnesslug
connecttons has performed satisfactortly for many years.
Designers uho dctermrne stress using formulas based on Hooke'q law find that the
calculated results do not reflect the rntegriry exhibited by the structures ~llwtrarcdherc.
The reason for the dtscrepancy is that the con\.cntional formulas ap& only up to a certatn
stress level and not beyond. hlany eminently safe structures and parts ofstructures contarn
calculated stresses above rhrs levcl. A full undcrsranding of the performance of such
structures requires that thedesigner examine empirrcally the actual hehavror ofstccl as it IS
loaded from 7ero to the breakrng point.
The phystcal properties of steel (yield strength and ult~matctensile strength) used as
the basis for dcsign and purchase specifications are determined from tension tests made on a =- INCREASE LENGTH -
ORIGINALINLENGTH 0 02 04 0 6 0 8 10 1 2 1 4 16
standard specimen pulled In a tensile-testing machrne. The strcngth of ductile materials, in TRUE STRAIN PERCENT
terms of design, is defined by the yield strength as measured by the lou.eryreld pint,uhcre
one exists. orb! the American Society for Testrng and hlatcrials (ASTM)offsct yield s t r s , The change en shape ol the resl plece of steel. w h c h Vnhke convenltonal stress-stramcurves botn true stress
u here a yield potnt docs not exrst. For steel usually used in water pipe, the yield strength is occurred durmg the lest. 6 shown by the bars drawn and true stram have been calculated tor the curves shovm
under lhe curve
fixed by spcclficatron as the stressdue roa load causing a0.5-percent extension of the gaugc
length The potnt is shown in Figure 1-4. The yield strength of steel is consrdered to be the Figure 1-4 Stress-Strain Curve for Steel Figure 1-5 True Stress-Strain for Steel
same for enher tension or compression loads.
Ductility of stccl is measured as an elongation, or strctch, under a tension load rn a
tcsting machrnc. Elongatton is a meaturemcnr of change in length under rhe load and is the load by the actual cross-sectional area of the bar as it decreases in cross section under
expressed as a percentage of the origmal gauge lmgth of the test specimen. increasing load, it is found that the rruc stress never dccreascs. Figure 1-5 is a stress-strain
dragram on u hich both rruc stress and true strain have been plotted. Bccausc conventtonal
1.5 STRESS AND STRAIN stress-strain diagrams are used commercially, only conventional diagrams arc used for the
remainder of this discussion.
In engrneertng, stress is a figure obtained by dividing a load by an area. Strain is a length Figure 1-4 shous various parrs of a pure-tension stress-strain curw for steel such as
change. The relatron betuecn stress and strain, as shown on a stress-strarn dtagram. is of that used in uater utility pipe. Thcchange in shapcofthc test piece during the test 1s s h o w
h a w importance to the designer. by the ban drawn under thc curve. As the bar stretches. the cross 'Fcctron dccrcazes In area
A strecs-nram dlagram for any given material 1s a graph shoulng the strain (stretch p r up to the marimum tensile strcngth, at which point local reductron ofarea (ncckrng in) takes
unit of length) that occurs %henthe material is under a gwen load or stre5s. For example, place.
consrticr a har of steel hetng pulled in a testtng machrne with su~tahlernrtrumcntation for hlany t!pes of stcel used in construction havc stress-strarn diagrams of the general
measurrng the load and rndtcanng the drmcnstonal changes. W'hrlc the bar IS undcr load, it form shown in Figure 1-4, ahcreas many other types uted \tructurall> and for machtne
strctchcs. The change In length undcr load per untt oflcngth IS called strarn or unit strarn, it parts have much higher yield and ultimate strengths, with rcduccd ductrlity Still orhcr
is usually e\prc\\ed as pcrcenrage elonpatron or, rn stress analyst\, mrcrotnches (prn ) per useful engtncering stccls are qurtc brittle. In general, thc low-duct~lttystcclsmusr he used at
inch. u here I utn = 0 000 001 tn The values ofstratn are plotted along the hor~zontalarisof relative$ low strains, even though they may have hrgh strength.
the ttrcsc-\tram diagram For purposes of plotting, the load is converted rnto units ofstress Thc ascending hnc In the left-hand portion of the graph in frgurc 1-4 is warght or
(pounds per qitarc inch) b! divtd~ngthe load in pounds by the ortgtnal crorq-ccctional arca nearly stratght and has an easily rccognitcd s l o p w t h rc~pcctto thc vcrttcal airs The hrrak
ofthc bar rn q u a r r rnchc~The values ofstrcss are plotted along the verttcal axrs ofthe rn the slope of the curve is rathcr sudden. For this tyyc ofcurw, thc polnt uhcrc the C~rct
diagram Thc rc<ult I\ a con\cntronal strcss-strain dragram. dcvration from a strarght h e occurs marks the proportronal Imit of the stccl Thc \tcld
Ilccaitw the \!re<< plotred on the conventronal stress-strarn dragram I< ohtalncd hv wyngth h at %omch~ghcr'itrcsc Icvel h'carly all cngrnccrrng lormrrlas tntol\rnc w c \ c
L!I\ rdtnl: rhc h t i lv thc ortgrnal cros*-wtronal arca ofthr har. the vrew appear< to reach a cslculatron prcsuppo'ie a loadrn~such that uorkrnc \tre\w<,:r\ ~nlcirlatcd.u 111 hv hclou rhc
pc.A dritl then J I ~ I I I I \.I\! IthCInati rncrcaw I.(onr\cr.tl thc\trr\\ I, cahul.~tcdh \ tin ~ J t n g proportional lrmtt
 strcss h e 1 (yreld p r n t or yreld strength) and shows a convderable total elongat~on,stretch,
or plastic deformation before final breakage. With a hrittle matcrtal, the plastrcdeformarton
IS not well defined, and the ultimate elongat~onbefore breakage IS small. htild steel.such as I
rs used in stcel water prpe, is typical of the ductrle matertals. (The hehavtor of hrittle
ULTIMATE
materrals ulll not be examined in this manual.)
It is because of steel's ductrlity, its ability to yield or flcx but not break, that the
Bouquet Canyon ptpeline shown in Figures 1-2 and 1-3 still operates satisfactorily in 1963 PROPORTIONAL
after 50years ofscrvrce. It is ductility that all~~scomparatively thin-walled stcel pipe,even LIMIT FRACTURE 1
I
though decreased in vcrtrcal diamctcr 2-5 percent by earth pressures. to perform I
satisfactorily uhcn burred in deep trenches or undcr high fills, pronded the true rcqurred
strength has been tncorprated In the dcsrgn. It IS also because ofducrtlrry that stcel ptpe
with theoretically high localized stresses at flanges, saddles, supports. and lo~nt-harnesslug
connecttons has performed satisfactortly for many years.
Designers uho dctermrne stress using formulas based on Hooke'q law find that the
calculated results do not reflect the rntegriry exhibited by the structures ~llwtrarcdherc.
The reason for the dtscrepancy is that the con\.cntional formulas ap& only up to a certatn
stress level and not beyond. hlany eminently safe structures and parts ofstructures contarn
calculated stresses above rhrs levcl. A full undcrsranding of the performance of such
structures requires that thedesigner examine empirrcally the actual hehavror ofstccl as it IS
loaded from 7ero to the breakrng point.
The phystcal properties of steel (yield strength and ult~matctensile strength) used as
the basis for dcsign and purchase specifications are determined from tension tests made on a =- INCREASE LENGTH -
ORIGINALINLENGTH 0 02 04 0 6 0 8 10 1 2 1 4 16
standard specimen pulled In a tensile-testing machrne. The strcngth of ductile materials, in TRUE STRAIN PERCENT
terms of design, is defined by the yield strength as measured by the lou.eryreld pint,uhcre
one exists. orb! the American Society for Testrng and hlatcrials (ASTM)offsct yield s t r s , The change en shape ol the resl plece of steel. w h c h Vnhke convenltonal stress-stramcurves botn true stress
u here a yield potnt docs not exrst. For steel usually used in water pipe, the yield strength is occurred durmg the lest. 6 shown by the bars drawn and true stram have been calculated tor the curves shovm
under lhe curve
fixed by spcclficatron as the stressdue roa load causing a0.5-percent extension of the gaugc
length The potnt is shown in Figure 1-4. The yield strength of steel is consrdered to be the Figure 1-4 Stress-Strain Curve for Steel Figure 1-5 True Stress-Strain for Steel
same for enher tension or compression loads.
Ductility of stccl is measured as an elongation, or strctch, under a tension load rn a
tcsting machrnc. Elongatton is a meaturemcnr of change in length under rhe load and is the load by the actual cross-sectional area of the bar as it decreases in cross section under
expressed as a percentage of the origmal gauge lmgth of the test specimen. increasing load, it is found that the rruc stress never dccreascs. Figure 1-5 is a stress-strain
dragram on u hich both rruc stress and true strain have been plotted. Bccausc conventtonal
1.5 STRESS AND STRAIN stress-strain diagrams are used commercially, only conventional diagrams arc used for the
remainder of this discussion.
In engrneertng, stress is a figure obtained by dividing a load by an area. Strain is a length Figure 1-4 shous various parrs of a pure-tension stress-strain curw for steel such as
change. The relatron betuecn stress and strain, as shown on a stress-strarn dtagram. is of that used in uater utility pipe. Thcchange in shapcofthc test piece during the test 1s s h o w
h a w importance to the designer. by the ban drawn under thc curve. As the bar stretches. the cross 'Fcctron dccrcazes In area
A strecs-nram dlagram for any given material 1s a graph shoulng the strain (stretch p r up to the marimum tensile strcngth, at which point local reductron ofarea (ncckrng in) takes
unit of length) that occurs %henthe material is under a gwen load or stre5s. For example, place.
consrticr a har of steel hetng pulled in a testtng machrne with su~tahlernrtrumcntation for hlany t!pes of stcel used in construction havc stress-strarn diagrams of the general
measurrng the load and rndtcanng the drmcnstonal changes. W'hrlc the bar IS undcr load, it form shown in Figure 1-4, ahcreas many other types uted \tructurall> and for machtne
strctchcs. The change In length undcr load per untt oflcngth IS called strarn or unit strarn, it parts have much higher yield and ultimate strengths, with rcduccd ductrlity Still orhcr
is usually e\prc\\ed as pcrcenrage elonpatron or, rn stress analyst\, mrcrotnches (prn ) per useful engtncering stccls are qurtc brittle. In general, thc low-duct~lttystcclsmusr he used at
inch. u here I utn = 0 000 001 tn The values ofstratn are plotted along the hor~zontalarisof relative$ low strains, even though they may have hrgh strength.
the ttrcsc-\tram diagram For purposes of plotting, the load is converted rnto units ofstress Thc ascending hnc In the left-hand portion of the graph in frgurc 1-4 is warght or
(pounds per qitarc inch) b! divtd~ngthe load in pounds by the ortgtnal crorq-ccctional arca nearly stratght and has an easily rccognitcd s l o p w t h rc~pcctto thc vcrttcal airs The hrrak
ofthc bar rn q u a r r rnchc~The values ofstrcss are plotted along the verttcal axrs ofthe rn the slope of the curve is rathcr sudden. For this tyyc ofcurw, thc polnt uhcrc the C~rct
diagram Thc rc<ult I\ a con\cntronal strcss-strain dragram. dcvration from a strarght h e occurs marks the proportronal Imit of the stccl Thc \tcld
Ilccaitw the \!re<< plotred on the conventronal stress-strarn dragram I< ohtalncd hv wyngth h at %omch~ghcr'itrcsc Icvel h'carly all cngrnccrrng lormrrlas tntol\rnc w c \ c
L!I\ rdtnl: rhc h t i lv thc ortgrnal cros*-wtronal arca ofthr har. the vrew appear< to reach a cslculatron prcsuppo'ie a loadrn~such that uorkrnc \tre\w<,:r\ ~nlcirlatcd.u 111 hv hclou rhc
pc.A dritl then J I ~ I I I I \.I\! IthCInati rncrcaw I.(onr\cr.tl thc\trr\\ I, cahul.~tcdh \ tin ~ J t n g proportional lrmtt
 6 STEEL I'IPE HISTORY. 1'SI:S. PH) S1( bL CHARAlTERIS1'ICS 7

Strcsscb and strains that fall bclou.thc proporttonal lim~t-that I\. thore that fallon the APPARENT
stra~ghtportlon of thc asccndlng Itnc-arc s a d to bc In the ela\uc range. Stccl structures
loaded to create strcsscs or strams withrn the clastic r a n g rcturn prccl\cly to thc~rorlginal
length whcn the load is rcmovcd. Exccptions niayoccur with ccrtnin klndc and condlt~onsof ACTUAL
loadtng not usually encountered in water uttlity installations. With~nt h ~ srange, strcss STRESS
increases in direct proportion to strain.
The modulus of elasticrt!., as commonly defined, is the slope of thc ascending straight
portion of the stress-stram dlagram. Thc modulus of clastlctty of stccl IS about 30 000 000
pst, which means that for each increment of load that creates a strain orwctch of 1ptn. per
inch of length, a strcss of 3Opst is imposed on thcstcclcross section (30 000 0 0 0 0~ 000 001 = 1 t
V)
W
V)

30). "8 a
I-
V)
E
Immcd~atelyabove the proporttonal limit, between it and thc 0 5-percent cxtcnclon-
under-load yicld strength of the material (Figure 1-4) lies a portton of the strew-strain
dragram that may be termed thc elast~c-plasticr a n g of the matcrtal. 'l'ypaal strcss-stratn
curses u ~ t ht h ~ portion
s magnlfied arc shoun In Figurc 1-6 for two grades of carbon steel I 1
1 i
I ELASTIC
used for uatcr pipe. Electrtc-resistance stratn gauges provtdc a means of studytnp the
clast~c-plastic segment of the curve. Thc5e and associated ~nstrumcntsallow mlnutc
exammarlon of the shape of the curve in a manner not pssthlc bcforc thcir dcvclopmcnt.
The elastic-plasttc rangc is becoming increasingly important to the dcsrgncr.
inwst~gationof this range was necessary, for example, to dctcrmlne and cxplam the TOTAL STRAIN
successful functionmg of thin stccl flanges on thin steel . pipe..' STRAIN-+ STRAIN-
. Designs that load steel to
within the elastic-plastic range are safc only for certain types of apparatus, structures, or
parts of structures. For example, designing within this range is safc for the hinse - wints
. or
yicld hinges In steel ring flanges on stcel pipe, for hinge points in structurcs whcre local
11 the total smon #sm~lllplfed by the modulus of When the total measured steam IS known the actual $tress can
yielding or relaxation of srrcss must occur, and for bending in thc wall of p i p undcr earth elasr~c~ty. the stress delermmed by use ol a be delermtned by use of the stress-stram curve
load In trenchcs or undcr high fills. It is not safe to rely on performance with~nthis rangc to lormula based on Hooke's law IS l~cl~l*ous
handle princtpal tcnslon stress in the ueallsof pipe or pressure ves~clsor to rcly on such Figure 1-8 Actual and Apparent Figure 1-9 Determinarion of Actual Stress
Stresses

prformance in other situations whcre the accompanytng deformation is unconrrolled or

cannot k tolerated.
Figurc 1-7 s h o u ~the elastic and plastic portions of a stress-strain curve for a steel
stressed to a given level. Figure 1-8 shows graphically hou a completely fictitious stress is

t
U)
W
determined by a formula based on Hooke's law, if the total strain IS multiplrcd by the
modulus of elasticity. The actual strers IS dctcrmincd using only the clasttc srrarn with the
modulus of elasticity, but there is at present no way to separate theorettcally the elastic and
plastic strains in a strucrure. The only altcrnati\.e is to take the total measured strain as
I-
Indicated by strain g a u p s and then determine the actual strcss from the stress-strain curve,
as shown in Figurc 1-9.

1.6 STRAIN IN DESIGN

Analysis of a structure bccomes more complete when considered in ~ e r mof s strain as well as
,PLASTIC ELASTIC
STRAIN 'STRAIN t
5mrlN
strcss. For example, it has long been knoun that apparent stresses calculated using classic
OOW1 OW3 0005 OW7 C formulas based on the theory ofelasticity are greatly in crror at hinge-pint stress levels. The
STRAIN IN 'IN
+TOTAL STRAIN& magnitude of this crror near the yield-strength strcss is demonctrated in thc ncxt paragraph,
u here the classically calculated result is compared wnh the measured performance.
The curves show Ihp dasllc-D1asltcrilnae lot IWC graaes Shown are the elasllc and plasl~c~ortions01 a By definition, the yield-strength load of a steel spccrmcn 15 that load which causes
01 carbon strcl Sltcss-stram Curve lor a slecl slfes~ed
10 a gncn lcrcl a 0 5-percent entenston of the gauge length. As wac tnd~cateilrn an carller paragraph, in
figure 1-6 Stress-Strain Curves for Carbon figure 1-7 Plastic and Elastic Strains the clartic range a stress of 30 psi IS tmpotcd on thc cro+\crt~onal arca for cach mlcrolnch-
Steel pcr-~nchtncrca- In lcnpth undcr load R c ~ a u wan cxlcnwm olO.5 pcrccnt corrc~yondsto
 6 STEEL I'IPE HISTORY. 1'SI:S. PH) S1( bL CHARAlTERIS1'ICS 7

Strcsscb and strains that fall bclou.thc proporttonal lim~t-that I\. thore that fallon the APPARENT
stra~ghtportlon of thc asccndlng Itnc-arc s a d to bc In the ela\uc range. Stccl structures
loaded to create strcsscs or strams withrn the clastic r a n g rcturn prccl\cly to thc~rorlginal
length whcn the load is rcmovcd. Exccptions niayoccur with ccrtnin klndc and condlt~onsof ACTUAL
loadtng not usually encountered in water uttlity installations. With~nt h ~ srange, strcss STRESS
increases in direct proportion to strain.
The modulus of elasticrt!., as commonly defined, is the slope of thc ascending straight
portion of the stress-stram dlagram. Thc modulus of clastlctty of stccl IS about 30 000 000
pst, which means that for each increment of load that creates a strain orwctch of 1ptn. per
inch of length, a strcss of 3Opst is imposed on thcstcclcross section (30 000 0 0 0 0~ 000 001 = 1 t
V)
W
V)

30). "8 a
I-
V)
E
Immcd~atelyabove the proporttonal limit, between it and thc 0 5-percent cxtcnclon-
under-load yicld strength of the material (Figure 1-4) lies a portton of the strew-strain
dragram that may be termed thc elast~c-plasticr a n g of the matcrtal. 'l'ypaal strcss-stratn
curses u ~ t ht h ~ portion
s magnlfied arc shoun In Figurc 1-6 for two grades of carbon steel I 1
1 i
I ELASTIC
used for uatcr pipe. Electrtc-resistance stratn gauges provtdc a means of studytnp the
clast~c-plastic segment of the curve. Thc5e and associated ~nstrumcntsallow mlnutc
exammarlon of the shape of the curve in a manner not pssthlc bcforc thcir dcvclopmcnt.
The elastic-plasttc rangc is becoming increasingly important to the dcsrgncr.
inwst~gationof this range was necessary, for example, to dctcrmlne and cxplam the TOTAL STRAIN
successful functionmg of thin stccl flanges on thin steel . pipe..' STRAIN-+ STRAIN-
. Designs that load steel to
within the elastic-plastic range are safc only for certain types of apparatus, structures, or
parts of structures. For example, designing within this range is safc for the hinse - wints
. or
yicld hinges In steel ring flanges on stcel pipe, for hinge points in structurcs whcre local
11 the total smon #sm~lllplfed by the modulus of When the total measured steam IS known the actual $tress can
yielding or relaxation of srrcss must occur, and for bending in thc wall of p i p undcr earth elasr~c~ty. the stress delermmed by use ol a be delermtned by use of the stress-stram curve
load In trenchcs or undcr high fills. It is not safe to rely on performance with~nthis rangc to lormula based on Hooke's law IS l~cl~l*ous
handle princtpal tcnslon stress in the ueallsof pipe or pressure ves~clsor to rcly on such Figure 1-8 Actual and Apparent Figure 1-9 Determinarion of Actual Stress
Stresses

prformance in other situations whcre the accompanytng deformation is unconrrolled or

cannot k tolerated.
Figurc 1-7 s h o u ~the elastic and plastic portions of a stress-strain curve for a steel
stressed to a given level. Figure 1-8 shows graphically hou a completely fictitious stress is

t
U)
W
determined by a formula based on Hooke's law, if the total strain IS multiplrcd by the
modulus of elasticity. The actual strers IS dctcrmincd using only the clasttc srrarn with the
modulus of elasticity, but there is at present no way to separate theorettcally the elastic and
plastic strains in a strucrure. The only altcrnati\.e is to take the total measured strain as
I-
Indicated by strain g a u p s and then determine the actual strcss from the stress-strain curve,
as shown in Figurc 1-9.

1.6 STRAIN IN DESIGN

Analysis of a structure bccomes more complete when considered in ~ e r mof s strain as well as
,PLASTIC ELASTIC
STRAIN 'STRAIN t
5mrlN
strcss. For example, it has long been knoun that apparent stresses calculated using classic
OOW1 OW3 0005 OW7 C formulas based on the theory ofelasticity are greatly in crror at hinge-pint stress levels. The
STRAIN IN 'IN
+TOTAL STRAIN& magnitude of this crror near the yield-strength strcss is demonctrated in thc ncxt paragraph,
u here the classically calculated result is compared wnh the measured performance.
The curves show Ihp dasllc-D1asltcrilnae lot IWC graaes Shown are the elasllc and plasl~c~ortions01 a By definition, the yield-strength load of a steel spccrmcn 15 that load which causes
01 carbon strcl Sltcss-stram Curve lor a slecl slfes~ed
10 a gncn lcrcl a 0 5-percent entenston of the gauge length. As wac tnd~cateilrn an carller paragraph, in
figure 1-6 Stress-Strain Curves for Carbon figure 1-7 Plastic and Elastic Strains the clartic range a stress of 30 psi IS tmpotcd on thc cro+\crt~onal arca for cach mlcrolnch-
Steel pcr-~nchtncrca- In lcnpth undcr load R c ~ a u wan cxlcnwm olO.5 pcrccnt corrc~yondsto
 .
WOO vrn /In the calcularcd Md-rtrrnprh strcss 1s 5000 x 30 = 150 000 p s ~The measured
rcld-\trcngth \[re\\, houc\cr, 1s on thc order of30 000-35 000 p r ~ , o rahout onc fourth of
thc cnlcul~tcd\tre\r.
Srmtlarly tarred results hctwccn strain and strcss analyses occuru hcn the prrformance
of ctccl at 115 ylcld wcngth IS compared to thc performance ofitc ultlmatc strcngth There is
a grcat d~ffercnccIn strain hcruwn the y d d rtrcngth of l o r - or mcd~um-carbonsteel at
0 5-pcrccnt cxtcnsion under load and thc spec~ficdultimate strcngth at 30-percent
clongatton, a dffcrcncc u'h~chhas a decidcd bcaring on design safety. The specified yield
strength corresponds to a stram of 5000 p~n./in. T o pass the spccrfication rcquiremcnt of
30-pcrccnt clongatlon, the warn at ultimate strength must he not less than 0.3 in./rn.. or
300 000p1n /In Thc ratloofstra~nat ult~matcstrcngth to stram at yrcld rtrcngth, rhcrcfore,
19 300000 5000, or 60.1. On a strcts hasis, from the strecs-<tram d~agram.the ratlo of
ulrimatc strcngth to ywld wength 1s 50 000.30 0(10, or only I .67:1.
Actually, mild stcclr such as those uscd rn warcrworks pipe show nearly linear
strcsr-<tram dragrams up to thc yeld Icccl, alter w h ~ c hs t r a m of 10 to 20 tames the
clasttc-y~cldstram occur w ~ t hno rncrcax In actual load. T c u s on holt bchavror undcr
tenwon substantrate this effcct,' and the a h r l q of bolts to hold recurcly and cafcly when
thcy arc drann Into the rcglon of thc t ~ c l despecially
, undcr vrbratron cond~tions.1s cavl!
c\pla~ncdhy thc w a i n conccpt but nor by thc rtrecs conccpt. The holts act somewhat lrkc
0 0 001 0 002 0 003 0 004
c\trcmcly sttff sprrngs at the !reld-wcngth lcvcl
STRAIN. IN./IN.

1.7 ANALYSIS BASED ON STRAIN

In some structures and in many welded assemblies, there are conditions that permit initial The proporl,onal Irmtt P I. srtams tn bendbng are 1 52 llmes lhose In lenslon lor the same malertal
adjustment ofstrain to working load hut limit thcaction automatically,cithcrhecauseofthc Figure 1-10 Experimental Determination of Strain Characteristics
nature of thc loading or hecause of the mechanics of the azscmhly. Esamplcs arc.
rcspect~vcly,plpe under earth load and stccl flanges on stccl pipe. In these instances.
hcnd~ngstrcsscs may bc in the rcgion of yield, hut deformation ir limitcd. Table 1-1 Maximum Strain in Pipe Wail Developed in Practice
In bending, thcre are thrce dist~nguishahlephases through wh~cha mcmhcr passes -- --

whcn hcing loadcd from zero to failure. In the first phasc, all fihers undergo strain less than Opcrarlnp Prcswrc .\lax Stnin
the proportional limit in a uniaxial stress field. In this phase, a structure will act in a Standard Flan~c PI ptn /I*.
completely elastic fashion, to which the classrc laws of stress and strain are applicable. A i5 1550-3900
In the second phasc, someof the fibcrs undcrgo s t r ~ i ngreater than the proporttonalor 150 2*M)-4hSO
clastic limit of the material in a un~axlalstress field, hut a more predominant portion of the
libcrs undcrgo strain less than thc proportronal limit. so that the structure cnll acts in an
esscntrally clastic manncr. T h e c l a c k formulas for stress do not apply.but thc stralns can be
adcquarcly dcfincd in this pharc.
In the third phasc, the fiher strams are prcJom~nantlygreater than thc clastrc llmrt of
thc marcrial rn a uniasral stress field. C'ndcr thcsc condrtions, thc structure as a uhole no pond hackground against r\ h ~ c hto make calculations. The flanges ranged from 4 tn through
longcr acts in an clast~cmanncr. Thc rhcory and formulas applicable in rhir phasc arc hcmg 96 in in rilamcter Calcularions w r c made to dctcrmmc the w a i n that ~ o u l occur
d m the
dc\~clopedhut harc not yet rcachcd a < t a p ahcre thcy can hc gcncrall! used. pipe aall adlaccnt to the flanges. Tahlc 1-1 5hows the recultc.
An c\pcrrmcntal dcrcrm~nar~on of <tram characrcr~wcrrn hcndlng and tcnvon was Sore from the tahie that, In practice, the ltmrtlng \tram uas always hclotc thc
made on mcd~um-carhonstccl wnrlar to that rcqurrcd by AW'R'A C200, Standard for Stcel commonly rccogn17ed !reld-strength w a i n ol 5000 pln /rn. hut d ~ dapproach 11 qurtc
Water Plpc 6 lnchcs and Largcr"e~u1ts arc rhown In Figurc 1-10. Kotc that the clowl! rn at Ica<t onc instance. All of thcsc flange\ arc ~uffic~cnrl!
ratl\factory, howtcr, to
proport~nnal-11m1t \trains In hcndlng arc 1 52 rmes those in tcnslon for thc rarne matcr~al uarrant thc~rcontlnucd u\c hy dcsigncrs.
hlnrcn\cr, thc sprclmcn rn bcndlng rhoucd fully clasttc behavior at a stram of 1750p1n /m., Thc Idea of dcslgnmg a itrucrurc on the hasis ofult~marcload capacity from tcst data
Nh ~ c hcorrcrpondr to acalculatcd w c s s of52 iOOprr(I7iOx 30= 52 500) whcn rhc modulur rather than enttrely on alloaahle strcss is simply a rcturn to an crnplrical point of cicw. a
ofclawc~tyI5 used ' h c \prcrmcnr \icrc taken from marcr~alhav~npan actual \ lcld of39 000 potnt of rcu that carlyeng~nccrswerc ohligcd to acccrt In thc ahscncc of knnalcd~cofthc
psi Thcrcfiirc, thlr rtccl could hc loadcd In hcndmg to producc rtrarnt up to 1750 pin /In mathcmatlcs and rratics necessary to calculate r t r e w x The rcccnt dc\clopmcnt or
and \t~llpos\cr\ full clawc heha\ lor mathcmat~calproccsrcs for w c s s analysis has, In \omc ln<canccs. o\crcmphawcd thc
Srrcl rlrrg Ilntipc\ madcnl plate and Irllrt \rrlJrJ rrtrlpc a ~ t tacomparatr\cl\
i t h ~ n\\all ~lnportanccof \trc\\ and unJcrcmpha\~/ed the Intlwrrdncc 01 the u\cr.tll \rrcn~rliof a
1 ~ I I ~ L C ~ ~ lI o~r I nrani
h,r\c h ~ 1 11ted ~ ! \ r c . r r \ 111 n r i ~rt vr8 !LC. a n ~ lI ~ I e\pcrlrticr
\ Iornh a rtrum~rr
 .
WOO vrn /In the calcularcd Md-rtrrnprh strcss 1s 5000 x 30 = 150 000 p s ~The measured
rcld-\trcngth \[re\\, houc\cr, 1s on thc order of30 000-35 000 p r ~ , o rahout onc fourth of
thc cnlcul~tcd\tre\r.
Srmtlarly tarred results hctwccn strain and strcss analyses occuru hcn the prrformance
of ctccl at 115 ylcld wcngth IS compared to thc performance ofitc ultlmatc strcngth There is
a grcat d~ffercnccIn strain hcruwn the y d d rtrcngth of l o r - or mcd~um-carbonsteel at
0 5-pcrccnt cxtcnsion under load and thc spec~ficdultimate strcngth at 30-percent
clongatton, a dffcrcncc u'h~chhas a decidcd bcaring on design safety. The specified yield
strength corresponds to a stram of 5000 p~n./in. T o pass the spccrfication rcquiremcnt of
30-pcrccnt clongatlon, the warn at ultimate strength must he not less than 0.3 in./rn.. or
300 000p1n /In Thc ratloofstra~nat ult~matcstrcngth to stram at yrcld rtrcngth, rhcrcfore,
19 300000 5000, or 60.1. On a strcts hasis, from the strecs-<tram d~agram.the ratlo of
ulrimatc strcngth to ywld wength 1s 50 000.30 0(10, or only I .67:1.
Actually, mild stcclr such as those uscd rn warcrworks pipe show nearly linear
strcsr-<tram dragrams up to thc yeld Icccl, alter w h ~ c hs t r a m of 10 to 20 tames the
clasttc-y~cldstram occur w ~ t hno rncrcax In actual load. T c u s on holt bchavror undcr
tenwon substantrate this effcct,' and the a h r l q of bolts to hold recurcly and cafcly when
thcy arc drann Into the rcglon of thc t ~ c l despecially
, undcr vrbratron cond~tions.1s cavl!
c\pla~ncdhy thc w a i n conccpt but nor by thc rtrecs conccpt. The holts act somewhat lrkc
0 0 001 0 002 0 003 0 004
c\trcmcly sttff sprrngs at the !reld-wcngth lcvcl
STRAIN. IN./IN.

1.7 ANALYSIS BASED ON STRAIN

In some structures and in many welded assemblies, there are conditions that permit initial The proporl,onal Irmtt P I. srtams tn bendbng are 1 52 llmes lhose In lenslon lor the same malertal
adjustment ofstrain to working load hut limit thcaction automatically,cithcrhecauseofthc Figure 1-10 Experimental Determination of Strain Characteristics
nature of thc loading or hecause of the mechanics of the azscmhly. Esamplcs arc.
rcspect~vcly,plpe under earth load and stccl flanges on stccl pipe. In these instances.
hcnd~ngstrcsscs may bc in the rcgion of yield, hut deformation ir limitcd. Table 1-1 Maximum Strain in Pipe Wail Developed in Practice
In bending, thcre are thrce dist~nguishahlephases through wh~cha mcmhcr passes -- --

whcn hcing loadcd from zero to failure. In the first phasc, all fihers undergo strain less than Opcrarlnp Prcswrc .\lax Stnin
the proportional limit in a uniaxial stress field. In this phase, a structure will act in a Standard Flan~c PI ptn /I*.
completely elastic fashion, to which the classrc laws of stress and strain are applicable. A i5 1550-3900
In the second phasc, someof the fibcrs undcrgo s t r ~ i ngreater than the proporttonalor 150 2*M)-4hSO
clastic limit of the material in a un~axlalstress field, hut a more predominant portion of the
libcrs undcrgo strain less than thc proportronal limit. so that the structure cnll acts in an
esscntrally clastic manncr. T h e c l a c k formulas for stress do not apply.but thc stralns can be
adcquarcly dcfincd in this pharc.
In the third phasc, the fiher strams are prcJom~nantlygreater than thc clastrc llmrt of
thc marcrial rn a uniasral stress field. C'ndcr thcsc condrtions, thc structure as a uhole no pond hackground against r\ h ~ c hto make calculations. The flanges ranged from 4 tn through
longcr acts in an clast~cmanncr. Thc rhcory and formulas applicable in rhir phasc arc hcmg 96 in in rilamcter Calcularions w r c made to dctcrmmc the w a i n that ~ o u l occur
d m the
dc\~clopedhut harc not yet rcachcd a < t a p ahcre thcy can hc gcncrall! used. pipe aall adlaccnt to the flanges. Tahlc 1-1 5hows the recultc.
An c\pcrrmcntal dcrcrm~nar~on of <tram characrcr~wcrrn hcndlng and tcnvon was Sore from the tahie that, In practice, the ltmrtlng \tram uas always hclotc thc
made on mcd~um-carhonstccl wnrlar to that rcqurrcd by AW'R'A C200, Standard for Stcel commonly rccogn17ed !reld-strength w a i n ol 5000 pln /rn. hut d ~ dapproach 11 qurtc
Water Plpc 6 lnchcs and Largcr"e~u1ts arc rhown In Figurc 1-10. Kotc that the clowl! rn at Ica<t onc instance. All of thcsc flange\ arc ~uffic~cnrl!
ratl\factory, howtcr, to
proport~nnal-11m1t \trains In hcndlng arc 1 52 rmes those in tcnslon for thc rarne matcr~al uarrant thc~rcontlnucd u\c hy dcsigncrs.
hlnrcn\cr, thc sprclmcn rn bcndlng rhoucd fully clasttc behavior at a stram of 1750p1n /m., Thc Idea of dcslgnmg a itrucrurc on the hasis ofult~marcload capacity from tcst data
Nh ~ c hcorrcrpondr to acalculatcd w c s s of52 iOOprr(I7iOx 30= 52 500) whcn rhc modulur rather than enttrely on alloaahle strcss is simply a rcturn to an crnplrical point of cicw. a
ofclawc~tyI5 used ' h c \prcrmcnr \icrc taken from marcr~alhav~npan actual \ lcld of39 000 potnt of rcu that carlyeng~nccrswerc ohligcd to acccrt In thc ahscncc of knnalcd~cofthc
psi Thcrcfiirc, thlr rtccl could hc loadcd In hcndmg to producc rtrarnt up to 1750 pin /In mathcmatlcs and rratics necessary to calculate r t r e w x The rcccnt dc\clopmcnt or
and \t~llpos\cr\ full clawc heha\ lor mathcmat~calproccsrcs for w c s s analysis has, In \omc ln<canccs. o\crcmphawcd thc
Srrcl rlrrg Ilntipc\ madcnl plate and Irllrt \rrlJrJ rrtrlpc a ~ t tacomparatr\cl\
i t h ~ n\\all ~lnportanccof \trc\\ and unJcrcmpha\~/ed the Intlwrrdncc 01 the u\cr.tll \rrcn~rliof a
1 ~ I I ~ L C ~ ~ lI o~r I nrani
h,r\c h ~ 1 11ted ~ ! \ r c . r r \ 111 n r i ~rt vr8 !LC. a n ~ lI ~ I e\pcrlrticr
\ Iornh a rtrum~rr
 1.8 DUCTILITY IN DESIGN

c T I c RANGE INELASTIC RANGE

I t PLASTIC RANGE I

I -
STRAIN-HARDENING RANGE

RESIDUAL DUCTILITY AFTER DEFORMATION WITHIN

PLASTIC RANGE

I DUCTILITY OF VIRGIN MATERIAL

NoT.~,.amlssc~m,l.,..ml,,,,. .I
Source Bicckenbrough R L b Johnston. B G US5 Steel Dssogn Manual ADUSS 27-3rW.M US Steel Corr, P,rtrbvrgh Pa (Jan r-7 I

Figure 1-11 Effects of Strain Hardening

1.9 EFFECTS OF COLD WORKING O N STRENGTH
AND DUCTILITY
I INCREASE I N TENSILE STRENGTH
FROM STRAIN A q N G

SOWCP OlhCW~b~OorOQ
R1 6 JC*nslo* B G US< S I w I 0*%10nManual AL>U\S 77 3 4 N l . J 1 *< 11.c I ( 1r.13 I trs! ,OF 0. J..'

Figure 1-12 Effects of Stram Aging

 1.8 DUCTILITY IN DESIGN

c T I c RANGE INELASTIC RANGE

I t PLASTIC RANGE I

I -
STRAIN-HARDENING RANGE

RESIDUAL DUCTILITY AFTER DEFORMATION WITHIN

PLASTIC RANGE

I DUCTILITY OF VIRGIN MATERIAL

NoT.~,.amlssc~m,l.,..ml,,,,. .I
Source Bicckenbrough R L b Johnston. B G US5 Steel Dssogn Manual ADUSS 27-3rW.M US Steel Corr, P,rtrbvrgh Pa (Jan r-7 I

Figure 1-11 Effects of Strain Hardening

1.9 EFFECTS OF COLD WORKING O N STRENGTH
AND DUCTILITY
I INCREASE I N TENSILE STRENGTH
FROM STRAIN A q N G

SOWCP OlhCW~b~OorOQ
R1 6 JC*nslo* B G US< S I w I 0*%10nManual AL>U\S 77 3 4 N l . J 1 *< 11.c I ( 1r.13 I trs! ,OF 0. J..'

Figure 1-12 Effects of Stram Aging

 indrcated In Figure 1-11, the decrease In ductllrty IS approximately cqual to thc amount of
~nelasttcprewarn.
A steel specimcn that has been strained into thestrain-hardming range, unloadcd,and
allowed to age for several days at room temperature (or for a much shorter trmc at a
moderately elevated tcmperaturc) will tend to follow the path indicated in Frgure 1-12
during rcl~adlng.'~ Thts phenomenon, known as strain aging, has the effect of ~ncrcasing
yield and tensile strength while dccrcasing ductility."
The effects of cold work on the strength and ductility of the structural steels can bc
eliminated largely by thermal stress relief, or annealing. Such trcatmcnt IS not always
po~srble;forrunately, it IS not often necessary.
1.10 BRITTLE FRACTURE CONSIDERATlONS IN
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
General Considerations
As temperature decreases, an Increase IS generally noted in the yield strcss, tens~lestrength,
modulus ofelarttctty. and fatrguc strength of the plate steels.* In contrast, the ductrlttyof
these steels, as measured by rcductron tn area or hy elongation undcr load, dccrcascs with
decreasing temperatures. Furthermore, there is a tcmperature below which a structural
steel subjected to tensile stresscs may fracture by cleavage, with little or no plastic
deformation, rather than hy shear, whlch is usually preceded by a considerable amount of
plasrrc deformation or yte1ding.t
Fracture that occun by cleavage at a nominal tensilcstrcss bclow the yield stress is
commonl! rcfcrred to as brittle fracturc. Generally, a brittle fracture can occur when there is
a sufficrently adverse combmation of tensrlc stress, tcmprature strain ratc,and geometr~cal
disconrtnu~ty(such as a notch) present. Other destgn and fabrication factors may also have
an important ~nflucnce.Because ofthc interrelation of these effects, the exact combination
of <tress, tcmperature, notch, and other conditions that will cause brrttle fracturc in agivcn
structure cannot bc readily calculared. Consequently, designing against brittle fracture
often consrsts mainly of avolding conditions that tcnd tocause brittle fracture and selectingr
steel appropriate for the application. A discussion of these factors is given in the following
Paragraphs. References 12, 13, 14, and IS cover the subject in much more detail.
Fracture mechanics offers a morc dircct approach for prediction of crack propagation.
For this analysrs tt is assumed that an internal imperfection idealized as acrackis present in
the structure Bvlinear-elastic stress analysis and laboratory testson precrackcd specimens,
the applied %tressthat wrll causc rapid crack propagation is related to the size of the
imperfection The ap~hcarlonof fracture mechanics has become increasingly useful in
developing a fracture-control plan and establishing, on a rational basis, the intcrrclatcd
requirements of matertal selection, design stress level, fabrication, and inspection
requirements."
Conditions Causing Brittle ~racture
Plastic dcformatron can occur only rn the presence of shear stresses Shear stresscs are
allray* prcscnt rn a unraxral or a blaxral star'c ofstress. However, in a trtaxlal5tate of strcss,
thc ma\rmum \hear strerr approaches zero as the principal stresses approach a common
valuc. A\ a result, under equal trtaxtal tenstle stresses, fa~lureoccursb\ clcavagc rathcr than
b\ shear Consequently, trtaxral tenrtlc stresses tend to causc brittle fracture and should be
a\oldcd As d~scussedtn the followtng matertal, a trtaxtal state of stre% can rcsult from a
uniaxral loading when notches or geomerr~caldiscontrnuities arc present.
If a transversely notched bar is subjected to a long~tudinaltensrle force, the stress
concentratton effect of the notch causes high longitudtnal tensrle stresscs at the apex ofthe
notch and lower longitudtnal stresses in adjacent material. The lateral contraction In the
urdth and thrckncss dircctton of the hrghly stressed material at the apex of the notch IS
restrained by the smaller lateral contraction of the lo- :r stressed material. Thus, in additron
to thc long~tudrnaltcnstlc stresscs, tensile stresses are created m the width and th~ckness
d~rcctions,so that a trtaxral state of stress is prcsent near the apex of the notch
The effect ofa gcomctrrcal drscontlnuity in a structure is generally stmrlar to, although
not nccersartly as severe as, the effect of the notch in thc bar. Examples of geometrical
.I~scont~nutttessomettmes found tnclude poor desrgn detarls (such as abrupt changes In
iross sectton, attachment welds on components in tcncton, and square-cornered cutouts)
and fabrtcatton flaws (such as weld cracks, undercuts. arc strrkes, and scars from chrpptng
hamrncrc)
Increased strain rates tend to Increase the poss~htlity of brtttie hehavior. Thus,
.trucrures that are loaded at fast rates are more susccptrble to brittle fracturc Honcter, a
rapld strain rate or Impact load is not a requ~redcond~nonfor a brittlc fracture.
Cold work, and the strain aging that normally follows, generally incrcascs the
lrkelthood of brittle fractures. This behavior is usually attributed to the previously
mentioned reduction in ductility. The effect of cold work that occun in cold-formrng
oprat~onscan bc minimized by selecting a generous forming radius, thus limit~ngthc
amount of strain. The amount of strain that can be tolerated depends on both the steel and
the application. A morc severe hut quite localized type of cold work is that which occurs at
the edges of punched holcs or at shcarcd edges. This effect can he essenriall~climinatcd for
holcs by drtlling inctead of punchtng or by reaming after punching; for shearcd edges. It can
be elrmtnatcd by machtntng or grinding. Severe hammer hlo\v%may also produce enough
cold work to locally reduce the toughness of the steel.
When tensile residual srrcsses arc present, such as those resulting from wcldrng, they
add to any applied tenstle strcss, rcsultrng in the actual tensrle stress in the mcmbcr berng
ercatcr than the applied stress. Consequently, the likelihoodof brittle fracture in a structure
that contatns hrgh rcsldual stresses may be mtnimtzed b!. a postweld heat treatment. The
Jecrsion to use a post\vcld hcat trcatment should be made wrth assurance that the
anrrciparcd benefits are needed and wtll be rcalrzed. and that possible harmful effects can be
tolcrarrd. hlany modern stccls for uelded constructron are designed to he used In the less
costly as-welded condttron uhcn powhle. The soundne\s and mechanical propcrttes of
~veldcdlotnts In some stccls may be advcrccly affected hy a postweld hcat treatment.
Wcldtng may also contrrbutc to the prohlcm of brtttle fracture by introducing notches
and flaw rnto a structurc and by caucrng an unfavorahle change In mrcrostrucrurc of the
base mctal Such detrimental cffcctr can he m1n1m17cdbv properly des~gntngueldr. taktng
care In 'clecttng thcrr locat~on,and urtng good \vcldrng practrce. The proper clectrodc must
be xlectcd so that the weld mctal w~llhe as rcslrrant to hrtttlc Cracture a< the haw mctal
Charpy V-Notch Impact Test
Some steels wtll sustatn more adverse tcmperaturc, notch, and loading condttlons w~thout
fracture than wtll othcr stccls. Numcrou\ tests have heen dc\clopcd tncvaluntc and asstgn a
numcrrcal valuc tndicating the rclatne suwptthrl~trol stcclt to hrrttle fracturc Each of
there tccrr can c<tahl~\hatth ccrtatnt! onl! the rclat~vc~ucccptrhtlrt! to brrt~lcfracturc
undcr the part,cular condtnonr in rhr tcrt; ho\\c\cr. wmc tc\t\ prov~dca mcanmgful putdc
ro the rc!att\e performance of\tccl\ In ,rructurc\ \itblrrtcJ l n w c r c rcrnpcralurr m i \trc\\
 indrcated In Figure 1-11, the decrease In ductllrty IS approximately cqual to thc amount of
~nelasttcprewarn.
A steel specimcn that has been strained into thestrain-hardming range, unloadcd,and
allowed to age for several days at room temperature (or for a much shorter trmc at a
moderately elevated tcmperaturc) will tend to follow the path indicated in Frgure 1-12
during rcl~adlng.'~ Thts phenomenon, known as strain aging, has the effect of ~ncrcasing
yield and tensile strength while dccrcasing ductility."
The effects of cold work on the strength and ductility of the structural steels can bc
eliminated largely by thermal stress relief, or annealing. Such trcatmcnt IS not always
po~srble;forrunately, it IS not often necessary.
1.10 BRITTLE FRACTURE CONSIDERATlONS IN
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
General Considerations
As temperature decreases, an Increase IS generally noted in the yield strcss, tens~lestrength,
modulus ofelarttctty. and fatrguc strength of the plate steels.* In contrast, the ductrlttyof
these steels, as measured by rcductron tn area or hy elongation undcr load, dccrcascs with
decreasing temperatures. Furthermore, there is a tcmperature below which a structural
steel subjected to tensile stresscs may fracture by cleavage, with little or no plastic
deformation, rather than hy shear, whlch is usually preceded by a considerable amount of
plasrrc deformation or yte1ding.t
Fracture that occun by cleavage at a nominal tensilcstrcss bclow the yield stress is
commonl! rcfcrred to as brittle fracturc. Generally, a brittle fracture can occur when there is
a sufficrently adverse combmation of tensrlc stress, tcmprature strain ratc,and geometr~cal
disconrtnu~ty(such as a notch) present. Other destgn and fabrication factors may also have
an important ~nflucnce.Because ofthc interrelation of these effects, the exact combination
of <tress, tcmperature, notch, and other conditions that will cause brrttle fracturc in agivcn
structure cannot bc readily calculared. Consequently, designing against brittle fracture
often consrsts mainly of avolding conditions that tcnd tocause brittle fracture and selectingr
steel appropriate for the application. A discussion of these factors is given in the following
Paragraphs. References 12, 13, 14, and IS cover the subject in much more detail.
Fracture mechanics offers a morc dircct approach for prediction of crack propagation.
For this analysrs tt is assumed that an internal imperfection idealized as acrackis present in
the structure Bvlinear-elastic stress analysis and laboratory testson precrackcd specimens,
the applied %tressthat wrll causc rapid crack propagation is related to the size of the
imperfection The ap~hcarlonof fracture mechanics has become increasingly useful in
developing a fracture-control plan and establishing, on a rational basis, the intcrrclatcd
requirements of matertal selection, design stress level, fabrication, and inspection
requirements."
Conditions Causing Brittle ~racture
Plastic dcformatron can occur only rn the presence of shear stresses Shear stresscs are
allray* prcscnt rn a unraxral or a blaxral star'c ofstress. However, in a trtaxlal5tate of strcss,
thc ma\rmum \hear strerr approaches zero as the principal stresses approach a common
valuc. A\ a result, under equal trtaxtal tenstle stresses, fa~lureoccursb\ clcavagc rathcr than
b\ shear Consequently, trtaxral tenrtlc stresses tend to causc brittle fracture and should be
a\oldcd As d~scussedtn the followtng matertal, a trtaxtal state of stre% can rcsult from a
uniaxral loading when notches or geomerr~caldiscontrnuities arc present.
If a transversely notched bar is subjected to a long~tudinaltensrle force, the stress
concentratton effect of the notch causes high longitudtnal tensrle stresscs at the apex ofthe
notch and lower longitudtnal stresses in adjacent material. The lateral contraction In the
urdth and thrckncss dircctton of the hrghly stressed material at the apex of the notch IS
restrained by the smaller lateral contraction of the lo- :r stressed material. Thus, in additron
to thc long~tudrnaltcnstlc stresscs, tensile stresses are created m the width and th~ckness
d~rcctions,so that a trtaxral state of stress is prcsent near the apex of the notch
The effect ofa gcomctrrcal drscontlnuity in a structure is generally stmrlar to, although
not nccersartly as severe as, the effect of the notch in thc bar. Examples of geometrical
.I~scont~nutttessomettmes found tnclude poor desrgn detarls (such as abrupt changes In
iross sectton, attachment welds on components in tcncton, and square-cornered cutouts)
and fabrtcatton flaws (such as weld cracks, undercuts. arc strrkes, and scars from chrpptng
hamrncrc)
Increased strain rates tend to Increase the poss~htlity of brtttie hehavior. Thus,
.trucrures that are loaded at fast rates are more susccptrble to brittle fracturc Honcter, a
rapld strain rate or Impact load is not a requ~redcond~nonfor a brittlc fracture.
Cold work, and the strain aging that normally follows, generally incrcascs the
lrkelthood of brittle fractures. This behavior is usually attributed to the previously
mentioned reduction in ductility. The effect of cold work that occun in cold-formrng
oprat~onscan bc minimized by selecting a generous forming radius, thus limit~ngthc
amount of strain. The amount of strain that can be tolerated depends on both the steel and
the application. A morc severe hut quite localized type of cold work is that which occurs at
the edges of punched holcs or at shcarcd edges. This effect can he essenriall~climinatcd for
holcs by drtlling inctead of punchtng or by reaming after punching; for shearcd edges. It can
be elrmtnatcd by machtntng or grinding. Severe hammer hlo\v%may also produce enough
cold work to locally reduce the toughness of the steel.
When tensile residual srrcsses arc present, such as those resulting from wcldrng, they
add to any applied tenstle strcss, rcsultrng in the actual tensrle stress in the mcmbcr berng
ercatcr than the applied stress. Consequently, the likelihoodof brittle fracture in a structure
that contatns hrgh rcsldual stresses may be mtnimtzed b!. a postweld heat treatment. The
Jecrsion to use a post\vcld hcat trcatment should be made wrth assurance that the
anrrciparcd benefits are needed and wtll be rcalrzed. and that possible harmful effects can be
tolcrarrd. hlany modern stccls for uelded constructron are designed to he used In the less
costly as-welded condttron uhcn powhle. The soundne\s and mechanical propcrttes of
~veldcdlotnts In some stccls may be advcrccly affected hy a postweld hcat treatment.
Wcldtng may also contrrbutc to the prohlcm of brtttle fracture by introducing notches
and flaw rnto a structurc and by caucrng an unfavorahle change In mrcrostrucrurc of the
base mctal Such detrimental cffcctr can he m1n1m17cdbv properly des~gntngueldr. taktng
care In 'clecttng thcrr locat~on,and urtng good \vcldrng practrce. The proper clectrodc must
be xlectcd so that the weld mctal w~llhe as rcslrrant to hrtttlc Cracture a< the haw mctal
Charpy V-Notch Impact Test
Some steels wtll sustatn more adverse tcmperaturc, notch, and loading condttlons w~thout
fracture than wtll othcr stccls. Numcrou\ tests have heen dc\clopcd tncvaluntc and asstgn a
numcrrcal valuc tndicating the rclatne suwptthrl~trol stcclt to hrrttle fracturc Each of
there tccrr can c<tahl~\hatth ccrtatnt! onl! the rclat~vc~ucccptrhtlrt! to brrt~lcfracturc
undcr the part,cular condtnonr in rhr tcrt; ho\\c\cr. wmc tc\t\ prov~dca mcanmgful putdc
ro the rc!att\e performance of\tccl\ In ,rructurc\ \itblrrtcJ l n w c r c rcrnpcralurr m i \trc\\
 conditions. The most commonly used ofthcse rating tests, the Charp~\'-notch impact test,
is dcscrihed tn this sectton, and the interpretation of its result%IS discuwd briefly.
1.1 1 GOOD PRACTICE
References 12 and 13 g ~ v cdctailed d~scursionsof many other rating tests. The ord~narywater pipeline requires little stress calculation. The commonly uscd internal
The Charpy V-notch impact test spectfically evaluates notch toughness-the resistance pressures for steel water pipe aregiven in Tables4-1 and 4-2 in Chapter4. Suggested design
to fracture in the presence of a notch-and is wtdcly used as a guide to the performance of stresses to resist other loadings arc given as guides in variouschapters on the different dcsrgn
steels instructuressusccptible to brittle fracturc. In this test, a small rectangular bar,with a subjects.
V-shaped notch of specified size at its midlength, is supported at tts ends as a beam and Vi'hcn designing the details oisupprts, wye brsnchcs,and other specials, especially for
fractured by a blow from a swinging pendulum. The energy required to fracture the large pipe, the engineer will do well to consider the data in Chapter 13.
specimcn (which can be calculated from the height to which the pendulum raises after The concept of dcsigning on the basis of strain as u*ellas stress will shed light on the
breaking the specimen)or the appearance of the fracturc surfacc is determined for a range of behavior of steel and other materials in many cases whcrc consideration of strcss alone offers
tcmpcraturcs. The appearance of the fracture surface is usually cxprcsscd as the percentage no reasonable explanation. The action and undesirahle cffccts of stress raisers or stress
ofthe surface that appears to have fractured by shear as indicated by a fibrousappearancc. A concentrations-such as notches, threads, laps, and sudden changes in cross section-will
shiny or crystalline appearance is associated with a cleavage fracturc. k k t t e r understood. The steps to be taken in counteracttng adverse effects become clearer.
These data are used to plot curves (such as those shown in Figure 1-13) of energy or Design usrng strain as well as stress will result in safer and more economical structures than
percentage of shear fracturc as a function of temperaturc. For the structural steels. thc if *train is ignored. Safe loads are a more imponant design consideration than safe stresses.
energy and percentage ofshcar fracturc decrease from relatively high values to relatively low
values over a region of decreasing temperature. The temperature near the lower end of the
energy-temperature curve, at which a selected value ofencrgy is absort'cd(oftcn 15 fvlb), is References
called the ductility transition temperature. The temperature at wh~chthe percentage of 1 ELLIOT, G A The CCCof Stccl P~pcIn 9 BROC~ESBRDVGH, R L. 6. JOHNCTOS.
shear fracturc decreases to 50 percent is often called the fracturc-apparance transition U'arcr Work\ J w r AUU.4. 9 1 1 839 B G. ('SS Srrrl Drstp ALnual ADUSS
temperature or fracturc transition temperature. Both transitton temperatures provide a (Sot 1922) 21-3400-04. US Steel Carp., Ptrtrbuqh.
2 C~TES,W H Htkrory of Srccl Water Pa. (Jan. 1981).
rating of the brittle fracture resistance of various steels; the iower the transition 10 DIETER, G.E.JR.MrchantcalMrlallurgy.
PIW.It< Fahr~cartnnand kslgn Dewlop-
temperature, the better the resistance to brittle fracture. The ductility transition temperature McGraw-Hill BookOmpany, New York
and the fracture transition temperature depend on many parameters (such as composition,
thickness, and thcrmomcchanical processing) and, therefore, can vary significantly for a
! menr (Apr 1971)
3 H l s ~ s ,JVLIASSotshlc Steel Plpc
In~rallauonsjour AWU"A,46 7 f&'(July
.,..,
toid)
rml)
11. CHAIEC,A, BRINEC,S J.; 8 WINTLR,
G Effects of Cnld-StnlnmgonSrructurul
gircn grade of steel. Shcct Stcclr Jour of the S~ructuralDtv ,
4 B~R-.%RD* R E. Dcqm of Steel Rlne
Flanp" for Walcr Works Serrtce-A P~oc.,ASCE. 89. SOST2 (Apr 1%3).
Steel Selection Progress Report Jour .4 U"W.4.42 10 931 12 P\RLFR,E R Brtrrk Brhaiior of E w -
Requirements for notch toughness of steels uscd for specific applicatrons can bc determined I&-t 19501. nrrrtnK Srrucrurrs. John U.11cyand Son%
j Bolt Testr-Tens~on Applied 1'\ T~pht- Scu Tork (1957).
through correlations with service performance. Fracture-mechanics methods, when used in 13 Control of Srccl Conslrucrlon lo Avold
c n m g Snr \'erw\ Pure Tcnvon Bethlc-
conjunction with a thorough study of material properties, design, fabrication, inspection, hcm Slecl Co.. Bcrhlrhcm. Pa (1046. Brtttlc Failure Wcldtng Revarch Gun-
erection, and service conditions, have proven useful. In general, whcrc a given steel has k e n unpubl.). cd, Xcu York (1957)
used successfully for an extensive period in a given application, brittle fracture is not likcly 6. Stcel U'ncr Prp b lnchn and Larper 14 L I G HSER,~ M U. A VANDERBECK, R W.
AWPA Standard CZOO-80 A U U'A. Factors In\ohcd In Brrtrle Fracture.
to be expcricnccd in similar applications unless unusual temperature, notch, or stress Rcp~onalTechn~calMcet~ngs,Amcrtcan
Dcnw. Colo (1980).
conditions are present. Ncverthelas, it is always desirable to avotd or minimize the i S!mprrum-Plawc Strcnpth of Struc- Iron and Stccl Insraus, U'ashingon,
previously cited adverse conditions that increax the susceptibility to brittle fracturc. lural Mcmhem. Trans. ASCE. Paper D 6.0936).
2ii2 I1955). 15. ROLFE,S.T. 6. BARSOM, J hi. Fracturr
8 S~% BLG .Thr mvmr Mrrhndr nf.%rur- a d Forrrwr Cntrol m S~rucrurn-Appli-
r u r d Andlvur John Wllc! and Sons. Scu ;Jrran$ r l Frd;rurr hfc,h~ntr~ Prcnt~cc-
Tork ( 19561 Hall. Inc., Enplcwmd Chfi. N.J.(19171.

,
I I l - - - f I t I I I I J
60 40 .20 0 20 10 €4 80 100 120 140 M) -10 -20 0 20 40 SO 80 700 120 160
TEMPERATURE. .F TEh'aERATL'C C

Sormc BttYb~nhrougnI3 1 (1 Jniwtn,n

B O USS Sleel Oertgn Manual AOUSS I7 3r00.01 US Steer C. > PIS.,. -- Fn 6 la,) . O P * ,

Figure 1-13 Transition Curves Obtained from Charpy V-Notch Impact Tests
 conditions. The most commonly used ofthcse rating tests, the Charp~\'-notch impact test,
is dcscrihed tn this sectton, and the interpretation of its result%IS discuwd briefly.
1.1 1 GOOD PRACTICE
References 12 and 13 g ~ v cdctailed d~scursionsof many other rating tests. The ord~narywater pipeline requires little stress calculation. The commonly uscd internal
The Charpy V-notch impact test spectfically evaluates notch toughness-the resistance pressures for steel water pipe aregiven in Tables4-1 and 4-2 in Chapter4. Suggested design
to fracture in the presence of a notch-and is wtdcly used as a guide to the performance of stresses to resist other loadings arc given as guides in variouschapters on the different dcsrgn
steels instructuressusccptible to brittle fracturc. In this test, a small rectangular bar,with a subjects.
V-shaped notch of specified size at its midlength, is supported at tts ends as a beam and Vi'hcn designing the details oisupprts, wye brsnchcs,and other specials, especially for
fractured by a blow from a swinging pendulum. The energy required to fracture the large pipe, the engineer will do well to consider the data in Chapter 13.
specimcn (which can be calculated from the height to which the pendulum raises after The concept of dcsigning on the basis of strain as u*ellas stress will shed light on the
breaking the specimen)or the appearance of the fracturc surfacc is determined for a range of behavior of steel and other materials in many cases whcrc consideration of strcss alone offers
tcmpcraturcs. The appearance of the fracture surface is usually cxprcsscd as the percentage no reasonable explanation. The action and undesirahle cffccts of stress raisers or stress
ofthe surface that appears to have fractured by shear as indicated by a fibrousappearancc. A concentrations-such as notches, threads, laps, and sudden changes in cross section-will
shiny or crystalline appearance is associated with a cleavage fracturc. k k t t e r understood. The steps to be taken in counteracttng adverse effects become clearer.
These data are used to plot curves (such as those shown in Figure 1-13) of energy or Design usrng strain as well as stress will result in safer and more economical structures than
percentage of shear fracturc as a function of temperaturc. For the structural steels. thc if *train is ignored. Safe loads are a more imponant design consideration than safe stresses.
energy and percentage ofshcar fracturc decrease from relatively high values to relatively low
values over a region of decreasing temperature. The temperature near the lower end of the
energy-temperature curve, at which a selected value ofencrgy is absort'cd(oftcn 15 fvlb), is References
called the ductility transition temperature. The temperature at wh~chthe percentage of 1 ELLIOT, G A The CCCof Stccl P~pcIn 9 BROC~ESBRDVGH, R L. 6. JOHNCTOS.
shear fracturc decreases to 50 percent is often called the fracturc-apparance transition U'arcr Work\ J w r AUU.4. 9 1 1 839 B G. ('SS Srrrl Drstp ALnual ADUSS
temperature or fracturc transition temperature. Both transitton temperatures provide a (Sot 1922) 21-3400-04. US Steel Carp., Ptrtrbuqh.
2 C~TES,W H Htkrory of Srccl Water Pa. (Jan. 1981).
rating of the brittle fracture resistance of various steels; the iower the transition 10 DIETER, G.E.JR.MrchantcalMrlallurgy.
PIW.It< Fahr~cartnnand kslgn Dewlop-
temperature, the better the resistance to brittle fracture. The ductility transition temperature McGraw-Hill BookOmpany, New York
and the fracture transition temperature depend on many parameters (such as composition,
thickness, and thcrmomcchanical processing) and, therefore, can vary significantly for a
! menr (Apr 1971)
3 H l s ~ s ,JVLIASSotshlc Steel Plpc
In~rallauonsjour AWU"A,46 7 f&'(July
.,..,
toid)
rml)
11. CHAIEC,A, BRINEC,S J.; 8 WINTLR,
G Effects of Cnld-StnlnmgonSrructurul
gircn grade of steel. Shcct Stcclr Jour of the S~ructuralDtv ,
4 B~R-.%RD* R E. Dcqm of Steel Rlne
Flanp" for Walcr Works Serrtce-A P~oc.,ASCE. 89. SOST2 (Apr 1%3).
Steel Selection Progress Report Jour .4 U"W.4.42 10 931 12 P\RLFR,E R Brtrrk Brhaiior of E w -
Requirements for notch toughness of steels uscd for specific applicatrons can bc determined I&-t 19501. nrrrtnK Srrucrurrs. John U.11cyand Son%
j Bolt Testr-Tens~on Applied 1'\ T~pht- Scu Tork (1957).
through correlations with service performance. Fracture-mechanics methods, when used in 13 Control of Srccl Conslrucrlon lo Avold
c n m g Snr \'erw\ Pure Tcnvon Bethlc-
conjunction with a thorough study of material properties, design, fabrication, inspection, hcm Slecl Co.. Bcrhlrhcm. Pa (1046. Brtttlc Failure Wcldtng Revarch Gun-
erection, and service conditions, have proven useful. In general, whcrc a given steel has k e n unpubl.). cd, Xcu York (1957)
used successfully for an extensive period in a given application, brittle fracture is not likcly 6. Stcel U'ncr Prp b lnchn and Larper 14 L I G HSER,~ M U. A VANDERBECK, R W.
AWPA Standard CZOO-80 A U U'A. Factors In\ohcd In Brrtrle Fracture.
to be expcricnccd in similar applications unless unusual temperature, notch, or stress Rcp~onalTechn~calMcet~ngs,Amcrtcan
Dcnw. Colo (1980).
conditions are present. Ncverthelas, it is always desirable to avotd or minimize the i S!mprrum-Plawc Strcnpth of Struc- Iron and Stccl Insraus, U'ashingon,
previously cited adverse conditions that increax the susceptibility to brittle fracturc. lural Mcmhem. Trans. ASCE. Paper D 6.0936).
2ii2 I1955). 15. ROLFE,S.T. 6. BARSOM, J hi. Fracturr
8 S~% BLG .Thr mvmr Mrrhndr nf.%rur- a d Forrrwr Cntrol m S~rucrurn-Appli-
r u r d Andlvur John Wllc! and Sons. Scu ;Jrran$ r l Frd;rurr hfc,h~ntr~ Prcnt~cc-
Tork ( 19561 Hall. Inc., Enplcwmd Chfi. N.J.(19171.

,
I I l - - - f I t I I I I J
60 40 .20 0 20 10 €4 80 100 120 140 M) -10 -20 0 20 40 SO 80 700 120 160
TEMPERATURE. .F TEh'aERATL'C C

Sormc BttYb~nhrougnI3 1 (1 Jniwtn,n

B O USS Sleel Oertgn Manual AOUSS I7 3r00.01 US Steer C. > PIS.,. -- Fn 6 la,) . O P * ,

Figure 1-13 Transition Curves Obtained from Charpy V-Notch Impact Tests
Chapter 2
STRIP

COIL

Manufacture and "->LL -

\'.ELDING ELECTRODES FINAL FORMING ROLL FIRST FORMIYG ROLL

.'.
Testing Sowcc Cavbc* S!r* = 9.1c . *gal T u b q .ne PI* 2.1 001Country lubular Goods Srear Pr:ouc~r Manual A - w r n n Iron and Slerl
mwm Haantngro C C no' ' O V I
2

Figure 2-1 Schernattc Representation of t h e Sequence of Operations rerforrned by a T ~ i c a l

Machine for Mak~ngElectric-Resistance-Welded Tubes from Steel Strip

SLIDING CONTACTS

2.1 MANUFACTURE
Elcctrtc reststance welding and clccrnc fusion weldtng are thc most common methods used
to convert flat-rollcd steel hars. plates, shccts, and strips into ruhular products.
Electric resistance wcldtng (EREr)is donc wrthout Iiller matcnal. The flat strip. with
edges prenously trrmrncd to provide a clean, csen surface for wcldmg, is formed S w c c Sw Ftgurs 7. I
progressivcl: into8 tubular shapc as it travels through a series of rolls. T h e formrng IS done The Current enters the tube vta sI10~ng
contacts and (tows along Vee
cold. IVcldlng is then effected by the application of hcar and p r e w m . The welding heat for edges lo and from the weld Point
thc tuhular edges is gcncratcd by rcristancc to the flou of an clcctric current. whtch can k Figure 2-3 Electric Resistance Welding Using High-
mtroduccd through electrodes or hy induction. Pressure rolls forcc the hcatcd edges Frequency Welding Current
together to cffcct the weld. The 5qucczing actton of rhc prcssure rolls forming the weld
caures some of the hol rvcld mctal tohc cxtrudcd from thc iotnt to form a head of weld flash
both inside and outrtde the prpc. Thc flash I. normally trimmed wirhm tolerance limtts WELD WELDED
u hilc 11 IS wll hot from \vcldtng. using mcchan~calcurttng tools contourcd to the < h a yof PfiESSURE ROLLS
e s through 2-5).
thc p i p ~ F ~ g u r 2-1
Elcctrtc fusion uelding (El.'\\") d~ffcrkfrom ERW in that Iillcr matcr~alis used and Applccalron of pcessure L.r ~ " ons bow 5 des
mcchanlcal y r e w r c I< unnccewary ro effcct the ucld Prpe produced ntth this process can and brnealn the eleclrna~sfcfcesme waled
hate stralght or spiral warns. Straight-seam p p c is madc from plate utth edges planed tube edges logelher lo lcrn a weld
parallel loeach othcr and square wtth the ends C u n t n ~ the plate edges ntth crlmping rolls Figure 2-2 Cross Secr~onThrough '

I.; thc lirst \try ofthc form~ng proccw Thn rs folloucd by p r c w c that form thc plate first Weld Point
~ n t oa V-shapd trough and then intoa full 0-shaped tuhc. Thc 0-shaped tuhc is lhcn fcd
tnro a longltud~nalscam-\rclding machrnc. Spiral-warn pipe is madc from coilcd strip or
plarc hy a contlnuou\ process (Ftgurc 2-6) An auromattc machrnc unrolls theco~l.preparcs Source See Flpure 2.1
Eddy currenl flows around the hark of tne l u h and along the edges ,
the edge<for acldmg.and yvally formr thcwrp lntoa tubular chape. As the tuhc lca\cs the ~
ftlrmmp ~ i c r n ~ nthe
t . cdgr<arc jo~ncdhv fuston uclding m the w n c whmerged-arc prtww 10 and lrom lhe weld POrnI
a. 1. crncr:llh lhrd ~n\lralght-<ram plpc f l ~ u r 2-7
r l'hc uclJcd luhc I\ cut to the dwtrcd Figure 2-4 Clectrk Reststance Welding by
Icn~111h ,111 r u t ~ ~ n ~c iurt ~ ~r tic\
lf ~ c c Induction Using High-Frequency M'rldlng Current
Chapter 2
STRIP

COIL

Manufacture and "->LL -

\'.ELDING ELECTRODES FINAL FORMING ROLL FIRST FORMIYG ROLL

.'.
Testing Sowcc Cavbc* S!r* = 9.1c . *gal T u b q .ne PI* 2.1 001Country lubular Goods Srear Pr:ouc~r Manual A - w r n n Iron and Slerl
mwm Haantngro C C no' ' O V I
2

Figure 2-1 Schernattc Representation of t h e Sequence of Operations rerforrned by a T ~ i c a l

Machine for Mak~ngElectric-Resistance-Welded Tubes from Steel Strip

SLIDING CONTACTS

2.1 MANUFACTURE
Elcctrtc reststance welding and clccrnc fusion weldtng are thc most common methods used
to convert flat-rollcd steel hars. plates, shccts, and strips into ruhular products.
Electric resistance wcldtng (EREr)is donc wrthout Iiller matcnal. The flat strip. with
edges prenously trrmrncd to provide a clean, csen surface for wcldmg, is formed S w c c Sw Ftgurs 7. I
progressivcl: into8 tubular shapc as it travels through a series of rolls. T h e formrng IS done The Current enters the tube vta sI10~ng
contacts and (tows along Vee
cold. IVcldlng is then effected by the application of hcar and p r e w m . The welding heat for edges lo and from the weld Point
thc tuhular edges is gcncratcd by rcristancc to the flou of an clcctric current. whtch can k Figure 2-3 Electric Resistance Welding Using High-
mtroduccd through electrodes or hy induction. Pressure rolls forcc the hcatcd edges Frequency Welding Current
together to cffcct the weld. The 5qucczing actton of rhc prcssure rolls forming the weld
caures some of the hol rvcld mctal tohc cxtrudcd from thc iotnt to form a head of weld flash
both inside and outrtde the prpc. Thc flash I. normally trimmed wirhm tolerance limtts WELD WELDED
u hilc 11 IS wll hot from \vcldtng. using mcchan~calcurttng tools contourcd to the < h a yof PfiESSURE ROLLS
e s through 2-5).
thc p i p ~ F ~ g u r 2-1
Elcctrtc fusion uelding (El.'\\") d~ffcrkfrom ERW in that Iillcr matcr~alis used and Applccalron of pcessure L.r ~ " ons bow 5 des
mcchanlcal y r e w r c I< unnccewary ro effcct the ucld Prpe produced ntth this process can and brnealn the eleclrna~sfcfcesme waled
hate stralght or spiral warns. Straight-seam p p c is madc from plate utth edges planed tube edges logelher lo lcrn a weld
parallel loeach othcr and square wtth the ends C u n t n ~ the plate edges ntth crlmping rolls Figure 2-2 Cross Secr~onThrough '

I.; thc lirst \try ofthc form~ng proccw Thn rs folloucd by p r c w c that form thc plate first Weld Point
~ n t oa V-shapd trough and then intoa full 0-shaped tuhc. Thc 0-shaped tuhc is lhcn fcd
tnro a longltud~nalscam-\rclding machrnc. Spiral-warn pipe is madc from coilcd strip or
plarc hy a contlnuou\ process (Ftgurc 2-6) An auromattc machrnc unrolls theco~l.preparcs Source See Flpure 2.1
Eddy currenl flows around the hark of tne l u h and along the edges ,
the edge<for acldmg.and yvally formr thcwrp lntoa tubular chape. As the tuhc lca\cs the ~
ftlrmmp ~ i c r n ~ nthe
t . cdgr<arc jo~ncdhv fuston uclding m the w n c whmerged-arc prtww 10 and lrom lhe weld POrnI
a. 1. crncr:llh lhrd ~n\lralght-<ram plpc f l ~ u r 2-7
r l'hc uclJcd luhc I\ cut to the dwtrcd Figure 2-4 Clectrk Reststance Welding by
Icn~111h ,111 r u t ~ ~ n ~c iurt ~ ~r tic\
lf ~ c c Induction Using High-Frequency M'rldlng Current

Edge Planmg-Submerged arc
weld o w beglns as s tlal
w~DnguI11Sleel plate Irom the
~lme mcll The llrst step 8n
tlanrtormtng 11lo ppe 0s planing
Ihe wQes parallel lo each other
and souare wnlh Ihe ends
GU
C
4 5.
0-mg Press-Tne U-
shaned ~ l a l e
enters Ihm
press w l h the
semcvcular ales open
The lop are undet
hydmd~cD~CSIVW IP
lorced down on Ihe U
cola towmng IIto a
cylsndrcal sham
Ihe w c l d ~ n ~
boom a TV SCleCn st
the omca!ol s conlrol board
cnnbm h e n to keep !he weldmg
P*aCI1v on 'he %earnFmshmg up
on IIW lab ~ n ~asl
r ICW tnches 01
Ihe warn are welded Thc small
Ptalcs as? Iben rrmnved and thr
COmplPtCd ucld gr ~n-pcctra
,"S'dP and our
HOT-ROLLED COIL
2. 3.
Edpe Crmpmp Rolls-Here the
U-rn~Press-A sentcscular
edges of lnr plate arc curved to ram derccnas on 1-e plate
Iacol~lalelmal tormmg ol the pmpe
reduce dre wear. and prcduce
grraaf unttorm*y at me seam
Mges when me Dlille IS ptessed
to a Cyltnar~dshape The Iota1
SUII~CC 01 lhc plale bolh D
I (C
IS
edge l o edqe 8s also 1n5pecled
"I~~~IO".IIC~II~
WIRE ELECTRODE Figure 2-6 Schematic Diagram of Process for Making Spiral-Seam Pipe
FLUX /
COPPER BACK-UP
6.
Oulrde Weldsng-The O4ormed plate 8s n w led mto 8
End Weldmg-liere a 5 8- 11~~11111.~ ts
Iongrludtnal seam w e l a q machlne In w h ~ the
h abutllng allacned to each end ot - r pope 81:me
@doesate properly rhgned lwmly pressedlogelher and
seam pcrmtamg t?e la<' 'ew sncner 21
welded by the submcrwd arc PPocerS Two rlectrmes are Ihe 0 0 seam lo be wolds:
used and l M weld IS compleled to wllnln 3 m 01 lhe pip
ends
Figure 2-7 Schematic Diagram for Miiking Plate Pipe
Ptpc sizes m a n u f a c t u r e d using the fusion welding process are l i m i t e d only by size
l l m r t a t ~ o n sof pipe manufacturers.
ind~c~dual T h i s process 1s e s y c c ~ a l l yw ~ t e d
for p i p in
sizes larger t h a n posstblc or feasible by o t h e r methods.
2.2 TESTING
Tests of Chemical Properties
M~h8nt~ Expmeer-TM
U ume IS mtchtnccally y a s o r t n l ~Expanaer-B?h ends
e*olneed 24-ln through 27.m merempnls Thc Iartous scrvlces to w h i c h steel p i r 1s put r e q u i r e a v a r i e t y of c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n s t o
01 Ihr o~neate senled by -and,rh
unbl half 01 lenglh 8s comuleted The pIw T ~ wmfcarculav
C sB5-lly I~~~~~
rolls 10 a second ervnnder doe tie p r o d u c e t h e ncccssary c h a r a c t c r ~ s r i c s . T h e c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n s e s t a b l i s h e din the
rrmatnmg Mlt 01 the ttnglh 8s e~pahdwT W
PtDe lenglh men urweedr lo a hvdroslal~cu n ~ l
::b '"
: : ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ a l ? ; ~ : ~ ~ ~ e ~ n a
agamqt fnr dies The dlrs wr opened
A\Y\YA srccl pipe standards are suired to the u s u a l needs of w a t e r u t i l i t y applications.
whoe a s~ectl*cd ~nlelnatPRssu*~ 15 apolved lo H o u c v c r , t h e r e are o t h e r steel m a t c r ~ a l st h a t m a y b e e q u a l l y suitable. and these c a n be
and n svcohca ontetnal p.ess~~ze
lest the weld lot sweats of Irrkr a~pl~e 10dtesl the weld 10. sweae ot
sclccred 1f desired
leaks
L a d l e analysis. Ladle a n a l p s is t h e t e r m a p p l ~ c d t o t h e c h c m ~ c a lanalysis
rcprcwntawc of t h c heat or of r t c c l . T h i s I\ t h c a n a l ) s k r c p r r c d t o r h c purchaser.
blow
.-\rial\ 'I\ r r w l t \ arc d c t c r m t n c d b! rcwng for c u c h c l c m c n r i a< h a w h e c n \ p r c ~ f i c d , win&!a
tc'r rrlcor \ a m p l e o b t a ~ n c df r o m t h c f l r \ ~or m~ddlrp a r r 01 r h c heat or h l o p dur~ng thr

Edge Planmg-Submerged arc
weld o w beglns as s tlal
w~DnguI11Sleel plate Irom the
~lme mcll The llrst step 8n
tlanrtormtng 11lo ppe 0s planing
Ihe wQes parallel lo each other
and souare wnlh Ihe ends
GU
C
4 5.
0-mg Press-Tne U-
shaned ~ l a l e
enters Ihm
press w l h the
semcvcular ales open
The lop are undet
hydmd~cD~CSIVW IP
lorced down on Ihe U
cola towmng IIto a
cylsndrcal sham
Ihe w c l d ~ n ~
boom a TV SCleCn st
the omca!ol s conlrol board
cnnbm h e n to keep !he weldmg
P*aCI1v on 'he %earnFmshmg up
on IIW lab ~ n ~asl
r ICW tnches 01
Ihe warn are welded Thc small
Ptalcs as? Iben rrmnved and thr
COmplPtCd ucld gr ~n-pcctra
,"S'dP and our
HOT-ROLLED COIL
2. 3.
Edpe Crmpmp Rolls-Here the
U-rn~Press-A sentcscular
edges of lnr plate arc curved to ram derccnas on 1-e plate
Iacol~lalelmal tormmg ol the pmpe
reduce dre wear. and prcduce
grraaf unttorm*y at me seam
Mges when me Dlille IS ptessed
to a Cyltnar~dshape The Iota1
SUII~CC 01 lhc plale bolh D
I (C
IS
edge l o edqe 8s also 1n5pecled
"I~~~IO".IIC~II~
WIRE ELECTRODE Figure 2-6 Schematic Diagram of Process for Making Spiral-Seam Pipe
FLUX /
COPPER BACK-UP
6.
Oulrde Weldsng-The O4ormed plate 8s n w led mto 8
End Weldmg-liere a 5 8- 11~~11111.~ ts
Iongrludtnal seam w e l a q machlne In w h ~ the
h abutllng allacned to each end ot - r pope 81:me
@doesate properly rhgned lwmly pressedlogelher and
seam pcrmtamg t?e la<' 'ew sncner 21
welded by the submcrwd arc PPocerS Two rlectrmes are Ihe 0 0 seam lo be wolds:
used and l M weld IS compleled to wllnln 3 m 01 lhe pip
ends
Figure 2-7 Schematic Diagram for Miiking Plate Pipe
Ptpc sizes m a n u f a c t u r e d using the fusion welding process are l i m i t e d only by size
l l m r t a t ~ o n sof pipe manufacturers.
ind~c~dual T h i s process 1s e s y c c ~ a l l yw ~ t e d
for p i p in
sizes larger t h a n posstblc or feasible by o t h e r methods.
2.2 TESTING
Tests of Chemical Properties
M~h8nt~ Expmeer-TM
U ume IS mtchtnccally y a s o r t n l ~Expanaer-B?h ends
e*olneed 24-ln through 27.m merempnls Thc Iartous scrvlces to w h i c h steel p i r 1s put r e q u i r e a v a r i e t y of c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n s t o
01 Ihr o~neate senled by -and,rh
unbl half 01 lenglh 8s comuleted The pIw T ~ wmfcarculav
C sB5-lly I~~~~~
rolls 10 a second ervnnder doe tie p r o d u c e t h e ncccssary c h a r a c t c r ~ s r i c s . T h e c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n s e s t a b l i s h e din the
rrmatnmg Mlt 01 the ttnglh 8s e~pahdwT W
PtDe lenglh men urweedr lo a hvdroslal~cu n ~ l
::b '"
: : ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ a l ? ; ~ : ~ ~ ~ e ~ n a
agamqt fnr dies The dlrs wr opened
A\Y\YA srccl pipe standards are suired to the u s u a l needs of w a t e r u t i l i t y applications.
whoe a s~ectl*cd ~nlelnatPRssu*~ 15 apolved lo H o u c v c r , t h e r e are o t h e r steel m a t c r ~ a l st h a t m a y b e e q u a l l y suitable. and these c a n be
and n svcohca ontetnal p.ess~~ze
lest the weld lot sweats of Irrkr a~pl~e 10dtesl the weld 10. sweae ot
sclccred 1f desired
leaks
L a d l e analysis. Ladle a n a l p s is t h e t e r m a p p l ~ c d t o t h e c h c m ~ c a lanalysis
rcprcwntawc of t h c heat or of r t c c l . T h i s I\ t h c a n a l ) s k r c p r r c d t o r h c purchaser.
blow
.-\rial\ 'I\ r r w l t \ arc d c t c r m t n c d b! rcwng for c u c h c l c m c n r i a< h a w h e c n \ p r c ~ f i c d , win&!a
tc'r rrlcor \ a m p l e o b t a ~ n c df r o m t h c f l r \ ~or m~ddlrp a r r 01 r h c heat or h l o p dur~ng thr
 It 1s common practice in most steel mclting opcrations to ohtain more than one
ladle-test ingot sample from cach hcat or blow; oftcn rhrcc or more arc takcn, rcprcscntlng
the first, middle, and last portions of the heat or blow. Drillings takcn from the first or
middle sample arc used in determining the ladle analysis bccausc cxpericnce has shown that
AWWA M A N U A L
0
these locations most closely represent the chemical analysis of the entire heat or blow. The
additional samples are used for a survey of uniformity and for control purposes.
Check analysis. Check analysis, as used in thc steel industry, mcans analysis of the
metal after it has been rolledor forged intosemifinished or finished forms. Such an analysis
is madc either to verify the average composition of the heat, to verify the compsltion ofa lot
Chapter 3
as rcprcsented by thc ladle analysis,or todctcrminc variations in thccompositionofa hcator
lot. Check analysis is not used, as the term might imply, to confirm the accuracy of a
previous result. Check analysis of known heats is iustificd only where a high dcgrcc of
uniformity of composition is essential-for example, on material that ts to be hcat trcatcd.
Such analysis should rarely be necessary for watcr pipe, cxccpt to identify or confirm the
Hydraulics of Pipelines
assumed analysis of plates or pipe that have lost idcntity. The rcsults of analyscs
rcprcscntingdiffcrent locations in thesame piece, or taken from diffcrcnt pieces of a lot, may
dffcr from cach othcr and from the ladle analysis owing to scgrcgatton. These pcrmissiblc
variar~onsfrom the spcified ranges or limits have been established in the applicable
spcc~~cation or by common practice. The variations arc a natural phenomenon that must bc
rccognned by inspectors. The methods of analysis commonly used are in accordancc with
the latest edition of ASTM ~751,'thoscapprovcd by thc National Bureau of Standards,or
others of cquivalcnt accuracy.
Tcsts of physical properties. The methods of testing the physical properties of
steel pipe are established in ASTM A370.2 The physical properties rcquircd arc contained
in A % T A CZOO, Standard for Steel Water P i p 6 Inches and Larger? or arc as othcrwisc
specified by the purchaser.
Hydrostatic test ofstraight pipe. Straight lcngrhs of prcssurc pipe and tubing arc This chapter is primarily concerncd with the flow of water in transmission conduits; it is not
customarily subiectcd to an internal hydrostatic pressure tcst. This opcration is conductcd
as a part of the regular mill inspection procedure to helpdetect dckns. It is not intended to intended to covcr nou-s through the complicated netuorks of distribution systems. Because
bear a direct relationship to bunting pressures, working pressures,ordesign data, although rhis manual is a guide to practice rather than a textbook, historical and theoretical
test pressures sometimes influence design pressures. AWWA C200 contains a formula for ------,..--
Ar\~rlonmcntof the many hydraulic flow formulas has heen omitted, as has discussion of
determining hydrostatic test. uniwrsal or rational formulas.
The discussions and data in this chapter are therefore restricted to the three formulas
It is customary to make hydrostatic tests at the pressure rcquircd hy the standard
believed to be most commonly uscd in watcr now calculations in the wcsrcrn hemisphere.
during thc coursc of manufacture ofrhe pipc. The rcquiremcnts for hvdrostatic tcstinr in
the prcscnce of the purchaser's inspector involve additibnal handling, unless thc inspector is
Dcfinit~onsof the h\.draulic and othcr symbols uscd in the following formulas arc given at
the end of the chaptcr.
present during the course of manufacture. The producer, on rcauest, customarilv furnishes
a ccrtificatc confirming such testing.
Tests of dimensional properties. Thc diameter, length, wall thickness, straight- 3.1 FORMULAS
ness, and out-of-roundnes5 of p i p arc chcckcd as part of the normal manufacturing
procedure. Such dimensions are subject ro the tolerances prescribed in the appropriate The Hazen-Williams Formula
standards or tpccifications. Probabl? the most popular formula in current use among waterworks engineers is the
Hazen-Ui'illiams formula. T h ~ formula,
s first puhlishcd in 1904, is:

References ..
I. Mcthds, Pract~cn,and Definitions for 3. Srccl U'a~crPIP 6 Inches a d I.sryr.
Chrrn~cal .4nalpr of Stccl Products. AU'U'A Standard C200-80. AU'U'A. The head loss hl may k calculated from:
ASTM Standard Ai51-77. ASThf. Phil- Dcnvcr, Colo. (1980).
ndclyhn. h (1977).
2 A1c1ho.i~ and hfin~t~orn for Mechanical
Tcwng nf Slrcl Productt ASTM Stand-
ard A l i O - i 7 ASThl. Phdadclphia. PI.
09771
 It 1s common practice in most steel mclting opcrations to ohtain more than one
ladle-test ingot sample from cach hcat or blow; oftcn rhrcc or more arc takcn, rcprcscntlng
the first, middle, and last portions of the heat or blow. Drillings takcn from the first or
middle sample arc used in determining the ladle analysis bccausc cxpericnce has shown that
AWWA M A N U A L
0
these locations most closely represent the chemical analysis of the entire heat or blow. The
additional samples are used for a survey of uniformity and for control purposes.
Check analysis. Check analysis, as used in thc steel industry, mcans analysis of the
metal after it has been rolledor forged intosemifinished or finished forms. Such an analysis
is madc either to verify the average composition of the heat, to verify the compsltion ofa lot
Chapter 3
as rcprcsented by thc ladle analysis,or todctcrminc variations in thccompositionofa hcator
lot. Check analysis is not used, as the term might imply, to confirm the accuracy of a
previous result. Check analysis of known heats is iustificd only where a high dcgrcc of
uniformity of composition is essential-for example, on material that ts to be hcat trcatcd.
Such analysis should rarely be necessary for watcr pipe, cxccpt to identify or confirm the
Hydraulics of Pipelines
assumed analysis of plates or pipe that have lost idcntity. The rcsults of analyscs
rcprcscntingdiffcrent locations in thesame piece, or taken from diffcrcnt pieces of a lot, may
dffcr from cach othcr and from the ladle analysis owing to scgrcgatton. These pcrmissiblc
variar~onsfrom the spcified ranges or limits have been established in the applicable
spcc~~cation or by common practice. The variations arc a natural phenomenon that must bc
rccognned by inspectors. The methods of analysis commonly used are in accordancc with
the latest edition of ASTM ~751,'thoscapprovcd by thc National Bureau of Standards,or
others of cquivalcnt accuracy.
Tcsts of physical properties. The methods of testing the physical properties of
steel pipe are established in ASTM A370.2 The physical properties rcquircd arc contained
in A % T A CZOO, Standard for Steel Water P i p 6 Inches and Larger? or arc as othcrwisc
specified by the purchaser.
Hydrostatic test ofstraight pipe. Straight lcngrhs of prcssurc pipe and tubing arc This chapter is primarily concerncd with the flow of water in transmission conduits; it is not
customarily subiectcd to an internal hydrostatic pressure tcst. This opcration is conductcd
as a part of the regular mill inspection procedure to helpdetect dckns. It is not intended to intended to covcr nou-s through the complicated netuorks of distribution systems. Because
bear a direct relationship to bunting pressures, working pressures,ordesign data, although rhis manual is a guide to practice rather than a textbook, historical and theoretical
test pressures sometimes influence design pressures. AWWA C200 contains a formula for ------,..--
Ar\~rlonmcntof the many hydraulic flow formulas has heen omitted, as has discussion of
determining hydrostatic test. uniwrsal or rational formulas.
The discussions and data in this chapter are therefore restricted to the three formulas
It is customary to make hydrostatic tests at the pressure rcquircd hy the standard
believed to be most commonly uscd in watcr now calculations in the wcsrcrn hemisphere.
during thc coursc of manufacture ofrhe pipc. The rcquiremcnts for hvdrostatic tcstinr in
the prcscnce of the purchaser's inspector involve additibnal handling, unless thc inspector is
Dcfinit~onsof the h\.draulic and othcr symbols uscd in the following formulas arc given at
the end of the chaptcr.
present during the course of manufacture. The producer, on rcauest, customarilv furnishes
a ccrtificatc confirming such testing.
Tests of dimensional properties. Thc diameter, length, wall thickness, straight- 3.1 FORMULAS
ness, and out-of-roundnes5 of p i p arc chcckcd as part of the normal manufacturing
procedure. Such dimensions are subject ro the tolerances prescribed in the appropriate The Hazen-Williams Formula
standards or tpccifications. Probabl? the most popular formula in current use among waterworks engineers is the
Hazen-Ui'illiams formula. T h ~ formula,
s first puhlishcd in 1904, is:

References ..
I. Mcthds, Pract~cn,and Definitions for 3. Srccl U'a~crPIP 6 Inches a d I.sryr.
Chrrn~cal .4nalpr of Stccl Products. AU'U'A Standard C200-80. AU'U'A. The head loss hl may k calculated from:
ASTM Standard Ai51-77. ASThf. Phil- Dcnvcr, Colo. (1980).
ndclyhn. h (1977).
2 A1c1ho.i~ and hfin~t~orn for Mechanical
Tcwng nf Slrcl Productt ASTM Stand-
ard A l i O - i 7 ASThl. Phdadclphia. PI.
09771
 the p i p . Flow measurements show that for pipe with smooth interior linings in good
condition, the average value of C may be approximated by thc formula:

C = 140+0.17d (3-3)

Hou.evcr, in consideration of long-term lining deterioration, slime buildup, ctc., a lower

design value is rccommcndcd, as follows:

A graphical solution of the Hazen-Williams formula forC= 150is prcccntcd in figure

3-1 for pipe sizes 6 in. through 144 in. The multiplying factors in Tahlc 3-1 prortdc a
convenient means of changing the flow capacitics shown in Figurc 3-1 to the f l o ~for
s othcr
values of C.

The Scobey Formula

The Scobey formula for steel pipc,uscd perhaps more commonly in irrigation work than in
the u-aterworks industry, is:

or for determining head loss:

The recommcndcd K,value for new bare steel pipe or pipe with lining conforming to
currcnt A WWA standards is 0.36. A graphical solution to the Scobey formula for K,= 0.36 is
shown in Figure 3-2. Multiplying factors for other friction coefXcients are given in Table
3-2.

The Manning Formula Flgure 3-1 Solution of t h e Hazen-Williams Formula (Based o n V = 1.318 C,r063~0S4 for
The Manning formula is: C, = 150.)

Table 3-1 Multiplying factors Corresponding t o Various Values of C in Hazen-Williams Formuh*

or: Values of C IcrO 155 I50 145 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 b0 40
b w C = I50
Rclatt\~dtwhat~cand r c b
ctr) for pncn kns of hcd
- 1.067 1.033 1000 0 967 0933 0 8 6 i 0 800 0 i33 0 6 6 i 0 fdW 0 533 0400 0267
Rclattrr lo\< of hrad for
For design, an n value of 0.01 1 is recommended forstccl pipc with linings conforming gtvcn d~whsrgc 0887 0941 1000 1065 11% 129; 1511 1iii 2117 2573 3109 5447 11533
to currcnt A W W A standards. A graphical solution to the Manning formula for 11 = 0.01 1 1s 'V\c utth F~gurc1- I
shown in ftgure 3-3. .Multiplyin$ facton for other values of n arc givcn in Tahlc 3-3. bwnr Ilarnard. R li Ikvgn Ctandards for Stccl U'arcr P~pc,7010 4II'V.J. 40 I ?4 Ian l'J.143
 the p i p . Flow measurements show that for pipe with smooth interior linings in good
condition, the average value of C may be approximated by thc formula:

C = 140+0.17d (3-3)

Hou.evcr, in consideration of long-term lining deterioration, slime buildup, ctc., a lower

design value is rccommcndcd, as follows:

A graphical solution of the Hazen-Williams formula forC= 150is prcccntcd in figure

3-1 for pipe sizes 6 in. through 144 in. The multiplying factors in Tahlc 3-1 prortdc a
convenient means of changing the flow capacitics shown in Figurc 3-1 to the f l o ~for
s othcr
values of C.

The Scobey Formula

The Scobey formula for steel pipc,uscd perhaps more commonly in irrigation work than in
the u-aterworks industry, is:

or for determining head loss:

The recommcndcd K,value for new bare steel pipe or pipe with lining conforming to
currcnt A WWA standards is 0.36. A graphical solution to the Scobey formula for K,= 0.36 is
shown in Figure 3-2. Multiplying factors for other friction coefXcients are given in Table
3-2.

The Manning Formula Flgure 3-1 Solution of t h e Hazen-Williams Formula (Based o n V = 1.318 C,r063~0S4 for
The Manning formula is: C, = 150.)

Table 3-1 Multiplying factors Corresponding t o Various Values of C in Hazen-Williams Formuh*

or: Values of C IcrO 155 I50 145 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 b0 40
b w C = I50
Rclatt\~dtwhat~cand r c b
ctr) for pncn kns of hcd
- 1.067 1.033 1000 0 967 0933 0 8 6 i 0 800 0 i33 0 6 6 i 0 fdW 0 533 0400 0267
Rclattrr lo\< of hrad for
For design, an n value of 0.01 1 is recommended forstccl pipc with linings conforming gtvcn d~whsrgc 0887 0941 1000 1065 11% 129; 1511 1iii 2117 2573 3109 5447 11533
to currcnt A W W A standards. A graphical solution to the Manning formula for 11 = 0.01 1 1s 'V\c utth F~gurc1- I
shown in ftgure 3-3. .Multiplyin$ facton for other values of n arc givcn in Tahlc 3-3. bwnr Ilarnard. R li Ikvgn Ctandards for Stccl U'arcr P~pc,7010 4II'V.J. 40 I ?4 Ian l'J.143
 3.2 CALCULATIONS hcad loss in tong lines with low veloc~ries,the sumolvclocity hcad loss and entrance hcad
loss, may bc relatively insignificant; in short lines with h ~ g bvelocities, this sun1 becomes
Computations for Flow Through
-
Pipe
. very imprtant. Ordinary tables and charts showing flow of water in prpe usually give only
'I'he quantityofwatcr that wdl pass lhrough any given p i p dcpnds on the head (pressure) the friction head loss in straight pipe. In long lines, this is the largest loss.
rroduclng thc flo~.,the diamctcr and length of the pipe, the condition of the p i p interior In the final correct solution to a flow problem, the sum of all losscs must equal the
h m t h or rough), the numhcr and abruptness of bends or elbows, and thc prcscnce of tees, available head, or pressure, producing the flow. The foregoing formulas dcterminc H or I f ,
branches. valves, and other accessories in the line. and the volume of flow Q is found from:
I h e total head,or prcssurc,affcctingflowmay hc dividcd inrofourparts: velocitv head
loss. entrance head loss, loss of head through friction, and minor losses duc to tibows,
litrings. and valrcs.
The information contained in T a b l a 3-5 through 3-9 will be uxrul when making
Velocity Head Loss ( V 2/2n)
-,
hydraulic calculations.
Vclw~tyhcad loss is defined as the height through u hich a body must fall in a vacuum to Flow Through Fittings-Equivalent-Length Method
acqutrc the velocity at which the water flows in the pipe. This loss is usually considered to he
unrccovcrablc at the outlet. Numerical values arc given in Tahlc 3-4. Espcriments have shown that the head loss in hends, fittings, and valves is related to flow
velocity and pipe diamctcr in a manner somewhat similar to that in straight pipe.
Entrance Head Loss
l 3 m n c c hcad loss is the hcad required to overcome the resistance at the entrance to the Table 3-5 Slope Conversions
IVG 111s usually less than the velocity head. Urhcn the conditions arc not spcc~ficd,it is -
ordinarily considered equal toone-half the vclocity head,on the aqsumption of a sharp-dge 4 5
I 2 3 Lenplh of Pipe in
FaU p Drop per 1000 it Drop pcr Mik
entrance. Safe values for theordinary entrancc hcad loss ma! be obtained from Table 3-4 by I-ft Drop
taking half the velocity head corresponding to the velocity in thc pipeline. Head losses for Fca of P ~ p e Grade of Pipe of h p e of Prpe /r
other than sharp-edge cntrancn may be found in treatises on hydraulics. Ir 46 P 1
1

0.005 0.05 0.264 20 000.0

10 000.0
Loss of Head Through
- Friction 0.01
0 02
0 10
0.20
0 528
1.056
5 000.0
3 330.0
Friction head loss may he determined hy one of the formulas that have heen dircusscd 0 03 0 30 1.584 25030
prcv~ously.(Data arc given in this chapter to aid in solving the formulas.) 0.04 0 40 2 112

Minor Losses Due to Elbows, Fittings, and Valves

In long lines, minor hcad lasses due to bends and fittings arc occasionally ignored. In any
given line, however, it is best to consider all losses so that no imprtant facton ueill be
overlooked. The minor losses should always he recognized when evaluating florv tcsts. Total

Table 3-4 lheoretiul Head Corresponding to G M n V e ~ o c i t y - ~ ~ / ~ ~

Vclont\ H V~IWII~ ^...-c--

. .
IPS I3ca.J
P /PJ h
I 0 02
2 16 40
OM C0
3 0 14 18
4 0 25 --
6.2
1 3
 3.2 CALCULATIONS hcad loss in tong lines with low veloc~ries,the sumolvclocity hcad loss and entrance hcad
loss, may bc relatively insignificant; in short lines with h ~ g bvelocities, this sun1 becomes
Computations for Flow Through
-
Pipe
. very imprtant. Ordinary tables and charts showing flow of water in prpe usually give only
'I'he quantityofwatcr that wdl pass lhrough any given p i p dcpnds on the head (pressure) the friction head loss in straight pipe. In long lines, this is the largest loss.
rroduclng thc flo~.,the diamctcr and length of the pipe, the condition of the p i p interior In the final correct solution to a flow problem, the sum of all losscs must equal the
h m t h or rough), the numhcr and abruptness of bends or elbows, and thc prcscnce of tees, available head, or pressure, producing the flow. The foregoing formulas dcterminc H or I f ,
branches. valves, and other accessories in the line. and the volume of flow Q is found from:
I h e total head,or prcssurc,affcctingflowmay hc dividcd inrofourparts: velocitv head
loss. entrance head loss, loss of head through friction, and minor losses duc to tibows,
litrings. and valrcs.
The information contained in T a b l a 3-5 through 3-9 will be uxrul when making
Velocity Head Loss ( V 2/2n)
-,
hydraulic calculations.
Vclw~tyhcad loss is defined as the height through u hich a body must fall in a vacuum to Flow Through Fittings-Equivalent-Length Method
acqutrc the velocity at which the water flows in the pipe. This loss is usually considered to he
unrccovcrablc at the outlet. Numerical values arc given in Tahlc 3-4. Espcriments have shown that the head loss in hends, fittings, and valves is related to flow
velocity and pipe diamctcr in a manner somewhat similar to that in straight pipe.
Entrance Head Loss
l 3 m n c c hcad loss is the hcad required to overcome the resistance at the entrance to the Table 3-5 Slope Conversions
IVG 111s usually less than the velocity head. Urhcn the conditions arc not spcc~ficd,it is -
ordinarily considered equal toone-half the vclocity head,on the aqsumption of a sharp-dge 4 5
I 2 3 Lenplh of Pipe in
FaU p Drop per 1000 it Drop pcr Mik
entrance. Safe values for theordinary entrancc hcad loss ma! be obtained from Table 3-4 by I-ft Drop
taking half the velocity head corresponding to the velocity in thc pipeline. Head losses for Fca of P ~ p e Grade of Pipe of h p e of Prpe /r
other than sharp-edge cntrancn may be found in treatises on hydraulics. Ir 46 P 1
1

0.005 0.05 0.264 20 000.0

10 000.0
Loss of Head Through
- Friction 0.01
0 02
0 10
0.20
0 528
1.056
5 000.0
3 330.0
Friction head loss may he determined hy one of the formulas that have heen dircusscd 0 03 0 30 1.584 25030
prcv~ously.(Data arc given in this chapter to aid in solving the formulas.) 0.04 0 40 2 112

Minor Losses Due to Elbows, Fittings, and Valves

In long lines, minor hcad lasses due to bends and fittings arc occasionally ignored. In any
given line, however, it is best to consider all losses so that no imprtant facton ueill be
overlooked. The minor losses should always he recognized when evaluating florv tcsts. Total

Table 3-4 lheoretiul Head Corresponding to G M n V e ~ o c i t y - ~ ~ / ~ ~

Vclont\ H V~IWII~ ^...-c--

. .
IPS I3ca.J
P /PJ h
I 0 02
2 16 40
OM C0
3 0 14 18
4 0 25 --
6.2
1 3
2s \ 1 1 1 1 1'11'1

TaWe 3-6 Flow Equivalents

Table 3-7 Pressure (psi) for Heads (ft)

Additional Ilcad\
0 +I +2 +3 +J +5 *(, *7 +R +9
.- -
Und Pressure
P Pn'
0 - 0.43 0.87 1.30 1.73 2 16 2 60 303 3.16 390
10 433 476 520 563 606 649 693 736 779 823
20 866 909 953 9% 10.39 1082 1126 1169 I212 1256
30 1299 13.42 1386 1429 1472 15.15 1559 I602 1645 IhH9
40 15 32 17.75 18 19 18.62 19.05 1948 19.92 20 35 20 78 21 22
50 21 65 2208 22 52 2295 23 38 23 81 24.25 24 ?A 25 l l 25 55
60 2598 2641 2685 27.28 2771 2814 2858 2901 2944 29%
70 3031 XI74 3118 3161 3204 324; 3291 3334 3377 3421
80 M 3507 35.51 35 94 36 37 36 Po 37 24 17 h7 36 ID 38 54
W 3897 3940 3984 4027 4070 41 13 41 57 4200 42 13 4287
Smrcc Barnard, R L D n q n Standards for Stecl U'atcr PIP. ]mu. AU'UA. 40 I 24 (Jan 19.18).

Table 3-8 Head (fr) for Pressures (psl)

Additional Heads
n -1 rz *A +5 +6 +7 +8 +9
Pmwc Head
P" /r
0 - 2.3 4.6 69 92 11 5 13 9 16 2 18.5 208
10 23.1 25.4 2i.7 300 32.3 34 6 XI^ 393 41.6 439
20 46.2 48.5 50.8 53 1 55.4 5i 7 600 624 7 670
30 693 71.6 73.9 76.2 785 808 83.1 854 87.8 W.1
40 924 94.7 97.0 99.3 101 6 103.9 106.2 108.5 1108 1132
50 115.5 1178 1M.I 122.4 1247 127.0 129.3 131.6 133.9 136.3
60 I386 140.9 143.2 145.5 147.8 150.1 152.4 154.7 1570 159.3
70 161.7 1640 166.3 1686 1709 173.2 175.5 177.8 I801 1824
80 184.8 187.1 1894 191.7 194.0 1%.3 1986 200.9 203.2 2055
90 207.9 210.2 212.5 214.8 2171 2194 221.7 2240 2263 2286

S n w c c ~Barnard. R E.D n ~ g nStandard; for Stecl Water Ptpe.Jour. Atl'lT'A. 40.1.24 (Jan. 1948).

Table 3-9 Pressure Equivdents

hlcrcu~ Wkta hicrcury Water

I. in PJ' tn m. Pa
Consequently, it is pssihle to dctcrmine the lenpth ofa rheorcucal picce of straight p i p in
which the head loss duc to friction would he the same as for some fitting. Thir method of I 13.6 0.49 13 1768 6 38
equivalent Icngths is rccqnized by se\.rraI author~tics.'.~Ry dcreloping the total equivalent 2 2i.2 0 98 14 1904 6 87
3 40 8 147 15 mi.0 7 3h
length (piping plus bends, fittings; vajycs, etc.), thc total head lo<\ in a pip~ngsyrtrm can 4 54 4 I.% 16 217.6 7 85
easily k dctermincd.
'I'hc clas~icalequation dcrelopcd by Darcy-\Veishach for energy low of now in a
pipline it:
2s \ 1 1 1 1 1'11'1

TaWe 3-6 Flow Equivalents

Table 3-7 Pressure (psi) for Heads (ft)

Additional Ilcad\
0 +I +2 +3 +J +5 *(, *7 +R +9
.- -
Und Pressure
P Pn'
0 - 0.43 0.87 1.30 1.73 2 16 2 60 303 3.16 390
10 433 476 520 563 606 649 693 736 779 823
20 866 909 953 9% 10.39 1082 1126 1169 I212 1256
30 1299 13.42 1386 1429 1472 15.15 1559 I602 1645 IhH9
40 15 32 17.75 18 19 18.62 19.05 1948 19.92 20 35 20 78 21 22
50 21 65 2208 22 52 2295 23 38 23 81 24.25 24 ?A 25 l l 25 55
60 2598 2641 2685 27.28 2771 2814 2858 2901 2944 29%
70 3031 XI74 3118 3161 3204 324; 3291 3334 3377 3421
80 M 3507 35.51 35 94 36 37 36 Po 37 24 17 h7 36 ID 38 54
W 3897 3940 3984 4027 4070 41 13 41 57 4200 42 13 4287
Smrcc Barnard, R L D n q n Standards for Stecl U'atcr PIP. ]mu. AU'UA. 40 I 24 (Jan 19.18).

Table 3-8 Head (fr) for Pressures (psl)

Additional Heads
n -1 rz *A +5 +6 +7 +8 +9
Pmwc Head
P" /r
0 - 2.3 4.6 69 92 11 5 13 9 16 2 18.5 208
10 23.1 25.4 2i.7 300 32.3 34 6 XI^ 393 41.6 439
20 46.2 48.5 50.8 53 1 55.4 5i 7 600 624 7 670
30 693 71.6 73.9 76.2 785 808 83.1 854 87.8 W.1
40 924 94.7 97.0 99.3 101 6 103.9 106.2 108.5 1108 1132
50 115.5 1178 1M.I 122.4 1247 127.0 129.3 131.6 133.9 136.3
60 I386 140.9 143.2 145.5 147.8 150.1 152.4 154.7 1570 159.3
70 161.7 1640 166.3 1686 1709 173.2 175.5 177.8 I801 1824
80 184.8 187.1 1894 191.7 194.0 1%.3 1986 200.9 203.2 2055
90 207.9 210.2 212.5 214.8 2171 2194 221.7 2240 2263 2286

S n w c c ~Barnard. R E.D n ~ g nStandard; for Stecl Water Ptpe.Jour. Atl'lT'A. 40.1.24 (Jan. 1948).

Table 3-9 Pressure Equivdents

hlcrcu~ Wkta hicrcury Water

I. in PJ' tn m. Pa
Consequently, it is pssihle to dctcrmine the lenpth ofa rheorcucal picce of straight p i p in
which the head loss duc to friction would he the same as for some fitting. Thir method of I 13.6 0.49 13 1768 6 38
equivalent Icngths is rccqnized by se\.rraI author~tics.'.~Ry dcreloping the total equivalent 2 2i.2 0 98 14 1904 6 87
3 40 8 147 15 mi.0 7 3h
length (piping plus bends, fittings; vajycs, etc.), thc total head lo<\ in a pip~ngsyrtrm can 4 54 4 I.% 16 217.6 7 85
easily k dctermincd.
'I'hc clas~icalequation dcrelopcd by Darcy-\Veishach for energy low of now in a
pipline it:
S D W C C John r Im.wa P ~ ~ r u l wLCna.C
l fnc -*~rsn(l nc

Figure 3-4 Resistance Coefficients of Valves and Fittings for Fluid Flow
S D W C C John r Im.wa P ~ ~ r u l wLCna.C
l fnc -*~rsn(l nc

Figure 3-4 Resistance Coefficients of Valves and Fittings for Fluid Flow
 velocity, p ~ p cdiameter, and flu~dv~scosity.Valuer for/ have bccn dcvclopcd hy hlondy'
and others. Wtth a known/and LID,the Darcy-W'cishach fornlula can he caprer\cd a\: Aqueducts
lkonomtc studws of largc aqueducts arc frequently complicated hy the desrrabiliry of
comh~ningdifferent mcans of carrying water-fur cxamplc, through open conduits, pipe,
and tunncls-in the same system. ~ l i n d s demonstrated
~.~ the usc of graphical means in
mak~ngsuch studies in rhc dcsrgn ofthc Colorado Rivcr Aqucducr. The method of finding
In this equation, K is the resistance coefficicnt. Figure 3-4 shows values for K hascd on a cconomical slopcs elahorated by Hinds had hcen used previously in the destgn of the Owens
summary ofcxprimental data. Kivcr Aqucduct of 1.0s Angclcs%nd the Catskill Aqucduct of New York.'
Examples to determine hcad loss HLfor fittings and valves and equivalent pipe lengths
using Figure 3-4 are as follows: Penstocks
For penstocks whcrc the cost of steel may he expressed as a function of its netght, the
followtng f o r m u ~ ahas
~ - hccn
~ found convcntcnt for qurck approxtmatlon ofthe best p i p
w c a\ J h a m for further detailed study:
Pipe = 6 in. C = 100
Flow=450gpm 1'=5.12fps

An old ruleq for penstocks that approximated Eq 3-12 stated that, " P i p fulfills the
rcquircmcnrs ofgrcatc~teconomy whcrci~ithe valuc ofthccncrgy annually lost in frictional
1. 6-in. gate valve, fully o p n : resistance equals 0.4 of the annual cost ofthe pipeline."
To dctermim a practical minimum pipe thickness r for use with penstocks under Iow
K = 0.2 HL '0.2 x 0.4 1 = 0.08 it hcad, the follou*ingformula may be
2. 6-in. swing check valve, fully open:
K = 1.4 HL*1.4x0.41= 0.57ft
3 Sudden cnlargcmcnt from 6 in. to F In.:

Because thcse formulas relate the annual cost of the prpe and the annual cost d p o w r
lost in owrcomtng friction, they may aid in dctcrmrning the economical diamcter of a
4. 6-in. elbow: pumping line prior to further detailed study.
K = 0.6 HL = 0.6 X 0.4 1 ' 0.25 ft
Total head loss 0.97 ft 3.4 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
hlcthods of determining economical sizes of pipc for distribution systcms have been
't'sing the Hazcn-Will~amsformula. the equivalent p i p length for 6-in. p i p , C = 100
puh~ished!~
with a HI. = 0.97 ft. equals 33.3 ft.

3.5 AIR ENTRAINMENT AND RELEASE

3.3 ECONOMICAL DIAMETER OF PIPE - Air entrained in flowing water tends to form bubhles at or ncar the summits In a pipeline. If
not rcmovcd, F U C huhhles
~ hecome serious obstacles to flou. Thc formarton of a hydraulic
Hydraulic formulas will gtvc the rclatlon herween flou'rate and head loss in prpes of various
jump tn a pipc at thc cnd ofthesc huhhlcs is an tmportant rcason to remove the atr. Possible
diamctm and tntcrior mrface cond~tions.When a ltmitcd amount of hcad loss is avatlablc,
air cntrainmcnt and I N rcmoval must he constdercd and remcdtes applied IC needed. llu
the usual dcrign procedure is to selccr the smallc,t diametcr that will deliver the required
abtlity ofthc hvdraultc lump to cntrain the air and tocarry tt away by the flowtng watcr has
flou u hcn utrl~zingthe ava~lahlchead: Thrs rcrults in the least construction cost. W'hcrc
hccn invcsttgatcd Quantrtsttvc data hare hccn published" rclattng charactcr~st~cs of the
head IS provided by pumptng. a part of the cost is for energy to provide hcad to ovcrcomc
lump to the rare of a n removal. Removal of atr through alr vahcs is d~scusscdIn Chapter 9.
fr~ctlon.The cost for cncrgy dccrcases ac p i p diamctcr increases and friction losses
Jccrcaw; honc~cr.thccost for the ptpc tncrcaw. Theohjectivc is usually to minimrzc total
a l operation. and malnrcnancc) by rclecting the pipe diamcter that results in
cost f ~ n t t ~cost. 3.6 GOOD PRACTICE
Ica\r I~fc-c!clccort fincrgyco\ts mav ;rro\c to he the mnst significant cost Houcvcr, u hcn
Watcruorks cngrnccn should use thc hydraulic-frict~onformulas s tth whmh they arc mnst
rndktng an .t\wkmcnt offuturr r n c r p rcw\. cart murt hc takcn to rcducc u c h costs to thc
famtlrar and utth u h ~ c hthe! have ha4 expcrtcncc 'Shrcc of the rotnmon con\cnttonal
L \111r1hon u h ~ all
~ C \ 111 h orhcr twr\ of thc cvrnpariurn\ hd\c hrcn prc~ltcated.
lormula< hatc brcn dt\cu\~cJrn tht* chapter In an\ 1 ~ 1 1 ular
, raw. rhc rcwlr- zalculdted
 velocity, p ~ p cdiameter, and flu~dv~scosity.Valuer for/ have bccn dcvclopcd hy hlondy'
and others. Wtth a known/and LID,the Darcy-W'cishach fornlula can he caprer\cd a\: Aqueducts
lkonomtc studws of largc aqueducts arc frequently complicated hy the desrrabiliry of
comh~ningdifferent mcans of carrying water-fur cxamplc, through open conduits, pipe,
and tunncls-in the same system. ~ l i n d s demonstrated
~.~ the usc of graphical means in
mak~ngsuch studies in rhc dcsrgn ofthc Colorado Rivcr Aqucducr. The method of finding
In this equation, K is the resistance coefficicnt. Figure 3-4 shows values for K hascd on a cconomical slopcs elahorated by Hinds had hcen used previously in the destgn of the Owens
summary ofcxprimental data. Kivcr Aqucduct of 1.0s Angclcs%nd the Catskill Aqucduct of New York.'
Examples to determine hcad loss HLfor fittings and valves and equivalent pipe lengths
using Figure 3-4 are as follows: Penstocks
For penstocks whcrc the cost of steel may he expressed as a function of its netght, the
followtng f o r m u ~ ahas
~ - hccn
~ found convcntcnt for qurck approxtmatlon ofthe best p i p
w c a\ J h a m for further detailed study:
Pipe = 6 in. C = 100
Flow=450gpm 1'=5.12fps

An old ruleq for penstocks that approximated Eq 3-12 stated that, " P i p fulfills the
rcquircmcnrs ofgrcatc~teconomy whcrci~ithe valuc ofthccncrgy annually lost in frictional
1. 6-in. gate valve, fully o p n : resistance equals 0.4 of the annual cost ofthe pipeline."
To dctermim a practical minimum pipe thickness r for use with penstocks under Iow
K = 0.2 HL '0.2 x 0.4 1 = 0.08 it hcad, the follou*ingformula may be
2. 6-in. swing check valve, fully open:
K = 1.4 HL*1.4x0.41= 0.57ft
3 Sudden cnlargcmcnt from 6 in. to F In.:

Because thcse formulas relate the annual cost of the prpe and the annual cost d p o w r
lost in owrcomtng friction, they may aid in dctcrmrning the economical diamcter of a
4. 6-in. elbow: pumping line prior to further detailed study.
K = 0.6 HL = 0.6 X 0.4 1 ' 0.25 ft
Total head loss 0.97 ft 3.4 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
hlcthods of determining economical sizes of pipc for distribution systcms have been
't'sing the Hazcn-Will~amsformula. the equivalent p i p length for 6-in. p i p , C = 100
puh~ished!~
with a HI. = 0.97 ft. equals 33.3 ft.

3.5 AIR ENTRAINMENT AND RELEASE

3.3 ECONOMICAL DIAMETER OF PIPE - Air entrained in flowing water tends to form bubhles at or ncar the summits In a pipeline. If
not rcmovcd, F U C huhhles
~ hecome serious obstacles to flou. Thc formarton of a hydraulic
Hydraulic formulas will gtvc the rclatlon herween flou'rate and head loss in prpes of various
jump tn a pipc at thc cnd ofthesc huhhlcs is an tmportant rcason to remove the atr. Possible
diamctm and tntcrior mrface cond~tions.When a ltmitcd amount of hcad loss is avatlablc,
air cntrainmcnt and I N rcmoval must he constdercd and remcdtes applied IC needed. llu
the usual dcrign procedure is to selccr the smallc,t diametcr that will deliver the required
abtlity ofthc hvdraultc lump to cntrain the air and tocarry tt away by the flowtng watcr has
flou u hcn utrl~zingthe ava~lahlchead: Thrs rcrults in the least construction cost. W'hcrc
hccn invcsttgatcd Quantrtsttvc data hare hccn published" rclattng charactcr~st~cs of the
head IS provided by pumptng. a part of the cost is for energy to provide hcad to ovcrcomc
lump to the rare of a n removal. Removal of atr through alr vahcs is d~scusscdIn Chapter 9.
fr~ctlon.The cost for cncrgy dccrcases ac p i p diamctcr increases and friction losses
Jccrcaw; honc~cr.thccost for the ptpc tncrcaw. Theohjectivc is usually to minimrzc total
a l operation. and malnrcnancc) by rclecting the pipe diamcter that results in
cost f ~ n t t ~cost. 3.6 GOOD PRACTICE
Ica\r I~fc-c!clccort fincrgyco\ts mav ;rro\c to he the mnst significant cost Houcvcr, u hcn
Watcruorks cngrnccn should use thc hydraulic-frict~onformulas s tth whmh they arc mnst
rndktng an .t\wkmcnt offuturr r n c r p rcw\. cart murt hc takcn to rcducc u c h costs to thc
famtlrar and utth u h ~ c hthe! have ha4 expcrtcncc 'Shrcc of the rotnmon con\cnttonal
L \111r1hon u h ~ all
~ C \ 111 h orhcr twr\ of thc cvrnpariurn\ hd\c hrcn prc~ltcated.
lormula< hatc brcn dt\cu\~cJrn tht* chapter In an\ 1 ~ 1 1 ular
, raw. rhc rcwlr- zalculdted
 ustng the d1lfcrent convrnttonal formulac can be comparctl Enclncers should, howcvcr, - HD&\ C \' . cd If~nJtwokoJ A p r M
IS.
rccogntx the tncrcastng uw of the rational or universal lormulas, hccomc familiar w t h ~ J r o ~ hMcGrau-Htll
~s BookCo ,~'cw'
York (2nd cd ,1952)
thcm,and makcchcck calculattons using thcm. A practtcal cocffictent value for thc Ibrmulas
should hc conservarivcly sclcctcd.
- F+Rssrtwkt. GEORGE. JR.& ROCSASO,
hi C;YST.JR Appltcston of the Hardy
T h c resultr of flow tests wtll gcncrally he morc useful if rclarctl to thc rattonal conccpt Cross hlcthod to I)lstrthutinn System
of fluid flow. Thic cntatls morc attention to relativc surfacc roughness, watcr tcmperaturc, Prohlcms 7wr. AtT'Il"A, 3X2.224 (Fcb.
The jollwing rejerencts art nor circd in
Reynolds numbers,and an analysic of test rcsults aimcd at fitting thcm into the frameofthc rhr 1~x1.
fluid-mechanics approach to now dctcrmination.
- A~nutcn,E.H. SoluttonolTnnsmission (SOV.' 1946). -
Prohlems of a U'atcr S!xtem. Trans.
Definition of Symbols ASCI:', 103:1579 (1938). - K~uG,
Grau-HIII Rook Co .h'ca York (4th cd.,
H \T II~ndhmC~ j H ~ d r ~ ~hie-
iI~c~.
H y d r a u l i c synlhols: - R~RSARI), R E. Dcvgn Standards for
IOi.1)
Steel \Yatcr PIW. -70ur ACWA, 40.1:24
area of p i p (sq ft) (Jan.1948). - bltwu\. L F Frtctton Faanrq for P t p ~
tIa7en-Williams cocfficicnt - RR~I.EY J .X. & THO\~PSOS. L.R Fric-
rton Factors of Lar$c Condun< Flowing
Flou. Tr~nrAShlE, 66 671 (191.1)
- P ~ . o r r .R J S Prersure I.osWs tn Tuh-
dtamctcr of p p c (ft) Full. Enp~nccr~ngMonopraph i , US In$. Ptpc. and Fttt~ngs Trdm AAhfl:',
diamctcr of ptpe (in.) Burcau of Rcclamatton 0951) i: h79 (19501
Darcy friction factor - C~PFS. C H Trends m Coefficscnts of
Large P r e w m P~pes ]our AU 'CA,
- p p. Fnnrnt.w.Vonuul Ilpdraul~cinrt~tutc,
Scu Sork (1954)
accclcrat~onofgracity (32 2 fps/s) - P:pchnc D e q n for U'arcr and U'astc-
33 1 l (Jan. 19411
hcad loss (fr) in ptpc lcngrh I. (ft)
hcad loss (ft) in 1000 ft of pipe
- C~TES. W H Dcs~gnStandards for Large-
Dtamcter Sacl Water PIP ]our A It 'W';4,
u atcr Rcprt of the Task Comtn~rreeon
Eopnccr~ngPract~cc In the Dcrtgn of
P~peltnes 4SCE. New York (1975).
Scohey constant
length of pipe (TI) -
42 9 860 (Scpt. 1930)
Cnoss, HARDY. .4nrl!srs of Flow tn Set- - Reprt of Comm~ttccon Ptpcl~ncFrtctlon
Cocffictcnts and Eficn of Agc Thctcon
u o r h of Condun\ of Gmdwton Bull
Manning coeffictenr 2R6. En&! Expt Stn , Unn of llltnots, ]our KEII'IT'A, 49 235 (1935)
discharge (cfs) Urhnna. Ill. (Nor 1936)
hydraulic radius of pipe (A)
J = A!!-=
1000i- s l o p of hydraulic gradient
I' = mean velocity (fps).
O t h c r symbols:
b = value of power (S/hp/yr)
Q, = average discharge (cfs)
S = allowable unit stress in steel (psi)
r = pipe thickness (in.)
a = cost of stecl ( W h )
i = yearly fixed charges on pipeline, expressed as a ratio
H, = average hcad o n pcnstock including natcr hammer (ft).

References
I. CRMKFR.SABIX.ed. Aptng Hondlunl.
XlcGrau-H111Rook Co,Scu York (4th
c -d . 19151
-,
2 Flou of Flu& Throu~hValrcs, F~tt~ngs,
and Ptpc Tcch Paper 409, Crane Co
Chaapo (1942).
.
3 Mocmr , L F. Friction Facton for P&
FIou Amcrtcan Soocts of Mcchmtcsl
Enpnccn. Scu York
4 HINDS.It I IAS EConom~U'atcr Can-
dual S I Y C 1:'npntrrtnf Sr:r s Rrrerd,
I18 113(1937)
5 --- kconom~cSt?c%of Prcwwc Con-
dtl~t\ I O C I ~ I C C ~ IST::.
~C Rnlmf. 1 1.54 t 3
(IVtit
 ustng the d1lfcrent convrnttonal formulac can be comparctl Enclncers should, howcvcr, - HD&\ C \' . cd If~nJtwokoJ A p r M
IS.
rccogntx the tncrcastng uw of the rational or universal lormulas, hccomc familiar w t h ~ J r o ~ hMcGrau-Htll
~s BookCo ,~'cw'
York (2nd cd ,1952)
thcm,and makcchcck calculattons using thcm. A practtcal cocffictent value for thc Ibrmulas
should hc conservarivcly sclcctcd.
- F+Rssrtwkt. GEORGE. JR.& ROCSASO,
hi C;YST.JR Appltcston of the Hardy
T h c resultr of flow tests wtll gcncrally he morc useful if rclarctl to thc rattonal conccpt Cross hlcthod to I)lstrthutinn System
of fluid flow. Thic cntatls morc attention to relativc surfacc roughness, watcr tcmperaturc, Prohlcms 7wr. AtT'Il"A, 3X2.224 (Fcb.
The jollwing rejerencts art nor circd in
Reynolds numbers,and an analysic of test rcsults aimcd at fitting thcm into the frameofthc rhr 1~x1.
fluid-mechanics approach to now dctcrmination.
- A~nutcn,E.H. SoluttonolTnnsmission (SOV.' 1946). -
Prohlems of a U'atcr S!xtem. Trans.
Definition of Symbols ASCI:', 103:1579 (1938). - K~uG,
Grau-HIII Rook Co .h'ca York (4th cd.,
H \T II~ndhmC~ j H ~ d r ~ ~hie-
iI~c~.
H y d r a u l i c synlhols: - R~RSARI), R E. Dcvgn Standards for
IOi.1)
Steel \Yatcr PIW. -70ur ACWA, 40.1:24
area of p i p (sq ft) (Jan.1948). - bltwu\. L F Frtctton Faanrq for P t p ~
tIa7en-Williams cocfficicnt - RR~I.EY J .X. & THO\~PSOS. L.R Fric-
rton Factors of Lar$c Condun< Flowing
Flou. Tr~nrAShlE, 66 671 (191.1)
- P ~ . o r r .R J S Prersure I.osWs tn Tuh-
dtamctcr of p p c (ft) Full. Enp~nccr~ngMonopraph i , US In$. Ptpc. and Fttt~ngs Trdm AAhfl:',
diamctcr of ptpe (in.) Burcau of Rcclamatton 0951) i: h79 (19501
Darcy friction factor - C~PFS. C H Trends m Coefficscnts of
Large P r e w m P~pes ]our AU 'CA,
- p p. Fnnrnt.w.Vonuul Ilpdraul~cinrt~tutc,
Scu Sork (1954)
accclcrat~onofgracity (32 2 fps/s) - P:pchnc D e q n for U'arcr and U'astc-
33 1 l (Jan. 19411
hcad loss (fr) in ptpc lcngrh I. (ft)
hcad loss (ft) in 1000 ft of pipe
- C~TES. W H Dcs~gnStandards for Large-
Dtamcter Sacl Water PIP ]our A It 'W';4,
u atcr Rcprt of the Task Comtn~rreeon
Eopnccr~ngPract~cc In the Dcrtgn of
P~peltnes 4SCE. New York (1975).
Scohey constant
length of pipe (TI) -
42 9 860 (Scpt. 1930)
Cnoss, HARDY. .4nrl!srs of Flow tn Set- - Reprt of Comm~ttccon Ptpcl~ncFrtctlon
Cocffictcnts and Eficn of Agc Thctcon
u o r h of Condun\ of Gmdwton Bull
Manning coeffictenr 2R6. En&! Expt Stn , Unn of llltnots, ]our KEII'IT'A, 49 235 (1935)
discharge (cfs) Urhnna. Ill. (Nor 1936)
hydraulic radius of pipe (A)
J = A!!-=
1000i- s l o p of hydraulic gradient
I' = mean velocity (fps).
O t h c r symbols:
b = value of power (S/hp/yr)
Q, = average discharge (cfs)
S = allowable unit stress in steel (psi)
r = pipe thickness (in.)
a = cost of stecl ( W h )
i = yearly fixed charges on pipeline, expressed as a ratio
H, = average hcad o n pcnstock including natcr hammer (ft).

References
I. CRMKFR.SABIX.ed. Aptng Hondlunl.
XlcGrau-H111Rook Co,Scu York (4th
c -d . 19151
-,
2 Flou of Flu& Throu~hValrcs, F~tt~ngs,
and Ptpc Tcch Paper 409, Crane Co
Chaapo (1942).
.
3 Mocmr , L F. Friction Facton for P&
FIou Amcrtcan Soocts of Mcchmtcsl
Enpnccn. Scu York
4 HINDS.It I IAS EConom~U'atcr Can-
dual S I Y C 1:'npntrrtnf Sr:r s Rrrerd,
I18 113(1937)
5 --- kconom~cSt?c%of Prcwwc Con-
dtl~t\ I O C I ~ I C C ~ IST::.
~C Rnlmf. 1 1.54 t 3
(IVtit
 bctween the pipe centcrl~ncand the elcvat~onof thc rtatrc Ic\cl ulth the sal\cs closcd. Surgc
or uarer-hammer pressures must also be considcrcd 'I'hcsc arc d~scussed111 Chapter 5. In a
pump-d~schargcpipellne, [he inrcrnal pressurc IS mcawrcd hy the dlstance hetween the
p p c and the hydraulic grade line created by the pumping opcration. Prcs~ureat the outlet
and the loss due to fricrioncntcr into thisdetcrminat~on.If 111s poss~blcto I m p w a prcssurc

Chapter 4 cqual to the shutofi head of the pumps, thc pressure 1s measured between the ptpe and the
shutoffgrade line. F1gurcs4-1 and 4-2show typical plpcllne and h)draul~cgrodcprofiles for
g r a v q and pumped flow.
K'nh pressurc detcrmincd, the wall thickncss I< found usmg Eq 4-1.

Determination of Pipe
Wall Thickness I = uall thickness (in.)
p = pressure (psi)
d = outside dlamctcr of pipe (in.) stcel cylinder (not lncludlng coatings)
r = allowable strcss (psi).

The wall thlikncss of steel pipe is affected by a number of factors that st111bc discussed In
this and sucsecding chapters, including the following:
1. Inrernal prcssure
a. Maxlmum de4gn prcssurc (Chapter 4)
b. Surge or water-hammer prcssure (Chapter 5)
2. External prcssurc Figure 4-1 Relation of Various H e a d s o r Figure 4-2 Relation of Various Heads o r
Pressures for Selection of Design Pressure Pressures for Selection of Design Pressure
a. Trench loadlng prcssure (Chaprcr 6)
(Gravity Flow) (Pumped Flow)
h. Earth-fill pressurc (Chapter 6)
c. tlniform collapse prcssurc, atmosphcric or hydraulic (Chaptcr 4)
d. \'acuum underground (Chapter 6)
4.2 WORKING TENSION STRESS IN STEEL
3. Specla1 physical loadlng
a. Pipe on saddle supports (Chapter 7)
Tension Stress and Yield Strength
/v&L,L& wkA+jh
\
h. Pipe on r~ng-girdersupports (Chaptcr 7) \
4. Pract~calrcqulremcnrs (Chapter 4) Modern stccl technology has allowed increases in thcallo\vable uorking stress for stcel, with \
thrs working stress determined with relation to the steel's !~cldstrength rather than 11s
The th~ckncssselected should be that whlch satlsfies the most sc\crc requirement. ultirnatc strength. A design strcss equal to 50 percent oi the <pee
strength 1s often accepted for stccl water pipe. Dcslgn crlrerla for
4.1 INTERNAL PRESSURE adopted by thc Bureau of ~cclamation'that base design srrcss on '11
strength or 2/3 the minimum yield strength, wh~chcvcr1s lcast W t h the use of given
When dcsignlng for ~ntcrnalprcssurc, the mlnlmum thickness of a cylindcr should hc methods of stress analysis and proper quality control measures, thcsc allowahlc dcsign
sclcctcd to hmlt ihc c~rcumfcrcntialtension stress to a ccrtaln level. This strcw IS frcqucntly \tresses are considered conscrrativc for the usual aater-transmrtr~onplpellncs. Table 4-1
tcrmcd hoop wcss The lnrcrnal prcswrc uwd rn dcsign \hould hc that lo \ihlch the p ~ p c ~lluwatesgrades of stcel used as a basis for working pressure and thc dcsign stress as
may hc wh~rctcddurtng 11sI~fct~mc In a transmlrsion pipeline. the p r c w r c I< mca\urcd hy compared to mmimum yield point and minimum ultimate tenvlc strength for common
thc d l m x c 'rctuccn thc p ~ p cccnrcrl~ncand the h\draul~cgrade I~ncI t there arc ~n-llnc r stccl as rcfcrcnccd in AWWA C200, Standard for Stccl U'atcr I'lyc 0 Inchc\ and
g r ~ d c ol
\al\c\. lhc rr.d\ltnum yrrsurc on tlte p y c hcrurcn rhcm arll hc ~nc.~qrrril I>\ lllr dlwncc 1 .qxr '
 bctween the pipe centcrl~ncand the elcvat~onof thc rtatrc Ic\cl ulth the sal\cs closcd. Surgc
or uarer-hammer pressures must also be considcrcd 'I'hcsc arc d~scussed111 Chapter 5. In a
pump-d~schargcpipellne, [he inrcrnal pressurc IS mcawrcd hy the dlstance hetween the
p p c and the hydraulic grade line created by the pumping opcration. Prcs~ureat the outlet
and the loss due to fricrioncntcr into thisdetcrminat~on.If 111s poss~blcto I m p w a prcssurc

Chapter 4 cqual to the shutofi head of the pumps, thc pressure 1s measured between the ptpe and the
shutoffgrade line. F1gurcs4-1 and 4-2show typical plpcllne and h)draul~cgrodcprofiles for
g r a v q and pumped flow.
K'nh pressurc detcrmincd, the wall thickncss I< found usmg Eq 4-1.

Determination of Pipe
Wall Thickness I = uall thickness (in.)
p = pressure (psi)
d = outside dlamctcr of pipe (in.) stcel cylinder (not lncludlng coatings)
r = allowable strcss (psi).

The wall thlikncss of steel pipe is affected by a number of factors that st111bc discussed In
this and sucsecding chapters, including the following:
1. Inrernal prcssure
a. Maxlmum de4gn prcssurc (Chapter 4)
b. Surge or water-hammer prcssure (Chapter 5)
2. External prcssurc Figure 4-1 Relation of Various H e a d s o r Figure 4-2 Relation of Various Heads o r
Pressures for Selection of Design Pressure Pressures for Selection of Design Pressure
a. Trench loadlng prcssure (Chaprcr 6)
(Gravity Flow) (Pumped Flow)
h. Earth-fill pressurc (Chapter 6)
c. tlniform collapse prcssurc, atmosphcric or hydraulic (Chaptcr 4)
d. \'acuum underground (Chapter 6)
4.2 WORKING TENSION STRESS IN STEEL
3. Specla1 physical loadlng
a. Pipe on saddle supports (Chapter 7)
Tension Stress and Yield Strength
/v&L,L& wkA+jh
\
h. Pipe on r~ng-girdersupports (Chaptcr 7) \
4. Pract~calrcqulremcnrs (Chapter 4) Modern stccl technology has allowed increases in thcallo\vable uorking stress for stcel, with \
thrs working stress determined with relation to the steel's !~cldstrength rather than 11s
The th~ckncssselected should be that whlch satlsfies the most sc\crc requirement. ultirnatc strength. A design strcss equal to 50 percent oi the <pee
strength 1s often accepted for stccl water pipe. Dcslgn crlrerla for
4.1 INTERNAL PRESSURE adopted by thc Bureau of ~cclamation'that base design srrcss on '11
strength or 2/3 the minimum yield strength, wh~chcvcr1s lcast W t h the use of given
When dcsignlng for ~ntcrnalprcssurc, the mlnlmum thickness of a cylindcr should hc methods of stress analysis and proper quality control measures, thcsc allowahlc dcsign
sclcctcd to hmlt ihc c~rcumfcrcntialtension stress to a ccrtaln level. This strcw IS frcqucntly \tresses are considered conscrrativc for the usual aater-transmrtr~onplpellncs. Table 4-1
tcrmcd hoop wcss The lnrcrnal prcswrc uwd rn dcsign \hould hc that lo \ihlch the p ~ p c ~lluwatesgrades of stcel used as a basis for working pressure and thc dcsign stress as
may hc wh~rctcddurtng 11sI~fct~mc In a transmlrsion pipeline. the p r c w r c I< mca\urcd hy compared to mmimum yield point and minimum ultimate tenvlc strength for common
thc d l m x c 'rctuccn thc p ~ p cccnrcrl~ncand the h\draul~cgrade I~ncI t there arc ~n-llnc r stccl as rcfcrcnccd in AWWA C200, Standard for Stccl U'atcr I'lyc 0 Inchc\ and
g r ~ d c ol
\al\c\. lhc rr.d\ltnum yrrsurc on tlte p y c hcrurcn rhcm arll hc ~nc.~qrrril I>\ lllr dlwncc 1 .qxr '
\X \III~IYPI

Table 4-1 Grades of Steel Used in A W A CZOO as k i s for Working Pressures in Table 4-2 nomrnal thickncss. Except in extremely h~gh-prc\surchncs dcvgncd wxth great prccision,
the waterworks cngmcer need not he conccrncd with undcrthrckness tolerance.
k s ~ p nSrrcsr htmmurn Ulrxmarc
Spec~iicat~ons
for 5096 of Yxcld Poxnt Minxmum Yxcld Pom~ Tcn\dc Slrcnph
hhrxcdrcd PIP PI1 PI' PSI
4.4 CORROSIONALLOWANCE
ASTM A36 At one time it was a general practice to add a fixed, rulc-of-thumb thickness to the pipe wall
ASThl A283 GR C as a corrosion allowance. This proved to be an irrational solution in the waterworks ficld,
GR D where standards for coating and lining materials and procedures exist. It IS preferable to
ASTh3 A570 CK 30
GR 33 design for the rcqulred wall-thickness pipe as dctcrmined by the loads imposed, then select
GR 36 Irnlngs, coatings, and cathodic protection as necessary to provide the rcqurrcd lcvcl of
GR 40 corrosion protcctlon.
CR45
CK M
ASTM A572 CH 42 4.5 EXTERNAL PRESSURE-UNIFORM AND RADIAL
GR 50
GK M) The proper wall thrckness must be sclcctcd to resist c.utcrnal loading impoqcd on the pipe.
Such loading may take the form ofoutside prcssurc,cithcr atmosphericor h!droc:atic, both
Dc<xgnSlrcss .5Ln1mumI'lrima~c of which arc uniform and act radially as collapsing forces. Buried p p e must be designed to
Spcc~ficauon<for 50% of Yxeld
Pomr hlin~mumTrcld Poxnr Tcnsdc Srrcnph
Llanufacturcd PIP PSI PSI p': resist earth prcssure in trench or fill condition. These considcrationc arc d~scussedin
Chapter 6.
ASTM A53. A 135.
andA139 GRA I5000 30000 46 000 Atmosphere or Fluid Environments
CK B 17 500 35 00b 60 tw
ASTMA139 GRC 21 OOO 42 000 w000 A general theory of collapse-resistance of steel pipe to uniform, radially acting forces has
GR D 23 000 46 000 60000 been deve~oped.~ Any unreinforccd tube longer than the critical length can be considered a
GR E 26 000 52 000 EhO
t u k of infinite length, as its collapsing pressure is independent of further rncreasc in length.
The following formula applies to such tubes:
Tahlc 4-2 (page 41) gives the detigncr working precsurcs corresponding to 50 percent of
the specified minimum yicld strength for several types of stccl commonly urcd in
waterworks pipelines. The designer is cautioned that the diameters and wall thicknesses
listcd in the table are for reference only and do nor represent engineering or manufacturing
limits. Modern steel-mill capabilities permit the manufacture of almost any dtamcter and
wall thickness of pipe; in practice, however, most pipe manufacturers fabr~catcprpe to dn = diamctcr to neutral axis of the shell (in.) (for thin pipes, the difference
standard diameters and wall thicknesses. Pipe with thick linings such as the cement-mortar between inside diameter, outside diameter, and ncutral-axis diamctcr
linings specified in AWWA C205, Standard for Gment-hiortar Protcctivc L i n i n ~and is negligible)
Coating for Steel \Rater P i p 4 In. and Larger-Shop .4pplicd.) and AWVA C602. I = wall thickness (in.)
Standard for Gmcnt-Atortar Lining of Water Pipelines-4 In. ~ 1 0 mmb 0 and Larger-In PC collapsing prcssurc (psi)
Place? is usually fabricated to the individual manufacturer's standard d~amctcrsto E = modulus of elasticity (30000 000 for steel)
accommodate the required lining thickne\scs. It is, thcrcforc. rccommcndcd that the p ~ p c I, = Poisson's ratio (usually taken as 0.30 for stccl).
manufacturers be consulted bcforc final selection of dramctcr and \\all thicknc~ccs.
Substituting the abovc values of E and v:
Pressure Limits
High quality in the manufacturc of both the p i p and the stccl urcd in its manufacturc is
rcqurrcd by AWWA standards. Therefore. hoopstrcss may hcalloued to risc.u ithin Imits,
abovc 50 percent of yield for transientjoads. When ult~matctcnc~lcstrength is considercd,a
safcty factor well over two is realized. For steel pipe produced to mcct A W K A standards, Applied Calculations
the lncrcascd hoop stress should be limited to 75 pcrcent of thc cprcrficd yicld wcngth. but ~rrcular&indrical shells undcrextcrnal pressure may fail either by buckltng or by pelding.
should not excccd the mill tcst pressure. Relatively thin-walled shells fail through instability or buckling under strcwcs that, on the
avcragc, are below the yield strength of the material. In thc waterworks ficld, thc
4.3 TOLERANCE .----- thickness-diamctcr ratio is such that there is ucuall~a hucklrng failure. A number of
thcorctical and empirical formulas have hccn promul~atcdto providc for the cffcct of
~n\tahdrtyduc to collapwq Thcy include the formula\ of Timo\hcnko." Low. Ruark,'
Stcunrr. and Rrvan
\X \III~IYPI

Table 4-1 Grades of Steel Used in A W A CZOO as k i s for Working Pressures in Table 4-2 nomrnal thickncss. Except in extremely h~gh-prc\surchncs dcvgncd wxth great prccision,
the waterworks cngmcer need not he conccrncd with undcrthrckness tolerance.
k s ~ p nSrrcsr htmmurn Ulrxmarc
Spec~iicat~ons
for 5096 of Yxcld Poxnt Minxmum Yxcld Pom~ Tcn\dc Slrcnph
hhrxcdrcd PIP PI1 PI' PSI
4.4 CORROSIONALLOWANCE
ASTM A36 At one time it was a general practice to add a fixed, rulc-of-thumb thickness to the pipe wall
ASThl A283 GR C as a corrosion allowance. This proved to be an irrational solution in the waterworks ficld,
GR D where standards for coating and lining materials and procedures exist. It IS preferable to
ASTh3 A570 CK 30
GR 33 design for the rcqulred wall-thickness pipe as dctcrmined by the loads imposed, then select
GR 36 Irnlngs, coatings, and cathodic protection as necessary to provide the rcqurrcd lcvcl of
GR 40 corrosion protcctlon.
CR45
CK M
ASTM A572 CH 42 4.5 EXTERNAL PRESSURE-UNIFORM AND RADIAL
GR 50
GK M) The proper wall thrckness must be sclcctcd to resist c.utcrnal loading impoqcd on the pipe.
Such loading may take the form ofoutside prcssurc,cithcr atmosphericor h!droc:atic, both
Dc<xgnSlrcss .5Ln1mumI'lrima~c of which arc uniform and act radially as collapsing forces. Buried p p e must be designed to
Spcc~ficauon<for 50% of Yxeld
Pomr hlin~mumTrcld Poxnr Tcnsdc Srrcnph
Llanufacturcd PIP PSI PSI p': resist earth prcssure in trench or fill condition. These considcrationc arc d~scussedin
Chapter 6.
ASTM A53. A 135.
andA139 GRA I5000 30000 46 000 Atmosphere or Fluid Environments
CK B 17 500 35 00b 60 tw
ASTMA139 GRC 21 OOO 42 000 w000 A general theory of collapse-resistance of steel pipe to uniform, radially acting forces has
GR D 23 000 46 000 60000 been deve~oped.~ Any unreinforccd tube longer than the critical length can be considered a
GR E 26 000 52 000 EhO
t u k of infinite length, as its collapsing pressure is independent of further rncreasc in length.
The following formula applies to such tubes:
Tahlc 4-2 (page 41) gives the detigncr working precsurcs corresponding to 50 percent of
the specified minimum yicld strength for several types of stccl commonly urcd in
waterworks pipelines. The designer is cautioned that the diameters and wall thicknesses
listcd in the table are for reference only and do nor represent engineering or manufacturing
limits. Modern steel-mill capabilities permit the manufacture of almost any dtamcter and
wall thickness of pipe; in practice, however, most pipe manufacturers fabr~catcprpe to dn = diamctcr to neutral axis of the shell (in.) (for thin pipes, the difference
standard diameters and wall thicknesses. Pipe with thick linings such as the cement-mortar between inside diameter, outside diameter, and ncutral-axis diamctcr
linings specified in AWWA C205, Standard for Gment-hiortar Protcctivc L i n i n ~and is negligible)
Coating for Steel \Rater P i p 4 In. and Larger-Shop .4pplicd.) and AWVA C602. I = wall thickness (in.)
Standard for Gmcnt-Atortar Lining of Water Pipelines-4 In. ~ 1 0 mmb 0 and Larger-In PC collapsing prcssurc (psi)
Place? is usually fabricated to the individual manufacturer's standard d~amctcrsto E = modulus of elasticity (30000 000 for steel)
accommodate the required lining thickne\scs. It is, thcrcforc. rccommcndcd that the p ~ p c I, = Poisson's ratio (usually taken as 0.30 for stccl).
manufacturers be consulted bcforc final selection of dramctcr and \\all thicknc~ccs.
Substituting the abovc values of E and v:
Pressure Limits
High quality in the manufacturc of both the p i p and the stccl urcd in its manufacturc is
rcqurrcd by AWWA standards. Therefore. hoopstrcss may hcalloued to risc.u ithin Imits,
abovc 50 percent of yield for transientjoads. When ult~matctcnc~lcstrength is considercd,a
safcty factor well over two is realized. For steel pipe produced to mcct A W K A standards, Applied Calculations
the lncrcascd hoop stress should be limited to 75 pcrcent of thc cprcrficd yicld wcngth. but ~rrcular&indrical shells undcrextcrnal pressure may fail either by buckltng or by pelding.
should not excccd the mill tcst pressure. Relatively thin-walled shells fail through instability or buckling under strcwcs that, on the
avcragc, are below the yield strength of the material. In thc waterworks ficld, thc
4.3 TOLERANCE .----- thickness-diamctcr ratio is such that there is ucuall~a hucklrng failure. A number of
thcorctical and empirical formulas have hccn promul~atcdto providc for the cffcct of
~n\tahdrtyduc to collapwq Thcy include the formula\ of Timo\hcnko." Low. Ruark,'
Stcunrr. and Rrvan
 Stewart dcvcloped two empirical equations for the collapsing pressures of stccl pips. Table 4-2 Working Pressures for Allowable Unit Stresses*
Thc Stc\varr formula, which automatically accounts for wall thickness variations, out-of-
roundness, and othcr manufacturing tolerances is:

Stress psi
For huckling failure, where L i s 0.023 or less and PCis 581 p<i or Icw:
PIP Wall Ketght PIP h i s Section
dn
Dtamcrert Thvkm~:p r Foot
In rn bare)
DJr
blio
m.'
(1)
Modulus
IS)
l 5 OX I6 * l7 W O ! ! ?
U'orklnr Prcssurc pa?
21 OX

The formula is considered more conser\.ative than the previous formulas.

Equation 4-4 is prcdicated on the pipe being commercially round, made ofsteel with a
minimum yicld of at least 27 000 psi, and having a length six diamctcrs or morc hctuccn
reinforcing elements.

4.6 M I N I M U M WALL THICKNESS II

Minimum plate or shcct thickncsscs for handling are bascd on two formulas adopted hy
many spcifying agencies. They arc? .IN5 932 4926 1445 4 36 M)9 670 711 ill 853
R OD ,0747 6 32 107.10 14 60 3.65 280 308 327 336 392
,= -D
288 (pipe sizes up to 54 in. ID) (4-5)

t = ( p i p sizes greater than 54 in. ID) (4-6)

In no case shall the shcll thickncss be less than 14 gauge (0.074i in.).

4.7 GOOD PRACTICE

I
Internal pressure, external pressure, special physical loading, type oflining and coating. and
other practical requirements govern wall thickness. Good practice with regard to internal
pressure is to use a working tensile stress of 50 percent of the yield-pint stress undcr rhc
influcncc of maximum design pressure. The stress of transitory surge pressures, together
with static pressure, may be taken at 75 percent of the yield-point stress. The designer
should, however, n e w overlook thceffcct of water hammer or surge pressures in design. It
is more positive and economical to select a proven coating or lining for pmrcction agalnsr
corrosion hazards than to add sacrificial wall thickncss.

613 750
-
16 OD
2500
0747
36 52
1271
MOO
214.19
255.30
11848
3647
1481
536
140
589
I54
625
161 Ihfl 1%

li63 2645 102 37 244.14 3052 293 322 ?-I2 $52 410
1793 W 30 89 24 278 85 M 86 336 370 392 ? $71
2188 3688 73 13 337i6 4222 410 451 4iU 492 571
2%W 4206 61 03 38366 4i.96 Ih9 516 51i 563 6%
*\'alucs ha\c k c n sclmpctcd h! ckc~rontccompu~crSDCICXI for formulm uwd
+SI,C\undcr 45 *n arc ~ L Wdtamctcr C \I/-, thtnr 15 In and o\cc arc ~ n d d~amrtrr
r wc\
:\ h n u l h t u r r . .an lurr -'Iuall tlt~~knc~cn othcr than \houri
:I\ tsrhmp prt*r.uc\ ma\ Y lntcrpldlcd or c\trapCrnl for orhrr wall rht,hnr<\r\nr \Irrsrh
 Stewart dcvcloped two empirical equations for the collapsing pressures of stccl pips. Table 4-2 Working Pressures for Allowable Unit Stresses*
Thc Stc\varr formula, which automatically accounts for wall thickness variations, out-of-
roundness, and othcr manufacturing tolerances is:

Stress psi
For huckling failure, where L i s 0.023 or less and PCis 581 p<i or Icw:
PIP Wall Ketght PIP h i s Section
dn
Dtamcrert Thvkm~:p r Foot
In rn bare)
DJr
blio
m.'
(1)
Modulus
IS)
l 5 OX I6 * l7 W O ! ! ?
U'orklnr Prcssurc pa?
21 OX

The formula is considered more conser\.ative than the previous formulas.

Equation 4-4 is prcdicated on the pipe being commercially round, made ofsteel with a
minimum yicld of at least 27 000 psi, and having a length six diamctcrs or morc hctuccn
reinforcing elements.

4.6 M I N I M U M WALL THICKNESS II

Minimum plate or shcct thickncsscs for handling are bascd on two formulas adopted hy
many spcifying agencies. They arc? .IN5 932 4926 1445 4 36 M)9 670 711 ill 853
R OD ,0747 6 32 107.10 14 60 3.65 280 308 327 336 392
,= -D
288 (pipe sizes up to 54 in. ID) (4-5)

t = ( p i p sizes greater than 54 in. ID) (4-6)

In no case shall the shcll thickncss be less than 14 gauge (0.074i in.).

4.7 GOOD PRACTICE

I
Internal pressure, external pressure, special physical loading, type oflining and coating. and
other practical requirements govern wall thickness. Good practice with regard to internal
pressure is to use a working tensile stress of 50 percent of the yield-pint stress undcr rhc
influcncc of maximum design pressure. The stress of transitory surge pressures, together
with static pressure, may be taken at 75 percent of the yield-point stress. The designer
should, however, n e w overlook thceffcct of water hammer or surge pressures in design. It
is more positive and economical to select a proven coating or lining for pmrcction agalnsr
corrosion hazards than to add sacrificial wall thickncss.

613 750
-
16 OD
2500
0747
36 52
1271
MOO
214.19
255.30
11848
3647
1481
536
140
589
I54
625
161 Ihfl 1%

li63 2645 102 37 244.14 3052 293 322 ?-I2 $52 410
1793 W 30 89 24 278 85 M 86 336 370 392 ? $71
2188 3688 73 13 337i6 4222 410 451 4iU 492 571
2%W 4206 61 03 38366 4i.96 Ih9 516 51i 563 6%
*\'alucs ha\c k c n sclmpctcd h! ckc~rontccompu~crSDCICXI for formulm uwd
+SI,C\undcr 45 *n arc ~ L Wdtamctcr C \I/-, thtnr 15 In and o\cc arc ~ n d d~amrtrr
r wc\
:\ h n u l h t u r r . .an lurr -'Iuall tlt~~knc~cn othcr than \houri
:I\ tsrhmp prt*r.uc\ ma\ Y lntcrpldlcd or c\trapCrnl for orhrr wall rht,hnr<\r\nr \Irrsrh
I? \ 11 1 1 1'11.1
I I I I I I1

Table 4-2 Working Pressures for Allowable Unit Stresses* (continued)

Table 4-2 Working Pressures for Allowable Unit Stresses* (continued)

PIF a Wr~ght
D~arnctcrt'Ih~ckncrs: pcr Fwt I),/r Pip Tall \Tcight
~n. ~n. (hard Ratlo Diamrcrt X i : pcr Faar D,/r
m rn (bare) Rario
18 OD 0747 14 30 210%
I046 1999 17208 30 OD 1793 57 LI 167.32 1867 28 12449 179 I97 '209 215 251
I345 25 67 13383 2188 6960 137.11 226964 151.31 219 241 255 263 WM
1563 293 115.16 2503 7944 12000 2 585 I8 172 35 250 2i5 2V2 XM 350
1703 3113 I0039 3125 99 10 96.00 3 211 28 21409 113 314 365 375 418
2188 41 ih 82 2; 4375 138'15 6857 4439.73 29598 4 481 510 525 613
5000 I57 55 6000 5 042 20 336 I5 500 iiO 5R3 MO 700
32 OD IN6 35 M 305 93 1 332 85 83.30 98 108 114 118 137
1'45 4578 237.92 170904 10681 126 139 147 151 177
1563 53 I6 20473 1981 98 12387 147 161 171 176 205
I793 6094 37847 226873 141 80 168 185 I% 202 235
2188 i 4 28 146 25 2 758 28 172.39 205 226 239 246 287
2500
3125
84 i 8
105 77
12800
102 40
3 142 37
3 9M 95
196.10
244 06
23
293
TR
22
273
342
281
352
328
410
4375 147 M 73.14 5 40300 337 69 410 4 479 192 574
VXX) 168 23 64 00 6 133 62 383 66 469 516 547 563 6%
34 OD I046 3787 325.05 1 59962 94 10 92 102 108 111 129
,1115 4865 252.79 2051.45 12067 119 131 I38 142 166
,1563 56 M 217.53 2 379.37 139.96 138 I52 161 165 193
.I793 64 77 18963 2 723.95 160.23 158 174 185 190 221
2188 7895 155.39 331246 I9485 193 212 225 232 270
2933 90 12 I M . ~ 3 774 n 222 02 221 243 257 265 309
3125 11245 108.80 469195 27600 276 jO3 322 331 B6
4375 156 84 77 71 6 49642 382.14 386 425 450 463 540
5000 I7891 6800 738347 434.32 441 185 515 529 618
36 OD IhM 40 11 344.17 189981 105.55 87 % 102 105 122
1345 51 53 26i66 2436.79 135.38 112 123 131 135 157
,1563 5984 230.33 282660 15703 130 143 152 1% 182
1793 6860 200.78 3 2 % 33 17980 149 164 174 179 209
,2188 83.62 I64 53 3936.29 21868 182 201 213 219 255
.2500 95.47 144 00 4 485.89 249 22 M8 229 243 250 292
,3125 119.12 115 20 5 578 I6 309.90 260 286 304 313 M5
,4375 166 I9 82.29 7 728,23 429 35 365 a1 425 438 510
.5000 189.59 7200 8 786 19 488 12 417 458 486 500 583
39 OD iN6 43 46 372.85 2 417 07 12395 80 89 94 97 113
.I345 5584 289.96 310084 159.02 103 114 I21 I24 145
,1563 6485 24952 359739 18448 120 132 140 144 I68
,1793 74 35 217.51 4 11945 211 25 138 152 161 I I93
2188 9064 178.24 5011 69 25701 I68 185 I% M2 235
2500 I0348 15600 5 71259 292.95 192 212 224 231 269
3125 129 14 124.80 7 10640 364 43 240 264 280 288 337
43i5 18021 89.14 985347 505 31 337 370 393 W 471
X100 35.62 7800 I1 MO.89 574 i l 385 423 449 462 5%
40 OD IN6 4457 38241 260833 13042 78 86 92 94 110
1345 5727 297.40 3x640 167 n I 111 118 121 141
- 1- \c I563
,1793
66-52
7626
255.92
22309
388243
444606
194.12
22230 117
134 129
148 137
157 141
161 IM
IRR
2188 9297 182.82 540945 27047 lM 181 I91 197 210
2500 106.15 I6000 616635 30832 I88 206 219 225 263
312% 13247 I2800 7 671 81 383.59 234 258 2i3 241 328
a" 4375 184 88 91 43 IOMOOl 532 00 32R 361 UI3 104 459
iMw) 210% 80OD 12 10293 h0S 15 375 411 4UI 150 525
*Values haw k n mmputcd h! clcctmntr.computcr Scc trxr for formula\ uwd
tStx* undrr I i In arc our\tdr Jtanurrr w m ; rhwc 45 In and o\cr am tn\tJr J ~ ~ m w
rwr*
:.\hubrturrt\ u n furn~\huall th~cknc-e othrr rhan shoun
~Y'orktngprr\wrr\ mu, lv ~nrrrpIatrJor rxtraplarrd For othrr uall thhhncwr I-- wc-r*
I? \ 11 1 1 1'11.1
I I I I I I1

Table 4-2 Working Pressures for Allowable Unit Stresses* (continued)

Table 4-2 Working Pressures for Allowable Unit Stresses* (continued)

PIF a Wr~ght
D~arnctcrt'Ih~ckncrs: pcr Fwt I),/r Pip Tall \Tcight
~n. ~n. (hard Ratlo Diamrcrt X i : pcr Faar D,/r
m rn (bare) Rario
18 OD 0747 14 30 210%
I046 1999 17208 30 OD 1793 57 LI 167.32 1867 28 12449 179 I97 '209 215 251
I345 25 67 13383 2188 6960 137.11 226964 151.31 219 241 255 263 WM
1563 293 115.16 2503 7944 12000 2 585 I8 172 35 250 2i5 2V2 XM 350
1703 3113 I0039 3125 99 10 96.00 3 211 28 21409 113 314 365 375 418
2188 41 ih 82 2; 4375 138'15 6857 4439.73 29598 4 481 510 525 613
5000 I57 55 6000 5 042 20 336 I5 500 iiO 5R3 MO 700
32 OD IN6 35 M 305 93 1 332 85 83.30 98 108 114 118 137
1'45 4578 237.92 170904 10681 126 139 147 151 177
1563 53 I6 20473 1981 98 12387 147 161 171 176 205
I793 6094 37847 226873 141 80 168 185 I% 202 235
2188 i 4 28 146 25 2 758 28 172.39 205 226 239 246 287
2500
3125
84 i 8
105 77
12800
102 40
3 142 37
3 9M 95
196.10
244 06
23
293
TR
22
273
342
281
352
328
410
4375 147 M 73.14 5 40300 337 69 410 4 479 192 574
VXX) 168 23 64 00 6 133 62 383 66 469 516 547 563 6%
34 OD I046 3787 325.05 1 59962 94 10 92 102 108 111 129
,1115 4865 252.79 2051.45 12067 119 131 I38 142 166
,1563 56 M 217.53 2 379.37 139.96 138 I52 161 165 193
.I793 64 77 18963 2 723.95 160.23 158 174 185 190 221
2188 7895 155.39 331246 I9485 193 212 225 232 270
2933 90 12 I M . ~ 3 774 n 222 02 221 243 257 265 309
3125 11245 108.80 469195 27600 276 jO3 322 331 B6
4375 156 84 77 71 6 49642 382.14 386 425 450 463 540
5000 I7891 6800 738347 434.32 441 185 515 529 618
36 OD IhM 40 11 344.17 189981 105.55 87 % 102 105 122
1345 51 53 26i66 2436.79 135.38 112 123 131 135 157
,1563 5984 230.33 282660 15703 130 143 152 1% 182
1793 6860 200.78 3 2 % 33 17980 149 164 174 179 209
,2188 83.62 I64 53 3936.29 21868 182 201 213 219 255
.2500 95.47 144 00 4 485.89 249 22 M8 229 243 250 292
,3125 119.12 115 20 5 578 I6 309.90 260 286 304 313 M5
,4375 166 I9 82.29 7 728,23 429 35 365 a1 425 438 510
.5000 189.59 7200 8 786 19 488 12 417 458 486 500 583
39 OD iN6 43 46 372.85 2 417 07 12395 80 89 94 97 113
.I345 5584 289.96 310084 159.02 103 114 I21 I24 145
,1563 6485 24952 359739 18448 120 132 140 144 I68
,1793 74 35 217.51 4 11945 211 25 138 152 161 I I93
2188 9064 178.24 5011 69 25701 I68 185 I% M2 235
2500 I0348 15600 5 71259 292.95 192 212 224 231 269
3125 129 14 124.80 7 10640 364 43 240 264 280 288 337
43i5 18021 89.14 985347 505 31 337 370 393 W 471
X100 35.62 7800 I1 MO.89 574 i l 385 423 449 462 5%
40 OD IN6 4457 38241 260833 13042 78 86 92 94 110
1345 5727 297.40 3x640 167 n I 111 118 121 141
- 1- \c I563
,1793
66-52
7626
255.92
22309
388243
444606
194.12
22230 117
134 129
148 137
157 141
161 IM
IRR
2188 9297 182.82 540945 27047 lM 181 I91 197 210
2500 106.15 I6000 616635 30832 I88 206 219 225 263
312% 13247 I2800 7 671 81 383.59 234 258 2i3 241 328
a" 4375 184 88 91 43 IOMOOl 532 00 32R 361 UI3 104 459
iMw) 210% 80OD 12 10293 h0S 15 375 411 4UI 150 525
*Values haw k n mmputcd h! clcctmntr.computcr Scc trxr for formula\ uwd
tStx* undrr I i In arc our\tdr Jtanurrr w m ; rhwc 45 In and o\cr am tn\tJr J ~ ~ m w
rwr*
:.\hubrturrt\ u n furn~\huall th~cknc-e othrr rhan shoun
~Y'orktngprr\wrr\ mu, lv ~nrrrpIatrJor rxtraplarrd For othrr uall thhhncwr I-- wc-r*
 Table 4-2 Working Pressures for Allowable Unlt Stresses* (continued) Table 4-2 Working Pressures for Allowable Unlt Stresses* (continued)
- --

Momcnt hiommt
of lncrtta of Inertla
Ahout Stx5s PSI Ahour S t m \ pn
Pipe U'aII Utghr PIP Axis Smion PIP wall weight PIP AXIS Scction
Dtamctert Ihickncss: pcr Fool Do/# In.' h$odulur 15000 I6 500 17500 18000 Dlamctert Th~ckcss: per Fool Do/, 1n4 Modulus l 5 000 l6 iOO l7 500 18000
tn. tn. (hare) Rarm (I) (S) Workmg Pressure pnP in. rn (bare) Ratlo (I1 (8 \Vorktnp. Pmsure PP)
~@q$
42 OD .I046
,1345
4681
6015
401.53
31227
3020.60
3875.74
143.64
184.56
75
%
82
106
87
112
90
I15
105
I35
57 ID 5625 34585 I03 33 42 134 94 1 44980 296 326 345 355 414
6250 384 70 93.20 46970.31 1612.71 329 362 3Bl 395 461
1563 6981, 268.71 449691 214.14 112 123 I30 I34 I56 6875 423 63 84.91 51 83690 1 77600 362 398 122 434 507
1793 ROW 23424 5 150 I7 245.25 128 141 149 IU li9 7x0 462 64 78.00 56 734 86 1 939 65 395 4U 1 474 553
21RB 9765 191 % 626702 298.43 156 172 182 I88 219
2500 11149 16800 7141.71 330.22 179 1% 206 214 2% 60 ID 2500 I6089 24200 21 47228 709.83 I25 136 9146 1% 175
139 15 134.40 8891 02 423 38 223 3125 201.32 19400 26924.22 88822 156 172 182 188 219
246 2bO 2N1 313 3750 241 83 16200 32 40999 1067.00 I88 206 219 225 263
19423 a00 1233646 58745 313 344 365 Xi 4s
22164 BJ00 I403579 668.37 357 4375 28243 139 14 3792973 1246.15 219 241 255 263 306
393 417 429 5011 5000 323 11 12200 43 483 58 1425 69 250 23 292 WX) 350
45 ID 2500 12083 18200 909638 39984 167 183 194 HM 233 525 M3 88 108 67 49 071 67 1 605 62 281 10V 328 338 394
3125 151 25 14600 11 417.85 500 %I 208 229 243 250 292 62% 404 73 9800 54 694.16 1 785.93 313 114 365 375 438
.37M 181.75 12200 13 75848 601.46 250 275 292 MO 3%) 6875 445.66 89.27 60351.16 1 966.64 344 3i8 401 413 481
4375 212 33 I04 86 16 118 37 702.71 292 321 340 3% 405 i500 48667 82 00 6604285 2 147.73 375 413 438 450 525
5OW 24300 92.00 18497 63 804.24 333 367 389 400 46i
5625 273 75 8200 20 896.37 90608 375 413 438 450 525 63 ID 3125 211 33 203.60 31 145 01 979.02 149 Ihl 174 179 208
,6250 304 59 7400 23314.69 1W . 2 0 417 458 486 500 563 3750 253 85 170.00 37485 21 1 176.01 179 1% 208 214 250
,6875 335.50 67.45 25 752 70 1 110 63 458 SM 535 5% MI 4375 296.45 146.00 43 862.81 1 373.40 208 229 243 250 292
,7500 36651 62.00 28 210.50 1213.35 500 550 563 600 00 ,5000 339.13 128.00 50 277.W 1 571.19 238 262 278 286 333
5625 381 90 114.00 56 730.81 1 769.38 268 295 313 321 375
48 ID 2500 12864 19400 11 028 16 454.71 156 172 182 188 219 6250 424.75 102.80 63 221.50 1 967.98 298 327 347 357 417
3125 16126 15560 13839.05 56922 195 215 228 234 273 6875 467.69 93M 69 750.19 2 167.00 327 360 382 393 4%
3750 193 77 13000 16671 70 68397 234 258 2i3 281 328 ,7500 510.70 8600 76 317.03 2 366.42 357 393 417 429 500
,4375 226 35 I l l 71 19 52622 799.03 273 301 319 38 P; 8125 553.81 79.54 82 922.14 2 566.26 387 426 451 464 542
5000 259.02 98 00 22 402.73 914 40 313 344 365 3i5 43% 8750 5W.W 74.00 89 565 71 2 766.51 417 158 4U6 500 583
5625 291.78 87?3 25 301.33 1 03008 352 U1i 410 422 492 9375 640 26 69.20 % 24i 86 2 967.18 446 491 521 536 625
6250 324 61 7880 28 222.15 1 146.08 391 430 456 469 547 10000 69361 65.00 102 %8.75 3 168.27 476 524 5% 571 667
.6875 357.54 71.82 31 165.29 1262.39 430 473 MI 516 602
,7500 390.54 6600 34 13088 137903 469 516 547 563 6% 66 ID 3125 221.35 21320 35785.35 1074.23 142 1% 166 170 199
51 ID 2500 13686 2Dn00 1321574 513.23 147 162 I72 I76 2% 3750 255.87 17800 430(14.38 I 290.32 170 188 IW 205 239
4375 310.47 15286 50 384 41 1 506.82 199 219 232 239 278
3125 171.28 16520 16 580.40 642.34 184 202 214 221 Ki .5000 355.16 134 00 57 74561 1 723.75 227 250 265 273 318
3750 205.78 lM00 1996960 771.77 221 243 257 265 309 5625 399.93 119 33 65 148.12 1 941.10 256 281 298 307 358
4375 24037 118 57 23 383.45 901.53 257 283 300 309 3M ,6250 44478 10760 72592.11 2158.87 284 313 331 341 398
,5000 275 05 104 00 26 822 06 1031.62 294 324 343 353 412 6875 489.72 9800 80077 71 2 377.07 313 744 365 375 438
,5625 309 80 9267 30 285 56 1 16204 331 364 386 397 463 ,7500 534.74 9000 87 605 10 2 595.71 341 3i5 398 409 477
,6250 344 64 83 60 33 774 07 1292 79 368 460 429 441 515 ,8125 57981 8323 95 17442 2814.77 369 106 431 443 517
,6875 379 57 76 18 37 287 70 1 423 87 404 445 472 4% 5b6 8750 62503 7743 102 785 $4 3034.27 398 438 464 177 557
7500 414 57 7000 40826.59 1 555 34 441 485 515 529 61s 9375 670.30 72.40 11043949 3 254.20 426 469 497 511 597
54 ID 2500 144 87 21800 15 675 01 575.23 139 153 162 167 IW 1 OOOO 71565 6900 118 135.56 3474 58 455 SO0 530 545 6 1
3125 181 29 17480 19661 80 71988 174 191 203 208 243 69 ID ,3125 231.36 22280 40865.14 117386 136 I49 159 163 190
,3750 21i80 14600 2367605 864.88 208 229 243 250 292 ,3750 27788 18600 49 171.38 1409.93 163 170 190 I% 228
,4375 254 39 125 43 27 717 89 1010 22 243 267 284 292 MO 4375 324 49 159 71 57 522 40 1 646 44 IW 209 222 228 266
5000 291 07 11000 31 78744 l I5591 2% 306 324 333 3@9 5000 371 18 14000 65918 36 1883.38 217 239 2U 261 304
5625 327 81 9R00 35 884 84 1 301 94 313 344 365 375 4% ,5025 41795 12467 7435941 2120.i7 245 269 235 293 342
,6250 361 67 88 40 40010 20 I 418 31 347 UI2 405 417 4% 6250 46481 I1240 8284573 2 35860 272 299 317 326 584
6175 401 60 80 55 41 163 66 1 5% 08 382 420 446 458 535 ,6875 511 75 lb2.36 91 37746 2 596.87 299 329 349 359 418
-
57 ID
i5OO
2500
41861
15288
7100
23000
48 345 34
IR42189
1Ye2 17
bW76
417
132
,158
145
4Rh
154
500
158
563
1RI
.7%l
8125
558 77
605 88
94 00
8692
99 954 79
108 577 85
2 835.60
3074.77
326
353
359
389
380
412
391
424
457
495
3125 191 31 18140 23 103.11 800 84 lh4 IRI 192 197 2M 8750 653.07 8086 117 24683 3 314.40 380 418 444 457 533
3750 22982 15400 2781490 W32'1 197 217 230 23i 2ih 9375 700.34 75 60 125 W1.8R 3 554 48 408 W8 46 IR9 571
4375 2hR 41 132 29 32 557 37 1 125 09 230 251 269 2ih 322 l OOKI 747 70 71.00 134 723.16 3 79502 435 4% 507 522 Nl9
5(YW lO7 09 llh 00 37 3WM 1 2Ri 26 263 289 I 316 IhF
'Valum haw k e n compurcd by rknrontc computcr Scc text for formulas uwd
*\'slurs hare h r ~ nrnmruted h\ clcrtrtmr n m r u c r .See trxt lor L~rmulnuvd tSwn under 45 In brc outstdc d a m t c r a7rv t h m 45 tn and owr arc ~n\tdcdamctcr w m
+ S ~ r rttnhr
\ 15 In arr ~lut.iA J~anwtcrwr\. t h w 45 tn and o w arc ~n\nlcdlamctrr :hianuf.aurcn ran furnnh uall rhickrmw oorhcr than shnun
:.\l;mm~fwtnrrr~,an h % r n $nrll
J tbakac\w\ kshcr ~ h a n\hnwn $U'ork~npp m w m mat hc tntcrpolatcd or cxtrapnlarrd for other uall thckncw. or w c w *
tU'wkmg prt w r r c , nxn k ~ n t ~ r p l . w
~ tcd\ l r . ~ p d . ~ ~It*,c ~a~tlx
l r N dl ~ h hncw-\
n or \trm.um+
 Table 4-2 Working Pressures for Allowable Unlt Stresses* (continued) Table 4-2 Working Pressures for Allowable Unlt Stresses* (continued)
- --

Momcnt hiommt
of lncrtta of Inertla
Ahout Stx5s PSI Ahour S t m \ pn
Pipe U'aII Utghr PIP Axis Smion PIP wall weight PIP AXIS Scction
Dtamctert Ihickncss: pcr Fool Do/# In.' h$odulur 15000 I6 500 17500 18000 Dlamctert Th~ckcss: per Fool Do/, 1n4 Modulus l 5 000 l6 iOO l7 500 18000
tn. tn. (hare) Rarm (I) (S) Workmg Pressure pnP in. rn (bare) Ratlo (I1 (8 \Vorktnp. Pmsure PP)
~@q$
42 OD .I046
,1345
4681
6015
401.53
31227
3020.60
3875.74
143.64
184.56
75
%
82
106
87
112
90
I15
105
I35
57 ID 5625 34585 I03 33 42 134 94 1 44980 296 326 345 355 414
6250 384 70 93.20 46970.31 1612.71 329 362 3Bl 395 461
1563 6981, 268.71 449691 214.14 112 123 I30 I34 I56 6875 423 63 84.91 51 83690 1 77600 362 398 122 434 507
1793 ROW 23424 5 150 I7 245.25 128 141 149 IU li9 7x0 462 64 78.00 56 734 86 1 939 65 395 4U 1 474 553
21RB 9765 191 % 626702 298.43 156 172 182 I88 219
2500 11149 16800 7141.71 330.22 179 1% 206 214 2% 60 ID 2500 I6089 24200 21 47228 709.83 I25 136 9146 1% 175
139 15 134.40 8891 02 423 38 223 3125 201.32 19400 26924.22 88822 156 172 182 188 219
246 2bO 2N1 313 3750 241 83 16200 32 40999 1067.00 I88 206 219 225 263
19423 a00 1233646 58745 313 344 365 Xi 4s
22164 BJ00 I403579 668.37 357 4375 28243 139 14 3792973 1246.15 219 241 255 263 306
393 417 429 5011 5000 323 11 12200 43 483 58 1425 69 250 23 292 WX) 350
45 ID 2500 12083 18200 909638 39984 167 183 194 HM 233 525 M3 88 108 67 49 071 67 1 605 62 281 10V 328 338 394
3125 151 25 14600 11 417.85 500 %I 208 229 243 250 292 62% 404 73 9800 54 694.16 1 785.93 313 114 365 375 438
.37M 181.75 12200 13 75848 601.46 250 275 292 MO 3%) 6875 445.66 89.27 60351.16 1 966.64 344 3i8 401 413 481
4375 212 33 I04 86 16 118 37 702.71 292 321 340 3% 405 i500 48667 82 00 6604285 2 147.73 375 413 438 450 525
5OW 24300 92.00 18497 63 804.24 333 367 389 400 46i
5625 273 75 8200 20 896.37 90608 375 413 438 450 525 63 ID 3125 211 33 203.60 31 145 01 979.02 149 Ihl 174 179 208
,6250 304 59 7400 23314.69 1W . 2 0 417 458 486 500 563 3750 253 85 170.00 37485 21 1 176.01 179 1% 208 214 250
,6875 335.50 67.45 25 752 70 1 110 63 458 SM 535 5% MI 4375 296.45 146.00 43 862.81 1 373.40 208 229 243 250 292
,7500 36651 62.00 28 210.50 1213.35 500 550 563 600 00 ,5000 339.13 128.00 50 277.W 1 571.19 238 262 278 286 333
5625 381 90 114.00 56 730.81 1 769.38 268 295 313 321 375
48 ID 2500 12864 19400 11 028 16 454.71 156 172 182 188 219 6250 424.75 102.80 63 221.50 1 967.98 298 327 347 357 417
3125 16126 15560 13839.05 56922 195 215 228 234 273 6875 467.69 93M 69 750.19 2 167.00 327 360 382 393 4%
3750 193 77 13000 16671 70 68397 234 258 2i3 281 328 ,7500 510.70 8600 76 317.03 2 366.42 357 393 417 429 500
,4375 226 35 I l l 71 19 52622 799.03 273 301 319 38 P; 8125 553.81 79.54 82 922.14 2 566.26 387 426 451 464 542
5000 259.02 98 00 22 402.73 914 40 313 344 365 3i5 43% 8750 5W.W 74.00 89 565 71 2 766.51 417 158 4U6 500 583
5625 291.78 87?3 25 301.33 1 03008 352 U1i 410 422 492 9375 640 26 69.20 % 24i 86 2 967.18 446 491 521 536 625
6250 324 61 7880 28 222.15 1 146.08 391 430 456 469 547 10000 69361 65.00 102 %8.75 3 168.27 476 524 5% 571 667
.6875 357.54 71.82 31 165.29 1262.39 430 473 MI 516 602
,7500 390.54 6600 34 13088 137903 469 516 547 563 6% 66 ID 3125 221.35 21320 35785.35 1074.23 142 1% 166 170 199
51 ID 2500 13686 2Dn00 1321574 513.23 147 162 I72 I76 2% 3750 255.87 17800 430(14.38 I 290.32 170 188 IW 205 239
4375 310.47 15286 50 384 41 1 506.82 199 219 232 239 278
3125 171.28 16520 16 580.40 642.34 184 202 214 221 Ki .5000 355.16 134 00 57 74561 1 723.75 227 250 265 273 318
3750 205.78 lM00 1996960 771.77 221 243 257 265 309 5625 399.93 119 33 65 148.12 1 941.10 256 281 298 307 358
4375 24037 118 57 23 383.45 901.53 257 283 300 309 3M ,6250 44478 10760 72592.11 2158.87 284 313 331 341 398
,5000 275 05 104 00 26 822 06 1031.62 294 324 343 353 412 6875 489.72 9800 80077 71 2 377.07 313 744 365 375 438
,5625 309 80 9267 30 285 56 1 16204 331 364 386 397 463 ,7500 534.74 9000 87 605 10 2 595.71 341 3i5 398 409 477
,6250 344 64 83 60 33 774 07 1292 79 368 460 429 441 515 ,8125 57981 8323 95 17442 2814.77 369 106 431 443 517
,6875 379 57 76 18 37 287 70 1 423 87 404 445 472 4% 5b6 8750 62503 7743 102 785 $4 3034.27 398 438 464 177 557
7500 414 57 7000 40826.59 1 555 34 441 485 515 529 61s 9375 670.30 72.40 11043949 3 254.20 426 469 497 511 597
54 ID 2500 144 87 21800 15 675 01 575.23 139 153 162 167 IW 1 OOOO 71565 6900 118 135.56 3474 58 455 SO0 530 545 6 1
3125 181 29 17480 19661 80 71988 174 191 203 208 243 69 ID ,3125 231.36 22280 40865.14 117386 136 I49 159 163 190
,3750 21i80 14600 2367605 864.88 208 229 243 250 292 ,3750 27788 18600 49 171.38 1409.93 163 170 190 I% 228
,4375 254 39 125 43 27 717 89 1010 22 243 267 284 292 MO 4375 324 49 159 71 57 522 40 1 646 44 IW 209 222 228 266
5000 291 07 11000 31 78744 l I5591 2% 306 324 333 3@9 5000 371 18 14000 65918 36 1883.38 217 239 2U 261 304
5625 327 81 9R00 35 884 84 1 301 94 313 344 365 375 4% ,5025 41795 12467 7435941 2120.i7 245 269 235 293 342
,6250 361 67 88 40 40010 20 I 418 31 347 UI2 405 417 4% 6250 46481 I1240 8284573 2 35860 272 299 317 326 584
6175 401 60 80 55 41 163 66 1 5% 08 382 420 446 458 535 ,6875 511 75 lb2.36 91 37746 2 596.87 299 329 349 359 418
-
57 ID
i5OO
2500
41861
15288
7100
23000
48 345 34
IR42189
1Ye2 17
bW76
417
132
,158
145
4Rh
154
500
158
563
1RI
.7%l
8125
558 77
605 88
94 00
8692
99 954 79
108 577 85
2 835.60
3074.77
326
353
359
389
380
412
391
424
457
495
3125 191 31 18140 23 103.11 800 84 lh4 IRI 192 197 2M 8750 653.07 8086 117 24683 3 314.40 380 418 444 457 533
3750 22982 15400 2781490 W32'1 197 217 230 23i 2ih 9375 700.34 75 60 125 W1.8R 3 554 48 408 W8 46 IR9 571
4375 2hR 41 132 29 32 557 37 1 125 09 230 251 269 2ih 322 l OOKI 747 70 71.00 134 723.16 3 79502 435 4% 507 522 Nl9
5(YW lO7 09 llh 00 37 3WM 1 2Ri 26 263 289 I 316 IhF
'Valum haw k e n compurcd by rknrontc computcr Scc text for formulas uwd
*\'slurs hare h r ~ nrnmruted h\ clcrtrtmr n m r u c r .See trxt lor L~rmulnuvd tSwn under 45 In brc outstdc d a m t c r a7rv t h m 45 tn and owr arc ~n\tdcdamctcr w m
+ S ~ r rttnhr
\ 15 In arr ~lut.iA J~anwtcrwr\. t h w 45 tn and o w arc ~n\nlcdlamctrr :hianuf.aurcn ran furnnh uall rhickrmw oorhcr than shnun
:.\l;mm~fwtnrrr~,an h % r n $nrll
J tbakac\w\ kshcr ~ h a n\hnwn $U'ork~npp m w m mat hc tntcrpolatcd or cxtrapnlarrd for other uall thckncw. or w c w *
tU'wkmg prt w r r c , nxn k ~ n t ~ r p l . w
~ tcd\ l r . ~ p d . ~ ~It*,c ~a~tlx
l r N dl ~ h hncw-\
n or \trm.um+
TnWe 4-2 Working Pressures for Allowable Unit Stresses' (continued) Table 4-2 Working Pressures for Allowable Unit Stresses* (continued)

hlomcnt hlomcnt
of Incrtia of lnerua
About Stms on Abut Stress pn
Pipe KaII U'clpht hpc AXIS Scctton Ptpe KaII Weight Plpc Awr Scctton l7 18m 21 000
Diamctert Thtckncss: pcr F w DJr M~~~~~~ 15000 16500 17MO 18000 21 000 Diamctcrt Thtckncrr: pcr Fwt Do/, In' Mdulus 2 M W ) l h 5 0
in. m (bare) Ratlo (1) (Sj Vorktng P m w c pn3 rn. rn (bare) Ratso 0) 1s) \Yorktnp Prcswrc pnk
--
72 ID ,3125 241 37 23240 4640424 1277.91 I30 143 152 156 182
,3750 289 90 194 00 55 83007 1534 85 156 172 182 188 219
4375 33851 166 57 65 304 60 179224 182 201 213 219 255
5000 387.20 15600 7482801 205008 208 229 243 2W 292
5625 435 98 I3000 El 40046 2 W.39 234 258 273 281 328
6250 484 R4 117 20 94 022 13 2 567 16 260 266 304 313 365
6875 53378 I06 73 I03693 20 2 826.39 2 315 3U W4 401
7W 58280 9800 113413F~l 3ORf1.09 313 344 365 375 438
8125 631 91 90 62 123 184.14 3 116.26 339 372 395 406 474
8i50 681 11 84 29 133004 35 3 606.90 365 401 425 438 510
9375 730 38 78.80 142874 64 3 86801 391 430 4% 469 547
IO(y10 77974 74.0015279516 412960 417 458 486 500 583
75 ID 3125 25139 24200 52422.55 1386.38 125 138 146 150 175
37% X)1 92 202.00 63064.29 I665 06 150 165 175 I80 210
4375 352 53 li343 73 758.83 1944 22 175 193 204 210 245
50% 403 22 I5200 84 506.37 2 223 85 200 2M 233 240 280
5625 4% 00 135.33 95 30705 2 503% 225 248 263 270 315
,6250 544 86 122.00 106 161.08 2 784.55 250 275 292 300 350
6875 555 81 111 09 117 068.63 3065 63 275 303 321 330 385
7500 60684 10200 12802985 3 347.19 300 3M 350 360 420
8125 65i 95 94 31 139014 93 3 629.23 325 358 379 390 455
8i50 70915 8 7 i l I5011408 391177 350 3R5 JOB 420 490
9375 7042 8200 16123742 4105.79 375 413 438 450 525
IW 8lli9 ii0017241517 447832 400 4.10 4bi 480 560
-.
78 ID 3125 261 40 251 60 58 939.93 14W 27 120 132 140 144 168
,330 313.93 210.00 70897.88 1 800 58 1.44 159 168 173 202
4375 36655 18029 82 912.92 2 102.39 168 185 1% 202 236
j0W 419.25 I5800 94 9R5 24 2 404.69 192 212 224 231 269
M25 47203 14067 IOi 114.W 2 70749 216 238 252 260 303
6250 524 89 13.1.80 119 302.32 3010 78 240 2M 280 288 337
68i5 57i84 11545 131 547.50 3314 58 264 291 MB 317 370
7500 63087 I0600 14385065 361888 288 317 337 346 404
RI25 M3.W 9800 156211 98 392369 313 344 365 3i5 438
8750 737 18 91 14 I63 631 6 i 4 22901 337 370 393 404 471
9375 79047 85 20 181 I0987 4 53.1 R3 361 397 421 433 5n5
1.0000 84383 8000 19364683 484117 385 423 449 462 538
RI ID 3125 271 42 261 20 6597629 1616.57 116 127 135 139 I62
,330 325 95 21800 i 9 3 M 75 l S1l 40 139 153 162 167 194
.43ii 360 57 I87 14 92 794.74 2 266 74 162 178 189 I94 227
SOOO 4352i 16400 I0629643 2592fQ 185 2M 216 222 259
5625 4900% I4600 l l 9 W M 2 918 97 208 229 21.3 2% 292
6250 544 92 131 60 1334R5 65 3245 85 231 255 270 278 324
Mi5 599 Ri 119 W2 147 173 55 3 5 3 26 255 280 297 WM 3%
300 654 90 11000 1 0 9 2 3 9 2 3 901 19 2i8 324 333 389
8125 ilOO 10169li4i3693 422964 301 331 351 MI 421
8750 765 22 94 57 IRR612 77 4 551 62 324 356 378 389 454
9355 8351 8R4O 202 551 63 4 RRB I2 347 382 ?05 417 486
-- I- WlO Hi588
-- __ 8300 216553.3 5218 16 370 407 432 444 519
84 11) 1125 2Rll) 2iORO 7355147 liW2U 112 123 IW IM 156
3750 337 97 12600 RR45873 2087 52 If4 147 156 I61 I88
1375 W l 59 I W M 10341209 2 $3728 156 I72 182 IRR 219
-

'\'slim hato h.rn rwnputr~lh rkrtnrn~ccomyutrr, Scr tcxt lor lormula\ a 4 *\'alum haw k e n cnmputrd br rkcrrnn~cmmpurrr Scr text lor lor mu la^ uwd
'S17rr undrr 15 In .trr w t ~ n l thnmrtrr
r wc\. lhnu 15 In md m u nrr mwJr tl~amctcrwrrr t F t m undcr 45 In arr uutr~dcJtamrtrr \17rs. thnu 45 In and orrr arc tnwlc daarnctrr w r \
:\ t m u l n m ~ r c rt ~.UI tt1rn8.h ttall ~ h ~ ~ k ~t ~t vtltm
ww ~\ h w n :.\tanuf.~turrr~%an fttrnnh uall thaknc\\r\ nrhrr than kh~lun
:\Xorhlnl: yrcwrt. 111 I \ h ~mr1wI.11t.1or C \ I I A ~ I . I ~ P I 11.1
I ~ t h r \t ~ . ~tl~\.l.n<\w\
ll 01 \trt\w\ \U'orkmg ym\urc\ mar hc ~ n ~ c r p l a l cord rxtraplatrd fnr cnhcr \\all thickntrw nr w r w \
TnWe 4-2 Working Pressures for Allowable Unit Stresses' (continued) Table 4-2 Working Pressures for Allowable Unit Stresses* (continued)

hlomcnt hlomcnt
of Incrtia of lnerua
About Stms on Abut Stress pn
Pipe KaII U'clpht hpc AXIS Scctton Ptpe KaII Weight Plpc Awr Scctton l7 18m 21 000
Diamctert Thtckncss: pcr F w DJr M~~~~~~ 15000 16500 17MO 18000 21 000 Diamctcrt Thtckncrr: pcr Fwt Do/, In' Mdulus 2 M W ) l h 5 0
in. m (bare) Ratlo (1) (Sj Vorktng P m w c pn3 rn. rn (bare) Ratso 0) 1s) \Yorktnp Prcswrc pnk
--
72 ID ,3125 241 37 23240 4640424 1277.91 I30 143 152 156 182
,3750 289 90 194 00 55 83007 1534 85 156 172 182 188 219
4375 33851 166 57 65 304 60 179224 182 201 213 219 255
5000 387.20 15600 7482801 205008 208 229 243 2W 292
5625 435 98 I3000 El 40046 2 W.39 234 258 273 281 328
6250 484 R4 117 20 94 022 13 2 567 16 260 266 304 313 365
6875 53378 I06 73 I03693 20 2 826.39 2 315 3U W4 401
7W 58280 9800 113413F~l 3ORf1.09 313 344 365 375 438
8125 631 91 90 62 123 184.14 3 116.26 339 372 395 406 474
8i50 681 11 84 29 133004 35 3 606.90 365 401 425 438 510
9375 730 38 78.80 142874 64 3 86801 391 430 4% 469 547
IO(y10 77974 74.0015279516 412960 417 458 486 500 583
75 ID 3125 25139 24200 52422.55 1386.38 125 138 146 150 175
37% X)1 92 202.00 63064.29 I665 06 150 165 175 I80 210
4375 352 53 li343 73 758.83 1944 22 175 193 204 210 245
50% 403 22 I5200 84 506.37 2 223 85 200 2M 233 240 280
5625 4% 00 135.33 95 30705 2 503% 225 248 263 270 315
,6250 544 86 122.00 106 161.08 2 784.55 250 275 292 300 350
6875 555 81 111 09 117 068.63 3065 63 275 303 321 330 385
7500 60684 10200 12802985 3 347.19 300 3M 350 360 420
8125 65i 95 94 31 139014 93 3 629.23 325 358 379 390 455
8i50 70915 8 7 i l I5011408 391177 350 3R5 JOB 420 490
9375 7042 8200 16123742 4105.79 375 413 438 450 525
IW 8lli9 ii0017241517 447832 400 4.10 4bi 480 560
-.
78 ID 3125 261 40 251 60 58 939.93 14W 27 120 132 140 144 168
,330 313.93 210.00 70897.88 1 800 58 1.44 159 168 173 202
4375 36655 18029 82 912.92 2 102.39 168 185 1% 202 236
j0W 419.25 I5800 94 9R5 24 2 404.69 192 212 224 231 269
M25 47203 14067 IOi 114.W 2 70749 216 238 252 260 303
6250 524 89 13.1.80 119 302.32 3010 78 240 2M 280 288 337
68i5 57i84 11545 131 547.50 3314 58 264 291 MB 317 370
7500 63087 I0600 14385065 361888 288 317 337 346 404
RI25 M3.W 9800 156211 98 392369 313 344 365 3i5 438
8750 737 18 91 14 I63 631 6 i 4 22901 337 370 393 404 471
9375 79047 85 20 181 I0987 4 53.1 R3 361 397 421 433 5n5
1.0000 84383 8000 19364683 484117 385 423 449 462 538
RI ID 3125 271 42 261 20 6597629 1616.57 116 127 135 139 I62
,330 325 95 21800 i 9 3 M 75 l S1l 40 139 153 162 167 194
.43ii 360 57 I87 14 92 794.74 2 266 74 162 178 189 I94 227
SOOO 4352i 16400 I0629643 2592fQ 185 2M 216 222 259
5625 4900% I4600 l l 9 W M 2 918 97 208 229 21.3 2% 292
6250 544 92 131 60 1334R5 65 3245 85 231 255 270 278 324
Mi5 599 Ri 119 W2 147 173 55 3 5 3 26 255 280 297 WM 3%
300 654 90 11000 1 0 9 2 3 9 2 3 901 19 2i8 324 333 389
8125 ilOO 10169li4i3693 422964 301 331 351 MI 421
8750 765 22 94 57 IRR612 77 4 551 62 324 356 378 389 454
9355 8351 8R4O 202 551 63 4 RRB I2 347 382 ?05 417 486
-- I- WlO Hi588
-- __ 8300 216553.3 5218 16 370 407 432 444 519
84 11) 1125 2Rll) 2iORO 7355147 liW2U 112 123 IW IM 156
3750 337 97 12600 RR45873 2087 52 If4 147 156 I61 I88
1375 W l 59 I W M 10341209 2 $3728 156 I72 182 IRR 219
-

'\'slim hato h.rn rwnputr~lh rkrtnrn~ccomyutrr, Scr tcxt lor lormula\ a 4 *\'alum haw k e n cnmputrd br rkcrrnn~cmmpurrr Scr text lor lor mu la^ uwd
'S17rr undrr 15 In .trr w t ~ n l thnmrtrr
r wc\. lhnu 15 In md m u nrr mwJr tl~amctcrwrrr t F t m undcr 45 In arr uutr~dcJtamrtrr \17rs. thnu 45 In and orrr arc tnwlc daarnctrr w r \
:\ t m u l n m ~ r c rt ~.UI tt1rn8.h ttall ~ h ~ ~ k ~t ~t vtltm
ww ~\ h w n :.\tanuf.~turrr~%an fttrnnh uall thaknc\\r\ nrhrr than kh~lun
:\Xorhlnl: yrcwrt. 111 I \ h ~mr1wI.11t.1or C \ I I A ~ I . I ~ P I 11.1
I ~ t h r \t ~ . ~tl~\.l.n<\w\
ll 01 \trt\w\ \U'orkmg ym\urc\ mar hc ~ n ~ c r p l a l cord rxtraplatrd fnr cnhcr \\all thickntrw nr w r w \
Table 4-2 Working Pressures for Allowable Unit Stresses* (continued)

Moment
of lncrtm
Table 4-2 Working Pressures for Ailowable Unit Stresses* (continued)
-
Alomcnt
of Inertia
102 ID 6875 754 08 I50 36 292 35087 5 656.12 202 222 236 243 283 ...,"".
A
h
,
.
,7500 823.14 138 00 319 51364 6 174 18 221 243 257 265 309 Plpc \Val1 \l'cighl Prpc Axii Scclion l5 l6 MO l7 '0° 18000 "
8125 892 27 127 54 346 774.99 6 692 88 239 263 279 287 335 D~nmctcr+Thrckntv: ~r Foot 4,/1 In.' Modulus
Bi50 961 49 118 57 374 135 14 7 212 24 257 283 WYI 360 ~n m. charcl Ratto (1) fSJ Workin$ Prcswrc psrP
9375 lOW RO 11080 401 594 41 7 732 26 276 303 322 331 286 -

108 11)
1 OOOO
,3125
1100 I8
361 54
104 00 429 15298 8 25294
V i m 15593684 2 8 i l I0
294
87
324
95
313
101
353
Ihl
-412
I22
1261D 8i50
91iS
llR580
1271 I3
14600
13640
701W4901098716
75305081 11 77792
208
221
229
246
243
2M)
250
268
292
313
.37W 434 10 2W00 18744905 344i 34 104 115 122 125 146 1 OOOO 1 5 6 54 12800 RM 447 32 12 569.59 218 262 278 286 3 3 3
4375 506 74 24886 2190i005 4024 25 122 1% 142 6 170 132 ID 3125 U l h5 42440 284 259 12 4 28664 71 78 83 85 99
5000 57947 21800 25080020 4601 84 I39 I53 I62 167 194 3i% 53023 35400 341 i9549 5 14645 85 94 W 102 119
5625 652 28 194 00 282 639.i2 5 1RO l l 1% 172 I82 1AB 219 4375 61890 XI371 3W09385600706 99 IW 116 119 139
630 725 17 lid RO 314 58881 5 i59.06 li4 191 203 MB 243 io0 iOiM 26600 456754 W 6868 W 11.1 125 133 136 159
Mi5 798 14 159 09 316 M i i 5 6 3 3 70 101 210 223 729 26i ih25 79647 23667 51457870 7 73076 128 141 149 153 179
iiOO 8 i i 20 1 4 6 0 378Rl6i5 691903 208 229 243 2iO 292 h2W U65 39 213 20 572 565 57 8 593 85 I42 156 IM 170 199
,8125 W434 1349241109620 i501104 226 248 263 271 316 Mi5 97439 19400 61071601 9457.i8 156 172 I82 188 219
8750 1017 57 12i43 443486 19 BOS1 75 243 26i 2M 292 340 iioo I(M347 17800 689030 01 10 322 55 170 188 199 205 239
,9375 109088 I17 20 475 98i02 8644 15 2M) 286 To4 313 365 8125 lli263 16446 747508 16 11 188 15 185 203 215 222 259
1 OOOO 11M.27 11000 508 59907 9 24i 26 2i8 306 324 333 389 8750 1241 88 152.86 EC6 15065 12054 59 199 219 232 239 278
114 1D ,3125 381 57 36480 183 31325 3 19849 82 90 % 99 115 ,9375 133121 142.80 8649576812921.87 213 234 249 256 298
3750 45813 %0022033767 38.4031 99 IW 115 118 I38 l OR00 1420.63 134 00 -- 13 790.00
92392984 227 250 265 273 318
433 53478 262.572ii48324 446284 115 127 1'4 118 161 138 11) 31s 461 68 43M) 324 710.23 4 684.73 68 75 79 82 95
5MW 611 51 210M 9 4 75026 5 12609 I52 I45 lsJ I58 18.1 3750 55426 37000 390 lRl 56 5624.21 82 90 95 98 114
5025 N18 32 234 O i 732 I3001 5 i i 0 0 6 I48 161 173 174 20; 4375 M693 31743 455830 18 656461 95 105 111 114 133
6250 i h i 22 184 XI 3h9 6-40 i 9 P414 75 IM 181 192 19i 210 iU0 i3969 278.00 52165630 750585 109 120 127 130 152
Mi5 $42 20 I6i 82 407 282.80 I Oh0 16 181 199 211 217 253 5625 R32 52 247.33 587 6hLl 13 8 447.94 122 135 143 147 171
.i50 919 27 154 0 0 445 038 33 i 7M29 19i 21i 230 23i 276 .62M 925.44 22280 653 842 24 9 390.91 136 149 159 163 193
,8125 99642 14231 482916.58 8 353 15 214 235 249 257 299 ,6875 1018.45 202 73 z20 20283 10 334.75 149 IW 174 179 209
8750 107365 132 29 520917 94 9 m . 7 4 230 253 269 276 32: iMO 1111.53 I6600 186742.10 11 279.46 163 179 I90 1% 228
,9375 1150 % 123 60 559042 (10 O M Q M 247 271 Xc$ -
% 345 8125 1204.70 171.85 85346045 1222504 177 I94 206 212 24;
loo0 122836 11600597290871029S12 263 289 107 316 3f,8 8750 1297.96 15971 920 358.44 13 171.50 I90 209 222 228 266
120 ID .3125 9375 1391.29 149 20 987 436.10 14 11884 204 224 238 245 285
401 fQ 38600 213719i2 3543% i8 R6 91 94 109
.37W 482 17
1 OOOO 1484.72 140.00 1054 693 80 15067.05 217 239 254 261 M
32200 2MRM 35 4 2F1.18 94 I03 109 I 131
4375 56282 27629 300 143 19 4 964 l i 1W I20 l2R 131 I53 144 ID .3125 481.71 462.80 368827.58 5 10047 65 72 76 i8 91
50M) (4355 24200 34355643 567662 125 138 I46 I50 175 3750 578.30 386.00 443 169.18 6 123 24 78 IM 91 94 109
,5625 i24 3i 215 73 M i 104 47 6 391 82 141 I55 It4 9 19i .43i5 679.97 331.14 517703 79 7 146.90 91 100 IM I09 128
,6250 805 28 I9400 410 7Ri49 i lOi 77 lib li2 I82 IhR '19 5000 771 73 290.00 592431 62 8 171 47 I04 115 122 125 I46
h675 S h 26 li6.5i 4i4 M i QO i 8x1 49 li2 1R9 201 3b 241 5625 868.57 25800 (167 35285 9 19ti.94 117 129 137 141 IN
.iWl OO7 33 l62W 518 5598R R 535 W IW 2% 219 225 263 .h2W W5 50 212.10 742467 87 10 22331 I30 143 152 I 182
8125 I(4S 49 149 h9 562 MY i 3 9 252 21 203 223 23; 214 284 6575 I(M2.51 211 45 817777 28 11 250.59 143 I58 167 172 MI
87% 112971 139 14 MM8Ti h i 9 WQ21 219 2.11 ?5i 263 % ijM) ll59M) 194.00 8932810812278.78 156 172 IR2 I@ 219
.Q3i5 l2ll Oi I W M 651 236 16 IOhRbW 22 258 2i3 2RI 3ZX Rl25 I2i6iR 17923 9h8 979M I3 W17 87 I69 Ill6 I9i 3 3 2 5
I NXX, I S 2 45 122M hV5 737 31 l l 465 43 8750 13'5404 IM57 I044 87360 14 33789 1R2 201 213 219 255
------ ------
mrn 247 31s 39 l q w m
2W 275
- 3 2
xi
W
-- 1I MW- 9375 1451.38 15560 112096290 1536881 195 215 228 234 2i3
l a In
---
3122
rt*
121 62
HM31 W O O 2 9 1 2 2 0 0 4 4hf1086
74
89
82
PR Ihl
89
107 I25 I ONXI I54880 14600 119724820 1630066 M8 224 213 250 292
4175 WR6 29003 34i t i 2 54 5 47.125 Ihl 115 122 125 146 *\'slum havc hccn rnmputcd hg elcctmnr compulcr Scc text fnr formulas uvd
5000 hi5Ml ?%(a 39i4i319 625942 119 131 I39 143 I67 - -- under 45 tn arc ou&Jc dramclcr si7fi. l h w 45 In. and o w arc rns~dcdramclcr s12cs.
i'iwm
5625 7Ml 12 22h00 447 82227 7 04; 38 I34 147 156 161 IAB :Alanufmurcr\ can fum~rh~ a l tlh e k m w o l k r than shoun.
0250 $45 33 B3hO 498 120 IP iR72 14 149 IN I74 li9 ZOR $\Vwktng prrwwcr ma\ hc ~ntcrplalcdor txtnpolatcd for other uall thuknc<sc\or w c r v s
hHi5 OW 13 If62i sJHWi 03 P hl9iO IN lR(I 191 1% 229
iiOn l0l5.10 liom 5Wih3 10 94W05 li9 1% 208 21.1 2%
Rl?i Il(%x$h 15iOh hWiOuW 10 19720 I93 213 22h 212 271
*\'~IW h*\c hcm ~ I Q I I ~ I . U I t*\
K ~ c l r ~ t r o nr~smpulcr
~~ \cc !<\I tar larmulr\ uwrf
' k x * d c r I5 III .ttt w 1 4 t Jtanwttr w c , ~ h wI; an,I mcr are I I N J,Irarinw
~ WP\
Table 4-2 Working Pressures for Allowable Unit Stresses* (continued)

Moment
of lncrtm
Table 4-2 Working Pressures for Ailowable Unit Stresses* (continued)
-
Alomcnt
of Inertia
102 ID 6875 754 08 I50 36 292 35087 5 656.12 202 222 236 243 283 ...,"".
A
h
,
.
,7500 823.14 138 00 319 51364 6 174 18 221 243 257 265 309 Plpc \Val1 \l'cighl Prpc Axii Scclion l5 l6 MO l7 '0° 18000 "
8125 892 27 127 54 346 774.99 6 692 88 239 263 279 287 335 D~nmctcr+Thrckntv: ~r Foot 4,/1 In.' Modulus
Bi50 961 49 118 57 374 135 14 7 212 24 257 283 WYI 360 ~n m. charcl Ratto (1) fSJ Workin$ Prcswrc psrP
9375 lOW RO 11080 401 594 41 7 732 26 276 303 322 331 286 -

108 11)
1 OOOO
,3125
1100 I8
361 54
104 00 429 15298 8 25294
V i m 15593684 2 8 i l I0
294
87
324
95
313
101
353
Ihl
-412
I22
1261D 8i50
91iS
llR580
1271 I3
14600
13640
701W4901098716
75305081 11 77792
208
221
229
246
243
2M)
250
268
292
313
.37W 434 10 2W00 18744905 344i 34 104 115 122 125 146 1 OOOO 1 5 6 54 12800 RM 447 32 12 569.59 218 262 278 286 3 3 3
4375 506 74 24886 2190i005 4024 25 122 1% 142 6 170 132 ID 3125 U l h5 42440 284 259 12 4 28664 71 78 83 85 99
5000 57947 21800 25080020 4601 84 I39 I53 I62 167 194 3i% 53023 35400 341 i9549 5 14645 85 94 W 102 119
5625 652 28 194 00 282 639.i2 5 1RO l l 1% 172 I82 1AB 219 4375 61890 XI371 3W09385600706 99 IW 116 119 139
630 725 17 lid RO 314 58881 5 i59.06 li4 191 203 MB 243 io0 iOiM 26600 456754 W 6868 W 11.1 125 133 136 159
Mi5 798 14 159 09 316 M i i 5 6 3 3 70 101 210 223 729 26i ih25 79647 23667 51457870 7 73076 128 141 149 153 179
iiOO 8 i i 20 1 4 6 0 378Rl6i5 691903 208 229 243 2iO 292 h2W U65 39 213 20 572 565 57 8 593 85 I42 156 IM 170 199
,8125 W434 1349241109620 i501104 226 248 263 271 316 Mi5 97439 19400 61071601 9457.i8 156 172 I82 188 219
8750 1017 57 12i43 443486 19 BOS1 75 243 26i 2M 292 340 iioo I(M347 17800 689030 01 10 322 55 170 188 199 205 239
,9375 109088 I17 20 475 98i02 8644 15 2M) 286 To4 313 365 8125 lli263 16446 747508 16 11 188 15 185 203 215 222 259
1 OOOO 11M.27 11000 508 59907 9 24i 26 2i8 306 324 333 389 8750 1241 88 152.86 EC6 15065 12054 59 199 219 232 239 278
114 1D ,3125 381 57 36480 183 31325 3 19849 82 90 % 99 115 ,9375 133121 142.80 8649576812921.87 213 234 249 256 298
3750 45813 %0022033767 38.4031 99 IW 115 118 I38 l OR00 1420.63 134 00 -- 13 790.00
92392984 227 250 265 273 318
433 53478 262.572ii48324 446284 115 127 1'4 118 161 138 11) 31s 461 68 43M) 324 710.23 4 684.73 68 75 79 82 95
5MW 611 51 210M 9 4 75026 5 12609 I52 I45 lsJ I58 18.1 3750 55426 37000 390 lRl 56 5624.21 82 90 95 98 114
5025 N18 32 234 O i 732 I3001 5 i i 0 0 6 I48 161 173 174 20; 4375 M693 31743 455830 18 656461 95 105 111 114 133
6250 i h i 22 184 XI 3h9 6-40 i 9 P414 75 IM 181 192 19i 210 iU0 i3969 278.00 52165630 750585 109 120 127 130 152
Mi5 $42 20 I6i 82 407 282.80 I Oh0 16 181 199 211 217 253 5625 R32 52 247.33 587 6hLl 13 8 447.94 122 135 143 147 171
.i50 919 27 154 0 0 445 038 33 i 7M29 19i 21i 230 23i 276 .62M 925.44 22280 653 842 24 9 390.91 136 149 159 163 193
,8125 99642 14231 482916.58 8 353 15 214 235 249 257 299 ,6875 1018.45 202 73 z20 20283 10 334.75 149 IW 174 179 209
8750 107365 132 29 520917 94 9 m . 7 4 230 253 269 276 32: iMO 1111.53 I6600 186742.10 11 279.46 163 179 I90 1% 228
,9375 1150 % 123 60 559042 (10 O M Q M 247 271 Xc$ -
% 345 8125 1204.70 171.85 85346045 1222504 177 I94 206 212 24;
loo0 122836 11600597290871029S12 263 289 107 316 3f,8 8750 1297.96 15971 920 358.44 13 171.50 I90 209 222 228 266
120 ID .3125 9375 1391.29 149 20 987 436.10 14 11884 204 224 238 245 285
401 fQ 38600 213719i2 3543% i8 R6 91 94 109
.37W 482 17
1 OOOO 1484.72 140.00 1054 693 80 15067.05 217 239 254 261 M
32200 2MRM 35 4 2F1.18 94 I03 109 I 131
4375 56282 27629 300 143 19 4 964 l i 1W I20 l2R 131 I53 144 ID .3125 481.71 462.80 368827.58 5 10047 65 72 76 i8 91
50M) (4355 24200 34355643 567662 125 138 I46 I50 175 3750 578.30 386.00 443 169.18 6 123 24 78 IM 91 94 109
,5625 i24 3i 215 73 M i 104 47 6 391 82 141 I55 It4 9 19i .43i5 679.97 331.14 517703 79 7 146.90 91 100 IM I09 128
,6250 805 28 I9400 410 7Ri49 i lOi 77 lib li2 I82 IhR '19 5000 771 73 290.00 592431 62 8 171 47 I04 115 122 125 I46
h675 S h 26 li6.5i 4i4 M i QO i 8x1 49 li2 1R9 201 3b 241 5625 868.57 25800 (167 35285 9 19ti.94 117 129 137 141 IN
.iWl OO7 33 l62W 518 5598R R 535 W IW 2% 219 225 263 .h2W W5 50 212.10 742467 87 10 22331 I30 143 152 I 182
8125 I(4S 49 149 h9 562 MY i 3 9 252 21 203 223 23; 214 284 6575 I(M2.51 211 45 817777 28 11 250.59 143 I58 167 172 MI
87% 112971 139 14 MM8Ti h i 9 WQ21 219 2.11 ?5i 263 % ijM) ll59M) 194.00 8932810812278.78 156 172 IR2 I@ 219
.Q3i5 l2ll Oi I W M 651 236 16 IOhRbW 22 258 2i3 2RI 3ZX Rl25 I2i6iR 17923 9h8 979M I3 W17 87 I69 Ill6 I9i 3 3 2 5
I NXX, I S 2 45 122M hV5 737 31 l l 465 43 8750 13'5404 IM57 I044 87360 14 33789 1R2 201 213 219 255
------ ------
mrn 247 31s 39 l q w m
2W 275
- 3 2
xi
W
-- 1I MW- 9375 1451.38 15560 112096290 1536881 195 215 228 234 2i3
l a In
---
3122
rt*
121 62
HM31 W O O 2 9 1 2 2 0 0 4 4hf1086
74
89
82
PR Ihl
89
107 I25 I ONXI I54880 14600 119724820 1630066 M8 224 213 250 292
4175 WR6 29003 34i t i 2 54 5 47.125 Ihl 115 122 125 146 *\'slum havc hccn rnmputcd hg elcctmnr compulcr Scc text fnr formulas uvd
5000 hi5Ml ?%(a 39i4i319 625942 119 131 I39 143 I67 - -- under 45 tn arc ou&Jc dramclcr si7fi. l h w 45 In. and o w arc rns~dcdramclcr s12cs.
i'iwm
5625 7Ml 12 22h00 447 82227 7 04; 38 I34 147 156 161 IAB :Alanufmurcr\ can fum~rh~ a l tlh e k m w o l k r than shoun.
0250 $45 33 B3hO 498 120 IP iR72 14 149 IN I74 li9 ZOR $\Vwktng prrwwcr ma\ hc ~ntcrplalcdor txtnpolatcd for other uall thuknc<sc\or w c r v s
hHi5 OW 13 If62i sJHWi 03 P hl9iO IN lR(I 191 1% 229
iiOn l0l5.10 liom 5Wih3 10 94W05 li9 1% 208 21.1 2%
Rl?i Il(%x$h 15iOh hWiOuW 10 19720 I93 213 22h 212 271
*\'~IW h*\c hcm ~ I Q I I ~ I . U I t*\
K ~ c l r ~ t r o nr~smpulcr
~~ \cc !<\I tar larmulr\ uwrf
' k x * d c r I5 III .ttt w 1 4 t Jtanwttr w c , ~ h wI; an,I mcr are I I N J,Irarinw
~ WP\
References
I. Welded S t n l Pcnsrocks. Engnr. Mono-
graph 3. Burelu of Rechmation, Denver.
Cob.
5. Ruler for Canstrunion of Unfired Prcs-
wrc \'cwlr Src. \'lll.AShlE Bo~lcrand
Prcsrurc Vcsxl Code. ASME, Ncw Sork.
AWWA M A N U A L
0
2. Steel Water Pipe 6 Inches and Larger. 6. TIMOSIIESKO, S. S l r m ~ ~ofhMurrnnls.
AU'WA Standard C200-80. AWPIA,

5
Part 11. D,\'an Xostnnd Co., Kcw Sork
Denver, Colo. (1980). (1940).
3. Gmcnt-Mortar Protcaivc Lining and
Costing for Steel Water Pipe-4 In. m d
7. ROAR&R.J. Formulas for Strcsr and
Swain. hlcGnu-Hill Book Co., Keu
Chapter
Larger-Shop A p p l i . AU'U'A Standard Vork (4th cd.. 1965).
C205-80. AU'WA. Dcnver, 610. (1980). 8. PAUM$~~IAS. J. Mlnirnum Thickness for -
4. Gmcnt-Momr Ltning of Water P~pe- Handling P i p . Watcr Power and Dam
linn-1 In. (100 mm) and Lawee-In b n u r u n l o n . (Junc 1982.;
Place. AU'WA Standard C602-83,
AWU'A. Denver. Colo: (1983).
Water Hammer and
Pressure Surge

Water hammer is the result of a change in flow velocity in a closed conduit causing elastic
wava to travel upstream and downstream from the point of origin. The elastic u ~ e s in,
turn, caux increasaor decreases in pressureas they travel along theline, and thew pressurc
changes arc variously referred to as water hammer, surge, or transient pressure.
The phenomenon ofwater hammer is extremely complex, and noattempt willbe made
to cover the subject in depth in this manual. Only the fundamentals ofclastic-wave theory
and specific data pertaining to the properties ofstccl pipe will bc discussed. For a more
detailed understanding of water hammer, the references liitcd at the end of this chapter
should be consulted.

5.1 BASIC RELATIONSHIPS

The following fundamental relationships in surgc-ware theory determine the magnitude of
the pressure rise and its distribution along a conduit. The pressure rise for in~tantancous
closure is directly proportional to the nuid velocity at cutoff and to the magnitude of the
surge wave velocity; it is independent of the length of the conduit. Its value is:
References
I. Welded S t n l Pcnsrocks. Engnr. Mono-
graph 3. Burelu of Rechmation, Denver.
Cob.
5. Ruler for Canstrunion of Unfired Prcs-
wrc \'cwlr Src. \'lll.AShlE Bo~lcrand
Prcsrurc Vcsxl Code. ASME, Ncw Sork.
AWWA M A N U A L
0
2. Steel Water Pipe 6 Inches and Larger. 6. TIMOSIIESKO, S. S l r m ~ ~ofhMurrnnls.
AU'WA Standard C200-80. AWPIA,

5
Part 11. D,\'an Xostnnd Co., Kcw Sork
Denver, Colo. (1980). (1940).
3. Gmcnt-Mortar Protcaivc Lining and
Costing for Steel Water Pipe-4 In. m d
7. ROAR&R.J. Formulas for Strcsr and
Swain. hlcGnu-Hill Book Co., Keu
Chapter
Larger-Shop A p p l i . AU'U'A Standard Vork (4th cd.. 1965).
C205-80. AU'WA. Dcnver, 610. (1980). 8. PAUM$~~IAS. J. Mlnirnum Thickness for -
4. Gmcnt-Momr Ltning of Water P~pe- Handling P i p . Watcr Power and Dam
linn-1 In. (100 mm) and Lawee-In b n u r u n l o n . (Junc 1982.;
Place. AU'WA Standard C602-83,
AWU'A. Denver. Colo: (1983).
Water Hammer and
Pressure Surge

Water hammer is the result of a change in flow velocity in a closed conduit causing elastic
wava to travel upstream and downstream from the point of origin. The elastic u ~ e s in,
turn, caux increasaor decreases in pressureas they travel along theline, and thew pressurc
changes arc variously referred to as water hammer, surge, or transient pressure.
The phenomenon ofwater hammer is extremely complex, and noattempt willbe made
to cover the subject in depth in this manual. Only the fundamentals ofclastic-wave theory
and specific data pertaining to the properties ofstccl pipe will bc discussed. For a more
detailed understanding of water hammer, the references liitcd at the end of this chapter
should be consulted.

5.1 BASIC RELATIONSHIPS

The following fundamental relationships in surgc-ware theory determine the magnitude of
the pressure rise and its distribution along a conduit. The pressure rise for in~tantancous
closure is directly proportional to the nuid velocity at cutoff and to the magnitude of the
surge wave velocity; it is independent of the length of the conduit. Its value is:
j? S I El% I'IPE

Where: Figure 5-1 gives values of pressurc wave velocity for various p ~ p ematcr~alswith d/r
ratios up to 90. For steel p i p , higher ratios are frcqucntly encountcrcd In large s i m , and
Table 5-1 gives computed values up to d/r = 400.
When the flow ratc is changed in a time greater than zero but less than or equal to 2 U a
seconds,thc magnitudeofthe prcssure risc is thesame as with instantaneousclosure,but the
duration of the maximum value dccreases as the time ofclosure approaches W a seconds.
Undci these conditions, the pressurc distribution along the pipline varies as the time of
In the above equations: closurc varies. Thc prcssure decreases uniformly along the line if closurc iq in 2 U a scconds.
The maximum pressure at the control valve exists along the full length of the line with
a = wave velocity (fps) instantaneous closure, and for slowcr rates travels up the pipe a distance equal to L-(To121
h = pressure risc above normal (ft of water) fcct, then decreases uniformly. The surgc prcssure distrihut~onalong the conduit is
P = prcssure rise above normal (psi) independent of the profile or ground contour of the line so long as the total pressure remains
1.' = velocity of flow (fps) above the vapor prcssure of the fluid.
IT' = weight of fluid ( I b / a ft)
sp gr = specific gravity of fluid (water = I .O)
C = bulk modulus of compressibility of liquid (psi) Table 5-1 Velocity of Pressure Wave for Steel Pipe
E = Young's modulus of elasticity for pipe wall material (psi)
d = inside diameter of conduit (in.) Diarncrcr
r = thickness of conduit wall (in.) Thickness
g = acceleration due to gravity (32.2 fps/s)
L = length of conduit (ft)
-
2L 5
critical time of conduit (s)
T = closing time (s).

For steel pipe, Eq 5-3 reduces to:

using k = 300 000 psi and E = 30 000 000 psi. For valvc closing times greater than W a scconds, the maximum pressurc risc will be a
function of the maximum ratc of change in flow with respect to timc, d17/dT. Nonlinear
closurc rates of a valve can be investigated, and the proper calve closing timc determined to
hold the maximum pressurc rise to any desired limiting value. The cffcct of pumps and
quick-closing check valves or control valves can be investigated using the graphical mcthod
or numerical method through use of a computer.
The profile of the conduit leading away from a pumping station may have a major
influence on the surge conditions. T h e n high p i n t s occur along thc line, the surge
hydraulic-grade elevation may fall below the pipe profile causing negative pressurcs,
perhaps as low as the vapor pressure of the fluid. If this occurs, the liquid column may be
scparatcd by a zone o f v a p r forashort time. Parting and rcioiningofthe liquidcoiumncan
produce extremely high pressurcs and may cause failure of the conduit.'
Threffect of friction can be accounted for in any surgc prohlem. When friction losses
arc less than 5 percent of the normal static or working pressure, they can usually be
ncglecicd.
INSIDE DIAMETER
The greater the degree of accuracy desired for the results of a surgc analysis, the more
WALL THICKNESS must be known about the various hydraulic and physical characteristics of thc system. The
vclocity of the prcssure wave a is a fundamental factor in any surge study, as thc surge
'-e nurn?.- a! !he nghl 01 me cmes represen1 Ihe modulus 01 elaslmy E in 1 000 000-pst unns for various ptpe pressures arc directly proportional to its value. This wlocity dcpcnds on the p ~ p d~ametcr,
c
ratema!! -
wall thickness, material of the pipe walls, as well a\ the dcnstty and comprcwh~l~tv of rhc
Figure 5 - 1 Surge Wave Velocity Chart for Water fluid In the p i p .
j? S I El% I'IPE

Where: Figure 5-1 gives values of pressurc wave velocity for various p ~ p ematcr~alswith d/r
ratios up to 90. For steel p i p , higher ratios are frcqucntly encountcrcd In large s i m , and
Table 5-1 gives computed values up to d/r = 400.
When the flow ratc is changed in a time greater than zero but less than or equal to 2 U a
seconds,thc magnitudeofthe prcssure risc is thesame as with instantaneousclosure,but the
duration of the maximum value dccreases as the time ofclosure approaches W a seconds.
Undci these conditions, the pressurc distribution along the pipline varies as the time of
In the above equations: closurc varies. Thc prcssure decreases uniformly along the line if closurc iq in 2 U a scconds.
The maximum pressure at the control valve exists along the full length of the line with
a = wave velocity (fps) instantaneous closure, and for slowcr rates travels up the pipe a distance equal to L-(To121
h = pressure risc above normal (ft of water) fcct, then decreases uniformly. The surgc prcssure distrihut~onalong the conduit is
P = prcssure rise above normal (psi) independent of the profile or ground contour of the line so long as the total pressure remains
1.' = velocity of flow (fps) above the vapor prcssure of the fluid.
IT' = weight of fluid ( I b / a ft)
sp gr = specific gravity of fluid (water = I .O)
C = bulk modulus of compressibility of liquid (psi) Table 5-1 Velocity of Pressure Wave for Steel Pipe
E = Young's modulus of elasticity for pipe wall material (psi)
d = inside diameter of conduit (in.) Diarncrcr
r = thickness of conduit wall (in.) Thickness
g = acceleration due to gravity (32.2 fps/s)
L = length of conduit (ft)
-
2L 5
critical time of conduit (s)
T = closing time (s).

For steel pipe, Eq 5-3 reduces to:

using k = 300 000 psi and E = 30 000 000 psi. For valvc closing times greater than W a scconds, the maximum pressurc risc will be a
function of the maximum ratc of change in flow with respect to timc, d17/dT. Nonlinear
closurc rates of a valve can be investigated, and the proper calve closing timc determined to
hold the maximum pressurc rise to any desired limiting value. The cffcct of pumps and
quick-closing check valves or control valves can be investigated using the graphical mcthod
or numerical method through use of a computer.
The profile of the conduit leading away from a pumping station may have a major
influence on the surge conditions. T h e n high p i n t s occur along thc line, the surge
hydraulic-grade elevation may fall below the pipe profile causing negative pressurcs,
perhaps as low as the vapor pressure of the fluid. If this occurs, the liquid column may be
scparatcd by a zone o f v a p r forashort time. Parting and rcioiningofthe liquidcoiumncan
produce extremely high pressurcs and may cause failure of the conduit.'
Threffect of friction can be accounted for in any surgc prohlem. When friction losses
arc less than 5 percent of the normal static or working pressure, they can usually be
ncglecicd.
INSIDE DIAMETER
The greater the degree of accuracy desired for the results of a surgc analysis, the more
WALL THICKNESS must be known about the various hydraulic and physical characteristics of thc system. The
vclocity of the prcssure wave a is a fundamental factor in any surge study, as thc surge
'-e nurn?.- a! !he nghl 01 me cmes represen1 Ihe modulus 01 elaslmy E in 1 000 000-pst unns for various ptpe pressures arc directly proportional to its value. This wlocity dcpcnds on the p ~ p d~ametcr,
c
ratema!! -
wall thickness, material of the pipe walls, as well a\ the dcnstty and comprcwh~l~tv of rhc
Figure 5 - 1 Surge Wave Velocity Chart for Water fluid In the p i p .
 Knoulcdge concerning the physical characteristics of the p r p material is fairly
complete. Young's modulus for steel lines can be taken at 30 000 W p i , since it averages
bctuccn 29 000 W a n d 31 000 OOOpsi, depending on the steel used. Ifthe ratioofdiameter
to thickncss is known, it is necessary to know only the density and the compressibility of the
liquid within the p i p to determine the surge wave velocity a.
\%thin the range of ordinary operating temperatures for watcr, 32-lW°F (0-3S°C),
and for pressures in the range of 0- 1000 psi, the specific gravity can bc taken at 1.00. In the
same range, the modulus of compressibility, or bulk modulus, has been found by
measurements and verified by field tests to be approximately 300 W p i wrth a variation of
23 p e r c ~ n t . ~
5.2 CHECKLIST FOR PUMPlNGMAlNS
A few facrors can bc checked to indicate u hcthcr surges of cerious proportions will occur in
any given system, once the physical, hydraulic. and operating charactcrtstics arc established.
For most transmission mans supplied by motor-driven ccntrrfugal pumps, the following 12
questions will give a clue to the seriousness of the surgc problem:'.'
1. Arc thcre any high spots on the profile of the transmrssron main where the
occurrence of a vacuum can cause a paning of the water column when a pump is cut off?
2. Is the lengthofthe transmission main less than 20timcsthc head on the pumps (both
values esprcsscd in feet)?
3. Is the maximum velocity of flow in the transmission main in excess of 4.0 fps?
4. Is the factor of safety of the pipe lcss than 3.5 (related to ultimate strength) for
normal operating pressures?
5. What is the natural rate of slowing down of the water column if the pump is cut off?
\Till the column come to rcst and reverse Its direction of flow tn lms than the critical
surge-wave trme for the transmission main?
6. \VtII the chcck valve close in less than the critical trme for the tranmission main?
5. Arc thcre any quick-closing automatic valves set to opcn or close in lcss than 5 s?
8. Would the pump or its driving motor bc damaged fallowed m run backward up to
full speed?
9. Will the pump be tripped off before the discharge valve is fully closed?
10. \GI1 the pump bc started with the discharge gate valve open?
1I. Are thcre booster stations on the system that dcpcnd on the operation of the main
pumping station under consideration?
12. Arc there any quick-closing automatic valves uced in the pumping system that
hccomc inoprativc with the failure of pumping system pressure?
lf thc answer to any one of these questions is affirmative, there is a strong possibility
that scrious surges will occur. If the answer to m o or more of the questions is affirmativc,
surges \vrll probably be experienced with severity in proportion to the numbcrofaflirmati\.e
answers
5.3 GENERALSTUDIES FORWATER HAMMER CONTROL
..
Studrcs of surges can be undertaken during the dcsign stage. Once thegcncral layout of the
s y w m has hcen completed, the length, diameter, thickncss, material, and capaclty of the
p t p . ax sell as the type and s i x of pumps, can be cctahli\hed. The normal operating
prrswrc\ at \arrous points in the systcm can he computed and the allouahlc maximum
prcwre\ fixed. Dv this means, thc margin for uatcr hammer can k found. The dcsign
r h ~ w l ~thcn
i he a&uctcd to provide etthcr <afcty factor. largc cnouph to wrth\tand ruch
C ~ ~ ~ I a, I m I r~
I h~rhc cncountcrcd or suitahlc rrmcd~dlor ronrrol dcv~cc\The latter
mcrhod 1s u5ually less costly. It is important to note that thcre is no single devrcc rhat will
curc all wrge d~fficultrcs.Only hy asrudy orboth normal operatingcondruon.i and poss~ble
cmcrgcncy condrtions can methods he determrncd to provrde proper control.
It is not feasible to make general recommendations on the typc,size, and application of
surgc-control equipment for all plants. Several possible solutrons should bc considered for
any individual installation, and one selected that gives the maximum protection for the least
expendrture. Surges can often be reduced substantially by using bypasses around chcck
valves, by cushioning check valves for the last 15-20 percent of the stroke, or by adopting a
two-sped rate of valve stroke. Water hammer resulting from power failure to centrifugal
pumps cansometimes bc held tosafe limits by providing flywheels or by allowing the pumps
to run backward. Air-inlet valves may bc needed, or the preferred solution may be to use a
surge tank, a surge damper, or a hydropneumatic chamber. Under certain operating
conditions, no devices wrll bc required to hold the pressure rise within safe limits.
It is essential to coordinate all the elements of a system properly and to ascertain that
oprating practices conform to the requirements for safety. As changes take place in the
system demand, it may be necessary to review and revise the surge condnrons, particularly if
the capacity is increased, additional pumpage or storage is added, or booster sta:ions arc
planned.
If acompctcnt investigation is made during the dcsign stage and the recommendations
arrctng from 11are carried out, the final plant will almostalways operate without damage due
to water hammer. The agreement between the theoretical analyses, properly applred, and
the actual tests of installations IS extremely close. When a surgc study was not undertaken
and dangerous conditions existed, thcre have almost invariably been serious surges, and
sometimes costly damage has resulted. The time and effort spcnt on a surge study in advance
of the final design is the least expensiw mcans of ensuring against surges. The elastic-wave
theory has bcen completely proven in actual practice, and dcsign engtnecrs should take the
initiative in making surge studies and installing surge-control devices wtthout waiting for
scrious failures to occur.
5.4 ALLOWANCE. FOR WATER HAMMER
Many conditions have changed since the standard, rule-of-thumb empirical allowances for
water hammer originated. Automatic stop, chcck, and throttling valves were not then as
widely used as they are today. Valve closures measured in seconds and motor-driven
ccntnfugal pumps were practically unknown. New types of pipe have since been introduced
and used. Consequently, it is questionable whether standard allowances for water hammer
should be applied universally to all types of installations. Nor can it be said that such
allowanm provide full security under all circumstances. Potential uatcr-hammer
problems should be investigated in the dcsign of pumping-station piping, force mains, and
long transmission pipelines. Suitable mcans should be provided to reduce its effect to the
minimum that is practicable or economical.
5.5 PRESSURE RISE CALCULATlONS
It is not within the scope of this manual to cover an analysis of pressure iisc in a complicated
pipeline.-Some basrc data arc, houwcr, provided for simple problems.
The pressure rise for instantaneous valve closure is given by Eq 5-1. \'slues of the wave
velocity a may be read from Figurc 5-1 for diameter-thickness ratios of 90 and less. and from
Table 5-1 for higher ratios.
For solutions to more complex problcms, it is rccommentlcd that refercncc he mode to
the many publtcations available (.ice. for csamplc, rcfcrcncc\ 5.6.7, and 8at the end of thiq
chapter). Computcr programs arc a\ adahlc that rncludc the effect\ of p p l r n c frtmon and
 Knoulcdge concerning the physical characteristics of the p r p material is fairly
complete. Young's modulus for steel lines can be taken at 30 000 W p i , since it averages
bctuccn 29 000 W a n d 31 000 OOOpsi, depending on the steel used. Ifthe ratioofdiameter
to thickncss is known, it is necessary to know only the density and the compressibility of the
liquid within the p i p to determine the surge wave velocity a.
\%thin the range of ordinary operating temperatures for watcr, 32-lW°F (0-3S°C),
and for pressures in the range of 0- 1000 psi, the specific gravity can bc taken at 1.00. In the
same range, the modulus of compressibility, or bulk modulus, has been found by
measurements and verified by field tests to be approximately 300 W p i wrth a variation of
23 p e r c ~ n t . ~
5.2 CHECKLIST FOR PUMPlNGMAlNS
A few facrors can bc checked to indicate u hcthcr surges of cerious proportions will occur in
any given system, once the physical, hydraulic. and operating charactcrtstics arc established.
For most transmission mans supplied by motor-driven ccntrrfugal pumps, the following 12
questions will give a clue to the seriousness of the surgc problem:'.'
1. Arc thcre any high spots on the profile of the transmrssron main where the
occurrence of a vacuum can cause a paning of the water column when a pump is cut off?
2. Is the lengthofthe transmission main less than 20timcsthc head on the pumps (both
values esprcsscd in feet)?
3. Is the maximum velocity of flow in the transmission main in excess of 4.0 fps?
4. Is the factor of safety of the pipe lcss than 3.5 (related to ultimate strength) for
normal operating pressures?
5. What is the natural rate of slowing down of the water column if the pump is cut off?
\Till the column come to rcst and reverse Its direction of flow tn lms than the critical
surge-wave trme for the transmission main?
6. \VtII the chcck valve close in less than the critical trme for the tranmission main?
5. Arc thcre any quick-closing automatic valves set to opcn or close in lcss than 5 s?
8. Would the pump or its driving motor bc damaged fallowed m run backward up to
full speed?
9. Will the pump be tripped off before the discharge valve is fully closed?
10. \GI1 the pump bc started with the discharge gate valve open?
1I. Are thcre booster stations on the system that dcpcnd on the operation of the main
pumping station under consideration?
12. Arc there any quick-closing automatic valves uced in the pumping system that
hccomc inoprativc with the failure of pumping system pressure?
lf thc answer to any one of these questions is affirmative, there is a strong possibility
that scrious surges will occur. If the answer to m o or more of the questions is affirmativc,
surges \vrll probably be experienced with severity in proportion to the numbcrofaflirmati\.e
answers
5.3 GENERALSTUDIES FORWATER HAMMER CONTROL
..
Studrcs of surges can be undertaken during the dcsign stage. Once thegcncral layout of the
s y w m has hcen completed, the length, diameter, thickncss, material, and capaclty of the
p t p . ax sell as the type and s i x of pumps, can be cctahli\hed. The normal operating
prrswrc\ at \arrous points in the systcm can he computed and the allouahlc maximum
prcwre\ fixed. Dv this means, thc margin for uatcr hammer can k found. The dcsign
r h ~ w l ~thcn
i he a&uctcd to provide etthcr <afcty factor. largc cnouph to wrth\tand ruch
C ~ ~ ~ I a, I m I r~
I h~rhc cncountcrcd or suitahlc rrmcd~dlor ronrrol dcv~cc\The latter
mcrhod 1s u5ually less costly. It is important to note that thcre is no single devrcc rhat will
curc all wrge d~fficultrcs.Only hy asrudy orboth normal operatingcondruon.i and poss~ble
cmcrgcncy condrtions can methods he determrncd to provrde proper control.
It is not feasible to make general recommendations on the typc,size, and application of
surgc-control equipment for all plants. Several possible solutrons should bc considered for
any individual installation, and one selected that gives the maximum protection for the least
expendrture. Surges can often be reduced substantially by using bypasses around chcck
valves, by cushioning check valves for the last 15-20 percent of the stroke, or by adopting a
two-sped rate of valve stroke. Water hammer resulting from power failure to centrifugal
pumps cansometimes bc held tosafe limits by providing flywheels or by allowing the pumps
to run backward. Air-inlet valves may bc needed, or the preferred solution may be to use a
surge tank, a surge damper, or a hydropneumatic chamber. Under certain operating
conditions, no devices wrll bc required to hold the pressure rise within safe limits.
It is essential to coordinate all the elements of a system properly and to ascertain that
oprating practices conform to the requirements for safety. As changes take place in the
system demand, it may be necessary to review and revise the surge condnrons, particularly if
the capacity is increased, additional pumpage or storage is added, or booster sta:ions arc
planned.
If acompctcnt investigation is made during the dcsign stage and the recommendations
arrctng from 11are carried out, the final plant will almostalways operate without damage due
to water hammer. The agreement between the theoretical analyses, properly applred, and
the actual tests of installations IS extremely close. When a surgc study was not undertaken
and dangerous conditions existed, thcre have almost invariably been serious surges, and
sometimes costly damage has resulted. The time and effort spcnt on a surge study in advance
of the final design is the least expensiw mcans of ensuring against surges. The elastic-wave
theory has bcen completely proven in actual practice, and dcsign engtnecrs should take the
initiative in making surge studies and installing surge-control devices wtthout waiting for
scrious failures to occur.
5.4 ALLOWANCE. FOR WATER HAMMER
Many conditions have changed since the standard, rule-of-thumb empirical allowances for
water hammer originated. Automatic stop, chcck, and throttling valves were not then as
widely used as they are today. Valve closures measured in seconds and motor-driven
ccntnfugal pumps were practically unknown. New types of pipe have since been introduced
and used. Consequently, it is questionable whether standard allowances for water hammer
should be applied universally to all types of installations. Nor can it be said that such
allowanm provide full security under all circumstances. Potential uatcr-hammer
problems should be investigated in the dcsign of pumping-station piping, force mains, and
long transmission pipelines. Suitable mcans should be provided to reduce its effect to the
minimum that is practicable or economical.
5.5 PRESSURE RISE CALCULATlONS
It is not within the scope of this manual to cover an analysis of pressure iisc in a complicated
pipeline.-Some basrc data arc, houwcr, provided for simple problems.
The pressure rise for instantaneous valve closure is given by Eq 5-1. \'slues of the wave
velocity a may be read from Figurc 5-1 for diameter-thickness ratios of 90 and less. and from
Table 5-1 for higher ratios.
For solutions to more complex problcms, it is rccommentlcd that refercncc he mode to
the many publtcations available (.ice. for csamplc, rcfcrcncc\ 5.6.7, and 8at the end of thiq
chapter). Computcr programs arc a\ adahlc that rncludc the effect\ of p p l r n c frtmon and
give accurate results. T h e r e a r c srrcral means of reducing surpcs h!. the addiuon o f d c t w e s
o r revtsing operating conditions, b u t these arc outside the scope o f t h i s manual. hio%to f t h c
avatlable computer programs permit evaluation o f the various means of reduclng o r
controlling surges. (Reference 8 describes some o f these means.)
References
I. RICHARDS, R.T. U'ater Column Scpan-
rton In Pump Dlscharpe Llnes. Trans.
ASME, i 8 1297 (1956)
2 RCRR.S L ,KFSSLLR,L.H ;6 GAI~ET,
hi B. S c u Mcthod for Bulk-hlodutus
Dctcrmtn~t~onTrunr. ASME. 72.1 143
(1950)
3 RCRR,S L hlrntm~mpSerr~ccInter-
ruprtonr Duc to Tranvmssmn Llnc Fad-
urcs-D~scusaon ?our AK'K'A.41 7.634
(Jul! 1949).
4 --- Water Hammcr Cantrol. Jour.
All'll A, 43 12 985 (Dcc. 1951).
5 Rtc H, G R Hjllruultc Tronrtmrs (Engl-
nccrinp Soctcttes Monographs) hlc-
Gnu-HIII Rook C h ,Ncu York (1951).
6 PARIIA~IAL. JOHX.K'ofer HummrrAnal-
y t s Dover Pubt~cations, New York
( 1963).
7 K t r s o , H. Water Hammer Control in
Crntr~fugalPump S!xtcm. ASCE ?our.
HIJ~JIIIDn.,(.\lay 1968).
~ 1' L b \X'\ I.IF, E B Hydruufar
8 S T RtTE%
7'runs1rnrr McGras-HIII Book 6..
Ynrk (19*7)
The folloi(ing references ere not riled in
rhc rrxr.
- ALIS, A L. Pcnstwk Surge Tank at
Dcnnison Hydro Plant. Cia: Eng., 142%
(1944).
- A L L I E ~LORESZO.
~, Theory oJ W'orcr
Hdnitnrr. Am. Soc. Mcch. Engn.. NCP
York (1925; out of print).
- AsGI.~. R U'. Water Hemmer in P i p .
Includ~ngT h o x Suppltcd hy Centrtfugd
Pumps; Graphical Trcatmcnt. Pmc. Inn.
Aicch. Engrs., 136:245 (1937).
- --- Water Hammcr Prcssurcs in
Compound and Branch Pipes. Tranr.
.JSCE. 104.140 11939).
- BAKXRII. R.E: ~ c d p nStandards for
Stccl B'atcr Pipc.Jnrr. AK'IT'A. 40:1:24
(Jan. 1948).
- RENSET~ RICIIARD. Water Hammer Cor-
rcctircs. B'fr. e Srm. V'b.. 88:106
[IWl).
- RER~;I:RIX L. Il'brtrHommrr in Hvdruu-
hrs onJ II".t;.r S u r p in E1rrrririr.v. John
Wrlc!. and Snm. Sew York (IWI).
AWWA M A N U A L
0
Chapter 6
- hcrs
BOFRFVDA\C. W L Prc\.iurc .41r Cham-
In Ccntrlfugal Pumpnp. 70rrr.
All 11'A. 31 11 1865 (Sot 19391
- D ~ u \ I I V , F.\I
txternal Loads
R+t l\\hb.A \ Ucth- v-
n d ~of Calculattng \Taler Hammcr Prcs-
wrcs Joar AlT'll' 4, 31 I 1 IR3i (So\
1939)
- E\ 4\\. W E 6 ( R4a Fmn. C ( Chart'
and Dcsignmg .41r Chamhrn for Pump
Dnchargc Llncs Pro, ASCE. i 9 5 i
(1916)
- R E ~ RS. L Practtcd A q w w of Water
Hammcr Jour AIT.ll'A. 40 6 599 (Junc
194R).
- --- Surges ~n PIP 1.1ncs-011 and
Water Trmr ASME. 72 66i (1950)
- --- Effect of Valrc 4nton on Water
Hammcr jour. ATUq.4, 52 165 (Jan
1960)
- PARNAKIAK. Jam Prcrwre Surge at
Large Pump Installat~on~. Trans ASME.
75.995 119531.
Scr
- Prr*-ccdlng* Sccond Intern. Con1 P m -
w c Surpc. Fluid Enprinccrmp. Brtrish
.
H!draul~c Rn. Asrcw London t 1976).
- Second Sympos~umon Water Hammer.
Trunr. ASME, 59.651 (1937).
6.1 LOAD DETERMINATION
- S~.\(IU.OLG%W t c r Hammer (Includn
a dig-t of S Jouko\~t!'s study ) Proc.
AWU'A Ann Cnnf.. St LOUIS.Mo #June
- 1904).
Standard Allouanm for Watcr Ham- External loads on buried pipe a r e generally comprised o f t h e weight o f t h e backfill together
w i t h live a n d impact loads. T h e Marston theory1 is generally used t o determine the loads
- STLPA\OFF.A J Elcmcnt< of Graphical imposed on buried pipe b y the soil s u r r o u n d i n g it. T h i s theor?. is applicable t o both flexible
Solut~nnof \Tatcr Hammcr Prohlcms In a n d rigid p i p s installed i n a variety o f conditions, including ditch a n d projecting conduit
Ccntrtfu~al-Pump S \ w m s Trmr. installations. Ditch conduits are structures installed a n d completely burled tn narrow
- ASME. 71.515 (1949)
Sl nEb I In. \' 1. Vn>icad\ Flou Calcu-
ditches i n relatively passive o r undisturbed soil. Projecting conduits a r c structures inrtalled
in shallow bedding with t h e t o p o f t h e c o n d u i t projecting ahove t h e surface o f t h e natural
h o n s h\ Sumertcal hlcthod\ AShiE
Jour of RJJICE n w ~(June 1 9 i 3 ground a n d thcn covered with the cmbankment. F o r purposes o f calculating t h e external
-
.
St mpo\tum tbn \Tmr Iiammcr Am Snc
hlcrh Enfirs S c u Tork ( 1933. rcprmcd
1949)
vcrtical loads o n projecting conduits, t h e ficld condttionc affecting t h e loads a r c
conveniently grouped into four subclassifications hased o n t h c magnitude of settlemcnt o f
- Watcr Hammer .4llouancc%In P~pcDc- the interior prism' of soil relative t o that of t h e c n t c n o r prism+ and t h e height of
vgn Cwnmrttcc R r p r r j h i r AIT'U'A, embankment
. . in relation t o the hetght at which settlements of t h e interior and exterior
50 3 3.40 t.\lar 1'4%) prtsms o f soil a r e equal.2
Stccl pipe is considered t o be flexible, a n d t h e Marston theory provides a simple
procedure for calculatingextcrnal soil l o a d s o n flcxihlc pipc If the flexihlc pilw is buried i n a
ditch less than t w o times the width o f t h e p i p , t h e load ma). h c computed as fvllowr:
.'lhc harklill prtrm dtrcc~l! ahovc thc ptpc
t l h c hackfill prwn hctucrn the trench ualh and vcrtital Imc. J n u n at IIIC 0I)1,f thr p t p
give accurate results. T h e r e a r c srrcral means of reducing surpcs h!. the addiuon o f d c t w e s
o r revtsing operating conditions, b u t these arc outside the scope o f t h i s manual. hio%to f t h c
avatlable computer programs permit evaluation o f the various means of reduclng o r
controlling surges. (Reference 8 describes some o f these means.)
References
I. RICHARDS, R.T. U'ater Column Scpan-
rton In Pump Dlscharpe Llnes. Trans.
ASME, i 8 1297 (1956)
2 RCRR.S L ,KFSSLLR,L.H ;6 GAI~ET,
hi B. S c u Mcthod for Bulk-hlodutus
Dctcrmtn~t~onTrunr. ASME. 72.1 143
(1950)
3 RCRR,S L hlrntm~mpSerr~ccInter-
ruprtonr Duc to Tranvmssmn Llnc Fad-
urcs-D~scusaon ?our AK'K'A.41 7.634
(Jul! 1949).
4 --- Water Hammcr Cantrol. Jour.
All'll A, 43 12 985 (Dcc. 1951).
5 Rtc H, G R Hjllruultc Tronrtmrs (Engl-
nccrinp Soctcttes Monographs) hlc-
Gnu-HIII Rook C h ,Ncu York (1951).
6 PARIIA~IAL. JOHX.K'ofer HummrrAnal-
y t s Dover Pubt~cations, New York
( 1963).
7 K t r s o , H. Water Hammer Control in
Crntr~fugalPump S!xtcm. ASCE ?our.
HIJ~JIIIDn.,(.\lay 1968).
~ 1' L b \X'\ I.IF, E B Hydruufar
8 S T RtTE%
7'runs1rnrr McGras-HIII Book 6..
Ynrk (19*7)
The folloi(ing references ere not riled in
rhc rrxr.
- ALIS, A L. Pcnstwk Surge Tank at
Dcnnison Hydro Plant. Cia: Eng., 142%
(1944).
- A L L I E ~LORESZO.
~, Theory oJ W'orcr
Hdnitnrr. Am. Soc. Mcch. Engn.. NCP
York (1925; out of print).
- AsGI.~. R U'. Water Hemmer in P i p .
Includ~ngT h o x Suppltcd hy Centrtfugd
Pumps; Graphical Trcatmcnt. Pmc. Inn.
Aicch. Engrs., 136:245 (1937).
- --- Water Hammcr Prcssurcs in
Compound and Branch Pipes. Tranr.
.JSCE. 104.140 11939).
- BAKXRII. R.E: ~ c d p nStandards for
Stccl B'atcr Pipc.Jnrr. AK'IT'A. 40:1:24
(Jan. 1948).
- RENSET~ RICIIARD. Water Hammer Cor-
rcctircs. B'fr. e Srm. V'b.. 88:106
[IWl).
- RER~;I:RIX L. Il'brtrHommrr in Hvdruu-
hrs onJ II".t;.r S u r p in E1rrrririr.v. John
Wrlc!. and Snm. Sew York (IWI).
AWWA M A N U A L
0
Chapter 6
- hcrs
BOFRFVDA\C. W L Prc\.iurc .41r Cham-
In Ccntrlfugal Pumpnp. 70rrr.
All 11'A. 31 11 1865 (Sot 19391
- D ~ u \ I I V , F.\I
txternal Loads
R+t l\\hb.A \ Ucth- v-
n d ~of Calculattng \Taler Hammcr Prcs-
wrcs Joar AlT'll' 4, 31 I 1 IR3i (So\
1939)
- E\ 4\\. W E 6 ( R4a Fmn. C ( Chart'
and Dcsignmg .41r Chamhrn for Pump
Dnchargc Llncs Pro, ASCE. i 9 5 i
(1916)
- R E ~ RS. L Practtcd A q w w of Water
Hammcr Jour AIT.ll'A. 40 6 599 (Junc
194R).
- --- Surges ~n PIP 1.1ncs-011 and
Water Trmr ASME. 72 66i (1950)
- --- Effect of Valrc 4nton on Water
Hammcr jour. ATUq.4, 52 165 (Jan
1960)
- PARNAKIAK. Jam Prcrwre Surge at
Large Pump Installat~on~. Trans ASME.
75.995 119531.
Scr
- Prr*-ccdlng* Sccond Intern. Con1 P m -
w c Surpc. Fluid Enprinccrmp. Brtrish
.
H!draul~c Rn. Asrcw London t 1976).
- Second Sympos~umon Water Hammer.
Trunr. ASME, 59.651 (1937).
6.1 LOAD DETERMINATION
- S~.\(IU.OLG%W t c r Hammer (Includn
a dig-t of S Jouko\~t!'s study ) Proc.
AWU'A Ann Cnnf.. St LOUIS.Mo #June
- 1904).
Standard Allouanm for Watcr Ham- External loads on buried pipe a r e generally comprised o f t h e weight o f t h e backfill together
w i t h live a n d impact loads. T h e Marston theory1 is generally used t o determine the loads
- STLPA\OFF.A J Elcmcnt< of Graphical imposed on buried pipe b y the soil s u r r o u n d i n g it. T h i s theor?. is applicable t o both flexible
Solut~nnof \Tatcr Hammcr Prohlcms In a n d rigid p i p s installed i n a variety o f conditions, including ditch a n d projecting conduit
Ccntrtfu~al-Pump S \ w m s Trmr. installations. Ditch conduits are structures installed a n d completely burled tn narrow
- ASME. 71.515 (1949)
Sl nEb I In. \' 1. Vn>icad\ Flou Calcu-
ditches i n relatively passive o r undisturbed soil. Projecting conduits a r c structures inrtalled
in shallow bedding with t h e t o p o f t h e c o n d u i t projecting ahove t h e surface o f t h e natural
h o n s h\ Sumertcal hlcthod\ AShiE
Jour of RJJICE n w ~(June 1 9 i 3 ground a n d thcn covered with the cmbankment. F o r purposes o f calculating t h e external
-
.
St mpo\tum tbn \Tmr Iiammcr Am Snc
hlcrh Enfirs S c u Tork ( 1933. rcprmcd
1949)
vcrtical loads o n projecting conduits, t h e ficld condttionc affecting t h e loads a r c
conveniently grouped into four subclassifications hased o n t h c magnitude of settlemcnt o f
- Watcr Hammer .4llouancc%In P~pcDc- the interior prism' of soil relative t o that of t h e c n t c n o r prism+ and t h e height of
vgn Cwnmrttcc R r p r r j h i r AIT'U'A, embankment
. . in relation t o the hetght at which settlements of t h e interior and exterior
50 3 3.40 t.\lar 1'4%) prtsms o f soil a r e equal.2
Stccl pipe is considered t o be flexible, a n d t h e Marston theory provides a simple
procedure for calculatingextcrnal soil l o a d s o n flcxihlc pipc If the flexihlc pilw is buried i n a
ditch less than t w o times the width o f t h e p i p , t h e load ma). h c computed as fvllowr:
.'lhc harklill prtrm dtrcc~l! ahovc thc ptpc
t l h c hackfill prwn hctucrn the trench ualh and vcrtital Imc. J n u n at IIIC 0I)1,f thr p t p
 Whcrc:

IC = dcad load on the conduit (Ib/lin ft of pipc) 11= hori7ontal dcflection of pipc (in.)
CJ = load cocficicnt bascd on Hr /Rd where H, is the height of fill ahorc conduit Dl = dcflection lag factor (1 .O-1.5)
and ndis defined hclow A' = hcdding constant (0.1)
w = unit wight of fill (lb/cu ft) IF'= load p r unit of pipc length (Ih/lin in. of pipc)
n,, = width of trcnch at top of p i p (ft) r = radius (in.)
R, = diameter of p i p (it). 6 = modulus of elasticity of p i p (M 000 000)
I = momcnt of tncrtia of cross section of p i p wall ( ~ n . ~ / l iin.
n of pipe)*
If thc p i p is buried in an embankment or wide trcnch, the load may he ct~mpuredfrom: E' = modulus of sod ( ~ b / i n . ~(Tablcs
) 6-1 and 6-2).

(1, = cocficicnt for cmhankmcnt conditions, a function of soil propnics.
*Under load. :he lndlrldual clcmcnts-8.c.. mortar I~nmg,stccl shcll, and mortar cnatlng-work
togcthcr as lam~narcdrings Structurally, the comhincd actton of thcsc thrcc clcmcnt\ Incrcam the
moment of lncrtla of thc ptpc xctton. ahow that of the 4icll alone. thus Incrca%tngtts ah~l~tr
to rcwt
load, The momcnt\oflncrtlaofthnc~ndlvdualclcmcntsarc addltne rocalculatcI for thc Ilntng and/or
coating r\stcrn

For flcsihlc p i p , the scttlcmcnt ratio2 may bc assumed to be zero, in which case:

Table 6-1 Average Values* of Modulus of Soil Reaction (E') (For initial RexlWe pipe deflection)

H,. = hcight of fill above top of pipe (it)

Then: Ftm-gntncd sotb (LL>SO):/Solb utth medlum to hlgh Soils tn this catcgorc rcqutre sprctal cnpteennp. analysis
placnct~CH. MH. CH-MH to dctcrminc rcqutrcd dcnw)., motsture contcnt,
comppnlw cffon
Ftnc-gn~ncdso115(LL<50VSothu%h mcdlum lo no 200 400 1000
plastkay CL. AtL, AIL-CL. CL-CH, AIL-Mil. with (1 4) (28) (6 91
Im than 254 cwrw-~nlncdpanlcks
Thc dcad load calculation in Eq 6-4 is the weight of a prism ofsoil with a width equal to that Rnc-gnrncd kotls (LL-:W)/Sorh ulrh mcdtum to no 400 loo0 ?000
of the p i p and a hcight equal to the dcpth of fill over the pipe. This prism load is convenient plast~ityCL. ML. AIL-CL, C1,-CH. ML-MH, ush more (2 8) ( 6 9) (1381
to calculate and is usually uscd for all installation conditions for both trench and than 25% coarse-gnmd prt~clm
Coaw-pnmncd mh uxh AncrlGM. G C SM.
embankment conditions. For use in the Iowa dcflection formula, divide Eq 6-4 by 12. SCb contatntnp morc than 12% Rncr
In addition to s u p p n i n g dcad loads impsed by earth cover, buried piplines can also a m - g n l n c d wtb u~thllttlc or no Anc<iGU',GP, SW. I(WO MOO W
he cxposcd to s u p r i m p s c d concentrated or distributed lire loads. Concentrated live loads SPb cnntalnmg lev than 12%fine\ (6 9) (ITR)--.- 120 7)
arc ~cnerallycaused by truck-wheel loads and railway-car loads. Distributed live loads are Crwhcd rock )cMO
causcd hy surcharges such as piles of matcrial and temprary structures. The effect of lrve ~~iL----
load\ on a piplinc d c p n d s on thc dcpth ofcorer over thc pipe. A method for dercrminin~ .4ccum ~nrcrm d dtffcrcncc hctuccn prcdtctcd and actual :2 2 -
1% -0SF
rhc live load u h g modified Boussinaq equations is presented on pp. 224-235bf reference 3 awmpc pclrcnl dckct~on
of this chapter. .As dctermlncd h! thc L'S Bycau of Rcclamatm
tRcfcr to Tahlc 6-2
6.2 DEFLECTION DETERMINATION .. .. --.-. ----
:L1. = L~qu~d hmtt
.
&Oran!. hordcri~ncCOII hcgmn~npu~thonc of W synhok (1.e GAI-GC. GC-SC
NllI F S
a first proposcd hy M.G. Spanglcr~It war later mod~ficdby
'I'he loua Jcllrction f t ~ n u l waq 1 Valw apphcoblr onh for All Icw than 50 A (15 m).
2. Tor uw In prrd~ntnl:tntt~aldcflccrnm~onh. appropnatc C?dlcctton Lap. 14ctnr mu\! hr nrrllcd lor Innptrrm drflcmtw
\%'akin\ and ~panglrr'and ha\ licqurntl! hrcn rcarranpd. In onc of its mcnt common 1 ICrccnt Prcutor hrwd on Iahratn\ maxtmum dn dcnw\ from tr*l \tanJard\ wtnc a b ~ wI2 i l Y 1 Ir.lhl I! ' 'W INN' I 111'
Itrrnn. Jtllc~ttnn cnlzulatcd as lallow tdlrthd IMW. A A I l I I'O T-qQi
 Whcrc:

IC = dcad load on the conduit (Ib/lin ft of pipc) 11= hori7ontal dcflection of pipc (in.)
CJ = load cocficicnt bascd on Hr /Rd where H, is the height of fill ahorc conduit Dl = dcflection lag factor (1 .O-1.5)
and ndis defined hclow A' = hcdding constant (0.1)
w = unit wight of fill (lb/cu ft) IF'= load p r unit of pipc length (Ih/lin in. of pipc)
n,, = width of trcnch at top of p i p (ft) r = radius (in.)
R, = diameter of p i p (it). 6 = modulus of elasticity of p i p (M 000 000)
I = momcnt of tncrtia of cross section of p i p wall ( ~ n . ~ / l iin.
n of pipe)*
If thc p i p is buried in an embankment or wide trcnch, the load may he ct~mpuredfrom: E' = modulus of sod ( ~ b / i n . ~(Tablcs
) 6-1 and 6-2).

(1, = cocficicnt for cmhankmcnt conditions, a function of soil propnics.
*Under load. :he lndlrldual clcmcnts-8.c.. mortar I~nmg,stccl shcll, and mortar cnatlng-work
togcthcr as lam~narcdrings Structurally, the comhincd actton of thcsc thrcc clcmcnt\ Incrcam the
moment of lncrtla of thc ptpc xctton. ahow that of the 4icll alone. thus Incrca%tngtts ah~l~tr
to rcwt
load, The momcnt\oflncrtlaofthnc~ndlvdualclcmcntsarc addltne rocalculatcI for thc Ilntng and/or
coating r\stcrn

For flcsihlc p i p , the scttlcmcnt ratio2 may bc assumed to be zero, in which case:

Table 6-1 Average Values* of Modulus of Soil Reaction (E') (For initial RexlWe pipe deflection)

H,. = hcight of fill above top of pipe (it)

Then: Ftm-gntncd sotb (LL>SO):/Solb utth medlum to hlgh Soils tn this catcgorc rcqutre sprctal cnpteennp. analysis
placnct~CH. MH. CH-MH to dctcrminc rcqutrcd dcnw)., motsture contcnt,
comppnlw cffon
Ftnc-gn~ncdso115(LL<50VSothu%h mcdlum lo no 200 400 1000
plastkay CL. AtL, AIL-CL. CL-CH, AIL-Mil. with (1 4) (28) (6 91
Im than 254 cwrw-~nlncdpanlcks
Thc dcad load calculation in Eq 6-4 is the weight of a prism ofsoil with a width equal to that Rnc-gnrncd kotls (LL-:W)/Sorh ulrh mcdtum to no 400 loo0 ?000
of the p i p and a hcight equal to the dcpth of fill over the pipe. This prism load is convenient plast~ityCL. ML. AIL-CL, C1,-CH. ML-MH, ush more (2 8) ( 6 9) (1381
to calculate and is usually uscd for all installation conditions for both trench and than 25% coarse-gnmd prt~clm
Coaw-pnmncd mh uxh AncrlGM. G C SM.
embankment conditions. For use in the Iowa dcflection formula, divide Eq 6-4 by 12. SCb contatntnp morc than 12% Rncr
In addition to s u p p n i n g dcad loads impsed by earth cover, buried piplines can also a m - g n l n c d wtb u~thllttlc or no Anc<iGU',GP, SW. I(WO MOO W
he cxposcd to s u p r i m p s c d concentrated or distributed lire loads. Concentrated live loads SPb cnntalnmg lev than 12%fine\ (6 9) (ITR)--.- 120 7)
arc ~cnerallycaused by truck-wheel loads and railway-car loads. Distributed live loads are Crwhcd rock )cMO
causcd hy surcharges such as piles of matcrial and temprary structures. The effect of lrve ~~iL----
load\ on a piplinc d c p n d s on thc dcpth ofcorer over thc pipe. A method for dercrminin~ .4ccum ~nrcrm d dtffcrcncc hctuccn prcdtctcd and actual :2 2 -
1% -0SF
rhc live load u h g modified Boussinaq equations is presented on pp. 224-235bf reference 3 awmpc pclrcnl dckct~on
of this chapter. .As dctermlncd h! thc L'S Bycau of Rcclamatm
tRcfcr to Tahlc 6-2
6.2 DEFLECTION DETERMINATION .. .. --.-. ----
:L1. = L~qu~d hmtt
.
&Oran!. hordcri~ncCOII hcgmn~npu~thonc of W synhok (1.e GAI-GC. GC-SC
NllI F S
a first proposcd hy M.G. Spanglcr~It war later mod~ficdby
'I'he loua Jcllrction f t ~ n u l waq 1 Valw apphcoblr onh for All Icw than 50 A (15 m).
2. Tor uw In prrd~ntnl:tntt~aldcflccrnm~onh. appropnatc C?dlcctton Lap. 14ctnr mu\! hr nrrllcd lor Innptrrm drflcmtw
\%'akin\ and ~panglrr'and ha\ licqurntl! hrcn rcarranpd. In onc of its mcnt common 1 ICrccnt Prcutor hrwd on Iahratn\ maxtmum dn dcnw\ from tr*l \tanJard\ wtnc a b ~ wI2 i l Y 1 Ir.lhl I! ' 'W INN' I 111'
Itrrnn. Jtllc~ttnn cnlzulatcd as lallow tdlrthd IMW. A A I l I I'O T-qQi
 EXTERSAL LOAD 61

Allowable deflection for various lining and coating systems that arc often accepted are:
Mortar-lined and coated = 2 pcrccnt of pipe diameter
Mortar-lined and flexible coated = 3 percent of pipc diameter
Flexible lining and coated = 5 percent of pipe diameter
Lire-load effect, added to dead load whcn applicable, is generally baud on AASHTO
HS-20 truck loads or Cooper E-80 railroad loads as indicated in Table 6-3. These valucs are
given in pounds per square foot and include 50-percent impact factor. It is noted that there
is no lire-load effect for HS-20 loads when the eanh cover exceeds 8 it or for E-80 loads
when the earth cover exceeds 30 ft.
hlodulus ofsoil reaction E' is a measure of stiffness of thc embedment material, which
surrounds the pipe. This modulus is required for the calculation of deflection and critical
buckling stress. E' is actually a hybrid modulus that has been introduced to eliminate thc
spring constant used in the original Iowa formula. It is the product of the modulus ofpassirc
resistance of the soil used in Spanglcr's early derivation and the radius of the pipe. It is not a
pure material property.
Values of E' were originally determined by measuring deflections ofactual installations
of mctal pipe and then back calculating the cffectivc soil reaction. Since E' is not a material
property, it cannot be uniquely measured from a soil sample, thus determination of E'
values for a given soil has historically presented a serious problem for designers.
In 1976, Amster ~oward~proposed a comprehensive tahle of recommended E' values.
E' is given as a func~ionof soil type and level of compaction. The values proposed by
Howard, as shown in Table 6-1, are based on measurements of a large numbcr of pipeline
installations. This table provides the designer with guidelines for E' that have becn
heretofore unavailable.
Tocircumvent the problems inherent in working with the hybrid modulus E'.there has
becn an increasing use of the constrained soil modulus MI? The constrained modulus is a
constitutive material property, which is taken as the slope ofthe secant of the stress-strain
diagram obtained from a confined compression test of soil. It may also bc calculated from
Young's modulus E, and Poisson's ratio u of the soil by:

The soil modulus can be determined from common consolidation tcsts, triaxial
Table 6-2 Unified Soil Classification laboratory tcsts, or from fieldplate-bearing tests of the actual soil in which the pipe will be
embedded.
Symbol Dexription
Since MI is taken as the secant modulus, it accounts in part for nonlinearitics in
stress-strain response of soil around the pipe. Determination of hf, is bawd on the actual
GW ~ e l l - g n d e dgravels, gravel-sand mixrum, link or no fines load applied to a pipc. Decreasing the load results in a decreased value for M,. Many
GP Poorly graded grarels, gnvcl-sand mixtum, littk or no f i m researchers have studied the relationship between E' and MI, with recommendations
GM Silty gravds, poorly graded gravel-sand-silt mixtum
GC Clayy gravels, porly graded gravel-sandslay mixtum
varying widely (E' = 0.7 to 1.5 M,). This is undcrstandahle, since MI is a "pure" soil
propcrry, whereasE'isempirical. It appears justified toassumethc two tobe the same,&'=
SW fill-gradeC sands, gra\rllg sands, littk or no fines
SP Poorly graded sands, gravelly sands, link or no fines
nr,.
Shl Stlrg sands. poorly graded sand4lt mlxtum
Sc Clayey sands, poorly graded sand-clay mixrum
6.3 BUCKUNC
ML Inorganic silts and wry fine sad, silrr or clayey fine sands
CL Inorganic clays of bv to medium pl&ticity Pipe embedded in soil rnay collapx or buckle from elastic instability resulting from loads
hl H Inorganic silts, miaaous a diitomreow f i n sandy or silty roils, elastic silts and deformations. The summation of external loads should be equal to or less than the
CH Inorganic clays of high plasticity, fat clays allowable buckling pressure. The allowable buckling pressure q, rnay be determined bt. the
OL Organic silts and organic silt-clay of low plasticity following:
OH Organic clays of medium m high plastictry
R Peat and other highly orppnic soils
Sowcc. Warsficatton of Soils for Eqincmnp. Purposes. ASTM Standard D2487-69,ASTII, Philndclphiu, Pa. (1969).

Table 6-3 Uve-Lwd Effect Where:

Htphu'ay HS-20 Londtng*

qa = allowable huckling pressure (psi)
Railroad E-80 Loading* FS = design factor
Hopht of Cnrcr Load Hcight of Cmcr Load = 2.5 for (h/D) 2 2
Jr r4 .. P rr/ = 3.0 for (h/D) .;2
- whcre h = height of ground surface ahove top of pipe (in.)
D = diameter of p p c (in.)
R, = water bouyancy factor
= I - 0.33(h,/h), 0 <h, Sh
where h, = height of water surface ahove top of pipe (in.)
R' = empirical corfictent of clastic \upport ~d~mcn\ionlcs~)
8 100 1 30 100 = 0.150 + 0 041(h/D: for 0 : h / D 1 5
'Srplrct Inr I~uduhrn 11- ~ h a n100 pl: uw dcaJ bad tml\ = 0 I SO + 0 01 4( h//) for i. h.'D . RO
 EXTERSAL LOAD 61

Allowable deflection for various lining and coating systems that arc often accepted are:
Mortar-lined and coated = 2 pcrccnt of pipe diameter
Mortar-lined and flexible coated = 3 percent of pipc diameter
Flexible lining and coated = 5 percent of pipe diameter
Lire-load effect, added to dead load whcn applicable, is generally baud on AASHTO
HS-20 truck loads or Cooper E-80 railroad loads as indicated in Table 6-3. These valucs are
given in pounds per square foot and include 50-percent impact factor. It is noted that there
is no lire-load effect for HS-20 loads when the eanh cover exceeds 8 it or for E-80 loads
when the earth cover exceeds 30 ft.
hlodulus ofsoil reaction E' is a measure of stiffness of thc embedment material, which
surrounds the pipe. This modulus is required for the calculation of deflection and critical
buckling stress. E' is actually a hybrid modulus that has been introduced to eliminate thc
spring constant used in the original Iowa formula. It is the product of the modulus ofpassirc
resistance of the soil used in Spanglcr's early derivation and the radius of the pipe. It is not a
pure material property.
Values of E' were originally determined by measuring deflections ofactual installations
of mctal pipe and then back calculating the cffectivc soil reaction. Since E' is not a material
property, it cannot be uniquely measured from a soil sample, thus determination of E'
values for a given soil has historically presented a serious problem for designers.
In 1976, Amster ~oward~proposed a comprehensive tahle of recommended E' values.
E' is given as a func~ionof soil type and level of compaction. The values proposed by
Howard, as shown in Table 6-1, are based on measurements of a large numbcr of pipeline
installations. This table provides the designer with guidelines for E' that have becn
heretofore unavailable.
Tocircumvent the problems inherent in working with the hybrid modulus E'.there has
becn an increasing use of the constrained soil modulus MI? The constrained modulus is a
constitutive material property, which is taken as the slope ofthe secant of the stress-strain
diagram obtained from a confined compression test of soil. It may also bc calculated from
Young's modulus E, and Poisson's ratio u of the soil by:

The soil modulus can be determined from common consolidation tcsts, triaxial
Table 6-2 Unified Soil Classification laboratory tcsts, or from fieldplate-bearing tests of the actual soil in which the pipe will be
embedded.
Symbol Dexription
Since MI is taken as the secant modulus, it accounts in part for nonlinearitics in
stress-strain response of soil around the pipe. Determination of hf, is bawd on the actual
GW ~ e l l - g n d e dgravels, gravel-sand mixrum, link or no fines load applied to a pipc. Decreasing the load results in a decreased value for M,. Many
GP Poorly graded grarels, gnvcl-sand mixtum, littk or no f i m researchers have studied the relationship between E' and MI, with recommendations
GM Silty gravds, poorly graded gravel-sand-silt mixtum
GC Clayy gravels, porly graded gravel-sandslay mixtum
varying widely (E' = 0.7 to 1.5 M,). This is undcrstandahle, since MI is a "pure" soil
propcrry, whereasE'isempirical. It appears justified toassumethc two tobe the same,&'=
SW fill-gradeC sands, gra\rllg sands, littk or no fines
SP Poorly graded sands, gravelly sands, link or no fines
nr,.
Shl Stlrg sands. poorly graded sand4lt mlxtum
Sc Clayey sands, poorly graded sand-clay mixrum
6.3 BUCKUNC
ML Inorganic silts and wry fine sad, silrr or clayey fine sands
CL Inorganic clays of bv to medium pl&ticity Pipe embedded in soil rnay collapx or buckle from elastic instability resulting from loads
hl H Inorganic silts, miaaous a diitomreow f i n sandy or silty roils, elastic silts and deformations. The summation of external loads should be equal to or less than the
CH Inorganic clays of high plasticity, fat clays allowable buckling pressure. The allowable buckling pressure q, rnay be determined bt. the
OL Organic silts and organic silt-clay of low plasticity following:
OH Organic clays of medium m high plastictry
R Peat and other highly orppnic soils
Sowcc. Warsficatton of Soils for Eqincmnp. Purposes. ASTM Standard D2487-69,ASTII, Philndclphiu, Pa. (1969).

Table 6-3 Uve-Lwd Effect Where:

Htphu'ay HS-20 Londtng*

qa = allowable huckling pressure (psi)
Railroad E-80 Loading* FS = design factor
Hopht of Cnrcr Load Hcight of Cmcr Load = 2.5 for (h/D) 2 2
Jr r4 .. P rr/ = 3.0 for (h/D) .;2
- whcre h = height of ground surface ahove top of pipe (in.)
D = diameter of p p c (in.)
R, = water bouyancy factor
= I - 0.33(h,/h), 0 <h, Sh
where h, = height of water surface ahove top of pipe (in.)
R' = empirical corfictent of clastic \upport ~d~mcn\ionlcs~)
8 100 1 30 100 = 0.150 + 0 041(h/D: for 0 : h / D 1 5
'Srplrct Inr I~uduhrn 11- ~ h a n100 pl: uw dcaJ bad tml\ = 0 I SO + 0 01 4( h//) for i. h.'D . RO
 Normal Pipe Installations
For dctcrmination ofcxtcrnal loads in normal pipe installations, usc thc followingequation:

Wherc:

h, = heig
Y , = specific wcight of water (0.0361 Ib/cu in.)
P, = internal vacuum pressure (psi)
= atrnosphcric pressure lcss absolute pressure inside pipe (psi)
U'; = wc~ghtof conduit

In some situations it may be appropriatc to consider livc loads as well. However,

simultaneous application of live-load and internal-vacuum rransicnts need not normally he So,,tce Soangcr uG d Handy R L Sod E n g m w n g HarDer d Row Pv: ~ h e r sNew Yorh lath a d . 19821

considcrcd. Therefore, if live loads arcalsoconsidcred, the huckling requircnicnt is satirficd Figure 6-1 Position of Area
by:

Coeflicicnt from Tablc 6-4 = 0.1 15

P = 0. 117(4)(5768)= 2700 i s f
If hcight of covcr is 3.0 ft, rhcn:
I\ = live load on the conduit (Ibllin ft of pife) m = 0.610 n = 0.333
Coeffrcicnt = 0.07
P = 1615 psf.
6.4 EXTREME EXTERNAL LOADING CONDITIONS
Using thc Iowa formula to calculatc dcflcction for 54-in. pipe and W i n . pipe, wall
An occasional need to calculatc extreme extcrnal loading conditions ariscs-for example, to ' in. for each s i x , E'= 1250. D = 1.O, and soil wcight of 120 pcf, the rcsults arc:
thickness A
dctcrminc off-highway loading from hcavy construction cquipmcnt. A convenient mcthod
of solution for such load dctcrmination using modificd Boussincsq cquations is prcscntcd on Total load (dead and livc load):
pp. 356-361 of refcrcncc 3 of this chapter. As an cxample:
2 ft covcr: II.; = [(120(2 + 2700)j == 40.8R
144
Livc load from a Euclid loader
Total wcight = 127 000 Ib
Weight on onc set of dual wheels, P = 42 300 Ib
Tirc pattcrn is 44 in, x 24 in. Using Spanglcr's formula, deflection =

Calrtrlarion: 60in.,2ft corer: = 1.58 In. = 2.6-

3 ft covcr: = 1.06 In. = 1 8 -
Using Figure 6-1 as refcrcncei .
5.1 in., 2 It covcr: = 1 41 in. = 2.6'
3 ft cover: = 0.95 in. = 1.8"
12 x 24
44
Tire pattcrn:
12 = 3.66 x 2.0 = 7.33 sq ft
Surface prcssure is: % 5768 psf
=

If he~ghtof cover H Ir 2.0 ft, rhcn:

A=--=
2
3 hh
183 n = - 2=20 1.0
 Normal Pipe Installations
For dctcrmination ofcxtcrnal loads in normal pipe installations, usc thc followingequation:

Wherc:

h, = heig
Y , = specific wcight of water (0.0361 Ib/cu in.)
P, = internal vacuum pressure (psi)
= atrnosphcric pressure lcss absolute pressure inside pipe (psi)
U'; = wc~ghtof conduit

In some situations it may be appropriatc to consider livc loads as well. However,

simultaneous application of live-load and internal-vacuum rransicnts need not normally he So,,tce Soangcr uG d Handy R L Sod E n g m w n g HarDer d Row Pv: ~ h e r sNew Yorh lath a d . 19821

considcrcd. Therefore, if live loads arcalsoconsidcred, the huckling requircnicnt is satirficd Figure 6-1 Position of Area
by:

Coeflicicnt from Tablc 6-4 = 0.1 15

P = 0. 117(4)(5768)= 2700 i s f
If hcight of covcr is 3.0 ft, rhcn:
I\ = live load on the conduit (Ibllin ft of pife) m = 0.610 n = 0.333
Coeffrcicnt = 0.07
P = 1615 psf.
6.4 EXTREME EXTERNAL LOADING CONDITIONS
Using thc Iowa formula to calculatc dcflcction for 54-in. pipe and W i n . pipe, wall
An occasional need to calculatc extreme extcrnal loading conditions ariscs-for example, to ' in. for each s i x , E'= 1250. D = 1.O, and soil wcight of 120 pcf, the rcsults arc:
thickness A
dctcrminc off-highway loading from hcavy construction cquipmcnt. A convenient mcthod
of solution for such load dctcrmination using modificd Boussincsq cquations is prcscntcd on Total load (dead and livc load):
pp. 356-361 of refcrcncc 3 of this chapter. As an cxample:
2 ft covcr: II.; = [(120(2 + 2700)j == 40.8R
144
Livc load from a Euclid loader
Total wcight = 127 000 Ib
Weight on onc set of dual wheels, P = 42 300 Ib
Tirc pattcrn is 44 in, x 24 in. Using Spanglcr's formula, deflection =

Calrtrlarion: 60in.,2ft corer: = 1.58 In. = 2.6-

3 ft covcr: = 1.06 In. = 1 8 -
Using Figure 6-1 as refcrcncei .
5.1 in., 2 It covcr: = 1 41 in. = 2.6'
3 ft cover: = 0.95 in. = 1.8"
12 x 24
44
Tire pattcrn:
12 = 3.66 x 2.0 = 7.33 sq ft
Surface prcssure is: % 5768 psf
=

If he~ghtof cover H Ir 2.0 ft, rhcn:

A=--=
2
3 hh
183 n = - 2=20 1.0
04 \ I EEL t'lPE ESTEKSAL LOAD 65

Table 6-4 Influence Coefficientsfor Rectangular Areas* 7 m r Grorr~hntcdEnfr Dw -ASLE

( J m1977)
- D~amc~cr
P R O V ~ F ID
T , P. Pcrformancc of Largc-
Stccl P l y a St. Paul. 30ur.
7 KHIIIR, R.J ; P A R I ~ F L IRI ,A; KAY. AIrYA. 55 303 (hiar. 1%3)
J S ;L ELNA~~GA 14 RA, Structural - REITI, X h4 Sod Mcchania and Rack-
Analpw and Dcugn of Pipc HCIiRP lilltna Practtrn 7 0 ~ 1 .AIT'UA. 48.1497
Rrpr lI6(I971)
-
(DC; 1956). -
Rcport on Stccl P~pcltnesfor Under-
0 005 0 022 0 0% The fnNou-ing rcfercnces art nor cited in
om 0 013 0o w rhe IEYI.
ground U'atcr Scmcc. Swctal Invcsti-
0013 0 Oh1 0 073 gatton 888, Undcmrttcrs' Labs., Inc.,
0017 0 ow 0 093 - BARNARD,R.E. Design Standards for Chtcago (19%).
0 om 0 095 0110 Stccl U'arer Prpc. Jour. AU'II"A, 40:24 - S O U E R G.F.
~ , Trench Exca\mon and
(Jan. 1948). Backfilling. Jour. AKB'A, 48 854 (Jul!
0 022
0 024
0 IOi
0 llT
0 125
0 117 - --- Bcha\ror of Fkxtble Stccl Ptpc
Undcr Emhankmcnn and in Trenches.
1936)
0 026 0 IZi U l lh
Bull Armco Dramage & Mctal Products,
0 027
0 028
0 131
0 lih
O lil
0 Ihn .
lnc httddlctown, Ohto (1955)
- --- Dcstgn and Deflectton Control of - ---
Tmn, AS&; 113 316 (1948)
Protcct~wG v n g s for Prpcltncs
0 029 0 141 0 lMl
0 OK) 0 I IV I1 IT6 llurtcd Stccl Ptpc Suppntng Farth Loads Ioua State C o l l c p Engr Rprs I1
0 031
0 031
0 153
0 lii
I1 IHI
0 In3
and Ltvc Loads Proc ASThf. 57:1233
( 1957) - (1951-52).
--- b PHILLIP^, D L. Dcilecttons of
0 032 0 1% 0 181 - R ~ i v w aC
. A W& J A ~ Earth
A Pressure Ttmbcr-Struttcd Corrugated-Mctal Ptpc
0 032 o 156 0 189 E~pcrrmcntson Cuhcrt Ptpc. PuEhr Culwrts Undcr Earth Fdls Bull 102
0 032 0 1% 0 185 Rm1. 10.9 (1929). Htghua) Rcscarch Board, Pub 350,
- Ht RMISTLR. D M The lmportancc of Sattonal Acadcrn! of Sctences-Sattonal
Sarural Cnntroll~ncCanJ~t~ons CmnTrt- Rcwarch Counctl, U'nshlngton, D C.
aual Comprcwon Tcst Candtttons Spc- (1955)
ctalTrch Puh. l06.ASThl.Phtladclphra, - T E R ~ A G HKARL.
I, Theormral Sod MI-
chmcs John Ktk\ and Sons. h'cu Tork
Pa (1951)
- HOUSEL.W S. ln~erprctattonof Triaxial (1943).
01
02
0028
0055
0029
0057
0030
0059
0031 0031 0032 0032
0032 0032 Compresston Terts on Granular Sotls. - WGSER, A.A. Shear Charanerrstin of
OM1 OM2 OM2 0062
OM2 Ooh2 Spccral Tech. Pub 106, ASTM, Phtla- Rcmolded Earth h4a1cr1als Spccul Tech.
03 0079 00R3 0086 0089 0090 OOUO O M
OO'X) 0OuO d&hia, Pa (19511. Pub 106. ASTM, Phtladclph~a. Pa.
04 0101 01tm o 110 0113 0115 011; u 115 - LVSCIIER,U Buckltnpof Sod Surrounded
o5
06
(1120
0 I36
0126
0 143
0131
0 149
0135
0 153
0137
I
0 155
0 1%
0 115
0137
0137
O 156
0 156
0115
0117
0 lih
Tubes J w r , Sod Mechmtcr m d Fom-
d m n DI~..-ASCE (Nor 1966).
- 119jl)
\rtcc;ts, T H ; E V G E R ,M L , 6.
K J, A P r o p c d Ncu .Vethod
S ~ H L I CU'
07
08
0 I49
0 160
0 157 0 164 0 169 0 I70
0 lil 0 Ii2
0 I72 0 Ii2 - PROCTOR.R.R. Dcstbn m d Consrructron for Dctermtntng Barrcl T h ~ c k n c w rof
0 l(18 0 176 0 181 0 183
0 1gl 0 185
0 185 0 185 of Rollcd-Earth ~ a m sEnpnrrrtn8 A f m ~ Ca=.t-Iron Ptpc Jovr AIT'W, 31.811
09 0 Ifdl 0 178 0 186 0 192 0 194
0 195 0 1%
0 I% 0 1% Record, 111.245 (1933). (,\la> 1939).
10
12
0175
01RS
0185
01%
om
0193
0205
0212
0202
0x3
0215
0216
om OMS o m 5
0217 0218 0218
- ---An Appoximatc Method for Pre-
dtcrrng the Settlement of Foundations
15 0193 0205 0215
0223 0226
0228 0229 0230 0230 and Fwrtngs Second Intern. Conf. Soil
20 0.200 0212 0223
0232 0236
02% 0239 02.10 0240 Plcchantcs & Foundatton Engr. The
25 0202 0215 0226
0236 0240
0242 0214 02W 0244 Hague, h'cthcrland< (1948).
30 02U3 0216 0228
0238 0242
0244 0246 0247 0217
50 0.m 0217 0229
0239 0244
O246 0219 0249 0249
10 0 0 205 0 218 0 230
0 2M 0244
0 24i 0 219 0 254 050
0 Om5 0218 0230
02M 0244
0243 0219 0250 02iO
'Zrrcr Scumark. S M Stmpltficd Cnmputauon of Ycrtral I'rcwrn m Ela-ta I ounddttons C t r ~24 I.:ngrg F\r Stn
Vnn of llltnor~(193%
.

References
I A44R\TO\. A\WY 7hc Thc0n of Ex- J --- Thr Structural I h p n of l'lcxthlr
tcrnal Load5 on Clovd Condutts ;n' thc Ptpc Cul\crtc toua Statr t'nllrgr Bull
Ltght of the Late% Expcrtmcnts Proc 153, h c s . 1.4 (19411
h'tnth Annual Alccttng Htghua! Rcs
Roard t l k c 1929) 5. y(.,lt.l\s, R K h Sr~uc.rFH. hl G
Snmc Charactcrtwc\ of thr .\l~*lulu\of
2 SrA\t,l I a, h4 G I'ndcrground Con-
cfurt\-An 4ppnnalof hlntcrn Rcrcarch I'a\wc Rc\t\rancc of Sod A Ftud, tn
I'm .4V L: (June 1047)
1 --- S 1 1 4 \ 1 ~H I Cwl I nrtnrrrtoc
l i ~ r p rS Rnu. I'~thhrhcr\ h c u \ark
Ith I ' I . IW2
04 \ I EEL t'lPE ESTEKSAL LOAD 65

Table 6-4 Influence Coefficientsfor Rectangular Areas* 7 m r Grorr~hntcdEnfr Dw -ASLE

( J m1977)
- D~amc~cr
P R O V ~ F ID
T , P. Pcrformancc of Largc-
Stccl P l y a St. Paul. 30ur.
7 KHIIIR, R.J ; P A R I ~ F L IRI ,A; KAY. AIrYA. 55 303 (hiar. 1%3)
J S ;L ELNA~~GA 14 RA, Structural - REITI, X h4 Sod Mcchania and Rack-
Analpw and Dcugn of Pipc HCIiRP lilltna Practtrn 7 0 ~ 1 .AIT'UA. 48.1497
Rrpr lI6(I971)
-
(DC; 1956). -
Rcport on Stccl P~pcltnesfor Under-
0 005 0 022 0 0% The fnNou-ing rcfercnces art nor cited in
om 0 013 0o w rhe IEYI.
ground U'atcr Scmcc. Swctal Invcsti-
0013 0 Oh1 0 073 gatton 888, Undcmrttcrs' Labs., Inc.,
0017 0 ow 0 093 - BARNARD,R.E. Design Standards for Chtcago (19%).
0 om 0 095 0110 Stccl U'arer Prpc. Jour. AU'II"A, 40:24 - S O U E R G.F.
~ , Trench Exca\mon and
(Jan. 1948). Backfilling. Jour. AKB'A, 48 854 (Jul!
0 022
0 024
0 IOi
0 llT
0 125
0 117 - --- Bcha\ror of Fkxtble Stccl Ptpc
Undcr Emhankmcnn and in Trenches.
1936)
0 026 0 IZi U l lh
Bull Armco Dramage & Mctal Products,
0 027
0 028
0 131
0 lih
O lil
0 Ihn .
lnc httddlctown, Ohto (1955)
- --- Dcstgn and Deflectton Control of - ---
Tmn, AS&; 113 316 (1948)
Protcct~wG v n g s for Prpcltncs
0 029 0 141 0 lMl
0 OK) 0 I IV I1 IT6 llurtcd Stccl Ptpc Suppntng Farth Loads Ioua State C o l l c p Engr Rprs I1
0 031
0 031
0 153
0 lii
I1 IHI
0 In3
and Ltvc Loads Proc ASThf. 57:1233
( 1957) - (1951-52).
--- b PHILLIP^, D L. Dcilecttons of
0 032 0 1% 0 181 - R ~ i v w aC
. A W& J A ~ Earth
A Pressure Ttmbcr-Struttcd Corrugated-Mctal Ptpc
0 032 o 156 0 189 E~pcrrmcntson Cuhcrt Ptpc. PuEhr Culwrts Undcr Earth Fdls Bull 102
0 032 0 1% 0 185 Rm1. 10.9 (1929). Htghua) Rcscarch Board, Pub 350,
- Ht RMISTLR. D M The lmportancc of Sattonal Acadcrn! of Sctences-Sattonal
Sarural Cnntroll~ncCanJ~t~ons CmnTrt- Rcwarch Counctl, U'nshlngton, D C.
aual Comprcwon Tcst Candtttons Spc- (1955)
ctalTrch Puh. l06.ASThl.Phtladclphra, - T E R ~ A G HKARL.
I, Theormral Sod MI-
chmcs John Ktk\ and Sons. h'cu Tork
Pa (1951)
- HOUSEL.W S. ln~erprctattonof Triaxial (1943).
01
02
0028
0055
0029
0057
0030
0059
0031 0031 0032 0032
0032 0032 Compresston Terts on Granular Sotls. - WGSER, A.A. Shear Charanerrstin of
OM1 OM2 OM2 0062
OM2 Ooh2 Spccral Tech. Pub 106, ASTM, Phtla- Rcmolded Earth h4a1cr1als Spccul Tech.
03 0079 00R3 0086 0089 0090 OOUO O M
OO'X) 0OuO d&hia, Pa (19511. Pub 106. ASTM, Phtladclph~a. Pa.
04 0101 01tm o 110 0113 0115 011; u 115 - LVSCIIER,U Buckltnpof Sod Surrounded
o5
06
(1120
0 I36
0126
0 143
0131
0 149
0135
0 153
0137
I
0 155
0 1%
0 115
0137
0137
O 156
0 156
0115
0117
0 lih
Tubes J w r , Sod Mechmtcr m d Fom-
d m n DI~..-ASCE (Nor 1966).
- 119jl)
\rtcc;ts, T H ; E V G E R ,M L , 6.
K J, A P r o p c d Ncu .Vethod
S ~ H L I CU'
07
08
0 I49
0 160
0 157 0 164 0 169 0 I70
0 lil 0 Ii2
0 I72 0 Ii2 - PROCTOR.R.R. Dcstbn m d Consrructron for Dctermtntng Barrcl T h ~ c k n c w rof
0 l(18 0 176 0 181 0 183
0 1gl 0 185
0 185 0 185 of Rollcd-Earth ~ a m sEnpnrrrtn8 A f m ~ Ca=.t-Iron Ptpc Jovr AIT'W, 31.811
09 0 Ifdl 0 178 0 186 0 192 0 194
0 195 0 1%
0 I% 0 1% Record, 111.245 (1933). (,\la> 1939).
10
12
0175
01RS
0185
01%
om
0193
0205
0212
0202
0x3
0215
0216
om OMS o m 5
0217 0218 0218
- ---An Appoximatc Method for Pre-
dtcrrng the Settlement of Foundations
15 0193 0205 0215
0223 0226
0228 0229 0230 0230 and Fwrtngs Second Intern. Conf. Soil
20 0.200 0212 0223
0232 0236
02% 0239 02.10 0240 Plcchantcs & Foundatton Engr. The
25 0202 0215 0226
0236 0240
0242 0214 02W 0244 Hague, h'cthcrland< (1948).
30 02U3 0216 0228
0238 0242
0244 0246 0247 0217
50 0.m 0217 0229
0239 0244
O246 0219 0249 0249
10 0 0 205 0 218 0 230
0 2M 0244
0 24i 0 219 0 254 050
0 Om5 0218 0230
02M 0244
0243 0219 0250 02iO
'Zrrcr Scumark. S M Stmpltficd Cnmputauon of Ycrtral I'rcwrn m Ela-ta I ounddttons C t r ~24 I.:ngrg F\r Stn
Vnn of llltnor~(193%
.

References
I A44R\TO\. A\WY 7hc Thc0n of Ex- J --- Thr Structural I h p n of l'lcxthlr
tcrnal Load5 on Clovd Condutts ;n' thc Ptpc Cul\crtc toua Statr t'nllrgr Bull
Ltght of the Late% Expcrtmcnts Proc 153, h c s . 1.4 (19411
h'tnth Annual Alccttng Htghua! Rcs
Roard t l k c 1929) 5. y(.,lt.l\s, R K h Sr~uc.rFH. hl G
Snmc Charactcrtwc\ of thr .\l~*lulu\of
2 SrA\t,l I a, h4 G I'ndcrground Con-
cfurt\-An 4ppnnalof hlntcrn Rcrcarch I'a\wc Rc\t\rancc of Sod A Ftud, tn
I'm .4V L: (June 1047)
1 --- S 1 1 4 \ 1 ~H I Cwl I nrtnrrrtoc
l i ~ r p rS Rnu. I'~thhrhcr\ h c u \ark
Ith I ' I . IW2
 .\I'PPORTS FOR PIPE 67

AWWA M A N U A L

Chapter 7 SEVERAL LAYERS

OF FELT WITH
GRAPHITE BETWEEN
OR JOINT FILLER
MATERIAL

SPAAL 1' SPANL

Supports for Pipe C TO C OF SADDLES C TO C OF SADDLES

Soorre B r l a r d E Desmn Sfandards lor Slrel Walot P m Jovr AWWA 10 1 24 (Jan 18481

Pnpe a c l q as a sell-tupportong brldge may

red on su~lablypadded concrete saddles
Figure 7-1 Details of Concrete Saddle

P ~ p is
e supported in various ways, depending on size, circumstances, and economicz. Small
p p c u-ithin buildings may bc held by adjustable hangers or by brackcts, or ~t may he
otherwise attached to bullding members. When subjected to temperature changes causing
considcrablc longitudinal mownent,stecl pipe is frequently set on concave rollers. Data on
adjustable hangers and rollers have becn publi~hed.~
P ~ p eacting as a self-supporting bridge may rest on suitably paddcd concrete saddles
(Ftgures 7-1 and 7-2)or may be supported by means of rjng girders or flangc rings welded to
the pipc (Figures 7-3 through 7-9). The kind of support selccted may he determined by
conditions of installation or hy economics. The pipe cost is usually lowcr,and there is more
flcribthty in field erection *hen saddles can be used. Longer clcar spans may hc possihlc
uslng ring-girder construction.

7.1 SADDLE SUPPORTS

Figure 7-2 Saddle Supports for 78-in. Pipe
There has hecn very little uniformity in the design or spacingofsaddlcsuppons. The spans
have been gradually increased, however, as experfence has shown that such increases were
safe and practical. In general, the ordinary theory of flexure applies when a circular p i p is
tupprted at intervals, is heldcircular at and between thcsupports,and is completely filled.
If the pipc tr only partially filled and the cross section at potnts hctwecn supports bccomes
out-of-round, the maximum fiber stress is considerably greater than indicated by the
ordmery flexure iormuta, being highest for the half-filled cond~tion.~
In the case of a pipc carrying internal pressure where the ends are fully restrained, the
Potsson-ratio elkt of the hoop stress, which produces lateral tmGon, muv he added tothc
flexural strcss to ohtain the total hcam stress.
Excessive dcflcction thould hc avo~dcdwhen the p ~ p act< r a< a hcam A maximt~m
Jellcction of h a o f rhcspan is wggestcd at good pracuce . I h \ r \ ~ h c\amc rccom~ncildat~on
wed lor beam< carrvlng pla~teredc c ~ l i n p
Saddlc w p p r t c cauw h ~ g hlocal rtrewes horh lonpltudtnally and crrcumfercnt~allyin
un~trffcned,comparatr~cl~ thtn-\vall ptpc at the tlpsand edgcsof the cupports Strcssesvary
u ~ t hthe load, the d~ameter-uallthtcknes\ ratto, and the angle of contact u ~ t hthe pipe. In
r'acocc, the contact angle \ a n t s from 90' to 120'. Thc d~fficulryencountcrcd with 180'
contact angles has heen cllrn~natcdby reducing the angles to 120°. For equal load, the
5trcsscs are less for a large contact angle than for a $mall one, and ~ntuctttngly,their
mtcnslty is pract~call)tndcpcndcnt ofthe width of the \addle (U~mcnsionH, Ftgure 7-1).
Thc u~ritltof the \addle ma! therefore be that x h ~ c i$ h mou desirahlc from the standpomt of
pwri per i k q n
Rrcau\c <a&llc \upports cauw crttical points of wcv. 111 the metal aJlacenr to the
,.~,i,jlc r,igr-. 11 r \ Ire qut n11\mnre r ~ r m o m ~ c aincrcav
l t ~ ~ the uall rh~tkncwof rhr p l y uhcn
 .\I'PPORTS FOR PIPE 67

AWWA M A N U A L

Chapter 7 SEVERAL LAYERS

OF FELT WITH
GRAPHITE BETWEEN
OR JOINT FILLER
MATERIAL

SPAAL 1' SPANL

Supports for Pipe C TO C OF SADDLES C TO C OF SADDLES

Soorre B r l a r d E Desmn Sfandards lor Slrel Walot P m Jovr AWWA 10 1 24 (Jan 18481

Pnpe a c l q as a sell-tupportong brldge may

red on su~lablypadded concrete saddles
Figure 7-1 Details of Concrete Saddle

P ~ p is
e supported in various ways, depending on size, circumstances, and economicz. Small
p p c u-ithin buildings may bc held by adjustable hangers or by brackcts, or ~t may he
otherwise attached to bullding members. When subjected to temperature changes causing
considcrablc longitudinal mownent,stecl pipe is frequently set on concave rollers. Data on
adjustable hangers and rollers have becn publi~hed.~
P ~ p eacting as a self-supporting bridge may rest on suitably paddcd concrete saddles
(Ftgures 7-1 and 7-2)or may be supported by means of rjng girders or flangc rings welded to
the pipc (Figures 7-3 through 7-9). The kind of support selccted may he determined by
conditions of installation or hy economics. The pipe cost is usually lowcr,and there is more
flcribthty in field erection *hen saddles can be used. Longer clcar spans may hc possihlc
uslng ring-girder construction.

7.1 SADDLE SUPPORTS

Figure 7-2 Saddle Supports for 78-in. Pipe
There has hecn very little uniformity in the design or spacingofsaddlcsuppons. The spans
have been gradually increased, however, as experfence has shown that such increases were
safe and practical. In general, the ordinary theory of flexure applies when a circular p i p is
tupprted at intervals, is heldcircular at and between thcsupports,and is completely filled.
If the pipc tr only partially filled and the cross section at potnts hctwecn supports bccomes
out-of-round, the maximum fiber stress is considerably greater than indicated by the
ordmery flexure iormuta, being highest for the half-filled cond~tion.~
In the case of a pipc carrying internal pressure where the ends are fully restrained, the
Potsson-ratio elkt of the hoop stress, which produces lateral tmGon, muv he added tothc
flexural strcss to ohtain the total hcam stress.
Excessive dcflcction thould hc avo~dcdwhen the p ~ p act< r a< a hcam A maximt~m
Jellcction of h a o f rhcspan is wggestcd at good pracuce . I h \ r \ ~ h c\amc rccom~ncildat~on
wed lor beam< carrvlng pla~teredc c ~ l i n p
Saddlc w p p r t c cauw h ~ g hlocal rtrewes horh lonpltudtnally and crrcumfercnt~allyin
un~trffcned,comparatr~cl~ thtn-\vall ptpc at the tlpsand edgcsof the cupports Strcssesvary
u ~ t hthe load, the d~ameter-uallthtcknes\ ratto, and the angle of contact u ~ t hthe pipe. In
r'acocc, the contact angle \ a n t s from 90' to 120'. Thc d~fficulryencountcrcd with 180'
contact angles has heen cllrn~natcdby reducing the angles to 120°. For equal load, the
5trcsscs are less for a large contact angle than for a $mall one, and ~ntuctttngly,their
mtcnslty is pract~call)tndcpcndcnt ofthe width of the \addle (U~mcnsionH, Ftgure 7-1).
Thc u~ritltof the \addle ma! therefore be that x h ~ c i$ h mou desirahlc from the standpomt of
pwri per i k q n
Rrcau\c <a&llc \upports cauw crttical points of wcv. 111 the metal aJlacenr to the
,.~,i,jlc r,igr-. 11 r \ Ire qut n11\mnre r ~ r m o m ~ c aincrcav
l t ~ ~ the uall rh~tkncwof rhr p l y uhcn
 SUPPORTS FOR PIPE 69

it is owrstrewd than to provide stiffening rings. Thic isetpccially true u here p~pcsizcsarc Thc flcxurc strcss SI should be taladated in the usual manner. In singlc spans, this
36 in. in diameter and smaller. Even a small increase in wall thtckness har a great .;t~ffcning stress is maximum at thcccnter berwecn supports and may he quite smallover the support if
cffect. The whole length of the span may be thickened, or only a lcngth at the caddlc flcxible joints arc used at the pipe cnds. In multiple-span caws, the flcxurc strcss in rigidly
suppon-equal to about two pipe diameters plus saddle width-need be thrckcncd. )oincd pipe will be that indicarcd by the theory of contmuous beams.
When pipe lengths rcning on saddles arc joined by flanges or mechanical couplings, the For pipe with diamctcrsofb in. to 144 in., Table i - I gives practical safe spansthat may
strength and position of thc joints must k such that they rill safely resist thc bending and be on thc conservative side for pipes supporting thcir weight plus that nf the contained
shcar forces while remaining tight. Ordinarily it is advisable to placc joints at, or as near as water. Othcr live loads such as earthquake, uoind,orthc likc should also becalculated. Data
practicable to, the point of zero bending moment in thc span or spans. htanufacturers of for calculating spans for large pipc on saddles have been published.*
mcchanical ioints should be consulted regarding thc use oftheir joints on self-wpprring
pipe spans.
The pire should be held in each saddlc by a steel hold-down nrap bolted to the Table 7-1 Practical Safe Spans for Simply Supported Pipe In 120' Contact Saddles*
concrerc. Secure anchorages must k provided at intervals in multiplc-rpan inrtallations.
The ability of steel pipe to resist saddle load has sometimes been greatly undercstimatcd Wall Thickness
by designers. Unnecessary cxpensc has thus been entailed, because more supports haw
bcen provided than may haw bccn necessary. According toone report,' the maximum value
of thc localrzed stresses in a pipe has bcen greatly undercstimatcd by designers. The same
report stater that thc maximum value of the localized stresses in a pipc that fits the saddlc
wcll probably does not exceed that given by the following formula:

Where:

S = the localizcd stress (psi)

P = the total saddle rcaction (Ib)
R = the pipe radius (in.)
r = the pipc wall thickness (in.)
k = -
0 02 - 0.00012 (A 90), whcrc A is in dcgrccs (see Figure 7-1 for A).

The maximum saddle reaction a pipe can stand is shout twice the raluc of P(Eq 7- 1) when St
cquals thc yicld point of the steel used. Equation 7-1 docs not account for tcmpcrature
strcsscs.
Grtainothcr strcsscs must be added torhc localizcd stress todetermincthc totalstress.
Lct:
Sf = flexure strcss in span with pipe having unrestrained ends
S, = ring strcss duc to internal water prcssurc
Sb = Sj+ 0.25SP5:maximum beam strcss in span with pipe h a m g restratned ends
Sr = S, for pipe with unrestrained cnds
Sl = localizcd strcss at saddle*
S, = maximum stress at saddlc.
Then, for wgle or multiple spans of uniform thickness:

I t should be noted that S, isthc maximum strcss at the raddlc An! p i p sclcctrd must
meet two rcquircments: [he maximum beam strets Sb in the rpan mu.;: be uithin thc
allouable Itm~t,and the maximum strcss at the saddlc murt also he atthm the allouable
llm~t One or the othcr will govcrn.
 SUPPORTS FOR PIPE 69

it is owrstrewd than to provide stiffening rings. Thic isetpccially true u here p~pcsizcsarc Thc flcxurc strcss SI should be taladated in the usual manner. In singlc spans, this
36 in. in diameter and smaller. Even a small increase in wall thtckness har a great .;t~ffcning stress is maximum at thcccnter berwecn supports and may he quite smallover the support if
cffect. The whole length of the span may be thickened, or only a lcngth at the caddlc flcxible joints arc used at the pipe cnds. In multiple-span caws, the flcxurc strcss in rigidly
suppon-equal to about two pipe diameters plus saddle width-need be thrckcncd. )oincd pipe will be that indicarcd by the theory of contmuous beams.
When pipe lengths rcning on saddles arc joined by flanges or mechanical couplings, the For pipe with diamctcrsofb in. to 144 in., Table i - I gives practical safe spansthat may
strength and position of thc joints must k such that they rill safely resist thc bending and be on thc conservative side for pipes supporting thcir weight plus that nf the contained
shcar forces while remaining tight. Ordinarily it is advisable to placc joints at, or as near as water. Othcr live loads such as earthquake, uoind,orthc likc should also becalculated. Data
practicable to, the point of zero bending moment in thc span or spans. htanufacturers of for calculating spans for large pipc on saddles have been published.*
mcchanical ioints should be consulted regarding thc use oftheir joints on self-wpprring
pipe spans.
The pire should be held in each saddlc by a steel hold-down nrap bolted to the Table 7-1 Practical Safe Spans for Simply Supported Pipe In 120' Contact Saddles*
concrerc. Secure anchorages must k provided at intervals in multiplc-rpan inrtallations.
The ability of steel pipe to resist saddle load has sometimes been greatly undercstimatcd Wall Thickness
by designers. Unnecessary cxpensc has thus been entailed, because more supports haw
bcen provided than may haw bccn necessary. According toone report,' the maximum value
of thc localrzed stresses in a pipe has bcen greatly undercstimatcd by designers. The same
report stater that thc maximum value of the localized stresses in a pipc that fits the saddlc
wcll probably does not exceed that given by the following formula:

Where:

S = the localizcd stress (psi)

P = the total saddle rcaction (Ib)
R = the pipe radius (in.)
r = the pipc wall thickness (in.)
k = -
0 02 - 0.00012 (A 90), whcrc A is in dcgrccs (see Figure 7-1 for A).

The maximum saddle reaction a pipe can stand is shout twice the raluc of P(Eq 7- 1) when St
cquals thc yicld point of the steel used. Equation 7-1 docs not account for tcmpcrature
strcsscs.
Grtainothcr strcsscs must be added torhc localizcd stress todetermincthc totalstress.
Lct:
Sf = flexure strcss in span with pipe having unrestrained ends
S, = ring strcss duc to internal water prcssurc
Sb = Sj+ 0.25SP5:maximum beam strcss in span with pipe h a m g restratned ends
Sr = S, for pipe with unrestrained cnds
Sl = localizcd strcss at saddle*
S, = maximum stress at saddlc.
Then, for wgle or multiple spans of uniform thickness:

I t should be noted that S, isthc maximum strcss at the raddlc An! p i p sclcctrd must
meet two rcquircments: [he maximum beam strets Sb in the rpan mu.;: be uithin thc
allouable Itm~t,and the maximum strcss at the saddlc murt also he atthm the allouable
llm~t One or the othcr will govcrn.

7.2 PIPE DEFLECTION AS BEAM
In the dcsrgn of frcc spans of pipe, it may be dcsrrablc to dctcrmirtc the thcorctlcal dcllcctton
in order to iudgc flcxibiltty or ascertain that the dcflcction does nut cscccd a dcwablc upper
limit. Frcclysupportcd pipe somctrmcs must be laid so that it willdrain fully and contarn no
pockcts hctwccn supports. Thc allowable dcflcctton or sag betwccn supports must be found
to dctcrminc the neccssary gradc.
In any given case, thc deflection is influenced by conditrons of installatron. The pipe
may bc a single span or may be continuous over several supports. The cnds may act as
though frcc or fixed. In addition to rts own w i g h t and that of the watcr, thc pipc may carry
thc wcrght of insulatron or othcr unrform load. Conccntratcd load5 such as \al\cs, othcr
appurtenance, or fittings may be present betwccn supports.
The maximum theorcrical dcflcction can be dctcrmrncd using:
y = maximum dcflcctron at ccntcr of span (in.)
lr'= total load on span (Ib)
L = lcngth of span (ft)
E = modulus of elasticity (psi) (30 000 000 for stccl pipe)
I = moment of rncrtla of pipc (in.4) (valucs of I arc givcn in Tahlc 7-2. page 61).
Exccpt for some changes in unrt designation, this is the standard texthook formula for
uniformlydistrihuted load and frcccnds. It can be used for conccntratcd loadc at the ccntcr
of the span, and it can bc applied to othcr end conditions by applytng a correction factor
described later in this chaptcr.
Tcsts conductcd to dctcrminc the deflection of horizontal standard-u-cight pipelines
fillcd wrth u-2tcrr have indicated that with pipe larger than 2 in. and supportcd at intcrvals
greater than 10 ft, the dcflcction is lcss than that dctcrmined theoretically for a uniformly
loaded pipe fixed at both cnds. The actual dcflcction of smallcr pipe approached the
theoretical deflection for frcc ends.
7.3 METHODS O F CALCULATION
The following mcthods of calculating dcflcction arc based on the formulas commonly found
in textbooks for the cases given. Maximum dcflcction in a piwn case can hc calculatcd hy
first assuming that thc load is unrformly distributcd and thc cnds arc frce. This IS case 1
hclor. Later this rcsult can be modificd if thc load is conccntratcd or the cnds arc fiscd
(cases 2,3, and 4 below). Thc dcflcction for casc 1 may hc calculatcd using Eq 7-3. Note that
in cascc I and 2 thc load W'is thc total untformly distrihutcd load on the span, hut In c a w 3
and 4 11IS thc load concentratcd w t h c ccntcr of thc span.
Thc four most commonly encountcrcd conditions, u ith their corrcqpond~ngdcflccrron
factors, arc:
Cmc I: If the load IP is uniformly distributed and thccnds arc frce, thc dcflccr~onIS as
calculatcd using Eq 7-3.
Cast 2: lf thc load IY' IS un~formlydistrihutcd hut the cnds arc fixed, thc dcflcctmn I<
0.2 Ilmc\ that for caw I.
(,'.rw Z. lfthclo3J II"t\conccntrated at thcccntcr and thccnd%arc free-the dcfle.mnn I<
I 6 trrrtr\ that lor ~..r\cI
Corc 4: If thc load IY' rs conccntratcd at the ccnrrr and the cnds arc fixcd, the dcflccrion
IS 0 4 trmcs that for casc I.
The deflections causcd by drffcrent loads are additive. Thcrcforc, ifa uniformly loaded
p i p span contains a conccntratcd load, the calculatcd dcflcction for the lattcr is addcd to
that for the uniform load, and thc total sag in the pipc is the sum of thc two dcllcctions.
7.4 GRADIENT OF SUPPORTED PIPELINES T O
PREVENT POCKETING
If ~ntcrmittcntlysupportcd pipclines arc to drain freely, they must contain no sag pockets.
To ellminarc pockets, each downstream support lcvcl must be lowcr than its upstream
ncrghbor by an amount that depends on thc sag of the pipe betwccn them. A practical
averagc gradient of <upportclcvations to meet this rcquircmenr ma) be found by using the
follou~ngformula!
G = gradicnt (rn. per ft)
L = span (ft)
= dcflcction (in.)
In othcr words, the clcvarion ofonc cnd should bc h~ghcrthan the othcr by an amount
equal to four ttmcs thc dcflccrron calculated at midspan of thc pipe.
Example: If thc dcflcctron of an insulated, 20-rn. OD, 0.375-in. wall thickness pipe
carrying stcam is 0.4 In. in a simple, frcc-cnded 5 0 4 span, what should be the gradc of a
scrtcs of 5041 spans to allow drainage?
It has bccn suggested' that,in the intcrest of satrrfactory operation, it is well todouble
thc calculatcd thcorcrical dcflecrron when determining the slope of the pipeline gradient. If
thrs werc done in the prcccdrng cxamplc. the gradc used would bc 0.064 in./ft.
The drffercncc in elevation bctumn a downstream cupport and its upstrcam ncighhor
must he four trmcs the thcorctical deflection ofrhc prpc between them tocstablish thc grade
accordrng to Eq 7-4. Thc clcvation diffcrcncc is eight trmcs the dcflcction if the suggestion
In thc prcccdrng paragraph is followed.
7.5 RING-GIRDER CONSTRUCTION
When large-dramctcr stccl pipc is latd ahovc ground or across ravincs or streams, rigid ring
prdcrs, spaccd at rclativcly long intcrvals, have hccn found to bc +cry cffcctivc supprts.
Thc\cp~rdcrsprcvcnt rhc distortion of the p l y at the pointrofsupport and thus maintain its
ahlltt! to act as a hram. Dctalls and installations arc choun In Frgurcs 7-3 through 7-9.
Cicncrally, practrcal conwkratlons h i t the <pan<to 10-100 ft
1ratdactorv. rattonal dc\rgn for rmg-prdcr con~tructrnn.bawd on thc claqtic thcory.
u a, prc\rntcd t'! Hcrman Szhorcr 2The Sollou l n nomcnclanrrc.
~ a\ ~ntcrprctcdhy Figurc

7.2 PIPE DEFLECTION AS BEAM
In the dcsrgn of frcc spans of pipe, it may be dcsrrablc to dctcrmirtc the thcorctlcal dcllcctton
in order to iudgc flcxibiltty or ascertain that the dcflcction does nut cscccd a dcwablc upper
limit. Frcclysupportcd pipe somctrmcs must be laid so that it willdrain fully and contarn no
pockcts hctwccn supports. Thc allowable dcflcctton or sag betwccn supports must be found
to dctcrminc the neccssary gradc.
In any given case, thc deflection is influenced by conditrons of installatron. The pipe
may bc a single span or may be continuous over several supports. The cnds may act as
though frcc or fixed. In addition to rts own w i g h t and that of the watcr, thc pipc may carry
thc wcrght of insulatron or othcr unrform load. Conccntratcd load5 such as \al\cs, othcr
appurtenance, or fittings may be present betwccn supports.
The maximum theorcrical dcflcction can be dctcrmrncd using:
y = maximum dcflcctron at ccntcr of span (in.)
lr'= total load on span (Ib)
L = lcngth of span (ft)
E = modulus of elasticity (psi) (30 000 000 for stccl pipe)
I = moment of rncrtla of pipc (in.4) (valucs of I arc givcn in Tahlc 7-2. page 61).
Exccpt for some changes in unrt designation, this is the standard texthook formula for
uniformlydistrihuted load and frcccnds. It can be used for conccntratcd loadc at the ccntcr
of the span, and it can bc applied to othcr end conditions by applytng a correction factor
described later in this chaptcr.
Tcsts conductcd to dctcrminc the deflection of horizontal standard-u-cight pipelines
fillcd wrth u-2tcrr have indicated that with pipe larger than 2 in. and supportcd at intcrvals
greater than 10 ft, the dcflcction is lcss than that dctcrmined theoretically for a uniformly
loaded pipe fixed at both cnds. The actual dcflcction of smallcr pipe approached the
theoretical deflection for frcc ends.
7.3 METHODS O F CALCULATION
The following mcthods of calculating dcflcction arc based on the formulas commonly found
in textbooks for the cases given. Maximum dcflcction in a piwn case can hc calculatcd hy
first assuming that thc load is unrformly distributcd and thc cnds arc frce. This IS case 1
hclor. Later this rcsult can be modificd if thc load is conccntratcd or the cnds arc fiscd
(cases 2,3, and 4 below). Thc dcflcction for casc 1 may hc calculatcd using Eq 7-3. Note that
in cascc I and 2 thc load W'is thc total untformly distrihutcd load on the span, hut In c a w 3
and 4 11IS thc load concentratcd w t h c ccntcr of thc span.
Thc four most commonly encountcrcd conditions, u ith their corrcqpond~ngdcflccrron
factors, arc:
Cmc I: If the load IP is uniformly distributed and thccnds arc frce, thc dcflccr~onIS as
calculatcd using Eq 7-3.
Cast 2: lf thc load IY' IS un~formlydistrihutcd hut the cnds arc fixed, thc dcflcctmn I<
0.2 Ilmc\ that for caw I.
(,'.rw Z. lfthclo3J II"t\conccntrated at thcccntcr and thccnd%arc free-the dcfle.mnn I<
I 6 trrrtr\ that lor ~..r\cI
Corc 4: If thc load IY' rs conccntratcd at the ccnrrr and the cnds arc fixcd, the dcflccrion
IS 0 4 trmcs that for casc I.
The deflections causcd by drffcrent loads are additive. Thcrcforc, ifa uniformly loaded
p i p span contains a conccntratcd load, the calculatcd dcflcction for the lattcr is addcd to
that for the uniform load, and thc total sag in the pipc is the sum of thc two dcllcctions.
7.4 GRADIENT OF SUPPORTED PIPELINES T O
PREVENT POCKETING
If ~ntcrmittcntlysupportcd pipclines arc to drain freely, they must contain no sag pockets.
To ellminarc pockets, each downstream support lcvcl must be lowcr than its upstream
ncrghbor by an amount that depends on thc sag of the pipe betwccn them. A practical
averagc gradient of <upportclcvations to meet this rcquircmenr ma) be found by using the
follou~ngformula!
G = gradicnt (rn. per ft)
L = span (ft)
= dcflcction (in.)
In othcr words, the clcvarion ofonc cnd should bc h~ghcrthan the othcr by an amount
equal to four ttmcs thc dcflccrron calculated at midspan of thc pipe.
Example: If thc dcflcctron of an insulated, 20-rn. OD, 0.375-in. wall thickness pipe
carrying stcam is 0.4 In. in a simple, frcc-cnded 5 0 4 span, what should be the gradc of a
scrtcs of 5041 spans to allow drainage?
It has bccn suggested' that,in the intcrest of satrrfactory operation, it is well todouble
thc calculatcd thcorcrical dcflecrron when determining the slope of the pipeline gradient. If
thrs werc done in the prcccdrng cxamplc. the gradc used would bc 0.064 in./ft.
The drffercncc in elevation bctumn a downstream cupport and its upstrcam ncighhor
must he four trmcs the thcorctical deflection ofrhc prpc between them tocstablish thc grade
accordrng to Eq 7-4. Thc clcvation diffcrcncc is eight trmcs the dcflcction if the suggestion
In thc prcccdrng paragraph is followed.
7.5 RING-GIRDER CONSTRUCTION
When large-dramctcr stccl pipc is latd ahovc ground or across ravincs or streams, rigid ring
prdcrs, spaccd at rclativcly long intcrvals, have hccn found to bc +cry cffcctivc supprts.
Thc\cp~rdcrsprcvcnt rhc distortion of the p l y at the pointrofsupport and thus maintain its
ahlltt! to act as a hram. Dctalls and installations arc choun In Frgurcs 7-3 through 7-9.
Cicncrally, practrcal conwkratlons h i t the <pan<to 10-100 ft
1ratdactorv. rattonal dc\rgn for rmg-prdcr con~tructrnn.bawd on thc claqtic thcory.
u a, prc\rntcd t'! Hcrman Szhorcr 2The Sollou l n nomcnclanrrc.
~ a\ ~ntcrprctcdhy Figurc
 D. Delsil (Allernate) I df FILLET WELD FULL CIRCUMFERENCE

p
SPAN L , SPAN L
2
AS REOUIRED
+ - .- -- - -
---+---
C TO C OF SUPPORTS C TO C OF SUPPORTS

Source Barcard R E Des p Slanazv%for SIeel waler P,pe Jovr AWWA 40 r 2r [Jan 19481
These gtrders prevent the dlslor:8on 01 the DlDe at the polnts Of Support
A. Section Through Pipe 8. Seclion Through Ring C. Detail Figure 7-4 Details of Ring Girder Support for Small Pipe

See Sec 7 5 lor explanallon ol symbols Thc comhincd masrmum longitudinal strcss (for free-end beam condttions) is:
Figure 7-3 Pipe a n d Ring Girder Support

7-3, is uscd in the dcsignequations. Units must beconsrstcnt-forexamplc, inches, pounds,

pounds pcr square inch, or pounds per cubic inch. Thc maximum rim-bending stress in the shell due to internal pressure is:
o = eccentricity of the rcaction !from tangcnt to centroidal axis of stiflcncr ring
1.82 (A, - CI)
having radius R (in.)
C = contact width of circular girdcr ring of rectangular cross wction (in.) jh = - ( 17
A, + 1.561 \ rr
C' = 1.56 &+ r,(sce Figure 7-&) ifshell is uscd ascombincdscction with stiffcncr
girder web or if additional plate reinforcement is used at contact face Thrs rquatlon was developed on the assumption that the stiffener ring is integral with the
f, = maximum combined ring strcss in shcll (psi) pipe shcll and that the rim load is symmctrical. .4s the rtm load is not symmetrical, bccause
f ~= combined maximum longitudinal beam stress of the weight of the water. a good approximation of the maximum value ofjbir, obtained by
fb = maximum longitudinal rim-bending stress in shell substitutrng the value of j, from Eq 7-5 In place of pr/l.
h = head above bottom of pipc (ft) If the girder ring IS fitted to the pipe in a loosc manner, the rim-bending stress due to
p = variable pressure on inside of pipe circumfercncc the rcactlnn at the supports should he taken into account, bccaux the load ntll be
q = unit weight of fluid flowing in pipe (lb/cu ft) transmitted mostly by direct hcarmg on the lower halfof thc ring rather than through shear
r = mean radius of pipe shell (in.) dictrihuted around the ptpc.
I = thickness of pipe shcll (in.) The total combrncd longrtudinal shell stress jis:
I, = thickness of girdcr web (in.)
u = weight of pipe shell p r unit of arca (psf) f =f~+/h (7-8)
A, = area of supporting rrng,(sq in.) (see Figurc 7-88)
D = diameter of pipc = 21 (in.) Stress in Ring Girder
L = length of span from centcr to center of ring-grrdcr supprrs (it) The min~mumpossthlc value of the maximum bending moment in the rrng girdcr occurs
Q = total load of pipe shcll transm~ttedby shear to one ring girder (Ib) uhcn o = 0 04X outsrdc the ncutral axis. When thrs is true, the maximum bending moment
v = distance from ncutral axis to extrcmc fihcr (rn.) Af rn the ruder 1s.
I = moment of inertia (rn.").
Stress in Pipe Shell
7'hc maxrmum combincd ring strcss2 is: Thc maxrmum bcnd~ngctresc6 (general bcnding formula) is:
 D. Delsil (Allernate) I df FILLET WELD FULL CIRCUMFERENCE

p
SPAN L , SPAN L
2
AS REOUIRED
+ - .- -- - -
---+---
C TO C OF SUPPORTS C TO C OF SUPPORTS

Source Barcard R E Des p Slanazv%for SIeel waler P,pe Jovr AWWA 40 r 2r [Jan 19481
These gtrders prevent the dlslor:8on 01 the DlDe at the polnts Of Support
A. Section Through Pipe 8. Seclion Through Ring C. Detail Figure 7-4 Details of Ring Girder Support for Small Pipe

See Sec 7 5 lor explanallon ol symbols Thc comhincd masrmum longitudinal strcss (for free-end beam condttions) is:
Figure 7-3 Pipe a n d Ring Girder Support

7-3, is uscd in the dcsignequations. Units must beconsrstcnt-forexamplc, inches, pounds,

pounds pcr square inch, or pounds per cubic inch. Thc maximum rim-bending stress in the shell due to internal pressure is:
o = eccentricity of the rcaction !from tangcnt to centroidal axis of stiflcncr ring
1.82 (A, - CI)
having radius R (in.)
C = contact width of circular girdcr ring of rectangular cross wction (in.) jh = - ( 17
A, + 1.561 \ rr
C' = 1.56 &+ r,(sce Figure 7-&) ifshell is uscd ascombincdscction with stiffcncr
girder web or if additional plate reinforcement is used at contact face Thrs rquatlon was developed on the assumption that the stiffener ring is integral with the
f, = maximum combined ring strcss in shcll (psi) pipe shcll and that the rim load is symmctrical. .4s the rtm load is not symmetrical, bccause
f ~= combined maximum longitudinal beam stress of the weight of the water. a good approximation of the maximum value ofjbir, obtained by
fb = maximum longitudinal rim-bending stress in shell substitutrng the value of j, from Eq 7-5 In place of pr/l.
h = head above bottom of pipc (ft) If the girder ring IS fitted to the pipe in a loosc manner, the rim-bending stress due to
p = variable pressure on inside of pipe circumfercncc the rcactlnn at the supports should he taken into account, bccaux the load ntll be
q = unit weight of fluid flowing in pipe (lb/cu ft) transmitted mostly by direct hcarmg on the lower halfof thc ring rather than through shear
r = mean radius of pipe shell (in.) dictrihuted around the ptpc.
I = thickness of pipe shcll (in.) The total combrncd longrtudinal shell stress jis:
I, = thickness of girdcr web (in.)
u = weight of pipe shell p r unit of arca (psf) f =f~+/h (7-8)
A, = area of supporting rrng,(sq in.) (see Figurc 7-88)
D = diameter of pipc = 21 (in.) Stress in Ring Girder
L = length of span from centcr to center of ring-grrdcr supprrs (it) The min~mumpossthlc value of the maximum bending moment in the rrng girdcr occurs
Q = total load of pipe shcll transm~ttedby shear to one ring girder (Ib) uhcn o = 0 04X outsrdc the ncutral axis. When thrs is true, the maximum bending moment
v = distance from ncutral axis to extrcmc fihcr (rn.) Af rn the ruder 1s.
I = moment of inertia (rn.").
Stress in Pipe Shell
7'hc maxrmum combincd ring strcss2 is: Thc maxrmum bcnd~ngctresc6 (general bcnding formula) is:
T11c rna\rmum ring strcss/2 due to shear forccs IS:

The rrng srrcss/3 due to radial forces is:

As all ofthcsc strcsscs arccombined at the hori7onral diameter. rhc total mmmurn strcss/in
the rlng g~rdcris:

/=/I +/2 -h (7-13)

Figure 7-5 Ring Girders Provide Support for 54-in. Diameter Pipe

The marlmum ailowablc strew rn the ring glrdcr or the p p e shell uhcn the pip is fully
loaded 1s usually 10 000 psr, or 18 000 psr rf hali loadcd.
To support the ring girder, a short column on cach srdc of the prpc 1s attached to the
g~rdcrand supported on a picretthcr by drrcct bcaringor b! a rollcrdc\ ICC, rocker assembly,
or pm conncctlon In anycvcnt, the design must p r m i t long~tudrnalmovcment ofrhe p i p
as ucll as afford adequate support. Frgurcs 7-4through i-9shou methods prcscntlyin ucc.
Some ad\ antages of rtng-girder support for pipllncs are that t r permits replaccment of
flumes, rcduccs flood and htghway hazards, el~mrnatesrnterrcd s~phons,avords cxpensrvc
substructurcs rcqu~rcdby other tlpcs of conwucrron, and afford< a practrcal method of
crosrrng streams, swamps, and marshcs. There arc a number ofu\eiul dcqtgn rcfcrcncc< on
[his tub,cct 5.0-10. 11.12

Discussion of Design Factors

Equatron 7-6was developed through the analysis ofa p i p supportcd at thc cnds, acting as a
srmple beam. It can be shown that, in the case of conttnuous prpelrncs, the drrect
longltudrnal stresses can also be derived from the theory of contrnuour beams. The direct The rtngs are supporting a 54-ln dlameler plpe lald on a slope
longrtud~nalstressh. from Eq 7-6forthe simple hcamcondrrron ha\ to he multrplicd by two
Figure 7-6 Expansion joints Between Stiffener Rings
thrrds to o b t a i n j ~for the continuous-beam condition. hiultrplrcrr for unequal spans and
othcr cnd conditions arc proprtronal to the moment cocfficrcnts for those conditrons, u rrh
due regard glvcn to thc psition and sign of the maxlmum moment
If thc prpecnds are fixed, the longrtudinal rtressc\ due :o tempcraturc changc must be
added to fl In Eq 7-6. However, u hen cxpanvon lorntc and hcarlng\ of lou frrctlmal
revstance (Figure i-6)are providcd. thc tcmprature strcrke\ ma! hc pract~callyclimrnatcd.
Addmonal thrust or pull due to rnstallat~onon a <lopealso muct hc concldcrcd Data rclatnc
to carthquakc forccs acting on rrnpgrrder supportcd prpc hale been puhl~\hcd '
Rrng huckllng of the p i p shcll must hc intectigatcd lithcrc IS a po\s~h~lrt:ofouts~dc
p r e w r c or partlal vacuum. Srandptps or rclicitalvcs ma\ prole economrcal.
The rrm hcnd~ngstrcss in the prpc shcll grten by Eq 7-7 reduccs rap~dlyas thc polnt
cofi\ldcrcd mows away from the support. anr\hrng almo\r completcl\ at a Jrrtancc of4 89
\ rr from the cdgc of thc rrng prdcr ' When rernforccmcnt of the ,hell IS nrcdcd at the
support, thn fact should bcnotcd The\anrrhing drstancc I' lcw than 191n for rhccxample
p t c n In Scc 7 5.
Pipe Half Full
T hss block anchors R 66411 OtameIPr plpe agamsl lonq~ludbnatrnovrmpnl
Figure 7-7 Anchor Block
T11c rna\rmum ring strcss/2 due to shear forccs IS:

The rrng srrcss/3 due to radial forces is:

As all ofthcsc strcsscs arccombined at the hori7onral diameter. rhc total mmmurn strcss/in
the rlng g~rdcris:

/=/I +/2 -h (7-13)

Figure 7-5 Ring Girders Provide Support for 54-in. Diameter Pipe

The marlmum ailowablc strew rn the ring glrdcr or the p p e shell uhcn the pip is fully
loaded 1s usually 10 000 psr, or 18 000 psr rf hali loadcd.
To support the ring girder, a short column on cach srdc of the prpc 1s attached to the
g~rdcrand supported on a picretthcr by drrcct bcaringor b! a rollcrdc\ ICC, rocker assembly,
or pm conncctlon In anycvcnt, the design must p r m i t long~tudrnalmovcment ofrhe p i p
as ucll as afford adequate support. Frgurcs 7-4through i-9shou methods prcscntlyin ucc.
Some ad\ antages of rtng-girder support for pipllncs are that t r permits replaccment of
flumes, rcduccs flood and htghway hazards, el~mrnatesrnterrcd s~phons,avords cxpensrvc
substructurcs rcqu~rcdby other tlpcs of conwucrron, and afford< a practrcal method of
crosrrng streams, swamps, and marshcs. There arc a number ofu\eiul dcqtgn rcfcrcncc< on
[his tub,cct 5.0-10. 11.12

Discussion of Design Factors

Equatron 7-6was developed through the analysis ofa p i p supportcd at thc cnds, acting as a
srmple beam. It can be shown that, in the case of conttnuous prpelrncs, the drrect
longltudrnal stresses can also be derived from the theory of contrnuour beams. The direct The rtngs are supporting a 54-ln dlameler plpe lald on a slope
longrtud~nalstressh. from Eq 7-6forthe simple hcamcondrrron ha\ to he multrplicd by two
Figure 7-6 Expansion joints Between Stiffener Rings
thrrds to o b t a i n j ~for the continuous-beam condition. hiultrplrcrr for unequal spans and
othcr cnd conditions arc proprtronal to the moment cocfficrcnts for those conditrons, u rrh
due regard glvcn to thc psition and sign of the maxlmum moment
If thc prpecnds are fixed, the longrtudinal rtressc\ due :o tempcraturc changc must be
added to fl In Eq 7-6. However, u hen cxpanvon lorntc and hcarlng\ of lou frrctlmal
revstance (Figure i-6)are providcd. thc tcmprature strcrke\ ma! hc pract~callyclimrnatcd.
Addmonal thrust or pull due to rnstallat~onon a <lopealso muct hc concldcrcd Data rclatnc
to carthquakc forccs acting on rrnpgrrder supportcd prpc hale been puhl~\hcd '
Rrng huckllng of the p i p shcll must hc intectigatcd lithcrc IS a po\s~h~lrt:ofouts~dc
p r e w r c or partlal vacuum. Srandptps or rclicitalvcs ma\ prole economrcal.
The rrm hcnd~ngstrcss in the prpc shcll grten by Eq 7-7 reduccs rap~dlyas thc polnt
cofi\ldcrcd mows away from the support. anr\hrng almo\r completcl\ at a Jrrtancc of4 89
\ rr from the cdgc of thc rrng prdcr ' When rernforccmcnt of the ,hell IS nrcdcd at the
support, thn fact should bcnotcd The\anrrhing drstancc I' lcw than 191n for rhccxample
p t c n In Scc 7 5.
Pipe Half Full
T hss block anchors R 66411 OtameIPr plpe agamsl lonq~ludbnatrnovrmpnl
Figure 7-7 Anchor Block
hcam strcssh for a simply supported full pipc (Eq 7-6, :c= O).' The corre~pndin- The maximum rim-bending stress (Eq 7-7):
ratios designated by nL and 11, become functions of a pure number k defined as:
1.82 (A, - Ct)
fh =
A, + 1.56t 6( t )

In actual cases, the value of k varies from about 0.20 to 1.20. Within this range: Where:

The half-fullconditioncauses higher strcss than the fullcondition u hen b IS less than unlty. Then:
The ratioq, remains the same forcontinuou~lysupporrcdpipe. The value offL (Eq 7-6;a =
0) multipl~cdby nL gives the marimum longitudinal stress for the half-full condrt~on;
likewise, ifmultiplied byn,, gives the maximum radial hcndingstrcss rn rhe p ~ p shell. e As
the rim bending strcss / , f r o m Eq 7-7 IS zero in Eq 7-8, relattvely high longitudtnal strcsses
may be allowed for the half-full condition. A value of 10 000 psi has been suggested by
Cates7 for the full condition and 18000 psi for the half-full condition.
= I6 540 psi
In the ring girder, the maximum moment for the half-full condition is 3.88 times the
moment value for the full pipe when a value of 0.04 for a/R (the value that gwes the
minimum moment for full condition) is used in design. This is not as serious as it may appcar
at first, because the assumptions leading to the value 3.88 are conservative. Also, several of From Eq 7-8:
the forces and conditions prescnt when the pipe is full arc not present when it is half full. For
these reasons, stresses near the yield point may be allowed for the relatively rnfrequent
conditions of filling and emptying the pipe.I3 The p r p shell and ring prder should,
however, he investigated for the half-full condition. The references should he consulted.
Design-aidcoeficicnts for analyzing stiffener rings for full. partly full,andcanhquake
forces have been p ~ b l i s h e d . Other
~ , ~ useful data have also appcar~d.~. '4

Example of Calculation, Continuous Pipelines By changing L = 100 ft to L = 60 ft, the value of/bccomes 16 650 psi.
Conditions: Consider acase in whichD= 120in.;r = O . E in.; L = 100ft;C= 1 in.; A. = 1 1n.x
12.25 in.; 4 = 0.04R; h = 100 h; zc = 12 psf (including wcwht oist~ffcner~;
q = h2 5 lh/cu ft.
Shell stress: From Eq 7-5, the marimum rrng strcss:
7.4 RING-GIRDER CONSTRUCTION FOR LOW-PRESSURE PIPE -
General designs for four types of long-span pipe of the flow line variety arc s h o w in Figure
7-8.
T 1 p 1. Usually recommended for crossing canals and other low places where a single
length of p i p for spans up to 60 ft can be used, type I pipe may be made and shippcd from
= 10 440 psi he factory in one lengthor in two lengths; in the lattcr care,a welded joint must he made in
the field at the time of installation.
strcss (Eq 7-6) for contrnuous ppclrnc:
The'max~mumlong~tud~nal T~vpc2. Used in crossing highways, canals, or rivers, where the length ofthc crossing
makes necessary two intermediate supporting columns, I).? 2 p i p is designed in three
L2 2pe lengths with flanges welded to the ends of each length at po~ntsof contraflcxurc, together
h=, (o+f)(f) with cxpansion ioints for both intake and outlet. This type is normally used for crossings
from 60 ft to 132 it, with end spans half the length of the center span.
Tvpr 3. Type 3 diffets from type 2 in that cach end %panis 80 percent of the length of
the center span. Type 3, therefore, can be used for longer crossings than type 2. It requires
rwo cxpansion joints and five Icngths of pipc with flanges welded to ends of cach length at
porn!$ ofcontraflexure. Typc 3 may hc used for overall crossing lengths from 104 ft to 260 ft.
hcam strcssh for a simply supported full pipc (Eq 7-6, :c= O).' The corre~pndin- The maximum rim-bending stress (Eq 7-7):
ratios designated by nL and 11, become functions of a pure number k defined as:
1.82 (A, - Ct)
fh =
A, + 1.56t 6( t )

In actual cases, the value of k varies from about 0.20 to 1.20. Within this range: Where:

The half-fullconditioncauses higher strcss than the fullcondition u hen b IS less than unlty. Then:
The ratioq, remains the same forcontinuou~lysupporrcdpipe. The value offL (Eq 7-6;a =
0) multipl~cdby nL gives the marimum longitudinal stress for the half-full condrt~on;
likewise, ifmultiplied byn,, gives the maximum radial hcndingstrcss rn rhe p ~ p shell. e As
the rim bending strcss / , f r o m Eq 7-7 IS zero in Eq 7-8, relattvely high longitudtnal strcsses
may be allowed for the half-full condition. A value of 10 000 psi has been suggested by
Cates7 for the full condition and 18000 psi for the half-full condition.
= I6 540 psi
In the ring girder, the maximum moment for the half-full condition is 3.88 times the
moment value for the full pipe when a value of 0.04 for a/R (the value that gwes the
minimum moment for full condition) is used in design. This is not as serious as it may appcar
at first, because the assumptions leading to the value 3.88 are conservative. Also, several of From Eq 7-8:
the forces and conditions prescnt when the pipe is full arc not present when it is half full. For
these reasons, stresses near the yield point may be allowed for the relatively rnfrequent
conditions of filling and emptying the pipe.I3 The p r p shell and ring prder should,
however, he investigated for the half-full condition. The references should he consulted.
Design-aidcoeficicnts for analyzing stiffener rings for full. partly full,andcanhquake
forces have been p ~ b l i s h e d . Other
~ , ~ useful data have also appcar~d.~. '4

Example of Calculation, Continuous Pipelines By changing L = 100 ft to L = 60 ft, the value of/bccomes 16 650 psi.
Conditions: Consider acase in whichD= 120in.;r = O . E in.; L = 100ft;C= 1 in.; A. = 1 1n.x
12.25 in.; 4 = 0.04R; h = 100 h; zc = 12 psf (including wcwht oist~ffcner~;
q = h2 5 lh/cu ft.
Shell stress: From Eq 7-5, the marimum rrng strcss:
7.4 RING-GIRDER CONSTRUCTION FOR LOW-PRESSURE PIPE -
General designs for four types of long-span pipe of the flow line variety arc s h o w in Figure
7-8.
T 1 p 1. Usually recommended for crossing canals and other low places where a single
length of p i p for spans up to 60 ft can be used, type I pipe may be made and shippcd from
= 10 440 psi he factory in one lengthor in two lengths; in the lattcr care,a welded joint must he made in
the field at the time of installation.
strcss (Eq 7-6) for contrnuous ppclrnc:
The'max~mumlong~tud~nal T~vpc2. Used in crossing highways, canals, or rivers, where the length ofthc crossing
makes necessary two intermediate supporting columns, I).? 2 p i p is designed in three
L2 2pe lengths with flanges welded to the ends of each length at po~ntsof contraflcxurc, together
h=, (o+f)(f) with cxpansion ioints for both intake and outlet. This type is normally used for crossings
from 60 ft to 132 it, with end spans half the length of the center span.
Tvpr 3. Type 3 diffets from type 2 in that cach end %panis 80 percent of the length of
the center span. Type 3, therefore, can be used for longer crossings than type 2. It requires
rwo cxpansion joints and five Icngths of pipc with flanges welded to ends of cach length at
porn!$ ofcontraflexure. Typc 3 may hc used for overall crossing lengths from 104 ft to 260 ft.
Figure 7-9 I l I-in. Pipe o n Ring Girders

7:\pt 1. T!.pc 1 ts d e q n c d lor condtrtons uhcrc tt tr nccestarr to <upport a

conttnuou, scrte<oiInng.clcar span\ T h c \rructurc mat hc madc In length< to \utt an\ field
condition An! number of tntcrmed~atespans ma! he i~.;cd.utth ac man\ c\pancton a<
necdcd for the otcrall lcnpth of the rnitallatton

7.7 INSTALLATIONOF RING GIRDER SPANS

In addtt~onto proper dccrgn, ionpepan, rtng-prdcr-supported errel p ~ p e l ~ n crequtrc i
carcful field ercctlon, parttcularly In rcgard to ahgnmcnt and camher. aro~danccof
motcmenl c a u v d h r tcmperaturc dtffcrcnccs on o p p i t t c v d c ~of thc p p c . and corrcct
trcldlnp rroccdurc The f o l l o a ~ n gw&!cwon~ rrt11 hc helpful. and more ~ n i n r m a t ~ oIia' n
hcrn puhl~\hrd '
F~pcb*uch as thew 11131mat hc c\po\rd 10lotr ~ c m p r a t u r c can
\ affcct thr ahrl~rt{tfthc
~ I C C I 10 i t L,I hr~ttlctrallwr qrc k r ~I h I Cwrl , h ~ ~ thc
l J propcrI\ \ ~ I ~ l t c d . t i c t n ~ I canLi
d See Sec 7 6 lot a Csrcuss~on01 the uses of each lype 01 plpe
U c h k d 18, : l I I I ~ . I i ~thl, CIICCI Figure 7-8 Long-Span Steel r i p e for Low Pressures
Figure 7-9 I l I-in. Pipe o n Ring Girders

7:\pt 1. T!.pc 1 ts d e q n c d lor condtrtons uhcrc tt tr nccestarr to <upport a

conttnuou, scrte<oiInng.clcar span\ T h c \rructurc mat hc madc In length< to \utt an\ field
condition An! number of tntcrmed~atespans ma! he i~.;cd.utth ac man\ c\pancton a<
necdcd for the otcrall lcnpth of the rnitallatton

7.7 INSTALLATIONOF RING GIRDER SPANS

In addtt~onto proper dccrgn, ionpepan, rtng-prdcr-supported errel p ~ p e l ~ n crequtrc i
carcful field ercctlon, parttcularly In rcgard to ahgnmcnt and camher. aro~danccof
motcmenl c a u v d h r tcmperaturc dtffcrcnccs on o p p i t t c v d c ~of thc p p c . and corrcct
trcldlnp rroccdurc The f o l l o a ~ n gw&!cwon~ rrt11 hc helpful. and more ~ n i n r m a t ~ oIia' n
hcrn puhl~\hrd '
F~pcb*uch as thew 11131mat hc c\po\rd 10lotr ~ c m p r a t u r c can
\ affcct thr ahrl~rt{tfthc
~ I C C I 10 i t L,I hr~ttlctrallwr qrc k r ~I h I Cwrl , h ~ ~ thc
l J propcrI\ \ ~ I ~ l t c d . t i c t n ~ I canLi
d See Sec 7 6 lot a Csrcuss~on01 the uses of each lype 01 plpe
U c h k d 18, : l I I I ~ . I i ~thl, CIICCI Figure 7-8 Long-Span Steel r i p e for Low Pressures
Concrete Footings Table 7-2 Values of Moment d Inertia and Section Modulus of Steel Pipe
Before assembling the pipe,concretc footings (but not the intakeoroutlet boxcs)should be
poured. If the pipc is to be supportcdon rollers, a pocket is left at the topof the footingsas a
base for the roller bed plates. If steel bents are to be used, anchor bolts arc set in concrctc
footings for holding the lower end of the pin-cndcd steel bcnts or the base plates. The
concrcte footings should be finished a little low to allow for grouting t h m supporting
members to their proper height.
Expansion Joints
Expansion joints arc installed in long-span stccl pipe to allow for cxpansion or contraction
caused by temperature changes. Thcsc joints are placed near the concrete headwalls and
should be left entirely loose until the concretc has been allowed to set for at least two necks.
If cxpansion joints arc tightened before concretc is poured, the pipc may pull l m c from the
green concrctc. After concrctc has set thoroughly, cxpansion joints are tightened and all
danger of damage from pipe mo\-cment is eliminated,
To protect the cxpansion joint during shipment, it may be necessary for the
manufacturer to tack-Weld steel ties to the inside of the pipc, tying the two pieces of p p e
together across the joint. Non: When this is done, thcsrcclties must by knocked loose from
the pipc as soon as it is set in placc and before concretc h poured.
Assembling Pipe
Pipe being assembled should be supported by temporary framework bctnccn piers. All
bolts except cxpansion joint bolts should be tightened. Vhen pipc is in place, concretc
intake and outlet boxes should be poured. Bed plates for the rollers or pin-ended steel bents
can then be grouted in place to the propcr hcight. Temporary supports and blocking should
he remot-ed before the pipe is filled with water, otherwise the structure will be subjected to
undue stress.

-- -
0.179
0 IRR

0 239 128 167.54 1 5 94

0 250 129 383 f6 47 96
0 312 139 473.96 59 25
. 18 0 135 I37 M2.29 33 59
0 179 145 397 88 44 21
0 188 147 416 18 46 24
0 239 158 525 94 58 44
0 250 158 549.14 61 02
0 312 170 679 28 3 48
20 0 135 th5 41560 41 56
0 179 ti5 547 43 54 i4
0 I88 176 572 69 57 3
0 239 188 724 35 7: 44
0 250 189 i s 6 44 7: N

'Svm undrr Ul In arc 01) wr\. ~ h 10

w tn and n\cr arr ID \ 1 x s
Concrete Footings Table 7-2 Values of Moment d Inertia and Section Modulus of Steel Pipe
Before assembling the pipe,concretc footings (but not the intakeoroutlet boxcs)should be
poured. If the pipc is to be supportcdon rollers, a pocket is left at the topof the footingsas a
base for the roller bed plates. If steel bents are to be used, anchor bolts arc set in concrctc
footings for holding the lower end of the pin-cndcd steel bcnts or the base plates. The
concrcte footings should be finished a little low to allow for grouting t h m supporting
members to their proper height.
Expansion Joints
Expansion joints arc installed in long-span stccl pipe to allow for cxpansion or contraction
caused by temperature changes. Thcsc joints are placed near the concrete headwalls and
should be left entirely loose until the concretc has been allowed to set for at least two necks.
If cxpansion joints arc tightened before concretc is poured, the pipc may pull l m c from the
green concrctc. After concrctc has set thoroughly, cxpansion joints are tightened and all
danger of damage from pipe mo\-cment is eliminated,
To protect the cxpansion joint during shipment, it may be necessary for the
manufacturer to tack-Weld steel ties to the inside of the pipc, tying the two pieces of p p e
together across the joint. Non: When this is done, thcsrcclties must by knocked loose from
the pipc as soon as it is set in placc and before concretc h poured.
Assembling Pipe
Pipe being assembled should be supported by temporary framework bctnccn piers. All
bolts except cxpansion joint bolts should be tightened. Vhen pipc is in place, concretc
intake and outlet boxes should be poured. Bed plates for the rollers or pin-ended steel bents
can then be grouted in place to the propcr hcight. Temporary supports and blocking should
he remot-ed before the pipe is filled with water, otherwise the structure will be subjected to
undue stress.

-- -
0.179
0 IRR

0 239 128 167.54 1 5 94

0 250 129 383 f6 47 96
0 312 139 473.96 59 25
. 18 0 135 I37 M2.29 33 59
0 179 145 397 88 44 21
0 188 147 416 18 46 24
0 239 158 525 94 58 44
0 250 158 549.14 61 02
0 312 170 679 28 3 48
20 0 135 th5 41560 41 56
0 179 ti5 547 43 54 i4
0 I88 176 572 69 57 3
0 239 188 724 35 7: 44
0 250 189 i s 6 44 7: N

'Svm undrr Ul In arc 01) wr\. ~ h 10

w tn and n\cr arr ID \ 1 x s
 \t'I'l'OR'V\ I OR I'll% 83

Table 7-2 Values &Moment d Inertia and Section Modulus of Steel Pipe (continued) I Table 7-2 Values of Moment of Inertia and Section Modulus of Steel Pipe (continued)

Nominal S i x *
m.
Wall 'lh~krru
m.
Weight of P l y and U'aer
/h/ft
Momcnr of lncrria
111 '
Scctlon M d u l m
m'
I h'ommal Size'
m
Wall T h ~ k m r
m
Weight of P l y and U'aicr
/h/J
Momcnr of lncnta
,PI.
Scct~on.\lrrlulm
IT, '

I
0 239 222 967 27 R? 93
0 250 223 1010 27 91 M
0 312 237 1 252 07 11382
0 175 252 I 4R9 67 13542
1
I
24 0 179 24 3 950 21 79 18
0 188 244 994 27 82 86
0 239 258 1 259 21 I N 93
0 250 259 1 315 35 109 61
0 312 275 I 631 34 l35q4
I
0 375 29 1 1 942 30 lhl 86
0 438 M7 2 248 29 I R i 3h

O W 518 6 i l l 92 408 M)
34 0 lRR 462 2 942 23 l i l I8

0 2%
I1 II?
 \t'I'l'OR'V\ I OR I'll% 83

Table 7-2 Values &Moment d Inertia and Section Modulus of Steel Pipe (continued) I Table 7-2 Values of Moment of Inertia and Section Modulus of Steel Pipe (continued)

Nominal S i x *
m.
Wall 'lh~krru
m.
Weight of P l y and U'aer
/h/ft
Momcnr of lncrria
111 '
Scctlon M d u l m
m'
I h'ommal Size'
m
Wall T h ~ k m r
m
Weight of P l y and U'aicr
/h/J
Momcnr of lncnta
,PI.
Scct~on.\lrrlulm
IT, '

I
0 239 222 967 27 R? 93
0 250 223 1010 27 91 M
0 312 237 1 252 07 11382
0 175 252 I 4R9 67 13542
1
I
24 0 179 24 3 950 21 79 18
0 188 244 994 27 82 86
0 239 258 1 259 21 I N 93
0 250 259 1 315 35 109 61
0 312 275 I 631 34 l35q4
I
0 375 29 1 1 942 30 lhl 86
0 438 M7 2 248 29 I R i 3h

O W 518 6 i l l 92 408 M)
34 0 lRR 462 2 942 23 l i l I8

0 2%
I1 II?
 5I I:! I I'II'P.
SI'I'I'OKT\ I OK I'IPL 85

Table 7-2 Values of Moment d Inertia and Section Moclulus of Sted Pipe (continued) Table 7-2 Values of Moment of Inertia and Sectlon Modulus of Steel Pipe (continud)
- ---
Xumtnal Sru* Wall Th~kncrr U'crght of Plpc and U'ater htumcnt nf Incroa Sccrtnn Modulus
in. m. IMP rn ' ),I ' Seminal S17P
IR
U'all Thtckncss
tn
W'crghr of P i p and U'arcr
lh/j~
hlomcnr of lncnra
:n '
S n ~ l o n.\lalulu$
~n'
60 0 250 1387 21 472 35 709 83 114 0.625 5188 6415W
369 669 79
0 312 1427 26 924 30 8R8 22
0 375 I468 32410 10 I06700
0 438 1508 37 929 85 1 246 16
OHM 1549 43 483 72 1425 70
0.625 1631 54 694 33 1 i85 94
0.750 1713 M04306 2 147 74
0 875 1795 77 53 1 04 2511 13
loo0 I872 89 159 39 2676 11
63 0 250 1519 24 842 16 i82 43
0 312 1569 11 145 10 9iO 02
0 375 I MI4 37 485 33 I li601
04% I M6 43862 94 1 37340
0 i00 1689 54 2i8 12 1571 19
0 625 1775 63221 71 1 967 99
0 ii0 1869 i h 31i 27 236643
0 875 1945 89 566 00 2 i66 52
I IW 2028 102 969 00 3 168 28 0 625 8023 742 507 05 10 223 86
66 0 250 1660 28 547 28 858 56 0 750 8217 891 329 02 1227944
0312 1704 35 785 46 1074 24 * S i m under 30 In arc OD SIXS,tho% 30 In and mcr arc ID stus.
0 i75 1749 43064 52 1 290 32
0 438 1793 M 384 57 150683
O W 1838 57 745 80 1 723 76
0 625 1928 72 592 34 2 15888 References
0 iiD 2018 R7 M)5 39 2 59i i2
72 0 375 2055 55 833 09 I iU 99
I RO%RX, R ] Formu101 jnr Slrerr and
Sworn htcGnu-Hrll Book Co. New
9 --- S~phonSclf-Suyporrsn~Ir Long
.(pans I.npnwnl: .\k.-Record. 124 852
0 500 2152 i4 837 06 2 050 19 York (1954) ( 1940)
0 625 22% 91 027 73 2 5h; U) 2 SCHORFR.HERMANDcsrgn of Large 10. FOSTLR,H A Formulos Fac~lnatcDcvpn
Plpltncs Trmr ASCE, 98 101 (1933). of Rmg-Suppor~cdPIPS Crr Eupg,
3. ARRIAGA. P h i Thc lnnucncr of Clr- 19 629 (1949)
cumfcrcnrtrl Tcnston on rhc Tranwcnc I I G \RRETT,G H Dntgn of Lonp-Spm
&ndlng of s Pressure Conduit on Con- Sclf-Supporrlng Stecl Ptpc Jnur.
crcre Masonry Supports (Saddle Sup- All II'A, 40 1197 (XOV 1948)
ports) In rhc Vtctntry of the S u p p n . 12 WR\ARI>,R E D w g n Srandards for
Tcchntcal Llhrarv, US BUREC, Dcnwr, Srccl \X'arcr Ptw . "7onr .4C'W,4 10 24
Colo (Jan 1948).
4 U'ILSOK,U' M B NEWMARK, N M. The 13. CROCKER, SWS, cd. Aprw H ~ d 5 d .
Srrcngth of Thtn Cylrndr~alShells as .
hlcGrau-Htll Book Co Xcw Yn:k 4 t h
Columns Bull 255, Enprg Exp. Stn., .
cd 1954)
Untr of llltnots, Orhana, I11 (1933). 14. T I\\OFIIFsKO. S. Thton oj Elam. 90-
5 FOSTER,H A Formulas l n d ~ n t eFarrh-
quake Forces tn Dt%ipnof Ring Gtrder-
Supported Ptpcs CII. E n # r ~, 19 697
hrltr\ Engrp Soc. Monographs \tc-
Grau-HIII Book (lo.. Kcu York I 1st cd
19361..
.
(1949' T h e ~ d 1 0 : c t ~ rgr / r r r n m arc nor itrtJ in
.
6 Pcnsrock Anal\st$ and SrtWcncr Dcsrgn.
Bull 5. Parr V Tcch lnvcsl Ftnal Rcpr ,
Rouldcr Csnvun Pro~ccl,US BL'REC,
the tctr
- Stccl Pcnstocksand Tunncl l.sncr\ ilS1.
Dcnvcr, Colu (1944) Stccl Flaw Englnrcrlng Darn \ nl 4.
T CATES.W' H Dcvgn Standards for (1982)
Largc-Dtamcrer Srccl U'arcr P ~ p c]our. - Avplunrr
YO1 SCER.]E Slrr,~ru.~'Dr)rnpnrv. l k ~ a l
hlcGrau-HIII Rook (3.Xcu
A Il'll'A. 42 860 (Scpl 19%)
8 B I ~ RP. J U'cIJcd Srccl Penstocks-De- York (1935)
ssgn and Canwuct~onEnpg hlonograph
3. US BUREC U'a%h~ngton, D C (July
1949)

O islo illii

.\t,c. U I I ~ I CU~l trt arc 01) wcs lhwc Ut lr .tnd m t r a:, 11) v i t .
 5I I:! I I'II'P.
SI'I'I'OKT\ I OK I'IPL 85

Table 7-2 Values of Moment d Inertia and Section Moclulus of Sted Pipe (continued) Table 7-2 Values of Moment of Inertia and Sectlon Modulus of Steel Pipe (continud)
- ---
Xumtnal Sru* Wall Th~kncrr U'crght of Plpc and U'ater htumcnt nf Incroa Sccrtnn Modulus
in. m. IMP rn ' ),I ' Seminal S17P
IR
U'all Thtckncss
tn
W'crghr of P i p and U'arcr
lh/j~
hlomcnr of lncnra
:n '
S n ~ l o n.\lalulu$
~n'
60 0 250 1387 21 472 35 709 83 114 0.625 5188 6415W
369 669 79
0 312 1427 26 924 30 8R8 22
0 375 I468 32410 10 I06700
0 438 1508 37 929 85 1 246 16
OHM 1549 43 483 72 1425 70
0.625 1631 54 694 33 1 i85 94
0.750 1713 M04306 2 147 74
0 875 1795 77 53 1 04 2511 13
loo0 I872 89 159 39 2676 11
63 0 250 1519 24 842 16 i82 43
0 312 1569 11 145 10 9iO 02
0 375 I MI4 37 485 33 I li601
04% I M6 43862 94 1 37340
0 i00 1689 54 2i8 12 1571 19
0 625 1775 63221 71 1 967 99
0 ii0 1869 i h 31i 27 236643
0 875 1945 89 566 00 2 i66 52
I IW 2028 102 969 00 3 168 28 0 625 8023 742 507 05 10 223 86
66 0 250 1660 28 547 28 858 56 0 750 8217 891 329 02 1227944
0312 1704 35 785 46 1074 24 * S i m under 30 In arc OD SIXS,tho% 30 In and mcr arc ID stus.
0 i75 1749 43064 52 1 290 32
0 438 1793 M 384 57 150683
O W 1838 57 745 80 1 723 76
0 625 1928 72 592 34 2 15888 References
0 iiD 2018 R7 M)5 39 2 59i i2
72 0 375 2055 55 833 09 I iU 99
I RO%RX, R ] Formu101 jnr Slrerr and
Sworn htcGnu-Hrll Book Co. New
9 --- S~phonSclf-Suyporrsn~Ir Long
.(pans I.npnwnl: .\k.-Record. 124 852
0 500 2152 i4 837 06 2 050 19 York (1954) ( 1940)
0 625 22% 91 027 73 2 5h; U) 2 SCHORFR.HERMANDcsrgn of Large 10. FOSTLR,H A Formulos Fac~lnatcDcvpn
Plpltncs Trmr ASCE, 98 101 (1933). of Rmg-Suppor~cdPIPS Crr Eupg,
3. ARRIAGA. P h i Thc lnnucncr of Clr- 19 629 (1949)
cumfcrcnrtrl Tcnston on rhc Tranwcnc I I G \RRETT,G H Dntgn of Lonp-Spm
&ndlng of s Pressure Conduit on Con- Sclf-Supporrlng Stecl Ptpc Jnur.
crcre Masonry Supports (Saddle Sup- All II'A, 40 1197 (XOV 1948)
ports) In rhc Vtctntry of the S u p p n . 12 WR\ARI>,R E D w g n Srandards for
Tcchntcal Llhrarv, US BUREC, Dcnwr, Srccl \X'arcr Ptw . "7onr .4C'W,4 10 24
Colo (Jan 1948).
4 U'ILSOK,U' M B NEWMARK, N M. The 13. CROCKER, SWS, cd. Aprw H ~ d 5 d .
Srrcngth of Thtn Cylrndr~alShells as .
hlcGrau-Htll Book Co Xcw Yn:k 4 t h
Columns Bull 255, Enprg Exp. Stn., .
cd 1954)
Untr of llltnots, Orhana, I11 (1933). 14. T I\\OFIIFsKO. S. Thton oj Elam. 90-
5 FOSTER,H A Formulas l n d ~ n t eFarrh-
quake Forces tn Dt%ipnof Ring Gtrder-
Supported Ptpcs CII. E n # r ~, 19 697
hrltr\ Engrp Soc. Monographs \tc-
Grau-HIII Book (lo.. Kcu York I 1st cd
19361..
.
(1949' T h e ~ d 1 0 : c t ~ rgr / r r r n m arc nor itrtJ in
.
6 Pcnsrock Anal\st$ and SrtWcncr Dcsrgn.
Bull 5. Parr V Tcch lnvcsl Ftnal Rcpr ,
Rouldcr Csnvun Pro~ccl,US BL'REC,
the tctr
- Stccl Pcnstocksand Tunncl l.sncr\ ilS1.
Dcnvcr, Colu (1944) Stccl Flaw Englnrcrlng Darn \ nl 4.
T CATES.W' H Dcvgn Standards for (1982)
Largc-Dtamcrer Srccl U'arcr P ~ p c]our. - Avplunrr
YO1 SCER.]E Slrr,~ru.~'Dr)rnpnrv. l k ~ a l
hlcGrau-HIII Rook (3.Xcu
A Il'll'A. 42 860 (Scpl 19%)
8 B I ~ RP. J U'cIJcd Srccl Penstocks-De- York (1935)
ssgn and Canwuct~onEnpg hlonograph
3. US BUREC U'a%h~ngton, D C (July
1949)

O islo illii

.\t,c. U I I ~ I CU~l trt arc 01) wcs lhwc Ut lr .tnd m t r a:, 11) v i t .
 --fmq f l //-
be welded mstde Or outside or both
h4.y
8. Single-BullWeld Jotnl
tnrlde and outsode when reqwred
A. Lap-Welded Slip Joint BUTT STRAP

Chapter

Pipe Joints E. Fabncaled Rubber Gasket Joml F Rolled-GrooveRubber Gasket Join1

Id-welded rerlrainl bar alternative

~calfor om lyprs G H and I

G. Tied Rubber Gasket Joint I. Carnegie-Shape Rubber Gasket Joint Wllh Weld-On Be11 Ring

Fisure 8-1 Welded and Rubber-Gsketed Field Joints

The pipe joint selected and the care with which it is installed arc important contrdcrations
for the dcsign engineer and inspector. Many kinds of joints are uscd with steel water pipe.
Common types arc bcll-and-spigot rubbcr-gasket joints, field-wclded joints (both illustrated
in Flgure &I), sleeve couplings, grooved-and-shouldered couplings. and Ilangcs. All of
these joints arc covcrcd in this chapter. Patented joints obtainable from some pipe
manufacturers include, among others, the integral mechanical-compression gasket of
stuffing-box type and the roll-on gasket type. Rccommcnded use and dcsign data for
patented joints may be obtaincd from the manufacturer of the joint.
8.1 BEL.L-AND-SPIGOT JOINTWITH RUBBER GASKET
Scveral types of rubbcr-gasket ficld ioints (shown in Figures 8-IG, 8-IH, and 8-11) hale
been dcvcloped for stccl water-pipe scrvicc. Gaskcted joints permlt rapid installation in the
ficld and, uhcn properly manufactured and installed, thcy provide a watcrtlght jornt that
will give long servicc without maintenance. Thc dcsign of the joints allows flexibility in the
Itnc. permrttrngcertain angular and longitudinal movement due tosettlement ofthcground
or other conditions while allowtng thc joints to remain watertrght. The jolnts are easy to
asscmhle and consequently reduce the cost of laying the ptpe. Any type of coating can be
applrcd to the pipe in the shop and not bc damaged at the jornt during laying operations. The
jornt Ir self-centering and economical. Because of potentral problcms In maintaining joint
rntcgrtty. caution should hc ewrciscd in the manufacture ofgaskcred joints to maintarn tight
clcarancc hetwccn the hell and spigot.
The ruhber gasket \hould conform to AVWA standards. Conrrdcration should be gixcn
to thrwt at elbows, tces, laterals, w!.cs, rrducers, valvcr, and dead cnds. Jointr should bc
rcktratncd hv wcldrng (Figurc 8-1). hv harncuing, hvanchorr. or hythmst blocks (Chapter
131 ( ~ l ~ u l a t l o n\hould
% conrrdcr the anchorrng cffcct or \or1 frlctlon lScc 8.7 and Scs
l i ' i l
8.2 WELDED JOINTS
Field welding of water-pipe joints is uscd quite often on pipe 24 in. in diameter and larger.
Welded joints provide permanent tightness and strength. Slip joints for lap u'elding havtng
a singlc fillet wcld (Figurc 8-la) have provcd satisfactory for most installatrons, although
this joint is l~mltedby being only 70-75 perccnt eficrent and by its ecccntricity, which
~ntroduccsa moment at the joint. Single-butt welds (Figurc 6-16) and double-butt welds
(Figurc 8-Ic) should withstand, to within 90-95 percent of the limit of pipe-wall strength,
longitudinal cxtcnslon loading that may be caused by settlement, washouts. and othcr
disjointing forccs. No othcr common water-pipe joint urll uithstand such loadtng. Where
welded jornts arc used, the pipe should be left bare a suffictcnr dlstance hack from the cnds
to avord damaging the protective coatings by the hcat produced during ueldlng These
joints should be field-coatcd after Field-welding In the interior of stecl p p e wrth
lrnrng tsordrnarrly limited to 24-in. or larger pipe, becausca worker must cnter the p ~ p eafter
wclding to apply ltning to the ins~dcat the welded joints. Forccd vcntilation must he
provrdcd to cnsurc adequate arr exchange when men are working insidc the p t p .
The slip joint is commonly used because of its Ilcxibility, casc in formrng and layng,
watcrttght quality, and simplicity. Small angle changes can hc made in this joint. It may be
wcldcd on thc outsidc only, or if the diameter permits,on the tnsldc only. In certain spectal
conditions, 11 may be dcrrrablc to wcld both on the insidc and outsidc, rn uhlch casc a
method of ficld tcst~ngdcscrtbed In AWWA C206, Standard for Field Veldlng of Stccl
Water Plpc,' may he employed advantageously.
AWWA C206 fully covert the requrrcmcnts and techniqucr for \atdactor\ field
ucldtng Whcrc thc prpc all 15 thlckr than 'h in and thc p ~ p cI\ suhjcct 10 tcmpcrarurr.;
 --fmq f l //-
be welded mstde Or outside or both
h4.y
8. Single-BullWeld Jotnl
tnrlde and outsode when reqwred
A. Lap-Welded Slip Joint BUTT STRAP

Chapter

Pipe Joints E. Fabncaled Rubber Gasket Joml F Rolled-GrooveRubber Gasket Join1

Id-welded rerlrainl bar alternative

~calfor om lyprs G H and I

G. Tied Rubber Gasket Joint I. Carnegie-Shape Rubber Gasket Joint Wllh Weld-On Be11 Ring

Fisure 8-1 Welded and Rubber-Gsketed Field Joints

The pipe joint selected and the care with which it is installed arc important contrdcrations
for the dcsign engineer and inspector. Many kinds of joints are uscd with steel water pipe.
Common types arc bcll-and-spigot rubbcr-gasket joints, field-wclded joints (both illustrated
in Flgure &I), sleeve couplings, grooved-and-shouldered couplings. and Ilangcs. All of
these joints arc covcrcd in this chapter. Patented joints obtainable from some pipe
manufacturers include, among others, the integral mechanical-compression gasket of
stuffing-box type and the roll-on gasket type. Rccommcnded use and dcsign data for
patented joints may be obtaincd from the manufacturer of the joint.
8.1 BEL.L-AND-SPIGOT JOINTWITH RUBBER GASKET
Scveral types of rubbcr-gasket ficld ioints (shown in Figures 8-IG, 8-IH, and 8-11) hale
been dcvcloped for stccl water-pipe scrvicc. Gaskcted joints permlt rapid installation in the
ficld and, uhcn properly manufactured and installed, thcy provide a watcrtlght jornt that
will give long servicc without maintenance. Thc dcsign of the joints allows flexibility in the
Itnc. permrttrngcertain angular and longitudinal movement due tosettlement ofthcground
or other conditions while allowtng thc joints to remain watertrght. The jolnts are easy to
asscmhle and consequently reduce the cost of laying the ptpe. Any type of coating can be
applrcd to the pipe in the shop and not bc damaged at the jornt during laying operations. The
jornt Ir self-centering and economical. Because of potentral problcms In maintaining joint
rntcgrtty. caution should hc ewrciscd in the manufacture ofgaskcred joints to maintarn tight
clcarancc hetwccn the hell and spigot.
The ruhber gasket \hould conform to AVWA standards. Conrrdcration should be gixcn
to thrwt at elbows, tces, laterals, w!.cs, rrducers, valvcr, and dead cnds. Jointr should bc
rcktratncd hv wcldrng (Figurc 8-1). hv harncuing, hvanchorr. or hythmst blocks (Chapter
131 ( ~ l ~ u l a t l o n\hould
% conrrdcr the anchorrng cffcct or \or1 frlctlon lScc 8.7 and Scs
l i ' i l
8.2 WELDED JOINTS
Field welding of water-pipe joints is uscd quite often on pipe 24 in. in diameter and larger.
Welded joints provide permanent tightness and strength. Slip joints for lap u'elding havtng
a singlc fillet wcld (Figurc 8-la) have provcd satisfactory for most installatrons, although
this joint is l~mltedby being only 70-75 perccnt eficrent and by its ecccntricity, which
~ntroduccsa moment at the joint. Single-butt welds (Figurc 6-16) and double-butt welds
(Figurc 8-Ic) should withstand, to within 90-95 percent of the limit of pipe-wall strength,
longitudinal cxtcnslon loading that may be caused by settlement, washouts. and othcr
disjointing forccs. No othcr common water-pipe joint urll uithstand such loadtng. Where
welded jornts arc used, the pipe should be left bare a suffictcnr dlstance hack from the cnds
to avord damaging the protective coatings by the hcat produced during ueldlng These
joints should be field-coatcd after Field-welding In the interior of stecl p p e wrth
lrnrng tsordrnarrly limited to 24-in. or larger pipe, becausca worker must cnter the p ~ p eafter
wclding to apply ltning to the ins~dcat the welded joints. Forccd vcntilation must he
provrdcd to cnsurc adequate arr exchange when men are working insidc the p t p .
The slip joint is commonly used because of its Ilcxibility, casc in formrng and layng,
watcrttght quality, and simplicity. Small angle changes can hc made in this joint. It may be
wcldcd on thc outsidc only, or if the diameter permits,on the tnsldc only. In certain spectal
conditions, 11 may be dcrrrablc to wcld both on the insidc and outsidc, rn uhlch casc a
method of ficld tcst~ngdcscrtbed In AWWA C206, Standard for Field Veldlng of Stccl
Water Plpc,' may he employed advantageously.
AWWA C206 fully covert the requrrcmcnts and techniqucr for \atdactor\ field
ucldtng Whcrc thc prpc all 15 thlckr than 'h in and thc p ~ p cI\ suhjcct 10 tcmpcrarurr.;
 below 40°F (4'C), the steel and welding procedures should he carefully selcctcd to
accommodate these adverse conditions.
8.3 SLEEVE COUPLINGS
Slccvccouplings arc used on pipelines ofall diameters and especially on lined p i p too small
1 8.4 FLANGES
for a person toenter. Very complete technical data have been published? A typical slce\.e
coupling is shown in Figure 8-2.
Slccve couplings provide tightness and strcngth with flexibility. They relieve
expansion and contraction forces in a pipeline and provide sufficient flexrbilrty so that pipe
may be laid on long radiuscurves and grades without the use ofspecrals. The rubbcr gaskcts
arc firmly held between the coupling parts and the pipe, and they join the lengths securely
against high pressure, low pressure, or vacuum. The completely encloccd rubbcr gaskcts arc
protected from damage and decay. These jo~ntshave k e n used successfully since 1891.
Acceptable axial movcmcnt in flexible sleeve couplings results from shear displacement
of the rubber gaskets rather than from sl~dingof the gaskets on the mating surface of thc
pipe. If greater d~splaccmentis needed, true expansron joints should be prov~dcdrather
rhan sleeve couplings.
Sleeve couplrngs transmit only minor tension or shear stresses across pipe joints, and
they will not permit differential settlement at the joints when uscd alone. However, adcgrce
of flexibility is poss~blewhen uscd in conjunction with another adjacent flcn~blcjoint.
Sleeve couplings are suitable for joining buried or exposed anchored pipes that are laid on
curves cstabl~shedusing deflections up to the maximum permtttcd at the coupling.
Restrained, harnessed, flanged, or welded joints may be needed to resist the
unhalanccd thrust at tees,clbows,valves,and fittings,or to resist the line pull in underwater
crossings, if such forces are not resisted by external forccs provided by thrust blocks or
anchors. Calculatrons should consider the anchoring effect of soil frrction on buried pipe,
discussed in Sec. 8.7 and Sec. 13.8. Details of joint harness are given rn Chapter 13.
Pipe Layout When Using Sleeve Couplings
When laying slecve-couplcd pipe on curves, the amount of separation measured on the pipe
centerline should be detcrmincd using data supplied hy the coupling manufacturer.
Extreme accuracy is nccessary only in plant layout work and other very special projects.
Vhcn these cases occur, the data supplied by the couplrng manufacturcr will aid layout
tcchnic~ansand checkers in reaching agreement on dimensions.
Data for Pipe Layouts
The profile and alignment of pipelines is frequently staked on a curve. It is useful to know
what pipe lengths arc needed to negotiate such curves and to know the offset necessary to
FLANGE
8.5 GROOVED-AND-SHOULDERED COUPLlNGS
GASKETS PIPE OD
figure 8 - 2 Sleeve Coupling
locate properly the frcc end of the prpe scctlon hung latd Tahles showmg rad~ucofcurves,
ply. lengthe, and offw dcllectronc, ac rvell as lormulac and skctchc\ tho\rtng d~rncnsions.
are avarlable from coupling manufacturcrs.
Flanges commonly used for steel water pipe arc of the shp-on typc to the pipe.
Flanges may be of two classes, as follows:
steel ring, huhlcss flange, which is madc from rolled plate, billet, or curved flat;
forged steel, made vrth a low huh, or with a uelding neck, hy a rolling or forging
prows\.
The more costly weldtng-neck type of flange ordlnar~lyis not justified for the
comparattvely low prcssures ucually found in uaterworks service.
Steel Ring Flanges
Careful studres and e~pcr~rnents'~' conducted on full-srze p x r m e n s demonstrated that
satisfactor~lytight joints can be ohtamed using steel ring flanges with %-in. thick gaskcts
extending at least to the bolt holes. Reference should be madc to AU'U7A C207, Standard
lor Steel Pipe Flanges for \Yaterworks Service-S~zes 4 in. Through 144 in.? for
dimcnsionc and other deta~lsconcerning rhe series of steel ring llangcs and hub flangcs as
developed by an ASXlE-A\Y\YA committee.
Gaskets
Steel ring flangcs conforming to AU'U'A C207 have been designed for u x with rubbcr or
asbestos ring gaskcts that are erthcr h o in. or %I in. thrck, at the purchaser's optron. The
gaskcts should occupy the wrfacc of the flangc betucen the holt holes and the rnride
dramcterof the pipe or flange. Both the size of the gasket and the type ofgasket material are
integral and controllmg factors In the design of a holted joint. Recommendations of the
gasket manufacturcr should be observed.
Other Flanges
In waterworks scrvicc,it is frequently nccessary tousc flangcs for attaching p i p to pumps,
valves, or other appurtenances having standard ASA dr~lhng.Flanges of lcsxr thtckncss,
but having the same drrlling template, are obtainable from pipe and flange manufacturers,
who will provide dimensional data.
Pressure Ratings
The flange pressure ratmgs in AU'U'A C207 arc for cold water. Working pressure should
include watcr hammer. Test pressures of flanged fittings should never exceed ll/r rimes the
flange pressure ratmg, or flangcs may be damaged.
When working pressures require flangcs heavrer rhan Class E (275 psi) in AWWA
C207, othcr ASA flanges may be uscd? The cold-water (lOO°F (38OCj) rating of an ASA
flange is greatly in excess of the rating of an AlVW'A C207 clacs flange. For example, the
100°F (38OC) pressure rating for the 300-psi Class A flangc is 720 ps~.Khcn hcavw flanges
arc selected, data on sizes aborc 24-111. must come from the flangc manufacturer.
The grooved-and-shouldcrcd coupling IS a holrcd. ~cgmcntal,clamp-type, mcchan~cal
couplinp hanng a housinl: that cnclo\e~a U-shapcd ruhhcr pa\kct. Thc houcml: lock\ thc
p p c cnd\ togcthcr to prcxcnt end mo\cmcnr. \cc allou\ wmc Jrjycc nf flc\~bill~\ and
 below 40°F (4'C), the steel and welding procedures should he carefully selcctcd to
accommodate these adverse conditions.
8.3 SLEEVE COUPLINGS
Slccvccouplings arc used on pipelines ofall diameters and especially on lined p i p too small
1 8.4 FLANGES
for a person toenter. Very complete technical data have been published? A typical slce\.e
coupling is shown in Figure 8-2.
Slccve couplings provide tightness and strcngth with flexibility. They relieve
expansion and contraction forces in a pipeline and provide sufficient flexrbilrty so that pipe
may be laid on long radiuscurves and grades without the use ofspecrals. The rubbcr gaskcts
arc firmly held between the coupling parts and the pipe, and they join the lengths securely
against high pressure, low pressure, or vacuum. The completely encloccd rubbcr gaskcts arc
protected from damage and decay. These jo~ntshave k e n used successfully since 1891.
Acceptable axial movcmcnt in flexible sleeve couplings results from shear displacement
of the rubber gaskets rather than from sl~dingof the gaskets on the mating surface of thc
pipe. If greater d~splaccmentis needed, true expansron joints should be prov~dcdrather
rhan sleeve couplings.
Sleeve couplrngs transmit only minor tension or shear stresses across pipe joints, and
they will not permit differential settlement at the joints when uscd alone. However, adcgrce
of flexibility is poss~blewhen uscd in conjunction with another adjacent flcn~blcjoint.
Sleeve couplings are suitable for joining buried or exposed anchored pipes that are laid on
curves cstabl~shedusing deflections up to the maximum permtttcd at the coupling.
Restrained, harnessed, flanged, or welded joints may be needed to resist the
unhalanccd thrust at tees,clbows,valves,and fittings,or to resist the line pull in underwater
crossings, if such forces are not resisted by external forccs provided by thrust blocks or
anchors. Calculatrons should consider the anchoring effect of soil frrction on buried pipe,
discussed in Sec. 8.7 and Sec. 13.8. Details of joint harness are given rn Chapter 13.
Pipe Layout When Using Sleeve Couplings
When laying slecve-couplcd pipe on curves, the amount of separation measured on the pipe
centerline should be detcrmincd using data supplied hy the coupling manufacturer.
Extreme accuracy is nccessary only in plant layout work and other very special projects.
Vhcn these cases occur, the data supplied by the couplrng manufacturcr will aid layout
tcchnic~ansand checkers in reaching agreement on dimensions.
Data for Pipe Layouts
The profile and alignment of pipelines is frequently staked on a curve. It is useful to know
what pipe lengths arc needed to negotiate such curves and to know the offset necessary to
FLANGE
8.5 GROOVED-AND-SHOULDERED COUPLlNGS
GASKETS PIPE OD
figure 8 - 2 Sleeve Coupling
locate properly the frcc end of the prpe scctlon hung latd Tahles showmg rad~ucofcurves,
ply. lengthe, and offw dcllectronc, ac rvell as lormulac and skctchc\ tho\rtng d~rncnsions.
are avarlable from coupling manufacturcrs.
Flanges commonly used for steel water pipe arc of the shp-on typc to the pipe.
Flanges may be of two classes, as follows:
steel ring, huhlcss flange, which is madc from rolled plate, billet, or curved flat;
forged steel, made vrth a low huh, or with a uelding neck, hy a rolling or forging
prows\.
The more costly weldtng-neck type of flange ordlnar~lyis not justified for the
comparattvely low prcssures ucually found in uaterworks service.
Steel Ring Flanges
Careful studres and e~pcr~rnents'~' conducted on full-srze p x r m e n s demonstrated that
satisfactor~lytight joints can be ohtamed using steel ring flanges with %-in. thick gaskcts
extending at least to the bolt holes. Reference should be madc to AU'U7A C207, Standard
lor Steel Pipe Flanges for \Yaterworks Service-S~zes 4 in. Through 144 in.? for
dimcnsionc and other deta~lsconcerning rhe series of steel ring llangcs and hub flangcs as
developed by an ASXlE-A\Y\YA committee.
Gaskets
Steel ring flangcs conforming to AU'U'A C207 have been designed for u x with rubbcr or
asbestos ring gaskcts that are erthcr h o in. or %I in. thrck, at the purchaser's optron. The
gaskcts should occupy the wrfacc of the flangc betucen the holt holes and the rnride
dramcterof the pipe or flange. Both the size of the gasket and the type ofgasket material are
integral and controllmg factors In the design of a holted joint. Recommendations of the
gasket manufacturcr should be observed.
Other Flanges
In waterworks scrvicc,it is frequently nccessary tousc flangcs for attaching p i p to pumps,
valves, or other appurtenances having standard ASA dr~lhng.Flanges of lcsxr thtckncss,
but having the same drrlling template, are obtainable from pipe and flange manufacturers,
who will provide dimensional data.
Pressure Ratings
The flange pressure ratmgs in AU'U'A C207 arc for cold water. Working pressure should
include watcr hammer. Test pressures of flanged fittings should never exceed ll/r rimes the
flange pressure ratmg, or flangcs may be damaged.
When working pressures require flangcs heavrer rhan Class E (275 psi) in AWWA
C207, othcr ASA flanges may be uscd? The cold-water (lOO°F (38OCj) rating of an ASA
flange is greatly in excess of the rating of an AlVW'A C207 clacs flange. For example, the
100°F (38OC) pressure rating for the 300-psi Class A flangc is 720 ps~.Khcn hcavw flanges
arc selected, data on sizes aborc 24-111. must come from the flangc manufacturer.
The grooved-and-shouldcrcd coupling IS a holrcd. ~cgmcntal,clamp-type, mcchan~cal
couplinp hanng a housinl: that cnclo\e~a U-shapcd ruhhcr pa\kct. Thc houcml: lock\ thc
p p c cnd\ togcthcr to prcxcnt end mo\cmcnr. \cc allou\ wmc Jrjycc nf flc\~bill~\ and
 Forcec duc tocxpanslon and contraction should not be allowed to reach valvcs, pump<,
COUPLING COUPLING
GASKET GASKET / or othcr appurtcnanccs that m~ghthe damagctl by these forces. Appurrcnances can hc
/
protected by making the connection between pipe and appurtcnancc withanexpansion joint
or-sleeve coupling, or by prov~dinganchor rings and thrust hlocks of suffic~cntsize and
ueight to prevent thc forces from reaching thc appurtcnancc to bc protected
Expansion and Contraction-Aboveground
Expansion and contraction of exposed lines must be provided for where individual p i v
G R ~ E S S H O U ~ D E RRING sectlons are anchored and sleeve couplings arc used for field joints. The joints will ordinarily
allow enough movcrnent so that expansion or contraction is not cumulative ovcr scveral
lengths.
Figure 8-3 Grooved Coupling Figure 8-4 Shouldered Coupling On exposed field-welded llnes, expansion joints may he located midway betutcn the
anchors ~fthe pipcllnc is laid level. On slopes, the joint is usually best placed adjacent toor
on the downhill side of the anchor point. Pipeordinarlly offersgrcat rcslstancc to moverncnt
alignment. The rubber gasket is tight under e~rhcrpressure or vacuum service. The uphrll; thercforc, the strength of the pipc at the anchor block should he investbgatcd ro ht
coupling is shown sectioned In Figures 8-3 and 8-4. surc that 11 is adequate to resist the downhill thrust. The coefficient of slitling friction for
Ends of pipc must be spec~allyprepared to accommodate grooved-and-shouldcrcd barc p ~ p bearing
c on supports should be determined. Spacrng and pos~tioningofexpansion
couplings. This is done by grooving, handmg, rolhng, or wcldlng adapters to pipe ends. joints should be govcrned bv site and profile rcquiremcnts. Expansion joints in .pipe . on
Careful attention must be given pipe-end preparat~onso that thccoupl~ngswill fit properly. bridger should b;at points 4.hcrc the bridge stru;turc ~tsclfcontam expansion joints.
Some typical grooved-and-shouldered joints arc dcsmhcd in AU'U'A C606, Standard for The stuffing-box
- type
.. of expansion joint is sometimcs uwd. Thew joints permit linear
Grooved and Shouldered Type Jo~nts.' movcmcnt ofthc %lippipe relative to rhe packing. Details of a stuffing-box type of expansion
joint (shp joint) are shown in Figure 8-5. The packing of expansion jo~ntsmay consist of
8.6 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION-GENERAL rubber rmgs only or alternate split rings of rubber compound and other approved materials.

The coefficient ofexpansion of stccl is 6.5 x 10-~perdegree (FIof temperature changc. Thc
change in length of an unrcsrra~nedsteel pipc can be dcrcrm~ncduclng:
PACKING GLAND DRAW BOLT

Where:
&=&*$
1L = change in length (in.)
L = length (in.)
Ar = change in temperaturc (OF) SLIP PIPE PACKING

The expansion or contraction of an unrestrained stccl p i p is about in. per 100 ft of

pipe for each 100°F (56OC) changc In temperaturc.
Expansion and Contraction-Underground
Ordinarily, a buried pipeline under operating condlttons will not experience sign~ficant
changes in temperature. and thcrmal strccccs wrll he minimal. However, durmg the
construcrion period prior to complctron of backfill~ng, cxtrcme changes in ambient
temperatures may cause cxcessrre expansion or contraction rn the pipe. These cxtrcme
tcmperature changes and thc resulting expansion and contraction may be avoided by
hackfilling the pipe as constructioh progresses.
For ficld-weldcd lines, AWWh Standard ~ 2 0 desnihcs
6 ~ a method that has been used
catt\factordy to reduce the thermal strcsses rcsult~ngfrom tcmpcraturc variations. T h ~ s
mcthod utllitec a special closure lay lolnt at 40041 to 500-ft intcrvalc. The rpccialclosurc IS
cct 90 that thc p ~ p eis ctabhrd dccpcr than the normal cloccd powion. all Joints are wcldcd
clccpt thc clowre. partial hackfill rc placcd ovcr all p ~ p ecxccpt the clou~reiwnt lo aid In
coohng and contract~onof the p~lrr.and the clocurr uclJ I\ madc dur~ngthe coolc\t part of
the dav , Src Ch:cyter 12 )
Figure 8-5 Expansion joint
The srufhg-box expansion joint is sometimes made double-ended. Limited-mole-
mcnt fcatures are also added to both the single- and double-ended types. This I<
part~cularlylmprtant for double-cndcd expansion joints. W~thoutrc\tralnt, wch lointe
may creep along the pipe during repeated temperature-change cyclcc When ~nstallingan
expansfon joint, rhc Initial sctttng should be c<tabhhcd u ~ t hdue regard to thc currcnt
rcmperaturc and pipe Icngth.
8.7 GROUND FRICTION AND LINE TENSION
U'hcn metal tcmperarurcs change, the grlp of\oil on burled pfpe or the fr~ctionof h i ~ n e
cuyporrs for cxposcd p ~ p coffers resistance to long~tud~nal
mo\cmcnt of rhc p p e T h ~ c
rewrance lnduccs renc~leorcompre\sivc rtrcc\ In thc plpc all ('l'hc motn atlng lorcc ma\
a h he duc ro Frat ftv on \lope\ I
 Forcec duc tocxpanslon and contraction should not be allowed to reach valvcs, pump<,
COUPLING COUPLING
GASKET GASKET / or othcr appurtcnanccs that m~ghthe damagctl by these forces. Appurrcnances can hc
/
protected by making the connection between pipe and appurtcnancc withanexpansion joint
or-sleeve coupling, or by prov~dinganchor rings and thrust hlocks of suffic~cntsize and
ueight to prevent thc forces from reaching thc appurtcnancc to bc protected
Expansion and Contraction-Aboveground
Expansion and contraction of exposed lines must be provided for where individual p i v
G R ~ E S S H O U ~ D E RRING sectlons are anchored and sleeve couplings arc used for field joints. The joints will ordinarily
allow enough movcrnent so that expansion or contraction is not cumulative ovcr scveral
lengths.
Figure 8-3 Grooved Coupling Figure 8-4 Shouldered Coupling On exposed field-welded llnes, expansion joints may he located midway betutcn the
anchors ~fthe pipcllnc is laid level. On slopes, the joint is usually best placed adjacent toor
on the downhill side of the anchor point. Pipeordinarlly offersgrcat rcslstancc to moverncnt
alignment. The rubber gasket is tight under e~rhcrpressure or vacuum service. The uphrll; thercforc, the strength of the pipc at the anchor block should he investbgatcd ro ht
coupling is shown sectioned In Figures 8-3 and 8-4. surc that 11 is adequate to resist the downhill thrust. The coefficient of slitling friction for
Ends of pipc must be spec~allyprepared to accommodate grooved-and-shouldcrcd barc p ~ p bearing
c on supports should be determined. Spacrng and pos~tioningofexpansion
couplings. This is done by grooving, handmg, rolhng, or wcldlng adapters to pipe ends. joints should be govcrned bv site and profile rcquiremcnts. Expansion joints in .pipe . on
Careful attention must be given pipe-end preparat~onso that thccoupl~ngswill fit properly. bridger should b;at points 4.hcrc the bridge stru;turc ~tsclfcontam expansion joints.
Some typical grooved-and-shouldered joints arc dcsmhcd in AU'U'A C606, Standard for The stuffing-box
- type
.. of expansion joint is sometimcs uwd. Thew joints permit linear
Grooved and Shouldered Type Jo~nts.' movcmcnt ofthc %lippipe relative to rhe packing. Details of a stuffing-box type of expansion
joint (shp joint) are shown in Figure 8-5. The packing of expansion jo~ntsmay consist of
8.6 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION-GENERAL rubber rmgs only or alternate split rings of rubber compound and other approved materials.

The coefficient ofexpansion of stccl is 6.5 x 10-~perdegree (FIof temperature changc. Thc
change in length of an unrcsrra~nedsteel pipc can be dcrcrm~ncduclng:
PACKING GLAND DRAW BOLT

Where:
&=&*$
1L = change in length (in.)
L = length (in.)
Ar = change in temperaturc (OF) SLIP PIPE PACKING

The expansion or contraction of an unrestrained stccl p i p is about in. per 100 ft of

pipe for each 100°F (56OC) changc In temperaturc.
Expansion and Contraction-Underground
Ordinarily, a buried pipeline under operating condlttons will not experience sign~ficant
changes in temperature. and thcrmal strccccs wrll he minimal. However, durmg the
construcrion period prior to complctron of backfill~ng, cxtrcme changes in ambient
temperatures may cause cxcessrre expansion or contraction rn the pipe. These cxtrcme
tcmperature changes and thc resulting expansion and contraction may be avoided by
hackfilling the pipe as constructioh progresses.
For ficld-weldcd lines, AWWh Standard ~ 2 0 desnihcs
6 ~ a method that has been used
catt\factordy to reduce the thermal strcsses rcsult~ngfrom tcmpcraturc variations. T h ~ s
mcthod utllitec a special closure lay lolnt at 40041 to 500-ft intcrvalc. The rpccialclosurc IS
cct 90 that thc p ~ p eis ctabhrd dccpcr than the normal cloccd powion. all Joints are wcldcd
clccpt thc clowre. partial hackfill rc placcd ovcr all p ~ p ecxccpt the clou~reiwnt lo aid In
coohng and contract~onof the p~lrr.and the clocurr uclJ I\ madc dur~ngthe coolc\t part of
the dav , Src Ch:cyter 12 )
Figure 8-5 Expansion joint
The srufhg-box expansion joint is sometimes made double-ended. Limited-mole-
mcnt fcatures are also added to both the single- and double-ended types. This I<
part~cularlylmprtant for double-cndcd expansion joints. W~thoutrc\tralnt, wch lointe
may creep along the pipe during repeated temperature-change cyclcc When ~nstallingan
expansfon joint, rhc Initial sctttng should be c<tabhhcd u ~ t hdue regard to thc currcnt
rcmperaturc and pipe Icngth.
8.7 GROUND FRICTION AND LINE TENSION
U'hcn metal tcmperarurcs change, the grlp of\oil on burled pfpe or the fr~ctionof h i ~ n e
cuyporrs for cxposcd p ~ p coffers resistance to long~tud~nal
mo\cmcnt of rhc p p e T h ~ c
rewrance lnduccs renc~leorcompre\sivc rtrcc\ In thc plpc all ('l'hc motn atlng lorcc ma\
a h he duc ro Frat ftv on \lope\ I
 Thechange in longitudinal stress in a pipe with fixcd end<due toa temperature change AWWA M A N U A L
may bc determined by:

Where:

A S = change in stress (psi)

Chapter 9
E = modulus of elasticity of steel, 30 x 10"i
t = coefficient of expansion of steel. 6.5 x lo4 per
degree (OF)
At = change in temperature (OF)

A temperature change of M°F (17"Cj causes a thcorctical stress of 5850 psi in the pipc
Fittings a n d
rail ifends arc restrained. The stress in all-welded buried stcel ptpc has k e n investigated!
with the result that some measured stresses were found to bc higher and some lower than
thcorctical. It was found in all cases, however, that the soil restraint was sufficient to absorb
the longitudinal stress in a length of approximately 100 ft of pipc. Chapter 13 includcs
Appurtenances
discussion and dcsign aid on frictional resistance bctuwn the pipe and ground.

8.8 GOOD PRACTICE

The requirements of installation and operation ofa pipeline may d ~ n a t the
c u x of more than
one type .- of internal lining- and pipe
.. of field joint. The tvpc - . diameter uill also bc determining
factors in joint selection. Bell-and-spigot rubber gasket joints arc the lowest cost on an
installed-cost basis. Flanges are commonly used to join steel pipe to val\rs. meten, and
other flanged accessories. Thermal stresses may be a consideration. and these can be
accommodated by sleeve couplings, grooved-and-shouldered couplings, special welded
joints, or expansion joints. Thc wide range of dcsign made possible by the welding and fabrication prwesxs appiicable
to steel pipe provides the means of solving almost any problem inrolving finings and
specials. The design of pipc layouts, especially intricate ones, is greatly facilitated by having
References standardized dimensions for the center-to-face distance or the center-to-end distance of
fittings. AWWA C208, Standard for Dimensions for Faixicated Steel Water Pipe Fittings!
I Fwld Weldmg of Steel Water P~pc. 5. Stccl P~prFlange\ for Wateruorks Scr-
AWWA Standard C206-82. AWU A, ncc-S1m4 In Through 144111.AWKA orovidcs dimensions for welded steel pipe fittings in sizes 6 in. and larger. AWU'A C200,
k n w . Calo. (1982) Standard C20i-78 AITWA. Demcr, 'Standard for Steel Water Pipc 6 inches and Larger? specifies the manufacturing
2 RlLt +\I, E 7. Mcchan~crlJotnts for Cnlo 1 lQi81 rcquircments for fittings and special joints.
U'atcr Liner. Jour. A lT'Bi(. 35 11 1457 6 Ptpe Flanp and Flanged Fltnnp ASS1 The standard dimcnsions of fitrings for screwed-joint pipe can be found in the catalogs
I%\ 1943). Standard R16 5 A5Sl.Seu \'ork(lQiil
3 Steel Rtng Flanges for Steel Rpc. Bull. 7 Gromcd and Shouldcrcd T>pr Jolnts of many manufacturers. hianufacturcrs can also furn~shthe J~mcnsionsof comprcssion
47-A Armco Steel Carp.. Mtddktoun. AWW.4 Standard CW-61. AWP.4, fittings for use on standard plain-end pipe in the smaller sizes.
Oh10 Ikn\er. &lo ,1981)
4 B + R \ ' ~ R ~R. E. Dcvgn of Steel Rtnp 1 G r\t & ]ACXSOS,
8 h k C ~ RE. L R Skk
I'lan!m for Uhtcr Work\ Scrt ~cc.A ho- In Rur~cdCas P~ycltnm Bttcllc Mcm- 9.1 DESIGNATION OF FITTINGS
Frcs Report Jmr. AIT'K4. 42 10 931 orla1 Inaxutc. Glumbw. Ohm.
t a t 1950). Fittings should he designated usrng standard mcthods to prevent misunderuandlngs.
Figure 9-1 is d~agrammaticand refers to smooth as wcll as scgmcntal littings. Thc dcwcd
deflection anglc of the elbow or lateral should he rhown on the diapram. On ord~nary
elbows, both cnds arc numbcrcd the same bccausc both are the samc size. Thus, only onc
diameter need be given for a standard or nonreducing elhow, togethcr with the deflection
anglc. (Example: 54-in. OD, 90' elbow.)
Reducing crosscs and dhows arc always identified by fira giving the \i7c or outs~dc
diameter of thc largest opcnrngs, thcn following wtth the w e < of thc opcntnp In thc
numcrtcal sequence shown. (ii~ample\:48411. 0 1 ) x 36-in. 01) 90' clhmt. 21-tn 01) x
22-111. O D x H'i-~n OD x 6%-~nO n cross )
 Thechange in longitudinal stress in a pipe with fixcd end<due toa temperature change AWWA M A N U A L
may bc determined by:

Where:

A S = change in stress (psi)

Chapter 9
E = modulus of elasticity of steel, 30 x 10"i
t = coefficient of expansion of steel. 6.5 x lo4 per
degree (OF)
At = change in temperature (OF)

A temperature change of M°F (17"Cj causes a thcorctical stress of 5850 psi in the pipc
Fittings a n d
rail ifends arc restrained. The stress in all-welded buried stcel ptpc has k e n investigated!
with the result that some measured stresses were found to bc higher and some lower than
thcorctical. It was found in all cases, however, that the soil restraint was sufficient to absorb
the longitudinal stress in a length of approximately 100 ft of pipc. Chapter 13 includcs
Appurtenances
discussion and dcsign aid on frictional resistance bctuwn the pipe and ground.

8.8 GOOD PRACTICE

The requirements of installation and operation ofa pipeline may d ~ n a t the
c u x of more than
one type .- of internal lining- and pipe
.. of field joint. The tvpc - . diameter uill also bc determining
factors in joint selection. Bell-and-spigot rubber gasket joints arc the lowest cost on an
installed-cost basis. Flanges are commonly used to join steel pipe to val\rs. meten, and
other flanged accessories. Thermal stresses may be a consideration. and these can be
accommodated by sleeve couplings, grooved-and-shouldered couplings, special welded
joints, or expansion joints. Thc wide range of dcsign made possible by the welding and fabrication prwesxs appiicable
to steel pipe provides the means of solving almost any problem inrolving finings and
specials. The design of pipc layouts, especially intricate ones, is greatly facilitated by having
References standardized dimensions for the center-to-face distance or the center-to-end distance of
fittings. AWWA C208, Standard for Dimensions for Faixicated Steel Water Pipe Fittings!
I Fwld Weldmg of Steel Water P~pc. 5. Stccl P~prFlange\ for Wateruorks Scr-
AWWA Standard C206-82. AWU A, ncc-S1m4 In Through 144111.AWKA orovidcs dimensions for welded steel pipe fittings in sizes 6 in. and larger. AWU'A C200,
k n w . Calo. (1982) Standard C20i-78 AITWA. Demcr, 'Standard for Steel Water Pipc 6 inches and Larger? specifies the manufacturing
2 RlLt +\I, E 7. Mcchan~crlJotnts for Cnlo 1 lQi81 rcquircments for fittings and special joints.
U'atcr Liner. Jour. A lT'Bi(. 35 11 1457 6 Ptpe Flanp and Flanged Fltnnp ASS1 The standard dimcnsions of fitrings for screwed-joint pipe can be found in the catalogs
I%\ 1943). Standard R16 5 A5Sl.Seu \'ork(lQiil
3 Steel Rtng Flanges for Steel Rpc. Bull. 7 Gromcd and Shouldcrcd T>pr Jolnts of many manufacturers. hianufacturcrs can also furn~shthe J~mcnsionsof comprcssion
47-A Armco Steel Carp.. Mtddktoun. AWW.4 Standard CW-61. AWP.4, fittings for use on standard plain-end pipe in the smaller sizes.
Oh10 Ikn\er. &lo ,1981)
4 B + R \ ' ~ R ~R. E. Dcvgn of Steel Rtnp 1 G r\t & ]ACXSOS,
8 h k C ~ RE. L R Skk
I'lan!m for Uhtcr Work\ Scrt ~cc.A ho- In Rur~cdCas P~ycltnm Bttcllc Mcm- 9.1 DESIGNATION OF FITTINGS
Frcs Report Jmr. AIT'K4. 42 10 931 orla1 Inaxutc. Glumbw. Ohm.
t a t 1950). Fittings should he designated usrng standard mcthods to prevent misunderuandlngs.
Figure 9-1 is d~agrammaticand refers to smooth as wcll as scgmcntal littings. Thc dcwcd
deflection anglc of the elbow or lateral should he rhown on the diapram. On ord~nary
elbows, both cnds arc numbcrcd the same bccausc both are the samc size. Thus, only onc
diameter need be given for a standard or nonreducing elhow, togethcr with the deflection
anglc. (Example: 54-in. OD, 90' elbow.)
Reducing crosscs and dhows arc always identified by fira giving the \i7c or outs~dc
diameter of thc largest opcnrngs, thcn following wtth the w e < of thc opcntnp In thc
numcrtcal sequence shown. (ii~ample\:48411. 0 1 ) x 36-in. 01) 90' clhmt. 21-tn 01) x
22-111. O D x H'i-~n OD x 6%-~nO n cross )
 Trcs and latcrals arc specified by giving the size of thc largcst opcningof the run first, the
oppostte opentng of thc run second, and the size of the outlct or hranch last. (Example:
72-in. OD x 66-in. OD x 24-in. OD tee.)
The size ofslde outlets on fittings should be specified last. When spcify~ngside-outlet
tecs in reducing elbows, particular care should be exercised to show whether they are right
or left hand. In addition to designating the size of the fitt~ng,the purchaser should give a
complcte specification for thc typcs of ends or flanges desired.

9.2 BOLT HOLE POSITION

Tee Cross Reducing Tee Reducer It IS standard practicc to attach flangcs to pipe lengths so that the bolt holes straddle the
vcrttcal centerline. If flanged p ~ p eis to be installed at various angles to the vertical, this
standard practicc should be modlficd and the proper data should bc given on draw~ngsand
In spxifications so that the flange will be attached as nccded.

9.3 DESIGN OF ME BRANCHES

A full treaticc on the design of \\ye branches for steel pipe, including a nomograph dcsign
mcthod, is covered in a paper prepared undcr the auspiccsof the Department of Water and
Power, City of Los ~ngeles?The design using this nomograph mcthod is presented in
Chapter 13. Examples arc given for single-plate, two-plate, and thrce-plate design. Larger
a y e hranches (up to 141411. dramctcr and up to 150-psi pressure including safcty factor)
may bedesigned by extrapolation beyond the limitsofthe graphs and tables In the refcrcnce.
Lateral-Equal Dimnclen Ldenl-Unequal Diamelen Other data on the subicct also have been p u b l i ~ h e d . ~
' T h s bmensenn shouM D t
aawslm lo surf cond1,onr
Sn NM.
I
C.+'4
A\V\PA C200' provides for nondestructive testing of \veld scams on fittings and special
sections. Specral sections fabricated from prcviously hydrostatically tested straght p i p
require testing of only those welded scams that not previously tested in the straight
pipe. Nondestructive testing methods include d p penetrant, magnetic panicle, ultrasonic,
x-ray, or other methods as agreed on by the manufacturer and thc purchaser.
ABWA C2002also permits hydrostatic testing ofspecials in lieu ofother nondcstrucrive
testing. hiaximum test pressure should not cxcccd 11/+times the dcsign pressure. This
maximum should be observed in the interest of design economy because fitting tests are
Two-Piece Elbow (0-45') costly. If higher test pressures are called for, it may he necessary to provide expensive
reinforcement for the fitnngs, even though the anticipated operating prcssurc may not
require rcinforcemcnt This is particularly true in the case of flanged fitt~ngs,which uould
be anchored in actual service. hut which, if unrcstraincd, u m ~ l dhe suhicctcd to much
greater rupturing forces when chop tcstcd to highcr pr:.curc. Flanpcd io~ntsshould ncvcr
be tccwd in excess of 1'4 times the rated flangc prctcure tf ruhsequcnt inctallation trouhlcs
arc to be avoided.

9.5 UNBALANCED THRUST FORCES

F i ~ u r e9-1 Rrcommended Dimensions for Water Pipe fittings
Piplng systems are subrcct to unbalanced thrust forces resultrng from static and dynamic
fluid actlon on the pipe. These forccs must he absorhcd or halanccd if thc piping sytrcmt arc
to maintain their Integrity. Cnbalanccd thrust force\ occur at c h a n p in drrcctiom offlow,
such as clhows, tees, laterals, wycc, and at rcduccn. \alvc\. and dcad end\ Reactkc fnrcc\ to
halance thccc thrust forccs can he prov~dcdhy thruv hlockc or hy trathmttcmg force\ to rhc
p p e uall h! rcwa~ncd.harnccwI, flangcd. or acldrd Irvntc I:orcc\ In t l ~ cptpc \hell arc
ultimatcl! tran4crrcd to the w11 In inan\ c a w I I I \ dcwahlc to ~ o m h ~ nhlo~k~ilg
c a ~ d
 Trcs and latcrals arc specified by giving the size of thc largcst opcningof the run first, the
oppostte opentng of thc run second, and the size of the outlct or hranch last. (Example:
72-in. OD x 66-in. OD x 24-in. OD tee.)
The size ofslde outlets on fittings should be specified last. When spcify~ngside-outlet
tecs in reducing elbows, particular care should be exercised to show whether they are right
or left hand. In addition to designating the size of the fitt~ng,the purchaser should give a
complcte specification for thc typcs of ends or flanges desired.

9.2 BOLT HOLE POSITION

Tee Cross Reducing Tee Reducer It IS standard practicc to attach flangcs to pipe lengths so that the bolt holes straddle the
vcrttcal centerline. If flanged p ~ p eis to be installed at various angles to the vertical, this
standard practicc should be modlficd and the proper data should bc given on draw~ngsand
In spxifications so that the flange will be attached as nccded.

9.3 DESIGN OF ME BRANCHES

A full treaticc on the design of \\ye branches for steel pipe, including a nomograph dcsign
mcthod, is covered in a paper prepared undcr the auspiccsof the Department of Water and
Power, City of Los ~ngeles?The design using this nomograph mcthod is presented in
Chapter 13. Examples arc given for single-plate, two-plate, and thrce-plate design. Larger
a y e hranches (up to 141411. dramctcr and up to 150-psi pressure including safcty factor)
may bedesigned by extrapolation beyond the limitsofthe graphs and tables In the refcrcnce.
Lateral-Equal Dimnclen Ldenl-Unequal Diamelen Other data on the subicct also have been p u b l i ~ h e d . ~
' T h s bmensenn shouM D t
aawslm lo surf cond1,onr
Sn NM.
I
C.+'4
A\V\PA C200' provides for nondestructive testing of \veld scams on fittings and special
sections. Specral sections fabricated from prcviously hydrostatically tested straght p i p
require testing of only those welded scams that not previously tested in the straight
pipe. Nondestructive testing methods include d p penetrant, magnetic panicle, ultrasonic,
x-ray, or other methods as agreed on by the manufacturer and thc purchaser.
ABWA C2002also permits hydrostatic testing ofspecials in lieu ofother nondcstrucrive
testing. hiaximum test pressure should not cxcccd 11/+times the dcsign pressure. This
maximum should be observed in the interest of design economy because fitting tests are
Two-Piece Elbow (0-45') costly. If higher test pressures are called for, it may he necessary to provide expensive
reinforcement for the fitnngs, even though the anticipated operating prcssurc may not
require rcinforcemcnt This is particularly true in the case of flanged fitt~ngs,which uould
be anchored in actual service. hut which, if unrcstraincd, u m ~ l dhe suhicctcd to much
greater rupturing forces when chop tcstcd to highcr pr:.curc. Flanpcd io~ntsshould ncvcr
be tccwd in excess of 1'4 times the rated flangc prctcure tf ruhsequcnt inctallation trouhlcs
arc to be avoided.

9.5 UNBALANCED THRUST FORCES

F i ~ u r e9-1 Rrcommended Dimensions for Water Pipe fittings
Piplng systems are subrcct to unbalanced thrust forces resultrng from static and dynamic
fluid actlon on the pipe. These forccs must he absorhcd or halanccd if thc piping sytrcmt arc
to maintain their Integrity. Cnbalanccd thrust force\ occur at c h a n p in drrcctiom offlow,
such as clhows, tees, laterals, wycc, and at rcduccn. \alvc\. and dcad end\ Reactkc fnrcc\ to
halance thccc thrust forccs can he prov~dcdhy thruv hlockc or hy trathmttcmg force\ to rhc
p p e uall h! rcwa~ncd.harnccwI, flangcd. or acldrd Irvntc I:orcc\ In t l ~ cptpc \hell arc
ultimatcl! tran4crrcd to the w11 In inan\ c a w I I I \ dcwahlc to ~ o m h ~ nhlo~k~ilg
c a ~ d
 transmittingforccs to the pipe wall. Methodcofhandlingthe\e thruct forccs,together u ~ t h
helpful data, are mentioned in Chaptcr 13
9.6 FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE BETWEEN SOIL AND PlPE
Ifan unblocked fitting is tied to buried pipesuch that movement is prevented and tension is
placed on the pipe, it may be necessary to determine the length of the pipc on which the
earth friction will overcome the disjointing force. Chaptcr 13includes drtcuction and design
a ~ d on
s this suhject.
9.7 ANCHOR RINGS
Anchor rings for use in concrete anchor blocks or concrete walls may be simple ring flanges.
Rings arc proponioncd to accept dead-end pull or thrust impeed by the internal pressure
and any pipc t h ~ sor t pull due to temperature change. with approximately 500 pci heanng
on concrete. Care must be exercised to ensure that thruct rings are positioned so as to
provide an adequate safety factor aga~nstpunchmg shear of the concrete. The recommended
fillet welds used for flange attachment in AVWA C207, Standard for Steel Pipe Flanges for
Waterworks Service-Sizes 4 in. Through 144 in.: offer a high safety factor against chcar.
9.8 NOZZLE OUTLETS
Outlets from steel mains can be cac~lyarranged in any desired location with regard to s~zc,
shape, or position. Nozzles are welded to the main line with reinforcing collars. This work
can be done in the shop during fahrication of the pipe, or at trenchside, or after the pipc IS
installed. Shop lining and coating of nozzles and pipc is satisfactory and more econom~cal
than work done in the field. All outlets should he checked to determine whether
reinforcement is required; however, outlets larger than about one third ofthc diameter of
the line need special consideration as to reinforcing, even for small size pipe.
If required for hydraulic efficiency, a reducer may be welded to the main pipe with the
outlet \velded to the reducer. The rcinforcing of the shell must be computed on the larger
diameter.
The end of the outlct nozzle should be prcparcd to rcceive the valve or fitting to hc
attached. This may call for a flangc, a grooved or shouldered end for a mechanical coupling,
a plain end for a flexible coupling joint, a grooved spigot end for a hell-and-spigot joint,or a
threaded end.
9.9 CONNECTION TO OTHER PlPE MATERIAL
Care must be exercised u hen connecting d~ssnnilarpipe matcr~als,hecause of the poscih~lity
ofgalvaniccorrosion. See Chaptcr 10 for princ~plesofthisreaction. When connectingctecl
pipe tocithcrgrayorductilccast-&on pipc,or tosteel-rcinforcedmncretc pipe,or tocoppr
or galvanized pipe, an electrically ~nwlatingloint should be uwd. The ~nsulatingjoint can hc
accomplished with an insulating gacket with slec\ts and washers on a flanged connectionor
with an insulating sleeve-type flchihlc coupling. (See Sec. 9.14.)
Any valvct or othcr ferrous equipment connected to steel pipe should he incapculated
In polyeth!lene cheeting or coated uwh a coatlng compatible uith the ctecl prpc coating.
Smtlnr precautions are not neccccarv uhen conncct~ngto nonmetallic ppc, w ~ ac h Desrgn of manholec inr acce\c to the nude of large p~pclinc<
a\hc\to+ccmcnt or pla\tic
9.10 FLANGED CONNECTIONS
Flanged outlets can he awmbled from a shon pieceof pipc us~ngasteel ring flangc,ora hub
flange of the slip-on type can hc used. Attachment of flangcs should be in accordance with
AWWA C207:The bolt holes in flanges straddle the vertical and horizontal centerlines. If
the main line slopes, the flange should be rotated with reference to this slope to bring the
attachments vertical.
Outlet nozzles should be as short as possible to reduce the leverageofany hending force
applied to thc outlet. In general, every outlet should have a valve firmly attached to the
mainline and a flexible connection to the pipe downstream from this valve.
9.11 VALVE CONNECTIONS
Valves are self-contained devices that usually will not function properly or remain tight if
subjected to external forces. If a valve is rigidly installed in a p~pelinc-for example, when
flanged joints are used-the whole assembly of pipe and valves can he stressed by
temperature changes, settlement, and exceptional surface loads. To prevent a valve from
heing straincd there should bc at least one flexible joint close to it.
It is good practice to provide for a flexible joint when fittings are flanged. This can be
easily accomplished by installing a flexible coupling or a grooved-and-shouldered
mechanical coupling immediately adjacent to one of the flangcs. Such a coupling not only
provides a satisfactory degree of flexibility but makes installation and possible removal of
the valve much easier. In such a situation, it may be advantageous to have the center stop
removed if a flexible coupling is used. The coupling, when loose, may be moved along the
pipe to expose the joint and facilitate placement or removal.
9.12 BLOWOFFCONNECTIONS
Outlets for draininga pipeline should he provided at low points in the profile and upstream
of line valves located on a slope. Short dips, such as may occur in practically all pipelines in
city streets when a line must pass under a large drain or othcr structure, can often be
dewatered by pumping, when necessary.
The exact locat~onof hlowoff outlets is frequently influenced by opportunities to
dispose of the water. U'hcrc a pipeline crosses a stream or drainage structure, there usually
will be a low point in the line; but tf the pipeline goes under the stream or drain. it obviously
cannot be completely drained into the channel. In such a situation, ir 1s preferable to locate a
blo\voffconnection at the lowest p i n t that will drain hygravity and provrdccary means for
pumping out the pan below the hlowoff.
Blowoffs must, of course, he provided with a shutofl valve. If the pipeline is above
ground, the valve should be attached directly to the outlct nozzle on the hortom of the
p~peline.A pipc attached to the valve will route the dscharge to a safe location The
discharge p ~ p will
c usually rcquire ~nstallationofan elhou at the hlowoff valve, u hich must
he securely hlocked to a\oid stresses 011the attachment to the pipcime.
Usually the biouoff\r.ill he below ground. Because the operatrng nut ofthc valve must
be access~hlefrom the surface. the valve cannot he under the marn hut may he cct w ~ t hthe
stem vertical and lust beyond the side of ~ h pipeline.
c A typ~caldeta~lofa blowoff is shown in
AU'WA C208' and In Chaptcr 13.
9.13 MANHOLES
u ~ a doc<h not iollou holler
pract~ce Elliptical manhole\ uith rhe cover on the prc-urr \ d c arc rnnictiinc< tried. but
 transmittingforccs to the pipe wall. Methodcofhandlingthe\e thruct forccs,together u ~ t h
helpful data, are mentioned in Chaptcr 13
9.6 FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE BETWEEN SOIL AND PlPE
Ifan unblocked fitting is tied to buried pipesuch that movement is prevented and tension is
placed on the pipe, it may be necessary to determine the length of the pipc on which the
earth friction will overcome the disjointing force. Chaptcr 13includes drtcuction and design
a ~ d on
s this suhject.
9.7 ANCHOR RINGS
Anchor rings for use in concrete anchor blocks or concrete walls may be simple ring flanges.
Rings arc proponioncd to accept dead-end pull or thrust impeed by the internal pressure
and any pipc t h ~ sor t pull due to temperature change. with approximately 500 pci heanng
on concrete. Care must be exercised to ensure that thruct rings are positioned so as to
provide an adequate safety factor aga~nstpunchmg shear of the concrete. The recommended
fillet welds used for flange attachment in AVWA C207, Standard for Steel Pipe Flanges for
Waterworks Service-Sizes 4 in. Through 144 in.: offer a high safety factor against chcar.
9.8 NOZZLE OUTLETS
Outlets from steel mains can be cac~lyarranged in any desired location with regard to s~zc,
shape, or position. Nozzles are welded to the main line with reinforcing collars. This work
can be done in the shop during fahrication of the pipe, or at trenchside, or after the pipc IS
installed. Shop lining and coating of nozzles and pipc is satisfactory and more econom~cal
than work done in the field. All outlets should he checked to determine whether
reinforcement is required; however, outlets larger than about one third ofthc diameter of
the line need special consideration as to reinforcing, even for small size pipe.
If required for hydraulic efficiency, a reducer may be welded to the main pipe with the
outlet \velded to the reducer. The rcinforcing of the shell must be computed on the larger
diameter.
The end of the outlct nozzle should be prcparcd to rcceive the valve or fitting to hc
attached. This may call for a flangc, a grooved or shouldered end for a mechanical coupling,
a plain end for a flexible coupling joint, a grooved spigot end for a hell-and-spigot joint,or a
threaded end.
9.9 CONNECTION TO OTHER PlPE MATERIAL
Care must be exercised u hen connecting d~ssnnilarpipe matcr~als,hecause of the poscih~lity
ofgalvaniccorrosion. See Chaptcr 10 for princ~plesofthisreaction. When connectingctecl
pipe tocithcrgrayorductilccast-&on pipc,or tosteel-rcinforcedmncretc pipe,or tocoppr
or galvanized pipe, an electrically ~nwlatingloint should be uwd. The ~nsulatingjoint can hc
accomplished with an insulating gacket with slec\ts and washers on a flanged connectionor
with an insulating sleeve-type flchihlc coupling. (See Sec. 9.14.)
Any valvct or othcr ferrous equipment connected to steel pipe should he incapculated
In polyeth!lene cheeting or coated uwh a coatlng compatible uith the ctecl prpc coating.
Smtlnr precautions are not neccccarv uhen conncct~ngto nonmetallic ppc, w ~ ac h Desrgn of manholec inr acce\c to the nude of large p~pclinc<
a\hc\to+ccmcnt or pla\tic
9.10 FLANGED CONNECTIONS
Flanged outlets can he awmbled from a shon pieceof pipc us~ngasteel ring flangc,ora hub
flange of the slip-on type can hc used. Attachment of flangcs should be in accordance with
AWWA C207:The bolt holes in flanges straddle the vertical and horizontal centerlines. If
the main line slopes, the flange should be rotated with reference to this slope to bring the
attachments vertical.
Outlet nozzles should be as short as possible to reduce the leverageofany hending force
applied to thc outlet. In general, every outlet should have a valve firmly attached to the
mainline and a flexible connection to the pipe downstream from this valve.
9.11 VALVE CONNECTIONS
Valves are self-contained devices that usually will not function properly or remain tight if
subjected to external forces. If a valve is rigidly installed in a p~pelinc-for example, when
flanged joints are used-the whole assembly of pipe and valves can he stressed by
temperature changes, settlement, and exceptional surface loads. To prevent a valve from
heing straincd there should bc at least one flexible joint close to it.
It is good practice to provide for a flexible joint when fittings are flanged. This can be
easily accomplished by installing a flexible coupling or a grooved-and-shouldered
mechanical coupling immediately adjacent to one of the flangcs. Such a coupling not only
provides a satisfactory degree of flexibility but makes installation and possible removal of
the valve much easier. In such a situation, it may be advantageous to have the center stop
removed if a flexible coupling is used. The coupling, when loose, may be moved along the
pipe to expose the joint and facilitate placement or removal.
9.12 BLOWOFFCONNECTIONS
Outlets for draininga pipeline should he provided at low points in the profile and upstream
of line valves located on a slope. Short dips, such as may occur in practically all pipelines in
city streets when a line must pass under a large drain or othcr structure, can often be
dewatered by pumping, when necessary.
The exact locat~onof hlowoff outlets is frequently influenced by opportunities to
dispose of the water. U'hcrc a pipeline crosses a stream or drainage structure, there usually
will be a low point in the line; but tf the pipeline goes under the stream or drain. it obviously
cannot be completely drained into the channel. In such a situation, ir 1s preferable to locate a
blo\voffconnection at the lowest p i n t that will drain hygravity and provrdccary means for
pumping out the pan below the hlowoff.
Blowoffs must, of course, he provided with a shutofl valve. If the pipeline is above
ground, the valve should be attached directly to the outlct nozzle on the hortom of the
p~peline.A pipc attached to the valve will route the dscharge to a safe location The
discharge p ~ p will
c usually rcquire ~nstallationofan elhou at the hlowoff valve, u hich must
he securely hlocked to a\oid stresses 011the attachment to the pipcime.
Usually the biouoff\r.ill he below ground. Because the operatrng nut ofthc valve must
be access~hlefrom the surface. the valve cannot he under the marn hut may he cct w ~ t hthe
stem vertical and lust beyond the side of ~ h pipeline.
c A typ~caldeta~lofa blowoff is shown in
AU'WA C208' and In Chaptcr 13.
9.13 MANHOLES
u ~ a doc<h not iollou holler
pract~ce Elliptical manhole\ uith rhe cover on the prc-urr \ d c arc rnnictiinc< tried. but
 I 11-1 I S ( A A S D A P P I ' K T C S A S C E S 99

because thcy present an obstruction to smwth flow they are not common. The most
common type in waterworks is circular, having a short, flanged neck and a flat, holtcd covrr.
j Air-release valves and air-and-vacuum valves, if not installed directly over the pipe,
may he located adjacent to the pipeline. A horizontal run of pipc connects the air valve and
Such manholes arc commonly 18-24 in. in diameter. 1 the pipcline. Theconnecting pipeshould rise gradually to thcair valve to permit flow of the
Careful consideration should be given to locating manholcs so as to afford the greatest
convenience in use. Manholes give access to the inside of the pipeline for many purposes
i air to the valve for venting. The performance requirements of the valves arc bawd on the
vcnttng capacity (cubic feet of free air per second) and the prcssure difkrential across the
besides inspection. In general, thcy will be most useful if located close to valves and valves (system water prcssure less atmospheric prcssure). The valves must be protected
sometimesclose to the low points that might need tobe pumped our for inspection or repair. against freezing and they must be located above ground to prcvent contamination when
optrating.
A general guideline is to size air valves at I in. pcr I -ft diameter of pipc. Manufacturers'
9.14 INSULATING JOINTS catalogs should be consulted for more accurate si7ing information. Rgurc 9-2 shour a
typical pipeltnc and locations of air valvcs.
Long steel pipelines frequently become carriers of electric currents originating from
differences in ground potentials or stray currents. This phenomenon is explained in Chapter
10. Where tests indicate the necessity, a long line is often separatrd Into sections or insulated
fromother partsofa system by insulating joints. These joints can hc provided at any flanged
joint, but it is often necessary to make a joint at a particular place by tnstalling a pair of HYDRAULIC GRAOIEHT LONG ASCENDING STRETCH DOWNWARD GRADE BUT
APPROACHING TnE HVDRAllLlC
flanges for this purpose. AOIENT THEREFORE AIR VALVL AT PEAK
Special insulating gaskets, sleeves, and washers are used to provide electrical insulation
at the flanged joint. These insulating sleeves and washers are made of fabric-reinforced
bakelltc, micarta, tenon, or similar materials that have long life and good mechanical
strength.
The bolts of the insulated flanged joints must be carefully insulated by sleeves and
washers. It is recommended that insulating washers be used at both ends of the bolts. Some
pipc users specify flange holes l/16-in. larger in diameter than normal flange holes.
It is important that insulating gaskcts, sleeves, and washers he installed carefully so that
the flan~edjoint will be insulating as intended. Afterthe installation ofthe insulated joint is / A* VALVE AT CHANGE OF DOWNWARD GRADIENT
ALSO POSSIIILITV OF VACUUM WHEN MIAINING LINE
complete. an electrical resistancc test should be performed. The electrical resistance should
he at least 10 000ohms; if the resistancc is less, the joint should be inspected fordamage, the
damage repaired, and the joint retested.

Typn d Valm R u m m t n d e d
9.15 AIR-RELEASE VALVG AND AIR-AND-VACUUM VALVES
Peaks Combmatton Aor Valves
Air valves are installed with pipelines to admit or vent air. There are basically two typcs: IncreawnQDowngrade Comblnabon Atr Valves
air-rclease valves and air-and-vacuum valves. In addition, a combination air val\,e is Decreasmg Upgrade Combmalkon Aw Valves
Long Ascents Anr and Vacuum Valves-'2. 10 ' w n l Intervals
available that combines the functions of an air-release valve and an air-and-vacuum valve. Long Descents Comb#naIlonAtr Valves-' 4- lo "rml Intervats
Air-release valves arc used to release air entrained under pressure at high p i n t s of a Long Hormnlal Avo80 11 Poslble I( Unawtaable Install Comtnmton
Alr Valves ' r- to ' Intervals
pipeline where the pipe slopes are roo steep for the air to be carried through with the flow.
The accumulation of air can become so large as to impair the pipe's flow capacity.
Air-release valves are installed at the high paints to provide for the continuous venting
of accumulated air. An air-release valve consists of a chambcr in which a float operates
through levers toopen a small air vent in the chamber top as air accumulates and to close the Figure 9-2 Typical Pipeline Showing Its Hydraulic Gradient a n d the Position of Necessary Air
vcnt as the watcr level rises. The float must operate against an air pressure equal to the water Valves
pressure and must be able to sustain the maximum pipeline pressure.
Air-and-vacuum valves are.used to admit air into a pipe to prevent the creation of a
vacuum that may be the result of a valve operation, the rapid draining or hilurc of a pipc, a
column wparation, or othcr causes. A vacuum can cause the pipe to collapseb from
9.16 GOOD PRACTICE
atmospheric pressure. The standard-dtmcnsion fittings covered by AWW.4 C208' should he used whenever
Air-and-vacuum valves also serve to vcnt air from the pipeline while it is filling with porcthlc. If drawtngs arc not usrd in purchasing. the dc\ignatton of littmgs IS always
uarcr. An air-and-vacuum valve consists of a chamhcr w t h a float that is generally center necessary. h s t g n data should he used to dctermtne if reinforcement IS nceded. Whcn
guldrd. The float o p n s and cloccs against a large air vcnt. As thr water lcvcl recedes in the neces\ary, spcctal ueldrd steel-pip litttnp can hc fahrwated to men unuzual requlrcmrntc
chamhcr. a n I\ permitted torntcr; as the water level rwp, atr 1% vcntcd.The air-and-vacuum and \e\crr wrwcc condttwns Whcn \rcclal w c l - p p c fitttnp arc dcvpatcd. thcy \hould
\aI\c doc< not \ m t atr undrr prccwre hr accnmpanrrd utth ilrav ! n p to \hot\ thew cvact rcmfinlrat~on
 I 11-1 I S ( A A S D A P P I ' K T C S A S C E S 99

because thcy present an obstruction to smwth flow they are not common. The most
common type in waterworks is circular, having a short, flanged neck and a flat, holtcd covrr.
j Air-release valves and air-and-vacuum valves, if not installed directly over the pipe,
may he located adjacent to the pipeline. A horizontal run of pipc connects the air valve and
Such manholes arc commonly 18-24 in. in diameter. 1 the pipcline. Theconnecting pipeshould rise gradually to thcair valve to permit flow of the
Careful consideration should be given to locating manholcs so as to afford the greatest
convenience in use. Manholes give access to the inside of the pipeline for many purposes
i air to the valve for venting. The performance requirements of the valves arc bawd on the
vcnttng capacity (cubic feet of free air per second) and the prcssure difkrential across the
besides inspection. In general, thcy will be most useful if located close to valves and valves (system water prcssure less atmospheric prcssure). The valves must be protected
sometimesclose to the low points that might need tobe pumped our for inspection or repair. against freezing and they must be located above ground to prcvent contamination when
optrating.
A general guideline is to size air valves at I in. pcr I -ft diameter of pipc. Manufacturers'
9.14 INSULATING JOINTS catalogs should be consulted for more accurate si7ing information. Rgurc 9-2 shour a
typical pipeltnc and locations of air valvcs.
Long steel pipelines frequently become carriers of electric currents originating from
differences in ground potentials or stray currents. This phenomenon is explained in Chapter
10. Where tests indicate the necessity, a long line is often separatrd Into sections or insulated
fromother partsofa system by insulating joints. These joints can hc provided at any flanged
joint, but it is often necessary to make a joint at a particular place by tnstalling a pair of HYDRAULIC GRAOIEHT LONG ASCENDING STRETCH DOWNWARD GRADE BUT
APPROACHING TnE HVDRAllLlC
flanges for this purpose. AOIENT THEREFORE AIR VALVL AT PEAK
Special insulating gaskets, sleeves, and washers are used to provide electrical insulation
at the flanged joint. These insulating sleeves and washers are made of fabric-reinforced
bakelltc, micarta, tenon, or similar materials that have long life and good mechanical
strength.
The bolts of the insulated flanged joints must be carefully insulated by sleeves and
washers. It is recommended that insulating washers be used at both ends of the bolts. Some
pipc users specify flange holes l/16-in. larger in diameter than normal flange holes.
It is important that insulating gaskcts, sleeves, and washers he installed carefully so that
the flan~edjoint will be insulating as intended. Afterthe installation ofthe insulated joint is / A* VALVE AT CHANGE OF DOWNWARD GRADIENT
ALSO POSSIIILITV OF VACUUM WHEN MIAINING LINE
complete. an electrical resistancc test should be performed. The electrical resistance should
he at least 10 000ohms; if the resistancc is less, the joint should be inspected fordamage, the
damage repaired, and the joint retested.

Typn d Valm R u m m t n d e d
9.15 AIR-RELEASE VALVG AND AIR-AND-VACUUM VALVES
Peaks Combmatton Aor Valves
Air valves are installed with pipelines to admit or vent air. There are basically two typcs: IncreawnQDowngrade Comblnabon Atr Valves
air-rclease valves and air-and-vacuum valves. In addition, a combination air val\,e is Decreasmg Upgrade Combmalkon Aw Valves
Long Ascents Anr and Vacuum Valves-'2. 10 ' w n l Intervals
available that combines the functions of an air-release valve and an air-and-vacuum valve. Long Descents Comb#naIlonAtr Valves-' 4- lo "rml Intervats
Air-release valves arc used to release air entrained under pressure at high p i n t s of a Long Hormnlal Avo80 11 Poslble I( Unawtaable Install Comtnmton
Alr Valves ' r- to ' Intervals
pipeline where the pipe slopes are roo steep for the air to be carried through with the flow.
The accumulation of air can become so large as to impair the pipe's flow capacity.
Air-release valves are installed at the high paints to provide for the continuous venting
of accumulated air. An air-release valve consists of a chambcr in which a float operates
through levers toopen a small air vent in the chamber top as air accumulates and to close the Figure 9-2 Typical Pipeline Showing Its Hydraulic Gradient a n d the Position of Necessary Air
vcnt as the watcr level rises. The float must operate against an air pressure equal to the water Valves
pressure and must be able to sustain the maximum pipeline pressure.
Air-and-vacuum valves are.used to admit air into a pipe to prevent the creation of a
vacuum that may be the result of a valve operation, the rapid draining or hilurc of a pipc, a
column wparation, or othcr causes. A vacuum can cause the pipe to collapseb from
9.16 GOOD PRACTICE
atmospheric pressure. The standard-dtmcnsion fittings covered by AWW.4 C208' should he used whenever
Air-and-vacuum valves also serve to vcnt air from the pipeline while it is filling with porcthlc. If drawtngs arc not usrd in purchasing. the dc\ignatton of littmgs IS always
uarcr. An air-and-vacuum valve consists of a chamhcr w t h a float that is generally center necessary. h s t g n data should he used to dctermtne if reinforcement IS nceded. Whcn
guldrd. The float o p n s and cloccs against a large air vcnt. As thr water lcvcl recedes in the neces\ary, spcctal ueldrd steel-pip litttnp can hc fahrwated to men unuzual requlrcmrntc
chamhcr. a n I\ permitted torntcr; as the water level rwp, atr 1% vcntcd.The air-and-vacuum and \e\crr wrwcc condttwns Whcn \rcclal w c l - p p c fitttnp arc dcvpatcd. thcy \hould
\aI\c doc< not \ m t atr undrr prccwre hr accnmpanrrd utth ilrav ! n p to \hot\ thew cvact rcmfinlrat~on
100 STEEL PIPE

References
I. Dimcnsiam for F8bricattd Stul W v a
P I P Fittings. AWWA Standard C208-
83. AU'WA, Lknrer, Calo. (1983).
5. Stecl P i p Flanges for U'aterrorks Scr-
rice-direr4 in. 'Ihrouph 144 in. AU'U'A
Standard C207-78. AU'WA, Lknrcr.
AWWA MANUAL
0
2. Steel Water Pipc 6 Inches and larger. Coio. (1978).
AU'U'A Standard U00-80. AWWA, 6. TIHOSHENKO, S. S ~ r t n x dn/ Mormdl$.
Denver, 610. (1980). R n 11. Van Nostrand Company, Pier
3. SWAKSON, H.S. ET AL. Design of Wyc York (1940).
Rnncher for SIKI P i p . Jour. AU'IP;(.
47:6:581 (Junc 1955).
4. Riwn, F.O. Stress Analysis of l y e
Branches. Enprg. Nomograph 32, US
BUREC, Denver, 610.

Chapter 10
Principles of Corrosion
and Corrosion Control

Corrosion is the deterioration of a substance (usually a metal) or its propcnies b e a u x of a

reaction with its environment.' Even though the process of corrosion is complex and the
detailed explanations even more so, relatively nontechnical publications on the suhject are
availabl~.~~'
An understanding of the basic principles of corrosion leads to an understanding of the
means and methods ofcorrosior: control. Methods of corrosion control arc discussed in this
chapter and in Chapter 11. Although many of these mcthods apply to all metals. both
chapters deal specifically with corrosion and corroston control of srccl p i p .

10.1 GENERAL THEORY

All materialsexposed to theelcrncnt<evcntually changcto the state that is most stable under
prcvail~ngconditions. .\lost st:uctural metals, havtng been converted from an ore, tend to
revert to it. This reversion is an electrochemical process-that is, both a chemical reaction
and the flow of a direct electric current occur. Such a combination is termed an
clcctrochcmical cell. Electrochemical cells fall into three general classes:
galvanic: cclls, with clcctrodcs of dissimilar mctals in a homqeneous e l m r o l ~ ~ e ,
conccntration cells, w~thclcctrodcs of similar rnatcrial, but with a nanhomogcncous
clcctrolyte,
m clcctrolytic cclh, whtcS arc similar to galvan# cclls, but which have. in addition, a
conductor plus an out;:dc source of clcctrrcal mere!.
Thrcc gcncral tvp~ofcorro~rnn
arc rccogni7cd pal! antc.elcctrolytic.anJ bin-hcm~cal.
100 STEEL PIPE

References
I. Dimcnsiam for F8bricattd Stul W v a
P I P Fittings. AWWA Standard C208-
83. AU'WA, Lknrer, Calo. (1983).
5. Stecl P i p Flanges for U'aterrorks Scr-
rice-direr4 in. 'Ihrouph 144 in. AU'U'A
Standard C207-78. AU'WA, Lknrcr.
AWWA MANUAL
0
2. Steel Water Pipc 6 Inches and larger. Coio. (1978).
AU'U'A Standard U00-80. AWWA, 6. TIHOSHENKO, S. S ~ r t n x dn/ Mormdl$.
Denver, 610. (1980). R n 11. Van Nostrand Company, Pier
3. SWAKSON, H.S. ET AL. Design of Wyc York (1940).
Rnncher for SIKI P i p . Jour. AU'IP;(.
47:6:581 (Junc 1955).
4. Riwn, F.O. Stress Analysis of l y e
Branches. Enprg. Nomograph 32, US
BUREC, Denver, 610.

Chapter 10
Principles of Corrosion
and Corrosion Control

Corrosion is the deterioration of a substance (usually a metal) or its propcnies b e a u x of a

reaction with its environment.' Even though the process of corrosion is complex and the
detailed explanations even more so, relatively nontechnical publications on the suhject are
availabl~.~~'
An understanding of the basic principles of corrosion leads to an understanding of the
means and methods ofcorrosior: control. Methods of corrosion control arc discussed in this
chapter and in Chapter 11. Although many of these mcthods apply to all metals. both
chapters deal specifically with corrosion and corroston control of srccl p i p .

10.1 GENERAL THEORY

All materialsexposed to theelcrncnt<evcntually changcto the state that is most stable under
prcvail~ngconditions. .\lost st:uctural metals, havtng been converted from an ore, tend to
revert to it. This reversion is an electrochemical process-that is, both a chemical reaction
and the flow of a direct electric current occur. Such a combination is termed an
clcctrochcmical cell. Electrochemical cells fall into three general classes:
galvanic: cclls, with clcctrodcs of dissimilar mctals in a homqeneous e l m r o l ~ ~ e ,
conccntration cells, w~thclcctrodcs of similar rnatcrial, but with a nanhomogcncous
clcctrolyte,
m clcctrolytic cclh, whtcS arc similar to galvan# cclls, but which have. in addition, a
conductor plus an out;:dc source of clcctrrcal mere!.
Thrcc gcncral tvp~ofcorro~rnn
arc rccogni7cd pal! antc.elcctrolytic.anJ bin-hcm~cal.
 CORROSIOS 103

Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic corrosion occurs when two clectrodcs of diswmlar materials are elcctrtcally
connected and exposed in an electrolyte. An csample is the common llashlighr cell (Figure
10-1). Vhen the cell is connected in a circuit, current flows from the zinc caw (the a n d )
into the clectrolyte, carrying ionized atoms of zinc with it. As soon as the 7inc ions are Table 10-1 Galvanic h i e s of Metals and Alloys+
dissolved in the electrolyte, they lose their ionic charge, passing it on by ionizing atoms of
hydrogen. The ionic charge (the clectriccurrent) flows through the electrolyte to the carbon
rod (the cathodc). There, the hydrogcn ions are reduced to atoms of hydrogcn, which
combine to form hydrogen gas. The current flow throuph the circuit, rhercforc, is from the
zinc anodc to the electrolyte, to the carbon rod cathode,and back to thc zinc anode through
the electrical conductor connecting the anodc to the cathode. As the current flows, the 7inc
is destroyed but the carbon is unharmed. In other word$, the anode is destroyed but the
cathodc is protected.
If the hydrogen gas formed in the galvanic cell collects on the cathode, it will inwlatc
the cathodc from the electrolyte and stop the flow ofcurrent. As long as the hydrogen film is
maintained, corrosion will he prevented. Removal or destruction of the hydrogcn film will
allow corrosion to start again at the original rate. Formatton of the film IS called polariration;
its removal, depolarization. Corrosion cells normally formed in highly corrosive soils or
waters arc such that the hydrogen formed on the cathode cscapcs as n gas and combines with
dissolved oxygen in the clcctrolyte, thus depolarizing the cathode and allowing corrosion to
proceed.
In the flashlight battery, the zinc case is attacked and the carbon is not. However, zinc
or any other metal may be attacked when in circuit with one metal, but not attacked when in
circuit with another. A metal listed in Table 10-1 will be attacked if connected in a circuit
with one listed beneath it in the table, if they arc placed in a common clcctrolytic
environment such as water or moist soil.
The order in Table 10-1 is known as the galvanic scrics; it generally holds true for
neutral clcctrolyrcs. Changes in the composition or temperature of the electrolyte, ho\vevcr,
may cause certain metals listed to shift positions or actually reverse positions in the table.
For exampk, zinc is listed above iron in the table, and zinc rill corrode when connectcd to
iron in fresh water at normal tempcnture. But when the tcmpcnture of the wanr i s above

POROUS SEPARATOR
\
N~,",":iP,'$C
ELECTRODES SIMILAR IN
COMPOSITION AND SIZE
,
1
l'lannum
*A"pnwr"mctd hasa surfact filmofatnomcdo+gcnor h!drngcn. A metal ma! be tntuall! "actr\r"and becom"parsncW
to rhc other mtal uhcn rhc protcrtt\r film a formed.
t(;ompi~tton nittcms 1%ac follow Alumtnum 17ST-95% Al, 4% Cu.0.596 hln. 0 5% Mg. St-Rmtn, lntcrnartonalS s k l
6 ,Ncu Ynrk. N Y -aurtcntt~c ntckcl and cast imn; 18-8statnlessstrel- 18%Cr. 8% St; 18-8-3\ratnclr rtccl- 185G.82 Kt,
356 Mo: Hartcllm C L'nton Carbtdc Carbon 6.N~agan . Falls, S Y.-5996 Kt. li* Mo, 14% t r . 5% Fc. 54; 0. Inconel
~ntcmat,mal~&l~n .Kc* York,N Y -59-WNI. 10-20%Cx.0-2391~ Fe;Hartelloy A--bO%h'l. Mo. W - Fc. Hauclloy
B-65% NI. 3M(. hlo. 49: Fc; Mml-63- 67% NI, 29-3O?i Cu, I-2% Fc, 0.4-1.1% hln.
So~nr:Hcrtzhcrg. L R Sugges,cncdNon-tcchn~dhtanual on Grrmton Tor Warm Work\ Oprarnn Jrur .JU'BjS. 48 7:9
(June 1956).

Figure 10-1 Galvanic Cell- Dissimilar figure 10-2 Galvanic Cell-Dissimilar

Metals Electrolytes
 CORROSIOS 103

Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic corrosion occurs when two clectrodcs of diswmlar materials are elcctrtcally
connected and exposed in an electrolyte. An csample is the common llashlighr cell (Figure
10-1). Vhen the cell is connected in a circuit, current flows from the zinc caw (the a n d )
into the clectrolyte, carrying ionized atoms of zinc with it. As soon as the 7inc ions are Table 10-1 Galvanic h i e s of Metals and Alloys+
dissolved in the electrolyte, they lose their ionic charge, passing it on by ionizing atoms of
hydrogen. The ionic charge (the clectriccurrent) flows through the electrolyte to the carbon
rod (the cathodc). There, the hydrogcn ions are reduced to atoms of hydrogcn, which
combine to form hydrogen gas. The current flow throuph the circuit, rhercforc, is from the
zinc anodc to the electrolyte, to the carbon rod cathode,and back to thc zinc anode through
the electrical conductor connecting the anodc to the cathode. As the current flows, the 7inc
is destroyed but the carbon is unharmed. In other word$, the anode is destroyed but the
cathodc is protected.
If the hydrogen gas formed in the galvanic cell collects on the cathode, it will inwlatc
the cathodc from the electrolyte and stop the flow ofcurrent. As long as the hydrogen film is
maintained, corrosion will he prevented. Removal or destruction of the hydrogcn film will
allow corrosion to start again at the original rate. Formatton of the film IS called polariration;
its removal, depolarization. Corrosion cells normally formed in highly corrosive soils or
waters arc such that the hydrogen formed on the cathode cscapcs as n gas and combines with
dissolved oxygen in the clcctrolyte, thus depolarizing the cathode and allowing corrosion to
proceed.
In the flashlight battery, the zinc case is attacked and the carbon is not. However, zinc
or any other metal may be attacked when in circuit with one metal, but not attacked when in
circuit with another. A metal listed in Table 10-1 will be attacked if connected in a circuit
with one listed beneath it in the table, if they arc placed in a common clcctrolytic
environment such as water or moist soil.
The order in Table 10-1 is known as the galvanic scrics; it generally holds true for
neutral clcctrolyrcs. Changes in the composition or temperature of the electrolyte, ho\vevcr,
may cause certain metals listed to shift positions or actually reverse positions in the table.
For exampk, zinc is listed above iron in the table, and zinc rill corrode when connectcd to
iron in fresh water at normal tempcnture. But when the tcmpcnture of the wanr i s above

POROUS SEPARATOR
\
N~,",":iP,'$C
ELECTRODES SIMILAR IN
COMPOSITION AND SIZE
,
1
l'lannum
*A"pnwr"mctd hasa surfact filmofatnomcdo+gcnor h!drngcn. A metal ma! be tntuall! "actr\r"and becom"parsncW
to rhc other mtal uhcn rhc protcrtt\r film a formed.
t(;ompi~tton nittcms 1%ac follow Alumtnum 17ST-95% Al, 4% Cu.0.596 hln. 0 5% Mg. St-Rmtn, lntcrnartonalS s k l
6 ,Ncu Ynrk. N Y -aurtcntt~c ntckcl and cast imn; 18-8statnlessstrel- 18%Cr. 8% St; 18-8-3\ratnclr rtccl- 185G.82 Kt,
356 Mo: Hartcllm C L'nton Carbtdc Carbon 6.N~agan . Falls, S Y.-5996 Kt. li* Mo, 14% t r . 5% Fc. 54; 0. Inconel
~ntcmat,mal~&l~n .Kc* York,N Y -59-WNI. 10-20%Cx.0-2391~ Fe;Hartelloy A--bO%h'l. Mo. W - Fc. Hauclloy
B-65% NI. 3M(. hlo. 49: Fc; Mml-63- 67% NI, 29-3O?i Cu, I-2% Fc, 0.4-1.1% hln.
So~nr:Hcrtzhcrg. L R Sugges,cncdNon-tcchn~dhtanual on Grrmton Tor Warm Work\ Oprarnn Jrur .JU'BjS. 48 7:9
(June 1956).

Figure 10-1 Galvanic Cell- Dissimilar figure 10-2 Galvanic Cell-Dissimilar

Metals Electrolytes
 CORROSION 105

about 15O0F(66OC),thc iron w~llcorrodc and protect the zinc. Thus, the table cannot be
used to predict thc pcrformancc of all metal comhinarion5 under all conditions.
In the flashlight battery, dissimilar metals and a single clcctrolyte causc thc clectric
current to flow. Similar mctals in dissimilar clcctroiytes can also p r d u c c a current, as
illustrated in Figure 10-2. In corrosion underground, diffcrential oxygcn concentration in
soils is onc of thc chief reasons for dissimilarity in the elcctrolp. Diffcrcntial oxygcn
concentration (or diffcrcntial aeration) may be causcd by unequal compactncss of backlill,
unequal porosity ofdifferent soils or of onc soil at different points, uncrcn distribution of
moisture, or restriction of air and moisture ~no\~cmcnt in thc soil cauxd hy the prcscncc of
huildings, roadways, parements, and vegetation.
The electrochemical cells described in the preceding paragraphs dcmonstrate thc
fundamental principles of thc many ktnds of electrochemical cells found in practice. The
common forms of corrosion cncounrcrcd on unprotected buried pipclines arc shown in .
Brass valve IS cathode prolecled area sleel plpe IS anode *corroding area and surrounding eanh IS efeclrotyte As
Flgurcs 10-3 through 10-1 1. long as calhode IS small m area retatwe to anode. corrosmn 1s not ordlnarlly severe or raptd If these area propontons
are reversed. corrosm may be much more ramd

Figure 10-5 Corrosion Caused by Dissimilar Metals in Contact o n Buried Pipe

Motst earth IS eleclrolyte. two areas On the plpe are anode and cathode. ptpe wall taLes place ot wwe ~nF ~ g u r e101
and 102 Plpe wall a1 anode wlll corrode llke zlnc battery case. plpe wall al cathode will not corrode but n t t tend to
be coaled w11hhydrogen gas whlch 11a01 removed. wtll lend to butld resslance l o current llow and lhereby check
corroston of p ~ p e
wall at anode

Figure 10-3 Galvanic Cell o n Embedded Pipe Wtthout Protective Coating

I Although Seldom considered. gatvanlc Cell IS crealed by mslsltmg plece ol new p ~ p eIn old lme New pope 81-
becomes anode and 11svale O! Cofros~onwall depend on type of roll and relallve areas ol anode and cathode
Therefore. careful protectwe measures are essenttal

I Figure 10-6 Corrosion Due t o Dissimilar Metals

I WHEN ACTIVE

PIPE .. d
Detail ol PIW wall al anode In Figure 10-3 IS Shown As currenl leaves surface of anode 11carrtes wtlh 11small
particles of metal tons Thew ions go m o solullon In sod electrolyte and are tmmednatrly exchanged for
hydroqen tons lcavmg melal bphsnd as rusly scale or tubercle around pll area In many sotls espectally
comparat~vrlydry ones thms halnncle-llke Scab w ~ l'seal
l otl' pat so Ihat 10"s electric current cannot get throuph When melRt plpe a l a 4 In cmders corroswe acllon IS that 01 dssslm#larmelals Cvnder #sone melal cathode and
and crll hrcomes tnaclw as tonq as t~hetcleIS not disturbed pbpe the olher anode Acld leached from CmdefS COntamlnaleS sod and Increases 11sacllvtty No hydropencottecls
on ctnder cathodr cell rrmams a c t w and COrrosmo tr rami
Figure 10-4 Galvanic Cell-Pitting Action
Figure 10-7 . Corrosion Due t o Cinders
 CORROSION 105

about 15O0F(66OC),thc iron w~llcorrodc and protect the zinc. Thus, the table cannot be
used to predict thc pcrformancc of all metal comhinarion5 under all conditions.
In the flashlight battery, dissimilar metals and a single clcctrolyte causc thc clectric
current to flow. Similar mctals in dissimilar clcctroiytes can also p r d u c c a current, as
illustrated in Figure 10-2. In corrosion underground, diffcrential oxygcn concentration in
soils is onc of thc chief reasons for dissimilarity in the elcctrolp. Diffcrcntial oxygcn
concentration (or diffcrcntial aeration) may be causcd by unequal compactncss of backlill,
unequal porosity ofdifferent soils or of onc soil at different points, uncrcn distribution of
moisture, or restriction of air and moisture ~no\~cmcnt in thc soil cauxd hy the prcscncc of
huildings, roadways, parements, and vegetation.
The electrochemical cells described in the preceding paragraphs dcmonstrate thc
fundamental principles of thc many ktnds of electrochemical cells found in practice. The
common forms of corrosion cncounrcrcd on unprotected buried pipclines arc shown in .
Brass valve IS cathode prolecled area sleel plpe IS anode *corroding area and surrounding eanh IS efeclrotyte As
Flgurcs 10-3 through 10-1 1. long as calhode IS small m area retatwe to anode. corrosmn 1s not ordlnarlly severe or raptd If these area propontons
are reversed. corrosm may be much more ramd

Figure 10-5 Corrosion Caused by Dissimilar Metals in Contact o n Buried Pipe

Motst earth IS eleclrolyte. two areas On the plpe are anode and cathode. ptpe wall taLes place ot wwe ~nF ~ g u r e101
and 102 Plpe wall a1 anode wlll corrode llke zlnc battery case. plpe wall al cathode will not corrode but n t t tend to
be coaled w11hhydrogen gas whlch 11a01 removed. wtll lend to butld resslance l o current llow and lhereby check
corroston of p ~ p e
wall at anode

Figure 10-3 Galvanic Cell o n Embedded Pipe Wtthout Protective Coating

I Although Seldom considered. gatvanlc Cell IS crealed by mslsltmg plece ol new p ~ p eIn old lme New pope 81-
becomes anode and 11svale O! Cofros~onwall depend on type of roll and relallve areas ol anode and cathode
Therefore. careful protectwe measures are essenttal

I Figure 10-6 Corrosion Due t o Dissimilar Metals

I WHEN ACTIVE

PIPE .. d
Detail ol PIW wall al anode In Figure 10-3 IS Shown As currenl leaves surface of anode 11carrtes wtlh 11small
particles of metal tons Thew ions go m o solullon In sod electrolyte and are tmmednatrly exchanged for
hydroqen tons lcavmg melal bphsnd as rusly scale or tubercle around pll area In many sotls espectally
comparat~vrlydry ones thms halnncle-llke Scab w ~ l'seal
l otl' pat so Ihat 10"s electric current cannot get throuph When melRt plpe a l a 4 In cmders corroswe acllon IS that 01 dssslm#larmelals Cvnder #sone melal cathode and
and crll hrcomes tnaclw as tonq as t~hetcleIS not disturbed pbpe the olher anode Acld leached from CmdefS COntamlnaleS sod and Increases 11sacllvtty No hydropencottecls
on ctnder cathodr cell rrmams a c t w and COrrosmo tr rami
Figure 10-4 Galvanic Cell-Pitting Action
Figure 10-7 . Corrosion Due t o Cinders
 lCOUPLING /BREAK IN FILM

BRIGHT METAL RATCHESCAUSED

BY PlPE WRENCH

Bright scars or scralches ot lhreads become mod0 areas In burled otpe and rest 01 the ptpe 15cathode area In some
~011s.
these brlghl areal can be very actwe and deslruclwe because the small anode area and large cathode area
produce the mosl unlavorable rarlos posstble

Figure 10-8 Corrosion Caused by Dissimilarity of Surface Conditions

Thbs 0% another galvantc cell 01 d~ss~m~lar-electrolyte
type So11t h r o ~ g h odeplh
~l 01 dllch 1s of uniform kana but O W
rests on heavy. moisl und8slurbedground at bollom 01 dllch whtle remainder ol c#rcumlerenceIS In C0r:acl with
d r w and more aeralel sod Dackllll Greater! dlsstrntlartty-and mosl dangerous condltlon-occurs along narrow
smp at bottom 01 o m whch IS anode 01 celt

Figure 10-11 Corrosion Caused by Differential Aeration of Soil

PlPE
Electrolytic Corrosion
The transpnation industv and other industries use direct current (DC) electricity for
\artous purposes in their oycrarions. It is common practice with D C c~rcuitsto u x the
ground ass return path for the current. In such cases, the pathofthe current may stray some
distance from a stra~ghtline between m o points in a system in order to follow the path of
.
In Ihls galvanic cell ot d*ssm)arelectrolytes .compare F~gure10-2 sections 01 plpe tn sandy loam are cathodes least resistance. Even where metallic circuits are provided for handling the diren currents,
8 ~ r ~ t e c tareas1.
ed secttons tn clay are anodes tcorrodmg areas and so11~selectrolyteII reststance toe~ec~rtc-
currenl flow IS hlgh ~nelectrolyte. corrosion rate w ~ lbe
l slow IIreststance to current !low IS low. corros$onrate w*W some of the return currcnt may stray from the intended path and return to the generator
be hlgh. Thus. knowtedge o l sod resstance to eteclrtc-current flow becomes mportant In Corroston conlrol sludtes either through parallel circuits in the ground or through some metallic structure. &cause
thew currents stray from the desired path, they are commonly rcfcrred to as stray eanh
Flgure 10-9 Corrosion Caused by Dissimilar Soils
currems or stray currents.
The diagrammatic sketch of an electric strect-railway system shown tn Figure 10-12 is
an crampte of a system that can create stray DC currents. Many modern subway s!!-stems
operate on the same principle. In Figure 10-12, the direct current flows from the gencrator
into the trolley wire, along this wire to the streetcar, and through the trolley of thccar tothc
moron driving it. To complctc the circuit, the return path of the currcnt ts intended to be
from the motors to the wheels of the car, then through the rails to the gencrator at the
substation. But because of the many mechanical joints along these tracks, all of which offer
resistance to the now of the electricity, what usually happens is that a portion of the current,
seeking an easier path tothe substation, leaves the rails, passes into the ground,and returns
to the substation through the moist earth. If, in its journey through the ground,thecurrcnt
passes near buried metal pip-which offers an easier path for return than docs the ground
around it-the current will now along the metal walls of the p i p to some p i n t near the
substation; there 11 will leave the pipe to flow through the ground back to the rail, and finally
D~sstm~lar~ty01 eleclrolyles due lo mlrlure ot solls CausPs lormallon 01 gatvansc celt Iflarge clods ot dlrt owqmatly return to the substation generaror.
from dllferent deplhs In d w h rest duectly agaml unprolected pape wall contact area I P ~ Ol o~mcomp anode
corroding area,. and adlacen1ploe cathode Small well-dsprtsed clods such as result ~nlrenchmq by mach8ne.
Areas of the pipe where the currcnt is entering are nor corroded. Where the currcnt is
reduce cell-lormmg lendcncy Galrao~cCelts havlng anode an0 calhdde area d~slrtbuledaround circumference ot leaving the pipe, however, steel is destroyed at the rate of about 20 Ib pcr ampre-year of
pipe are olten called rhort.palh crlls currrnt dtrchargcd. To combat electrolysis, an insulated metal conductor must he attached
to the pipe whcre 11wtI1 remove and return the currcnt to the \ourcc, rather than allownp.
Figure 10-10 Corrosion Caused by Mixture of D~fferentSoils
the currcnr to cscap from the p p c wall Figure 10- 13d1agrammat1callyr h o ~ tsh ~ method
\
 lCOUPLING /BREAK IN FILM

BRIGHT METAL RATCHESCAUSED

BY PlPE WRENCH

Bright scars or scralches ot lhreads become mod0 areas In burled otpe and rest 01 the ptpe 15cathode area In some
~011s.
these brlghl areal can be very actwe and deslruclwe because the small anode area and large cathode area
produce the mosl unlavorable rarlos posstble

Figure 10-8 Corrosion Caused by Dissimilarity of Surface Conditions

Thbs 0% another galvantc cell 01 d~ss~m~lar-electrolyte
type So11t h r o ~ g h odeplh
~l 01 dllch 1s of uniform kana but O W
rests on heavy. moisl und8slurbedground at bollom 01 dllch whtle remainder ol c#rcumlerenceIS In C0r:acl with
d r w and more aeralel sod Dackllll Greater! dlsstrntlartty-and mosl dangerous condltlon-occurs along narrow
smp at bottom 01 o m whch IS anode 01 celt

Figure 10-11 Corrosion Caused by Differential Aeration of Soil

PlPE
Electrolytic Corrosion
The transpnation industv and other industries use direct current (DC) electricity for
\artous purposes in their oycrarions. It is common practice with D C c~rcuitsto u x the
ground ass return path for the current. In such cases, the pathofthe current may stray some
distance from a stra~ghtline between m o points in a system in order to follow the path of
.
In Ihls galvanic cell ot d*ssm)arelectrolytes .compare F~gure10-2 sections 01 plpe tn sandy loam are cathodes least resistance. Even where metallic circuits are provided for handling the diren currents,
8 ~ r ~ t e c tareas1.
ed secttons tn clay are anodes tcorrodmg areas and so11~selectrolyteII reststance toe~ec~rtc-
currenl flow IS hlgh ~nelectrolyte. corrosion rate w ~ lbe
l slow IIreststance to current !low IS low. corros$onrate w*W some of the return currcnt may stray from the intended path and return to the generator
be hlgh. Thus. knowtedge o l sod resstance to eteclrtc-current flow becomes mportant In Corroston conlrol sludtes either through parallel circuits in the ground or through some metallic structure. &cause
thew currents stray from the desired path, they are commonly rcfcrred to as stray eanh
Flgure 10-9 Corrosion Caused by Dissimilar Soils
currems or stray currents.
The diagrammatic sketch of an electric strect-railway system shown tn Figure 10-12 is
an crampte of a system that can create stray DC currents. Many modern subway s!!-stems
operate on the same principle. In Figure 10-12, the direct current flows from the gencrator
into the trolley wire, along this wire to the streetcar, and through the trolley of thccar tothc
moron driving it. To complctc the circuit, the return path of the currcnt ts intended to be
from the motors to the wheels of the car, then through the rails to the gencrator at the
substation. But because of the many mechanical joints along these tracks, all of which offer
resistance to the now of the electricity, what usually happens is that a portion of the current,
seeking an easier path tothe substation, leaves the rails, passes into the ground,and returns
to the substation through the moist earth. If, in its journey through the ground,thecurrcnt
passes near buried metal pip-which offers an easier path for return than docs the ground
around it-the current will now along the metal walls of the p i p to some p i n t near the
substation; there 11 will leave the pipe to flow through the ground back to the rail, and finally
D~sstm~lar~ty01 eleclrolyles due lo mlrlure ot solls CausPs lormallon 01 gatvansc celt Iflarge clods ot dlrt owqmatly return to the substation generaror.
from dllferent deplhs In d w h rest duectly agaml unprolected pape wall contact area I P ~ Ol o~mcomp anode
corroding area,. and adlacen1ploe cathode Small well-dsprtsed clods such as result ~nlrenchmq by mach8ne.
Areas of the pipe where the currcnt is entering are nor corroded. Where the currcnt is
reduce cell-lormmg lendcncy Galrao~cCelts havlng anode an0 calhdde area d~slrtbuledaround circumference ot leaving the pipe, however, steel is destroyed at the rate of about 20 Ib pcr ampre-year of
pipe are olten called rhort.palh crlls currrnt dtrchargcd. To combat electrolysis, an insulated metal conductor must he attached
to the pipe whcre 11wtI1 remove and return the currcnt to the \ourcc, rather than allownp.
Figure 10-10 Corrosion Caused by Mixture of D~fferentSoils
the currcnr to cscap from the p p c wall Figure 10- 13d1agrammat1callyr h o ~ tsh ~ method
\
 Crevice Corrosion
Crevice corrosion in a steel pipeline is causcd by a concentration cell formed where the
dissolvcd oxygen of the water varies from one segment of the pipe mctal to another. In a
crevice area, the dissolved oxygen is hindered from diffusion, creating an anodic condition
that causes mctal to go into solution.
Severity of Corrosion
POSITIVE AREA NEGATIVE AREA Severity ofcorrosion in any given case will depend on many different factors, some of which
STRUCTURECORRODING STRUCTURE CATHODICALLY may be more important than others. The factors most likely to affect the rate ofcorrosion are
PROTECTED
relative positions of metals in the galvanic serics,
size of anode area with rcspect to cathode area,
Figure 10-12 Stray-Current Corrosion Caused by Electrified Railway Systems location of anode area with respect to cathode,
* resistance of mctallic circutt,
typc and composition of electrolyte,
conductivity or resistivity of electrolyte,
GENERATOR uniformtty of electrolyte,
.C7 * depolarizrng condit~ons.
Soil-Corrosion Investigations
The first organized soil-corrosion investigation was begun by the National Bureau of
Standards (NBS) in 191I. The purpose at that time was to study theeffect ofsrray currents
from street-railway lines on buricd metallic Structures. In its initial investigation, the
bureau found that in many instances where rather severe corrosion was anticipated, l i n k
damage was observed, whereas in others, more corrosion was found than seemed to be
indicated by the electrical data associated with the corroded structure. Thex observations
led to a second investigation, undertaken in 1921. Originally about 14 000spccimcns wcre
huricd at 47 test sites, but the numhcr was subsequently increased to 36 500 specimens at
Figure 10-13 Control o f Stray-Current Corrosion 128 test sites. The American Petroleum Institute and the American Gas Association
collaborated in analyzing the results of the latter tests.
Burial sites wcre xlectcd in typical soils representing a sampling ofareas in which p i p
Biochemical Corrosion was or might be buried. The purpox of the investigation was to determine whether
Certain soil bactcria create chemicals that may result in corrosion. Bacterial corrosion, or
anaerobic-bacterial corrosion, is not so much a distinct type of corrosion as it is another
400
cause ofelectrochemical corrosion. The bacteria cause changes ip the physical and chemical 3
properties of the soil to produce active pseudogalvanic cells. The bacterial action mavhcone -i 350
of removing the protective hydrogen film. Differential aeration plays a major role in this <
WQ
activity.
The only certain way of determining the presence of anscrobic bacteria, the particular
t 250
0
kind of microorganism responsible for this t y p ofcorrosion, is to secure a samplc ofthc soil y m
D
in the immediate vicinity of the p i p and develop a bacterial culture from that sample. Z 1M
Inspection under a mtcroscope will determine delinicely whether harmful bacteria arc
present. $ 1w

Stress and Fatigue Corrosion

0
Stress corrosion is causcd from tensile stresses that slowly build up in a corrosive 0 5 10 15 20 25 M 35 40 45 50
TIME YEARS
atmosphere. With a static loading, tensile stresses arc dcvclopcd at the metal surfaces. At
highly srressed potnts, acceliratcd corrosion occurs. causing increased tensile stress and
failure u hen the metal's cafe yteld is exceeded.
Carrocion fatigue cxrurs from cyclic loading. In a corrosive atmosphere, alternate
loadings cause corrocton fatiguc suhstantially hclow the metal's failure in noncorrowe So11groups arc deltned In Table 10.2
cond~tions. Figure 10-14 Corrosion Rate in Various Soils
 Crevice Corrosion
Crevice corrosion in a steel pipeline is causcd by a concentration cell formed where the
dissolvcd oxygen of the water varies from one segment of the pipe mctal to another. In a
crevice area, the dissolved oxygen is hindered from diffusion, creating an anodic condition
that causes mctal to go into solution.
Severity of Corrosion
POSITIVE AREA NEGATIVE AREA Severity ofcorrosion in any given case will depend on many different factors, some of which
STRUCTURECORRODING STRUCTURE CATHODICALLY may be more important than others. The factors most likely to affect the rate ofcorrosion are
PROTECTED
relative positions of metals in the galvanic serics,
size of anode area with rcspect to cathode area,
Figure 10-12 Stray-Current Corrosion Caused by Electrified Railway Systems location of anode area with respect to cathode,
* resistance of mctallic circutt,
typc and composition of electrolyte,
conductivity or resistivity of electrolyte,
GENERATOR uniformtty of electrolyte,
.C7 * depolarizrng condit~ons.
Soil-Corrosion Investigations
The first organized soil-corrosion investigation was begun by the National Bureau of
Standards (NBS) in 191I. The purpose at that time was to study theeffect ofsrray currents
from street-railway lines on buricd metallic Structures. In its initial investigation, the
bureau found that in many instances where rather severe corrosion was anticipated, l i n k
damage was observed, whereas in others, more corrosion was found than seemed to be
indicated by the electrical data associated with the corroded structure. Thex observations
led to a second investigation, undertaken in 1921. Originally about 14 000spccimcns wcre
huricd at 47 test sites, but the numhcr was subsequently increased to 36 500 specimens at
Figure 10-13 Control o f Stray-Current Corrosion 128 test sites. The American Petroleum Institute and the American Gas Association
collaborated in analyzing the results of the latter tests.
Burial sites wcre xlectcd in typical soils representing a sampling ofareas in which p i p
Biochemical Corrosion was or might be buried. The purpox of the investigation was to determine whether
Certain soil bactcria create chemicals that may result in corrosion. Bacterial corrosion, or
anaerobic-bacterial corrosion, is not so much a distinct type of corrosion as it is another
400
cause ofelectrochemical corrosion. The bacteria cause changes ip the physical and chemical 3
properties of the soil to produce active pseudogalvanic cells. The bacterial action mavhcone -i 350
of removing the protective hydrogen film. Differential aeration plays a major role in this <
WQ
activity.
The only certain way of determining the presence of anscrobic bacteria, the particular
t 250
0
kind of microorganism responsible for this t y p ofcorrosion, is to secure a samplc ofthc soil y m
D
in the immediate vicinity of the p i p and develop a bacterial culture from that sample. Z 1M
Inspection under a mtcroscope will determine delinicely whether harmful bacteria arc
present. $ 1w

Stress and Fatigue Corrosion

0
Stress corrosion is causcd from tensile stresses that slowly build up in a corrosive 0 5 10 15 20 25 M 35 40 45 50
TIME YEARS
atmosphere. With a static loading, tensile stresses arc dcvclopcd at the metal surfaces. At
highly srressed potnts, acceliratcd corrosion occurs. causing increased tensile stress and
failure u hen the metal's cafe yteld is exceeded.
Carrocion fatigue cxrurs from cyclic loading. In a corrosive atmosphere, alternate
loadings cause corrocton fatiguc suhstantially hclow the metal's failure in noncorrowe So11groups arc deltned In Table 10.2
cond~tions. Figure 10-14 Corrosion Rate in Various Soils
 corrosion would occur in pipelines in the absence of stray currcnts undcr conditions
rcprcscntativc of those cncountcrcd by working pipelines.
Thc NBS soil corrosion tests arc probably the most cxtcnsivc, wcll coordinated, and
best analyzed of any test madc for the samc purpose. A final report on thc studies madc
between 1910 and 1955, including over 400 references, has been published.' An important
finding was that in most soils, the corrosion rate dccrcascd with timc. This is largely duc to
the fact that corrosion products, unless remoscd, tend to protcct thc mctal.
Figure 10-14, taken from the NBS reports, clearly shows the dccrcax in corrosion rate
with timc in all bur the worst soil group. Only a w r y small percentage of pipe is ever buricd
in soil belonging to that group. hiodcrn mcthods of corrosion prevention gcncrally make it
unncccssary to allow extra wall thickncss as a safeguard against corrosion. Tablcs 10-2 and
10-3 give summar! data on thc corrosivity of soils and the rclationship of soil corrosion to
soil mistivity.
TaMe 10-2 Soils Grouped in Order of Corrosive Action o n Steel
10.3 ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION
Acrarrnn and drarnapegood Charactcn7rd by unrfnrm color and no monlrng a n y hcrc rn so11prnlilc and h! tcr! lou urter
rahlc. Includer
I Sands or lsndy lmnn
2. L~ght,texturcd sdt loam
3 Pornm hams or cia! lotm thoroughl? oxrdrud to great depths.
10.4 METHODSOF CORROSION CONTROL
10.2 INTERNAL CORROSION OF STEEL PIPE
Corrosron of the rntcrnal surfaccs of a pipc is princrpally causcd by galvantc cclls? The
cxtcnt of corrosion ofthc intcriorofan unlined p i p dcpendson thecorrosivity ofthc watcr
carried. Langclicrb has dcvcloped a mcthod for determining thccorrosivccffcct ofdiffcrcnt
krnds of watcr on barc pipe intcriors, and Wicr7 has extcnsiwly invcstigatcd and rcportcd
rhc effect of watcr contact on various kinds of pipe linings. Although some unlined pipes
havc becn pittcd through by somc waters, thc principal result of intcrior corrosion is a
reduction in flow capacity. This reduction is causcd by a formation of tubcrclcs of ferric
hydroxide, a condition known as tuber~ulation.~ It is primarily to maintain flow capacity
that pipe linings havc bccn dcvclopcd. Uhcrc internal corrosron is allo\vcd to persist, quality
of watcr dcterioratcs, pumping and transmission capactty decrcascs, cfficrency diminishes,
and costly rcplaccmcnt hccomcs inevitable. Scrious accidents and loss of rcvcnucs from
system shutdowns arc also possible. Thc occurrence of thcse problems can be rcduccd by
thc use of quality protcctiw linings.
Atmospheric corrosion ofcxposcd pipclines is usually insign~ficant,esccpt in industrial and
sca coast arcas. U'hcrc such corrosion is significant, the mamtcnancc problem incurrcd is
similar to that for bridgcs or other exposed stcel structurcs.
Thc clcctrochcmical naturc of corrosion suggests three basic mcthods of controlling it on
undcrground and undcrwatcr pipelines. First, pipe and appurtcnanccs can be isolatcd and
clcctrically insulated from thc surrounding soil and watcr by means of a protective coating.
Second, clcctric currcnts can be imposed to countcract thc currents assocrated with
corrosion. Third, an inhibitive cnvironmcnt can be created to orcvenr or rcducc corrosion.
To implcmcnt thc first mcthod, satisfactory and cffcctivc protcctrvc coatings havc been
dcvclopcd. Cathodic protcction, implementing thesccond mcthod, is k i n g morc and more
ridcly uscd in corrosion control. Inhibitive coatings implcmcnt thc third mcthod by
nroviding an cnvironmcnt in which oxidationor corrosion of stccl is inhibited. Bv,iudicious
,

I
2. Clays ;sc of allof thcsc mcthods, any required dcgrcc of corrosron control can he economically
Grmp 1 1 ' 4 C~uuollvCram achicvcd?
Acntrnn and drrrnlpc \cr) pear. Chamenzed h! hlutsh-era! motthng at dcpthr dh-R In urth uarcr tahk at %urfm.wh~ Coatings and linings arc covcrcd in Chapter 1I. The remainder of this chapter deals
cxlrcmc rmpermcahiltt~hecaw of colfoHW nuto~llcnntarned Includn I with corrosion control by cathodic protection.
I. &luck
2. Peat
3. Trdal marsh 10.5 CATHODIC PROTECTION -.-- -.
4. Uays and nqmcc ~0th
5. Adok clay Cathodic protection systems reverse the electrochemical corrosivc forcc by crcating an
cxtcrnal circuit bctwccn the pipeline to he protcctcd and an austliary anodc (sacrificial
mctal)rmmcrscd in watcr or buricd in thcground at a predetermined dtstancc from the pipe.
Direct currcnt applrcd to the circuit is dischargcd from thc anode surfacc and trawls
Table 10-3 Relationship of Soil Corrosion t o Spil ResirtWy through thc surrounding clcctrolytc to thc pipe (cathode) surfacc.
Two mcthods arc available for gcncrating a currcnt of sufficient magnitude to
Rcwrance guarantcc protcction. In the first method, sacrificial-anodc matcrral such ar magnesium or
So11Clarr Ikcnptlon ohm/rr zinc is uscd to create a galvanic cell. The clcctrical potentral gcncrated hy the ccll cauccs
I cxcdknt 10000-hm) currcnt to flow from thc anodc to the pipe, returning to thc anodc through a srmplc
2 end hMO-JHU) connccting wtrc (Figure 10-15). This system is gcncrally urcd whcrc 11 is dcsirahlc to apply
1 fan 4 500-2000 small amounts of currcnt at a numhcrof locationr, mo<loftcr. on coated prpclinc\ In Irphtly
4 had 2 000-0 or modcratcly corrosrve sorls
 corrosion would occur in pipelines in the absence of stray currcnts undcr conditions
rcprcscntativc of those cncountcrcd by working pipelines.
Thc NBS soil corrosion tests arc probably the most cxtcnsivc, wcll coordinated, and
best analyzed of any test madc for the samc purpose. A final report on thc studies madc
between 1910 and 1955, including over 400 references, has been published.' An important
finding was that in most soils, the corrosion rate dccrcascd with timc. This is largely duc to
the fact that corrosion products, unless remoscd, tend to protcct thc mctal.
Figure 10-14, taken from the NBS reports, clearly shows the dccrcax in corrosion rate
with timc in all bur the worst soil group. Only a w r y small percentage of pipe is ever buricd
in soil belonging to that group. hiodcrn mcthods of corrosion prevention gcncrally make it
unncccssary to allow extra wall thickncss as a safeguard against corrosion. Tablcs 10-2 and
10-3 give summar! data on thc corrosivity of soils and the rclationship of soil corrosion to
soil mistivity.
TaMe 10-2 Soils Grouped in Order of Corrosive Action o n Steel
10.3 ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION
Acrarrnn and drarnapegood Charactcn7rd by unrfnrm color and no monlrng a n y hcrc rn so11prnlilc and h! tcr! lou urter
rahlc. Includer
I Sands or lsndy lmnn
2. L~ght,texturcd sdt loam
3 Pornm hams or cia! lotm thoroughl? oxrdrud to great depths.
10.4 METHODSOF CORROSION CONTROL
10.2 INTERNAL CORROSION OF STEEL PIPE
Corrosron of the rntcrnal surfaccs of a pipc is princrpally causcd by galvantc cclls? The
cxtcnt of corrosion ofthc intcriorofan unlined p i p dcpendson thecorrosivity ofthc watcr
carried. Langclicrb has dcvcloped a mcthod for determining thccorrosivccffcct ofdiffcrcnt
krnds of watcr on barc pipe intcriors, and Wicr7 has extcnsiwly invcstigatcd and rcportcd
rhc effect of watcr contact on various kinds of pipe linings. Although some unlined pipes
havc becn pittcd through by somc waters, thc principal result of intcrior corrosion is a
reduction in flow capacity. This reduction is causcd by a formation of tubcrclcs of ferric
hydroxide, a condition known as tuber~ulation.~ It is primarily to maintain flow capacity
that pipe linings havc bccn dcvclopcd. Uhcrc internal corrosron is allo\vcd to persist, quality
of watcr dcterioratcs, pumping and transmission capactty decrcascs, cfficrency diminishes,
and costly rcplaccmcnt hccomcs inevitable. Scrious accidents and loss of rcvcnucs from
system shutdowns arc also possible. Thc occurrence of thcse problems can be rcduccd by
thc use of quality protcctiw linings.
Atmospheric corrosion ofcxposcd pipclines is usually insign~ficant,esccpt in industrial and
sca coast arcas. U'hcrc such corrosion is significant, the mamtcnancc problem incurrcd is
similar to that for bridgcs or other exposed stcel structurcs.
Thc clcctrochcmical naturc of corrosion suggests three basic mcthods of controlling it on
undcrground and undcrwatcr pipelines. First, pipe and appurtcnanccs can be isolatcd and
clcctrically insulated from thc surrounding soil and watcr by means of a protective coating.
Second, clcctric currcnts can be imposed to countcract thc currents assocrated with
corrosion. Third, an inhibitive cnvironmcnt can be created to orcvenr or rcducc corrosion.
To implcmcnt thc first mcthod, satisfactory and cffcctivc protcctrvc coatings havc been
dcvclopcd. Cathodic protcction, implementing thesccond mcthod, is k i n g morc and more
ridcly uscd in corrosion control. Inhibitive coatings implcmcnt thc third mcthod by
nroviding an cnvironmcnt in which oxidationor corrosion of stccl is inhibited. Bv,iudicious
,

I
2. Clays ;sc of allof thcsc mcthods, any required dcgrcc of corrosron control can he economically
Grmp 1 1 ' 4 C~uuollvCram achicvcd?
Acntrnn and drrrnlpc \cr) pear. Chamenzed h! hlutsh-era! motthng at dcpthr dh-R In urth uarcr tahk at %urfm.wh~ Coatings and linings arc covcrcd in Chapter 1I. The remainder of this chapter deals
cxlrcmc rmpermcahiltt~hecaw of colfoHW nuto~llcnntarned Includn I with corrosion control by cathodic protection.
I. &luck
2. Peat
3. Trdal marsh 10.5 CATHODIC PROTECTION -.-- -.
4. Uays and nqmcc ~0th
5. Adok clay Cathodic protection systems reverse the electrochemical corrosivc forcc by crcating an
cxtcrnal circuit bctwccn the pipeline to he protcctcd and an austliary anodc (sacrificial
mctal)rmmcrscd in watcr or buricd in thcground at a predetermined dtstancc from the pipe.
Direct currcnt applrcd to the circuit is dischargcd from thc anode surfacc and trawls
Table 10-3 Relationship of Soil Corrosion t o Spil ResirtWy through thc surrounding clcctrolytc to thc pipe (cathode) surfacc.
Two mcthods arc available for gcncrating a currcnt of sufficient magnitude to
Rcwrance guarantcc protcction. In the first method, sacrificial-anodc matcrral such ar magnesium or
So11Clarr Ikcnptlon ohm/rr zinc is uscd to create a galvanic cell. The clcctrical potentral gcncrated hy the ccll cauccs
I cxcdknt 10000-hm) currcnt to flow from thc anodc to the pipe, returning to thc anodc through a srmplc
2 end hMO-JHU) connccting wtrc (Figure 10-15). This system is gcncrally urcd whcrc 11 is dcsirahlc to apply
1 fan 4 500-2000 small amounts of currcnt at a numhcrof locationr, mo<loftcr. on coated prpclinc\ In Irphtly
4 had 2 000-0 or modcratcly corrosrve sorls
 PROTECTED GALVANIC ANODE
STRUCTURE

ELEVATION

Figure 10-15 Cathodic Protection-Galvanic Anode Type Figure 10-17 Bonding lumpers installed o n Sleeve-Type Coupling

I RECTlFlER UNIT I A GRADE

/ / / ) \
-U
PROTECTED ENERGIZED AFTER INSTALLATION AFTER INSTALLATION
ANODE SPIGOT RING RUBBER GASKET FIN I0
ROLLED
SPIGOT RING RUBBER O-RING GASKET
rC-- CEMEN~-MORTAR LINING
B. Rolled Spigot Jdnl

flgure 10-16 Cathodic kotection-Rectifier Type 1 Figure 10-18 Bonding Wire for Bell a n d Spigot Rubber-Gasketed Joint

The second method ofcurrent generation is toenergize the circuit with an external DC
I Current Required
power supply, such as a rectifier. This techniqw, commonly referred to as the impressed
current method, uses rclativcly inert anodcs (usually graphite or silicon cast iron) connected
to the positive terminal of a DC power supply, with the pipe connected lo the negative
terminal (Figure 10-16). This system is generally used where large amounts of currents are
required at relatircly few locations, and in many cases it is more economical than sacrificial
anodcs.
Bonding of joints
There a pipeline is to be cathodicall?: protected, or where a pipelinc is to be invalled with
the possibility of future cathodic protection, the bonding of joints is required to make the
hnc clcctrically continuous (Figures 10-17 and 10-18). It is usually desirable to bond all
joint5 at the time of installation, hccausc the cost later will he many times greater. In
additlon to bonding, the pipeline should have test leads connected to it at appropriate
intervals to permit monitoring of the actinty of clectrical currents within the pipeline,
uherhcr under cathodic protcction or not. Field-svcldcd lmes require no additional
hondmg
For imprcssed-current cathodic protection to be cffccrire, sumcient current must flow from
the soil to the pipe to maintain a constant voltage difference at the soil-metal interface,
amounting to 0.25 V or more (approximately 0.80-0.85 V between pipe and coppcr sulfate
electrode in contact with soil).This minimum voltage requirement has been determined by
experience, but it may be subject to variations at specific sires.
Design of Cathodic Protection Systems
In many situations, cathodic protection for steel pipclines will not tu installed until proven
necessary. However, all loints in steel pipe should bc electrically bonded and electrical test
stations provided along the pipelinc as necessary.
Corrosion Survey
A corrosion survey, including chcmical-physical analyses of thc soil, mu$t k performed
along the pipeline right-of-way. Some of the mrawrrmcntr taken include cod rewtcvtty,
roil pH, and tests for stray currents
 PROTECTED GALVANIC ANODE
STRUCTURE

ELEVATION

Figure 10-15 Cathodic Protection-Galvanic Anode Type Figure 10-17 Bonding lumpers installed o n Sleeve-Type Coupling

I RECTlFlER UNIT I A GRADE

/ / / ) \
-U
PROTECTED ENERGIZED AFTER INSTALLATION AFTER INSTALLATION
ANODE SPIGOT RING RUBBER GASKET FIN I0
ROLLED
SPIGOT RING RUBBER O-RING GASKET
rC-- CEMEN~-MORTAR LINING
B. Rolled Spigot Jdnl

flgure 10-16 Cathodic kotection-Rectifier Type 1 Figure 10-18 Bonding Wire for Bell a n d Spigot Rubber-Gasketed Joint

The second method ofcurrent generation is toenergize the circuit with an external DC
I Current Required
power supply, such as a rectifier. This techniqw, commonly referred to as the impressed
current method, uses rclativcly inert anodcs (usually graphite or silicon cast iron) connected
to the positive terminal of a DC power supply, with the pipe connected lo the negative
terminal (Figure 10-16). This system is generally used where large amounts of currents are
required at relatircly few locations, and in many cases it is more economical than sacrificial
anodcs.
Bonding of joints
There a pipeline is to be cathodicall?: protected, or where a pipelinc is to be invalled with
the possibility of future cathodic protection, the bonding of joints is required to make the
hnc clcctrically continuous (Figures 10-17 and 10-18). It is usually desirable to bond all
joint5 at the time of installation, hccausc the cost later will he many times greater. In
additlon to bonding, the pipeline should have test leads connected to it at appropriate
intervals to permit monitoring of the actinty of clectrical currents within the pipeline,
uherhcr under cathodic protcction or not. Field-svcldcd lmes require no additional
hondmg
For imprcssed-current cathodic protection to be cffccrire, sumcient current must flow from
the soil to the pipe to maintain a constant voltage difference at the soil-metal interface,
amounting to 0.25 V or more (approximately 0.80-0.85 V between pipe and coppcr sulfate
electrode in contact with soil).This minimum voltage requirement has been determined by
experience, but it may be subject to variations at specific sires.
Design of Cathodic Protection Systems
In many situations, cathodic protection for steel pipclines will not tu installed until proven
necessary. However, all loints in steel pipe should bc electrically bonded and electrical test
stations provided along the pipelinc as necessary.
Corrosion Survey
A corrosion survey, including chcmical-physical analyses of thc soil, mu$t k performed
along the pipeline right-of-way. Some of the mrawrrmcntr taken include cod rewtcvtty,
roil pH, and tests for stray currents

References
1. NACE Basic Cormion Coune. NACE,
Houston, Texas (June 1975).
2. Manual on Underground Grmion. Co-
lumbia Gas System Scnicc Corp., New
York (1952).
3. HLRTZBERG, L.B. Suggested Non-tcch-
nical hlanurl on Corrosion for Water
Works Operaton. jonr. AWWA. 48:719
flunc 19%).
4. Gndcrpround Corrosion, NBS Circ.No,
579, (1957).
5. ELIASSEN, R. & LAMB,J.C. Ill. Mech-
anlsm of lntemal Corrosion of Watcr
PIP. Jnur. APU'A, 45:12:1281 (Dcc.
1953).
6. LAsGELtER, W.F. The Analytical Gntrol
of Anticormvon Water Trcarment.Jow.
AIT'WA, ZBIHX) (Oa.1936).
7. WFIR,P. The Effect or lntemal Pipe
Lining on Water Quality.]our. AIPIVA,
32: 1547 (Scpt. 1940).
8. LISSEY.R.K.,& FRANZIKI. J .B. W'atrr-
Rrsonrcc~En~ntm~ng. McGnw-Hill Book
Co., New Yo* (1979).
9. PEABODY, A. W. Conrrol of pipdint
Corrmign. Natl Aun. of Corrosion Engn..
Katy, Texas (1967).
The follming rcfercnccr ore nor cired in
the ten.
- BARSAR~, R.E.AMerhodof&term~niq
Wall Thicknessof Strcl Pipe Tor Under-
ground Service. jour. AU'W'A, 29791
(June 1937).
AWWA MANUAL
- Corro~ionControl in Watcr Vtill~ies.
Corroston Control Comm~ttec,Call-
-
-
forn~a-Kc!ada AWWA Scc (1 980).
DAVIS, C V.ed. Hondbonko/ApplrrdHy-
draulrcr McGrau-HtII Book Co., New
York (1969).
DENISON, LA. ElectrolyticMeasurement
chapter 11'
of the Corrowcness of 5011s KBS Res.
Paper RP 918 (1936)
- I.OGAS. K H. ASTht Srmposlum on
-
Grrcnion Tcstlng Procedures. Ch~cago
hicct~nj!~
(hiar 1937).
McCorm. G B P~pellncProtcct~onUsing
Coal Tar Enamels St LOUIS. hio (June
Protective Coatings a n d
..--,.
I Ot%I
- Scorr, G N. Adlustment of Soil Cor-
rodon Rt Depth h4casurcrncnts for Size
and Sample. Prod Bull. 212. American
Petroleum Inst~tute,Neu York (1933).
Linings
- --- A Prelimlnar) Study of the Rate
of PittingolIron PIP In Soils. Prod. Bull.
212. American Pctrolcum Inst~tutc,N m
York (1933).
- --- API CMtrng Tests. Prod. Bull.
214. American Petroleum In<tttutc,New
Pork (1934).
- Srttl Phrc En,+mnip Dam-l'dum 3.
.
Amcr. Iron b. Steel lnst and Steel Plate
Fahricatorr AWK Inc (1980).
Coatings for corrosion control are extremely effcctive uhcn properly used. They are
constdercd to be the primary line of defense against corrosion of stecl pipeline systems.
Coating costs are only a fraction of pipelinc costs, yet coating is the major meansof ensuring
long-term operation by preventing pipelinc deterioration and corrosion leaks.
11.1 REQUlREMENTS OF GOOD PIPELINE COATINGS
AND LININGS
The requirements of a coating vary with the type of construction, the aggressiveness of the
environment in which it will serve, and the systcm operating conditions. The effeeni\.eness
ofa good protective pipeline coating depends on its permanence and the degree to which it
possesses physical resistance to hazards of transportation, installation, temperature change,
soil stress, and pressure; resistance to water penetration or absorption; effective electrical
insdative properties; and chemical inertness to soil, air, water, organic acids, alkalies, and
bacterial action. Coating effectiveness also depends on such general charactcristics as caw of
application, hrgh adhesion, compatibility of use with cathodic protection, and reasonable
c0st.l
The requirements of a lining also vary with the systcm and the environment. In
addition to the factors considered for coatings, linings must be judged on their smoothness
(lor flow resistance), and they must meet toxicological requirements for p t a b l e water.
11.2 SELECTION OF THE PROPER COATINGAND LINING
Selection and recommendation of the lining and coatmg matrrials for use on underground
and underwater steel piplincs IS one of the mo\t tmprtant activtticr of the ctlglncer.

References
1. NACE Basic Cormion Coune. NACE,
Houston, Texas (June 1975).
2. Manual on Underground Grmion. Co-
lumbia Gas System Scnicc Corp., New
York (1952).
3. HLRTZBERG, L.B. Suggested Non-tcch-
nical hlanurl on Corrosion for Water
Works Operaton. jonr. AWWA. 48:719
flunc 19%).
4. Gndcrpround Corrosion, NBS Circ.No,
579, (1957).
5. ELIASSEN, R. & LAMB,J.C. Ill. Mech-
anlsm of lntemal Corrosion of Watcr
PIP. Jnur. APU'A, 45:12:1281 (Dcc.
1953).
6. LAsGELtER, W.F. The Analytical Gntrol
of Anticormvon Water Trcarment.Jow.
AIT'WA, ZBIHX) (Oa.1936).
7. WFIR,P. The Effect or lntemal Pipe
Lining on Water Quality.]our. AIPIVA,
32: 1547 (Scpt. 1940).
8. LISSEY.R.K.,& FRANZIKI. J .B. W'atrr-
Rrsonrcc~En~ntm~ng. McGnw-Hill Book
Co., New Yo* (1979).
9. PEABODY, A. W. Conrrol of pipdint
Corrmign. Natl Aun. of Corrosion Engn..
Katy, Texas (1967).
The follming rcfercnccr ore nor cired in
the ten.
- BARSAR~, R.E.AMerhodof&term~niq
Wall Thicknessof Strcl Pipe Tor Under-
ground Service. jour. AU'W'A, 29791
(June 1937).
AWWA MANUAL
- Corro~ionControl in Watcr Vtill~ies.
Corroston Control Comm~ttec,Call-
-
-
forn~a-Kc!ada AWWA Scc (1 980).
DAVIS, C V.ed. Hondbonko/ApplrrdHy-
draulrcr McGrau-HtII Book Co., New
York (1969).
DENISON, LA. ElectrolyticMeasurement
chapter 11'
of the Corrowcness of 5011s KBS Res.
Paper RP 918 (1936)
- I.OGAS. K H. ASTht Srmposlum on
-
Grrcnion Tcstlng Procedures. Ch~cago
hicct~nj!~
(hiar 1937).
McCorm. G B P~pellncProtcct~onUsing
Coal Tar Enamels St LOUIS. hio (June
Protective Coatings a n d
..--,.
I Ot%I
- Scorr, G N. Adlustment of Soil Cor-
rodon Rt Depth h4casurcrncnts for Size
and Sample. Prod Bull. 212. American
Petroleum Inst~tute,Neu York (1933).
Linings
- --- A Prelimlnar) Study of the Rate
of PittingolIron PIP In Soils. Prod. Bull.
212. American Pctrolcum Inst~tutc,N m
York (1933).
- --- API CMtrng Tests. Prod. Bull.
214. American Petroleum In<tttutc,New
Pork (1934).
- Srttl Phrc En,+mnip Dam-l'dum 3.
.
Amcr. Iron b. Steel lnst and Steel Plate
Fahricatorr AWK Inc (1980).
Coatings for corrosion control are extremely effcctive uhcn properly used. They are
constdercd to be the primary line of defense against corrosion of stecl pipeline systems.
Coating costs are only a fraction of pipelinc costs, yet coating is the major meansof ensuring
long-term operation by preventing pipelinc deterioration and corrosion leaks.
11.1 REQUlREMENTS OF GOOD PIPELINE COATINGS
AND LININGS
The requirements of a coating vary with the type of construction, the aggressiveness of the
environment in which it will serve, and the systcm operating conditions. The effeeni\.eness
ofa good protective pipeline coating depends on its permanence and the degree to which it
possesses physical resistance to hazards of transportation, installation, temperature change,
soil stress, and pressure; resistance to water penetration or absorption; effective electrical
insdative properties; and chemical inertness to soil, air, water, organic acids, alkalies, and
bacterial action. Coating effectiveness also depends on such general charactcristics as caw of
application, hrgh adhesion, compatibility of use with cathodic protection, and reasonable
c0st.l
The requirements of a lining also vary with the systcm and the environment. In
addition to the factors considered for coatings, linings must be judged on their smoothness
(lor flow resistance), and they must meet toxicological requirements for p t a b l e water.
11.2 SELECTION OF THE PROPER COATINGAND LINING
Selection and recommendation of the lining and coatmg matrrials for use on underground
and underwater steel piplincs IS one of the mo\t tmprtant activtticr of the ctlglncer.
 Selectton for agiven use is a mattcr ofassessing the magnttudcofthc corrosion,installation,
and scrvrce hazards. Tcsting procedures have hcen dc~.clopcdto atd the cngtneer in
evaluating and selecting thc coating systcm that bcst mccts a system's n c e d ~ . ~ - ~
Requirements for cxtcrnal coating and internal lining are dlffcrent, so each should be
considered separately with respect to the anticipated corrosion severity.
Coating Selection
The corrosion potential for the exterior of steel pipe is difficult to judgc bccaux of the
variety of cnvironmcnts cncountcrcd. Resistivity of thc soil (see Table 10-3, Chapter 10) is
the most important parameter Tor judging soil corrosivity. Soil chemical and physical
analyses, pH, moisture contcnt,and existence ofstray electrical currcnts are alqo important
factors that can aid in making the selection decision.
After thc level of soil corrosirity is assessed, thc othcr conditions that afrcct the
long-term performance of protective coatings should bc considcrcd.' Among thcsc arc
distorting stresses exerted on the coating during compaction and settling of the
backfill:
* mechanical stresses created by certain soils having wry high expansion and
shrinkage during wet and dry cycles;
* pcnctration by growing roots;
action of bactcrra and fungus in soil surrounding thc pipeline;
* penctration by rocks, clods, or debris in the backfill;
attack by soil chemicals or industrial wastes,chcmicals,and solvcnts that may be
present along thc pipeline routc.
Coating performance depends on putting the pipeline into scrvicc with thc kast
amount of coating damage. The coating systcm xlcctcd must not only mcet the corrosion-
control needs, but must also allow economical transportation, handling, storage, and
pipeline conwuction with minimal coating damagc or repair. To ensure prcctsc control of
coating application and quality, many types of coatings arc applied in a plant or shop. Thc
coating manufacturer can provide a guide to the proper protection during transponation,
handling, and storage of p i p that has been coated with such a system. General guidclincs
arc given in a later section of this chapter. There are x\*cnlrecognized testing procedures
that arc uscd in evaluating coating systcm characteristics rclatcd to transportation, storqc,
and constr~ction.~-"Among the charactcristics to be considcrcd arc
* rcsistancc of the coating to cold flow or pcnctration undcr mechanical loading,
resistance ofthc coating to ultraviolct exposure and tcmpcraturc cycling during
outdoor storage,
rcsistancc of the coatrng to abrasion and impact.
Lining Selection
The function of an lntcrnal lining is to prcvcnt intcrnal corrosion and to produce and
maintain a~moothsurfacc to enhance flowcapacity. Gment-mortar linings and coatings for
srccl naterlincs arcdurable and have provided many ycars ofcxccltent service. Pipe surfaces
covered with ccmcnt-mortar are $fotectcd by the alkaline cement cnvironmcnt, which
passivatcs the steel and preecnts iron corrosion in most natural cnvironmcnts. The
passiration occurs quickly in newly coated surfaces and is not dcstroyed by moisture and
oxygcn absorbed through the mortar coating. Crment-mortar linings provide low hydraulic
frictional rcostancc, and any lcached products from mortar lining carrying soft watcr arc
nontoxic and anticorrosive.
Coal-tar cnamcl,coal-tar e p x y , and fusion-bonded cpxycxhthit cxccllcnt corroston-
rcrimncc ~voycrticsand p r o ~ ~ dthc c rcquircd rmoothncrc to nialntarn flow rapacrt! They
protect snel water lincs by electrically insulating the coated pipe surfaces from the
environment When reinforced, thc coatings provrdc additional resistance to physical
i damagc.
i Regardless ofthe lining matcrial sclccted, consideration should be given to the crfccts
I
I of cavitation and silts on the lining.
i
11.3 RECOMMENDED COATINGS AND LININGS
Current A\TU('A standards list coatings and linings for stccl water pipe that arc bclicved to
be the most reliable. as proved in practice. The A\V\VA Steel Prpe Commirtcc is alcn,
howvcr, to the powibtlitics of new dcvclopmcnts, and addttions to and modtfications of
cxictingstandards atll be made as deemcd advisable. The current list of AU'W'A coating and
lining standards for p l y protection is as follows:
A\VW.+ C203, Standard f o r Coal-Tar Protective Coatings a n d Linings for
Stecl Water Pipelines-Enamel and Tape-Hot-Applied. AWW'A ~203'~describcs
thc matcrial and application requircmcnts for shop-appltcd coal-tar protective coatings and
lintngs for stcel uatcr pipclincs intended for use under normal conditions when the
temperature of the uatcr in the p i p will not excecd 90°F (32OC). The standard covcrs
coal-tar cnamel applrcd to the interior and exterior of pipe, specral sections, connections,
and fittrngs; it alsocovm hot-applied coal-tar tape applied to the extcrror of spec~alsections,
connccttons, and firtlnps.
Coal-tar cnamel is applied over a coal-tar or synthetrc primer. External coal-tar cnamel
coatings use bonded asbestos-felt and fihrous-glass mat to reinforce and shield the coal-tar
cnamel. The applicd external coating is usually finishcd wtheither a coat ofwhrtcwash or a
single wrap of kraft paper.
Internally, the coal-tar cnamel is used without rctnforccmcnt or shielding. The hot
cnamcl is spun into the prpe and provtdes a smooth tntcrnal lining having low hydraultc
frrctional reststance.
The standard providcs a rigid yet reasonahle manufacturer's gurdc for thc production
of the coating, calls for tests of material and its behavior to ensure the purchaser that the
product has the desired qualities, and furnishes directions for the effective application of the
coating.
AWWA C204. Standard f o r Chlorinated Rubber-Alkyd Paint System f o r the
Exterior of Aboveground Stccl Water Piping. AW'W'A C204I3 describes the
material and applicatton requirements for a chlorinated rubbcr-alkyd paint systcm that
proridcs corrocion protection for abovcpround stcel uatcr ptptng that is expsed to normal
w-.h.a n , martnc, or rndustrtal environments. The patnt syctem 15 not intcndcd for use where
thcre is exposure to cstremc chemical enrironmcnts or for use on the intcrtor surfaces.
The svstcm consists of one coat of organic atnc-rtch primer followed hv two coats of a
chlorinated rubber-rnodtficd-alkyd parnt In the dcctred color The standard completely
defines the wrfacc ~rcparation,the applicatron of thc prtmer and top coat, and the test
methods for ensurrng the qualtty of thc primer and top coat.
AWWA C205. Standard Tor Cement-Mortar Protective Lining a n d Coating
for Stccl Watcr Pipe-4 In. a n d Larger-Shop Applied. AWWA C205I4 describes
the matcrial and appltcation requircmcnts to provide protectwe lintngs and coatings for
stccl water ptpc b! chop application of cement mortar.
Gment mortar IS composed ofPortland ccmcnt,\and.and uatcr,wcll mrxcd and ofthc
proper constrtcnc\. to ohtam a dense. homogcncous ltntng or coating. Internally, thc cement
mortar IS ccntrtfuga!l~cornpactcd to rcmovc cxcc\~uatcr and producc a mooth. untform
wrlacc Iiucrnall!. rnr coattng ica rctnforccd crmcnt mortar. pncumnttcally or mcchantcally
arpl~cdto thc ptpc .tlrBcc Kc~nforcrmrntccrnrt\tr c ~ \prdl l alrc, utrc fahrtc. or rthhon
 Selectton for agiven use is a mattcr ofassessing the magnttudcofthc corrosion,installation,
and scrvrce hazards. Tcsting procedures have hcen dc~.clopcdto atd the cngtneer in
evaluating and selecting thc coating systcm that bcst mccts a system's n c e d ~ . ~ - ~
Requirements for cxtcrnal coating and internal lining are dlffcrent, so each should be
considered separately with respect to the anticipated corrosion severity.
Coating Selection
The corrosion potential for the exterior of steel pipe is difficult to judgc bccaux of the
variety of cnvironmcnts cncountcrcd. Resistivity of thc soil (see Table 10-3, Chapter 10) is
the most important parameter Tor judging soil corrosivity. Soil chemical and physical
analyses, pH, moisture contcnt,and existence ofstray electrical currcnts are alqo important
factors that can aid in making the selection decision.
After thc level of soil corrosirity is assessed, thc othcr conditions that afrcct the
long-term performance of protective coatings should bc considcrcd.' Among thcsc arc
distorting stresses exerted on the coating during compaction and settling of the
backfill:
* mechanical stresses created by certain soils having wry high expansion and
shrinkage during wet and dry cycles;
* pcnctration by growing roots;
action of bactcrra and fungus in soil surrounding thc pipeline;
* penctration by rocks, clods, or debris in the backfill;
attack by soil chemicals or industrial wastes,chcmicals,and solvcnts that may be
present along thc pipeline routc.
Coating performance depends on putting the pipeline into scrvicc with thc kast
amount of coating damage. The coating systcm xlcctcd must not only mcet the corrosion-
control needs, but must also allow economical transportation, handling, storage, and
pipeline conwuction with minimal coating damagc or repair. To ensure prcctsc control of
coating application and quality, many types of coatings arc applied in a plant or shop. Thc
coating manufacturer can provide a guide to the proper protection during transponation,
handling, and storage of p i p that has been coated with such a system. General guidclincs
arc given in a later section of this chapter. There are x\*cnlrecognized testing procedures
that arc uscd in evaluating coating systcm characteristics rclatcd to transportation, storqc,
and constr~ction.~-"Among the charactcristics to be considcrcd arc
* rcsistancc of the coating to cold flow or pcnctration undcr mechanical loading,
resistance ofthc coating to ultraviolct exposure and tcmpcraturc cycling during
outdoor storage,
rcsistancc of the coatrng to abrasion and impact.
Lining Selection
The function of an lntcrnal lining is to prcvcnt intcrnal corrosion and to produce and
maintain a~moothsurfacc to enhance flowcapacity. Gment-mortar linings and coatings for
srccl naterlincs arcdurable and have provided many ycars ofcxccltent service. Pipe surfaces
covered with ccmcnt-mortar are $fotectcd by the alkaline cement cnvironmcnt, which
passivatcs the steel and preecnts iron corrosion in most natural cnvironmcnts. The
passiration occurs quickly in newly coated surfaces and is not dcstroyed by moisture and
oxygcn absorbed through the mortar coating. Crment-mortar linings provide low hydraulic
frictional rcostancc, and any lcached products from mortar lining carrying soft watcr arc
nontoxic and anticorrosive.
Coal-tar cnamcl,coal-tar e p x y , and fusion-bonded cpxycxhthit cxccllcnt corroston-
rcrimncc ~voycrticsand p r o ~ ~ dthc c rcquircd rmoothncrc to nialntarn flow rapacrt! They
protect snel water lincs by electrically insulating the coated pipe surfaces from the
environment When reinforced, thc coatings provrdc additional resistance to physical
i damagc.
i Regardless ofthe lining matcrial sclccted, consideration should be given to the crfccts
I
I of cavitation and silts on the lining.
i
11.3 RECOMMENDED COATINGS AND LININGS
Current A\TU('A standards list coatings and linings for stccl water pipe that arc bclicved to
be the most reliable. as proved in practice. The A\V\VA Steel Prpe Commirtcc is alcn,
howvcr, to the powibtlitics of new dcvclopmcnts, and addttions to and modtfications of
cxictingstandards atll be made as deemcd advisable. The current list of AU'W'A coating and
lining standards for p l y protection is as follows:
A\VW.+ C203, Standard f o r Coal-Tar Protective Coatings a n d Linings for
Stecl Water Pipelines-Enamel and Tape-Hot-Applied. AWW'A ~203'~describcs
thc matcrial and application requircmcnts for shop-appltcd coal-tar protective coatings and
lintngs for stcel uatcr pipclincs intended for use under normal conditions when the
temperature of the uatcr in the p i p will not excecd 90°F (32OC). The standard covcrs
coal-tar cnamel applrcd to the interior and exterior of pipe, specral sections, connections,
and fittrngs; it alsocovm hot-applied coal-tar tape applied to the extcrror of spec~alsections,
connccttons, and firtlnps.
Coal-tar cnamel is applied over a coal-tar or synthetrc primer. External coal-tar cnamel
coatings use bonded asbestos-felt and fihrous-glass mat to reinforce and shield the coal-tar
cnamel. The applicd external coating is usually finishcd wtheither a coat ofwhrtcwash or a
single wrap of kraft paper.
Internally, the coal-tar cnamel is used without rctnforccmcnt or shielding. The hot
cnamcl is spun into the prpe and provtdes a smooth tntcrnal lining having low hydraultc
frrctional reststance.
The standard providcs a rigid yet reasonahle manufacturer's gurdc for thc production
of the coating, calls for tests of material and its behavior to ensure the purchaser that the
product has the desired qualities, and furnishes directions for the effective application of the
coating.
AWWA C204. Standard f o r Chlorinated Rubber-Alkyd Paint System f o r the
Exterior of Aboveground Stccl Water Piping. AW'W'A C204I3 describes the
material and applicatton requirements for a chlorinated rubbcr-alkyd paint systcm that
proridcs corrocion protection for abovcpround stcel uatcr ptptng that is expsed to normal
w-.h.a n , martnc, or rndustrtal environments. The patnt syctem 15 not intcndcd for use where
thcre is exposure to cstremc chemical enrironmcnts or for use on the intcrtor surfaces.
The svstcm consists of one coat of organic atnc-rtch primer followed hv two coats of a
chlorinated rubber-rnodtficd-alkyd parnt In the dcctred color The standard completely
defines the wrfacc ~rcparation,the applicatron of thc prtmer and top coat, and the test
methods for ensurrng the qualtty of thc primer and top coat.
AWWA C205. Standard Tor Cement-Mortar Protective Lining a n d Coating
for Stccl Watcr Pipe-4 In. a n d Larger-Shop Applied. AWWA C205I4 describes
the matcrial and appltcation requircmcnts to provide protectwe lintngs and coatings for
stccl water ptpc b! chop application of cement mortar.
Gment mortar IS composed ofPortland ccmcnt,\and.and uatcr,wcll mrxcd and ofthc
proper constrtcnc\. to ohtam a dense. homogcncous ltntng or coating. Internally, thc cement
mortar IS ccntrtfuga!l~cornpactcd to rcmovc cxcc\~uatcr and producc a mooth. untform
wrlacc Iiucrnall!. rnr coattng ica rctnforccd crmcnt mortar. pncumnttcally or mcchantcally
arpl~cdto thc ptpc .tlrBcc Kc~nforcrmrntccrnrt\tr c ~ \prdl l alrc, utrc fahrtc. or rthhon
 mesh. Thc standard provides a complctc guide for appltcatlon and curtng of the mortar newly installed pipes and older pipelincs. Dctailed procedures arc includcd for surfacc
ltning and mortar coating. preparation and application, surfacc finishing, and curing of thc ccmcnt mortar.
AWWA C209, S t a n d a r d for Cold-Applied Tape Coatings for the Exterior of
Spccial Sections, conncctions, a n d Fittings for Stecl W a ~ e Pipelines.r A\V\XfA
C209I5 c o w s the use of a cold primer and cold-applied tape on the extertor of special 11.4 COATING APPLICATION
sections, conncctions, and fittings for steel water pipelines in\tallcd underground In any soil This manual docs not furnish details on methods of coating and paint application, but the
under normal or average condttions. Tapes with both polyvinyl chloridc and plycthylcnc tmportancc of obtaining proper application cannot be ovcremphasizcd. Effective rcsults
hacking arc listed. Thc thicknesses of thc t a p s vary; howvcr, all t a p s rnay be sufficiently cannot be secured with any coating matcrial unless adequatc carc is taken in preparing the
overlapped to mcct changing performance requirements. Cold-applied t a p s provide ease of surfaces for coating, In applying the coating,and in handling thc pipe after coating. AWWA
application without thc u x of special equipment and can bc applicd m r a broad appltcat~on standards providc thc rcquircmcnts for obtaining g o d coating work. The coating
tcmperaturc range. If severe construction or soil condtt~onscxictwhere mcchanical dan~nge manufacturer, the applicator,and theengineer should allcoopcratc tosec that the workisof
rnay occur, a su~tablcovcrarap of an extra thickness of tape or othcr urapping may hc the prescribed quality. Many cxccllcnt sourccs of information have becn published dcaling
required. u tth the protection of steel pipc, the pitfalls ofcoatingwork,and the means of avoiding rhcx
AWWA C210, S t a n d a r d for Liquid Epoxy Coating Systems Tor the Interior probl~rns.~'~'
a n d Exterior of Stcel Watcr Pipclines, AWWA C210i6 dcscrthes a ltqu~depoxy
coating system, suitable for potable watcr service, which u4I proctdc corrosion protection to Coatins
- of Special Sections, Connections, and Fittings
thc tnterior and cxtcrior of steel watcr pipe, fittings, and spcctal sections installed The coating and lining of special scctions, connections, and fittings arc descrrbcd in AUI'WA
undcrground or undcrwatcr. The coating systcm consists of one coat of a two-part Standards C203, C204, C205, C209, C210, C213, C214, and Cf102."*~~Thcmaterials uscd
chemrcally curcd inhibitive cpoxy primcr, and one or more coats ofa two-part chemically are the samc specified for usc with stccl water pipc. Thc methods of application ma) differ
curcd epoxy finish coat. The finish coat may be a coal-tar epoxy coating, or it may k an from those prescribed lor pipc becausc of the variety of physical configurat~onscncountcrcd.
cpoxy coating containing no coal tar. Thc coating system may alternately concist of two or Pipe joints are normally coatcd in the ficld with matcrials slmtlar to those used on the
more coats of the samc cpoxy coating without rhc use of a separate primer, provided the main body ofthc pipc. Thcse are dcscribed in the appropriate AWWA coating standards.
coating system meets the pcrformancc requirements of AWWA C210.
Thcsc coatings are suitable whcn used for corrosion prevention in watcr scrvicc
systems at tcmpcraturcs u p to 140°F (60°C). Thc products are applied by spray application, 11.5 W O D PRACTICE
preferably airless. The AWWA standards for protective coatings have becn carefully prcpred by cxperienccd
The liquid epoxy systcm described in the standard differs from the customary product individuals and arc baxd on the best currcnr pracace. They should bc uscd by
commercially available in that it has a very. high - flexihtlitv, elongatton, and Impact incorporating them rn thc job specification by direct reference. Modification should be
resistance. Any liquid cpoxy offcrcd for water uttlity purposes must meet the rcqutrcmcnts made only by cxpericnccd coating specialists.
of AWWA C210. For AWWA Standards C203, C204, C205, C209, C210, C213,C214.and ~ 6 0 2 ' ~ - ' ~ t o
AWWA C213, S t a n d a r d f o r Fusion-Bonded Epoxy Coating for thc Interior he completc for bidding purposes, the purchaser's job spec~ficationsmust provrdc the
a n d Exterior of Steel Water Pipclincs. AWWA ~ ~ describes
1 thc
3 matcrial
~ and
~ supplementary details required in each standard.
application requirements for fusion-bondcd cpoxy protective coatings for the intcrior and
cxtcrior of steel water pipe, special scctions, welded joints, connections,and fittings of stcel
watcr pipelincs installcd undcrground or undcrwatcr under normal construction condttions.
Theepoxy coatings arcsuitcd for corrosion prevcntion in potable water systems optrating at References
temperatures up to 140°F (60°C).
Fusion-bonded cpoxy coatings arc heat activated, chcmically curcd coating systcrns. I Control of External Corroston on Under- 7. Tcst for Bcndab~llt\of l'lpcllnc Coattnps.
The epoxy coatings arc furnished in powder form. Except for wcldcd field joints, they are ground or Suhmcrped hlctalle Ppng ASTM Standard GIO-77 ASTht. Phlla-
S\stcms NACE Standard RP-01-69. drlyhta. Pa (1977)
planr- or shop-applicd to prchcatcd pipe, special sections, conncctions, and fittings using ACE. Houston, Tcxn (1983 rcriston). 8. Test for Effccts of Outdoor Ecarhcrtng
fluid bed, air, or electrostatic spray. 2 Test for Gthod~cD~sbondlngof Pipeline on Ptpcl~ncCoatlnp~ASTM Standard
A I W " C214, S t a n d a r d for T a p c Coating Systems for thc Extcrior of Steel Guttnps ASTht Standard G8-79 AST.CI. GI 1-i9 AST.\l. Phtladelphta. Pa i1979).
W a t e r Pipelines. AWWA C214'8covers thc materials, thc systems, and the avvlication Phtladclph~a.Pa (1979) 9 Tcst for lmpact Rcrtrtanrc of Pqxlmc
.- 3 Test for Water Pcnctratlon Inlo Ptpellnc Coatlnp (L~mcstonc DropTest) ASTM
rcquircmcnts for prefabricated cold-applied tapes for the cxtcrror of all diameters of stccl Cont~ngsASTM Standard G9-77 AS'TM, Standard GI)-77 ASTM, Philadelphia,
watcr pipe placcd by mcchanical qcans. For normal construction conditions, ~refabricatcd Phdadclphta, Pa (1977) Pa I 1977)
cold-applied t a p s arc applicd as a thrcc-layer system consisting of (I) primcr, (2) corrosion 4 Test for Dt<hondlng Charactcr~sricsof 10. Test for lmpan Rcwtancc of Plpcltnc
preventive tape (inncr laycr), and (3) mcchantcal protcctivc tapc (outer Iaycr). The primcr is Plpcltnc Coaltnps b! D t r ~ So11t Rurlal. Cnatlnpr (Talllnp Ec~ghtTest) ASTM
ASTht Standard G19-77 ASTh!, Phtla- Standard G14-77 ASTM, Ph~ladclphta,
supplied in the form of a liquid consisting or solid ingredients carried in a solvent. The dclph~a.Pa (1977) Pa 1977)
corrosion prcvcntivc tape and thc mcchanical protecttvc tape arc supplied in suirablc 5 Test for Chcmical Rcwmncc of Ptpel~nc I I Tcst for Pcncrratton Rcrt<tanrcof Ptpellne
thrcknesses and in roll form. Thc standard covers application at coating plants. Coat~ngs ASTM Standard G20-77. Cnatlnps Blunt Rod) ASTM Standard
AS 1'.\1. Phtladelrh~a.Pa 119i7) GIi.77 .%ST,\!. Phdadclrh~a.Pa,1977).
AWWA C602, S t a n d a r d f o r Ccmcnt-Atortar LiningoTWatcr P i p e l i n e s 4 In. 12 (>&Tar Protcctnc Cnatrnp~and Ltntng~
6 Test for Ahratton Rcwrancc of Plpcllnc
(100 nim) and Largcr-In Place. A\T\Y'A C0OZiP descrlhcs thc matcrlals and ( h t t n p , 4\ 1 \1 \randard C6-77 AS7'hl. for Ftrrl Walcr Plprl~nr--tnamcl and
arpltcartnn proccsccs for thc cement-mortar Itnlng of ptycltncs rn ~ I ~ T c covering
. hlrh I'hnlaJ<lphtd. I'a I l')i?l Tare-llw 4rrllcJ .\\VIVA Ftandirrd
 mesh. Thc standard provides a complctc guide for appltcatlon and curtng of the mortar newly installed pipes and older pipelincs. Dctailed procedures arc includcd for surfacc
ltning and mortar coating. preparation and application, surfacc finishing, and curing of thc ccmcnt mortar.
AWWA C209, S t a n d a r d for Cold-Applied Tape Coatings for the Exterior of
Spccial Sections, conncctions, a n d Fittings for Stecl W a ~ e Pipelines.r A\V\XfA
C209I5 c o w s the use of a cold primer and cold-applied tape on the extertor of special 11.4 COATING APPLICATION
sections, conncctions, and fittings for steel water pipelines in\tallcd underground In any soil This manual docs not furnish details on methods of coating and paint application, but the
under normal or average condttions. Tapes with both polyvinyl chloridc and plycthylcnc tmportancc of obtaining proper application cannot be ovcremphasizcd. Effective rcsults
hacking arc listed. Thc thicknesses of thc t a p s vary; howvcr, all t a p s rnay be sufficiently cannot be secured with any coating matcrial unless adequatc carc is taken in preparing the
overlapped to mcct changing performance requirements. Cold-applied t a p s provide ease of surfaces for coating, In applying the coating,and in handling thc pipe after coating. AWWA
application without thc u x of special equipment and can bc applicd m r a broad appltcat~on standards providc thc rcquircmcnts for obtaining g o d coating work. The coating
tcmperaturc range. If severe construction or soil condtt~onscxictwhere mcchanical dan~nge manufacturer, the applicator,and theengineer should allcoopcratc tosec that the workisof
rnay occur, a su~tablcovcrarap of an extra thickness of tape or othcr urapping may hc the prescribed quality. Many cxccllcnt sourccs of information have becn published dcaling
required. u tth the protection of steel pipc, the pitfalls ofcoatingwork,and the means of avoiding rhcx
AWWA C210, S t a n d a r d for Liquid Epoxy Coating Systems Tor the Interior probl~rns.~'~'
a n d Exterior of Stcel Watcr Pipclines, AWWA C210i6 dcscrthes a ltqu~depoxy
coating system, suitable for potable watcr service, which u4I proctdc corrosion protection to Coatins
- of Special Sections, Connections, and Fittings
thc tnterior and cxtcrior of steel watcr pipe, fittings, and spcctal sections installed The coating and lining of special scctions, connections, and fittings arc descrrbcd in AUI'WA
undcrground or undcrwatcr. The coating systcm consists of one coat of a two-part Standards C203, C204, C205, C209, C210, C213, C214, and Cf102."*~~Thcmaterials uscd
chemrcally curcd inhibitive cpoxy primcr, and one or more coats ofa two-part chemically are the samc specified for usc with stccl water pipc. Thc methods of application ma) differ
curcd epoxy finish coat. The finish coat may be a coal-tar epoxy coating, or it may k an from those prescribed lor pipc becausc of the variety of physical configurat~onscncountcrcd.
cpoxy coating containing no coal tar. Thc coating system may alternately concist of two or Pipe joints are normally coatcd in the ficld with matcrials slmtlar to those used on the
more coats of the samc cpoxy coating without rhc use of a separate primer, provided the main body ofthc pipc. Thcse are dcscribed in the appropriate AWWA coating standards.
coating system meets the pcrformancc requirements of AWWA C210.
Thcsc coatings are suitable whcn used for corrosion prevention in watcr scrvicc
systems at tcmpcraturcs u p to 140°F (60°C). Thc products are applied by spray application, 11.5 W O D PRACTICE
preferably airless. The AWWA standards for protective coatings have becn carefully prcpred by cxperienccd
The liquid epoxy systcm described in the standard differs from the customary product individuals and arc baxd on the best currcnr pracace. They should bc uscd by
commercially available in that it has a very. high - flexihtlitv, elongatton, and Impact incorporating them rn thc job specification by direct reference. Modification should be
resistance. Any liquid cpoxy offcrcd for water uttlity purposes must meet the rcqutrcmcnts made only by cxpericnccd coating specialists.
of AWWA C210. For AWWA Standards C203, C204, C205, C209, C210, C213,C214.and ~ 6 0 2 ' ~ - ' ~ t o
AWWA C213, S t a n d a r d f o r Fusion-Bonded Epoxy Coating for thc Interior he completc for bidding purposes, the purchaser's job spec~ficationsmust provrdc the
a n d Exterior of Steel Water Pipclincs. AWWA ~ ~ describes
1 thc
3 matcrial
~ and
~ supplementary details required in each standard.
application requirements for fusion-bondcd cpoxy protective coatings for the intcrior and
cxtcrior of steel water pipe, special scctions, welded joints, connections,and fittings of stcel
watcr pipelincs installcd undcrground or undcrwatcr under normal construction condttions.
Theepoxy coatings arcsuitcd for corrosion prevcntion in potable water systems optrating at References
temperatures up to 140°F (60°C).
Fusion-bonded cpoxy coatings arc heat activated, chcmically curcd coating systcrns. I Control of External Corroston on Under- 7. Tcst for Bcndab~llt\of l'lpcllnc Coattnps.
The epoxy coatings arc furnished in powder form. Except for wcldcd field joints, they are ground or Suhmcrped hlctalle Ppng ASTM Standard GIO-77 ASTht. Phlla-
S\stcms NACE Standard RP-01-69. drlyhta. Pa (1977)
planr- or shop-applicd to prchcatcd pipe, special sections, conncctions, and fittings using ACE. Houston, Tcxn (1983 rcriston). 8. Test for Effccts of Outdoor Ecarhcrtng
fluid bed, air, or electrostatic spray. 2 Test for Gthod~cD~sbondlngof Pipeline on Ptpcl~ncCoatlnp~ASTM Standard
A I W " C214, S t a n d a r d for T a p c Coating Systems for thc Extcrior of Steel Guttnps ASTht Standard G8-79 AST.CI. GI 1-i9 AST.\l. Phtladelphta. Pa i1979).
W a t e r Pipelines. AWWA C214'8covers thc materials, thc systems, and the avvlication Phtladclph~a.Pa (1979) 9 Tcst for lmpact Rcrtrtanrc of Pqxlmc
.- 3 Test for Water Pcnctratlon Inlo Ptpellnc Coatlnp (L~mcstonc DropTest) ASTM
rcquircmcnts for prefabricated cold-applied tapes for the cxtcrror of all diameters of stccl Cont~ngsASTM Standard G9-77 AS'TM, Standard GI)-77 ASTM, Philadelphia,
watcr pipe placcd by mcchanical qcans. For normal construction conditions, ~refabricatcd Phdadclphta, Pa (1977) Pa I 1977)
cold-applied t a p s arc applicd as a thrcc-layer system consisting of (I) primcr, (2) corrosion 4 Test for Dt<hondlng Charactcr~sricsof 10. Test for lmpan Rcwtancc of Plpcltnc
preventive tape (inncr laycr), and (3) mcchantcal protcctivc tapc (outer Iaycr). The primcr is Plpcltnc Coaltnps b! D t r ~ So11t Rurlal. Cnatlnpr (Talllnp Ec~ghtTest) ASTM
ASTht Standard G19-77 ASTh!, Phtla- Standard G14-77 ASTM, Ph~ladclphta,
supplied in the form of a liquid consisting or solid ingredients carried in a solvent. The dclph~a.Pa (1977) Pa 1977)
corrosion prcvcntivc tape and thc mcchanical protecttvc tape arc supplied in suirablc 5 Test for Chcmical Rcwmncc of Ptpel~nc I I Tcst for Pcncrratton Rcrt<tanrcof Ptpellne
thrcknesses and in roll form. Thc standard covers application at coating plants. Coat~ngs ASTM Standard G20-77. Cnatlnps Blunt Rod) ASTM Standard
AS 1'.\1. Phtladelrh~a.Pa 119i7) GIi.77 .%ST,\!. Phdadclrh~a.Pa,1977).
AWWA C602, S t a n d a r d f o r Ccmcnt-Atortar LiningoTWatcr P i p e l i n e s 4 In. 12 (>&Tar Protcctnc Cnatrnp~and Ltntng~
6 Test for Ahratton Rcwrancc of Plpcllnc
(100 nim) and Largcr-In Place. A\T\Y'A C0OZiP descrlhcs thc matcrlals and ( h t t n p , 4\ 1 \1 \randard C6-77 AS7'hl. for Ftrrl Walcr Plprl~nr--tnamcl and
arpltcartnn proccsccs for thc cement-mortar Itnlng of ptycltncs rn ~ I ~ T c covering
. hlrh I'hnlaJ<lphtd. I'a I l')i?l Tare-llw 4rrllcJ .\\VIVA Ftandirrd
 C203-78. AU'WA. Dcnvcr, Colo. (1978).
13. Chlorlnatcd Rubkr-Alkyd hint Sprcm
for the Ehter~orof Ahovcground Stcel
U'atcr Prpmg. AU'WA Standard C204-
75. AU'WA, Dcnver, 610, (1975).
18. Tape (hating S>stcnnfor thc Extcr~orof
Srccl U'atcr P ~ p c l ~ m
AU'
. U'A Standard
C214-83 AU'WA, Dcnrcr. Colo. (1983).
19. Gmcnt-Mortar Lining of Watcr Prpe-
lines-4 in. (100 mm) and Larger-in
I
AWWA MANUAL
0
14. Gmcnt-Monar Protcctivc Lining and ha.AWBA Standard Cfa2-63. AU'WA, f
Cortlng for Stccl Water Rpe-4 in. and Denver, Colo. (1983). i
Lnrgcr-Shop Appliid. AUU'A Standard 20. Good Puinrin~fiucriw-Volumc I. Sw-
C205-80. AU'WA, Dcnvcr, 610. (1980). rcmr and Spcrj~cur~nr-Volumc2. Stccl I
15. Cold-Applied Tipc CMtings for the Structures hinting htmual. Steel Struc- I
i
Exterior of Special Sections, Connections, turn Painting Cauncil, P~ttshurgh.Pa.
and FIIII~CS for Stel Water Pipelines. 21. Purnr ,Munuul. US BUREC, Iknwr. i
AUXA Standard C209-84. AU'BA, Calo. (an~iahlcfrom US Cmvcrnmrnt
Dcnvcr. Colo (1984). Printing Office. \ra\hinpron. D.C.).
16 Liqu~dEpoxy Coating Systcms for the
Interior and Extcrior of Stcel U'atcr
Plpelrncs. AWWA Standard CZIO-84.
AU'U'A. Dcnver, Colo. (1984).
17 Fusion-Bonded Epoxy Coating for the
Interlor and Exterior of Stcel Water
Chapter 12
Prycl~ncs.AUTA Standard C213-79.
AU'U'A, Dcnvcr, 6 1 0 . (1979).

Transportation,
Installation, and Testing
7 h c Jctatlcd proccdurcs for transportmg, trenching, laytng. hackfilling. and testing any
stccl pipline dcpcnd on many controlling factors, including the character and purpose of
the line; its size, operating prcssure, and operating conditions; its location-urban,
suburban, or rural; and the tcrrain over which it is laid-flat, rolling, or mountainous.
Procedures also are affected by trcnch dcpth, character of the soil, and hackfill.
This chaptcr briefly discusses a nurnhcr of the more common requirements of
installation. omitting precise dctatls that vary in individual installations. Throughout the
chaptcr, the importance of thc engineering proprtics of the soil being cxcavatcd and the soil
that \vd1 be used for hackfill should he kept in mind. Thc principles of soil mechanics
properly applied toexcavation and backfill practices lcad to safer working conditions and to
bcttcr and morc cconomtcal pipclinc tnstal~ations.'.~

12.1 TRANSPORTATION AND HANDLING OF COATED

STEEL PIPE
Lincd and coatcd stccl pipc is rcadily transyortcd h! truck, rail, or ship and has k e n
rucces~fullytran*portcd to all parts of the United Statcs and to othcr parts of the world.
Rcgardlcss of whtch mode of transprratton is uicd, lined and coatcd stccl p i p is valuahlc
cargo and should hc handled as such

M o d e s of Transportation
Kcqutrcmcnts for packaging, itoutng, and restraining ptpc during transit dcpcnd on the
mirfc of transportation.
Hail. Flat rarlroad car\ can hc loadrd to approxtmatcly 17 It ahmc thc top of thc rail
and to c14rht id 10 It ( b r r arc normalh a\ arlnblr lor \hrpprng 40.. M)-. or 80-li Icngths of
p r r 1'1w br rc\~r.trncdor1 thr ~m thrw~gliu*c of*t.~kclwckctr or tnadc Into f l o ~ r ~ n g
 C203-78. AU'WA. Dcnvcr, Colo. (1978).
13. Chlorlnatcd Rubkr-Alkyd hint Sprcm
for the Ehter~orof Ahovcground Stcel
U'atcr Prpmg. AU'WA Standard C204-
75. AU'WA, Dcnver, 610, (1975).
18. Tape (hating S>stcnnfor thc Extcr~orof
Srccl U'atcr P ~ p c l ~ m
AU'
. U'A Standard
C214-83 AU'WA, Dcnrcr. Colo. (1983).
19. Gmcnt-Mortar Lining of Watcr Prpe-
lines-4 in. (100 mm) and Larger-in
I
AWWA MANUAL
0
14. Gmcnt-Monar Protcctivc Lining and ha.AWBA Standard Cfa2-63. AU'WA, f
Cortlng for Stccl Water Rpe-4 in. and Denver, Colo. (1983). i
Lnrgcr-Shop Appliid. AUU'A Standard 20. Good Puinrin~fiucriw-Volumc I. Sw-
C205-80. AU'WA, Dcnvcr, 610. (1980). rcmr and Spcrj~cur~nr-Volumc2. Stccl I
15. Cold-Applied Tipc CMtings for the Structures hinting htmual. Steel Struc- I
i
Exterior of Special Sections, Connections, turn Painting Cauncil, P~ttshurgh.Pa.
and FIIII~CS for Stel Water Pipelines. 21. Purnr ,Munuul. US BUREC, Iknwr. i
AUXA Standard C209-84. AU'BA, Calo. (an~iahlcfrom US Cmvcrnmrnt
Dcnvcr. Colo (1984). Printing Office. \ra\hinpron. D.C.).
16 Liqu~dEpoxy Coating Systcms for the
Interior and Extcrior of Stcel U'atcr
Plpelrncs. AWWA Standard CZIO-84.
AU'U'A. Dcnver, Colo. (1984).
17 Fusion-Bonded Epoxy Coating for the
Interlor and Exterior of Stcel Water
Chapter 12
Prycl~ncs.AUTA Standard C213-79.
AU'U'A, Dcnvcr, 6 1 0 . (1979).

Transportation,
Installation, and Testing
7 h c Jctatlcd proccdurcs for transportmg, trenching, laytng. hackfilling. and testing any
stccl pipline dcpcnd on many controlling factors, including the character and purpose of
the line; its size, operating prcssure, and operating conditions; its location-urban,
suburban, or rural; and the tcrrain over which it is laid-flat, rolling, or mountainous.
Procedures also are affected by trcnch dcpth, character of the soil, and hackfill.
This chaptcr briefly discusses a nurnhcr of the more common requirements of
installation. omitting precise dctatls that vary in individual installations. Throughout the
chaptcr, the importance of thc engineering proprtics of the soil being cxcavatcd and the soil
that \vd1 be used for hackfill should he kept in mind. Thc principles of soil mechanics
properly applied toexcavation and backfill practices lcad to safer working conditions and to
bcttcr and morc cconomtcal pipclinc tnstal~ations.'.~

12.1 TRANSPORTATION AND HANDLING OF COATED

STEEL PIPE
Lincd and coatcd stccl pipc is rcadily transyortcd h! truck, rail, or ship and has k e n
rucces~fullytran*portcd to all parts of the United Statcs and to othcr parts of the world.
Rcgardlcss of whtch mode of transprratton is uicd, lined and coatcd stccl p i p is valuahlc
cargo and should hc handled as such

M o d e s of Transportation
Kcqutrcmcnts for packaging, itoutng, and restraining ptpc during transit dcpcnd on the
mirfc of transportation.
Hail. Flat rarlroad car\ can hc loadrd to approxtmatcly 17 It ahmc thc top of thc rail
and to c14rht id 10 It ( b r r arc normalh a\ arlnblr lor \hrpprng 40.. M)-. or 80-li Icngths of
p r r 1'1w br rc\~r.trncdor1 thr ~m thrw~gliu*c of*t.~kclwckctr or tnadc Into f l o ~ r ~ n g
122 STEEL PIPE
loads in accordance with current Associarion of American Ratlroads rules. An InSpcCtOr
from the railroad will check each car for propcr loading hcforc acccptrng it for shipment.
Water. Constant pitching and rollingmorions should be anttcipatcd for prpstowcd
aboard ships. Small pipe must be packagcd,and large pipe must bc srowcd in cuch a manner
to ride with or offset the pitching and rolling motion. Adequate padded timbers or similar
barricrs must be uscd to keep pipe from rubbing together. In many caws, flat racks or
containers can be uscd. Air bags can help prevent pipe shifting instde the container. The
surveyor who is commonly responsible for checking loading arrangcmcnts should make
ccrtain that alldock and ship handling cquipment isapproved for useon coatcd ptpe. Pipe is
normally shipped on a cubic-foot freight basis. The feasibility of nesting smallcr diameter
pipe inside larger pipe to reduce freight costs should be investigated; howcvcr,such nesting
must bc padded to ensure that lining and coating intcgrity is maintained.
Truck. Most coated pipe is carried on flat-bed trucks and trailers directly to the job
site. This one-time handling between shipper and customer avords damage comctimes
cncountercd by multiple loading and unloading. The shrpper should caurion thc trucking
firms against usc of tie-down cquipment that could injure the coating.
Air. Delivery of the pipe to distant srtcs can be expedited by airplane, and dclrvery
into orherwise inaccessible locations may require cargo helicopters. The atr carrter should
be contacted toobtain maximum length, width, height, and weight limttations for the route
involved. Generally, the carriers will rcquirc pipc to be strapped dtrcctly to pallets suirable
for handling.
Loading and unloading. Loads should be prepared in a manner that wrll protect
the lincd and coatcd pipe. Sufficient stringers should bc used to laycr thc pipe without
placing roo much load on a single bearing point. Where plain-end pipe is berng shipped,
consideration should be given to a pyramid load with the full length of pipe resting on
adjacent pipe. Interior stulls should be uscd where the pipc wall is too light to matntain
roundness during shipment. Contoured blocks may be necessary to give proper s u p p r t to
some loads. Pipe should not be allowcd to roll or fall from the conveyance to the ground.
Handling equipment. Both loading and unloading of coatcd pipc should be
performed with equipment that will not damagc the pipecoating. Approved cquipment for
handling coatcd pipe includes nylon strap, wide canvas or paddcd slings, wide padded
forks, and skids designed to prevent damagc to the coating. Unpaddcd chains, sharp edgcs
on buckets, wire ropes, narrow forks, hooks, and metal ban arc unacceptable.
Stringing. If the pipe is to be distributed along the right-of-way in rock or gravelly
terrain, both ends (at about one-quarter length from the ends) should bc laid on padded
rood blocks, sandbags, mounds of sand, or othcr suitable supports to protect the pipe
coating.
12.2 TRENCHING
Depth
Trenches should be dug to grade as shown in the profile. Whcre no profile is provtdcd, the
minimum cover should be generally selected to protect the pipe safely from transient loads
where the climate is mild and shouldtk dctermined by the dcpth ofthc frost linc In frcczing
climates. The profile should be selected to minimize high points uherc atr may be trapped.
Dcpth of trench in city streets may be governed by existing utilities or othcr condttrons.
Width
W'hcrc the sides ofthc trench wrll afford rcasonahlc side support, the trcnch width that must
be matntarncd at the top of the p r p , regardlcsr of the dcpth of cxcavatron, 15 the narroucct
practical wrdth that wrll allow propcr dcn~rficarionof prpe-7onc heddrng and ha~kfill
marcrinl\. If the rrdec of the trench rcmarn \crtrcal aftcr euca\arron, and rf hcddln~and
hackfill arc to beconsolidated by hydraulic methods, then the minrmum trench wrdth at the
top of the p i p should be pipe O D plus 20 in. If the pipe-zone bedding and backfill require
dcnstfication by compaction, the width of the trcnch at the bottom of the pipe shouid be
dctermined by the space required for the proper and cffcctivc use of tamping- equipment.
. .
but it should never bc less than pipe O D plus 20 in.
K'hcn mechanical joints arc assembled on pipc in the trcnch, bell holcs must be
provided at each joint and holcscxcavated to permit removal of the slings without damagc to
the pipe coating. In ordcr to avoid imposing excessive external loads on the pipe, the trcnch
width should be kept to the minimum width consistent with the backfill-compaction
equipment and the type of joint uscd.
Bottom Preparation
Flat-hottom trenches should be cxcavatcd to a depth of a minimum of 2 in. below the
establtshcd grade line of the outside bottom of thc prpe. The excess excavation should then
he filled wtth loose marcrial from which all stones and hard lumps have been removed. The
loose subgrade matcrial should be graded untformly to the establtshcd grade linc for the full
length of the p i p . Steel pipe should not be set on rtgrd hlocks on the trench bottom that
would causeconccntration of the load on small areas of ptpccoaringor cause deformationof
the pipe wall.
Where the bottom of rhc trench is covered with solid, hard objects that might penetrate
the prorcctivc coating, a bedding of crushed rock or sand, 3-6 in. thick, should be placed
under the barrel of the pipe. Screened earth also has been uscd successfully for such a
hcddrng, whcrc it will remain dry during pipc installation and backfill. It may be
advantageous to shape the trcnch bottom under large steel pipe for full arc contact.
Overexcavation and Special Subgrade Densification
When required hy the specifications, the trench should he excavated to a depth of at least 6
rn bclow the bottom of the pipc (Figures 12-1 and 12-2) where the trcnch bottom is
unstable,or where it includes organic matcrials,or whcre the subgradc is cornpoxdofrock
or other hard and unyielding materials. The overescavation should be r c p l a ~ dwith
well-dcnsified material to a dcpth of approximately 2 In. bclow the bottom of the pipe, and
the remaining suhgrade should be complctcd with loose material, as shoun in Figum 12-1
and 12-2. Voids formed by the removal of boulders and othcr large interfering objects
estending below normal excavation limits should be refilled with matcrial as dcscrrbed
above.
Regulations
All appltcable local, state. and federal laws and regulations should hc carefully ohsewed
includrng those relating to the prorcction of cscavatrons, the safety of persons working
theretn, and provision of the required barricrs, stgns, and lights.
12.3 INSTALLATION OF PIPE
Handling and' Laying
Care srmtlar to that excrctsed during loading, tranrporttng, unloadtng,and stringingshould
bc ohwrved during installation of the ptpc in the trcnch. Dielectrically coatcd pipe may
rcqurre addittonal 'ipecial care when handled at rcmpcraturcc bclow that rccommcndcd by
the rnanufacrurer, or uhcn the coating temperature rr ahovc that recommcndcd by the
rnanufacrurer.
('oared prpc \hould not hc strung on rough ground when \torcd at the trcnch ritc, nor
,houlJ II be rolled on such a wrfacc Kollrng of cnatcJ .ehould hc pcrmittcd only uhcn
1111111 I ml\ .1rc h.rrc a n d rath arc pro\ dell nt1 u htrlt I,, rtdl thc n l a w t l \reel
122 STEEL PIPE
loads in accordance with current Associarion of American Ratlroads rules. An InSpcCtOr
from the railroad will check each car for propcr loading hcforc acccptrng it for shipment.
Water. Constant pitching and rollingmorions should be anttcipatcd for prpstowcd
aboard ships. Small pipe must be packagcd,and large pipe must bc srowcd in cuch a manner
to ride with or offset the pitching and rolling motion. Adequate padded timbers or similar
barricrs must be uscd to keep pipe from rubbing together. In many caws, flat racks or
containers can be uscd. Air bags can help prevent pipe shifting instde the container. The
surveyor who is commonly responsible for checking loading arrangcmcnts should make
ccrtain that alldock and ship handling cquipment isapproved for useon coatcd ptpe. Pipe is
normally shipped on a cubic-foot freight basis. The feasibility of nesting smallcr diameter
pipe inside larger pipe to reduce freight costs should be investigated; howcvcr,such nesting
must bc padded to ensure that lining and coating intcgrity is maintained.
Truck. Most coated pipe is carried on flat-bed trucks and trailers directly to the job
site. This one-time handling between shipper and customer avords damage comctimes
cncountercd by multiple loading and unloading. The shrpper should caurion thc trucking
firms against usc of tie-down cquipment that could injure the coating.
Air. Delivery of the pipe to distant srtcs can be expedited by airplane, and dclrvery
into orherwise inaccessible locations may require cargo helicopters. The atr carrter should
be contacted toobtain maximum length, width, height, and weight limttations for the route
involved. Generally, the carriers will rcquirc pipc to be strapped dtrcctly to pallets suirable
for handling.
Loading and unloading. Loads should be prepared in a manner that wrll protect
the lincd and coatcd pipe. Sufficient stringers should bc used to laycr thc pipe without
placing roo much load on a single bearing point. Where plain-end pipe is berng shipped,
consideration should be given to a pyramid load with the full length of pipe resting on
adjacent pipe. Interior stulls should be uscd where the pipc wall is too light to matntain
roundness during shipment. Contoured blocks may be necessary to give proper s u p p r t to
some loads. Pipe should not be allowcd to roll or fall from the conveyance to the ground.
Handling equipment. Both loading and unloading of coatcd pipc should be
performed with equipment that will not damagc the pipecoating. Approved cquipment for
handling coatcd pipe includes nylon strap, wide canvas or paddcd slings, wide padded
forks, and skids designed to prevent damagc to the coating. Unpaddcd chains, sharp edgcs
on buckets, wire ropes, narrow forks, hooks, and metal ban arc unacceptable.
Stringing. If the pipe is to be distributed along the right-of-way in rock or gravelly
terrain, both ends (at about one-quarter length from the ends) should bc laid on padded
rood blocks, sandbags, mounds of sand, or othcr suitable supports to protect the pipe
coating.
12.2 TRENCHING
Depth
Trenches should be dug to grade as shown in the profile. Whcre no profile is provtdcd, the
minimum cover should be generally selected to protect the pipe safely from transient loads
where the climate is mild and shouldtk dctermined by the dcpth ofthc frost linc In frcczing
climates. The profile should be selected to minimize high points uherc atr may be trapped.
Dcpth of trench in city streets may be governed by existing utilities or othcr condttrons.
Width
W'hcrc the sides ofthc trench wrll afford rcasonahlc side support, the trcnch width that must
be matntarncd at the top of the p r p , regardlcsr of the dcpth of cxcavatron, 15 the narroucct
practical wrdth that wrll allow propcr dcn~rficarionof prpe-7onc heddrng and ha~kfill
marcrinl\. If the rrdec of the trench rcmarn \crtrcal aftcr euca\arron, and rf hcddln~and
hackfill arc to beconsolidated by hydraulic methods, then the minrmum trench wrdth at the
top of the p i p should be pipe O D plus 20 in. If the pipe-zone bedding and backfill require
dcnstfication by compaction, the width of the trcnch at the bottom of the pipe shouid be
dctermined by the space required for the proper and cffcctivc use of tamping- equipment.
. .
but it should never bc less than pipe O D plus 20 in.
K'hcn mechanical joints arc assembled on pipc in the trcnch, bell holcs must be
provided at each joint and holcscxcavated to permit removal of the slings without damagc to
the pipe coating. In ordcr to avoid imposing excessive external loads on the pipe, the trcnch
width should be kept to the minimum width consistent with the backfill-compaction
equipment and the type of joint uscd.
Bottom Preparation
Flat-hottom trenches should be cxcavatcd to a depth of a minimum of 2 in. below the
establtshcd grade line of the outside bottom of thc prpe. The excess excavation should then
he filled wtth loose marcrial from which all stones and hard lumps have been removed. The
loose subgrade matcrial should be graded untformly to the establtshcd grade linc for the full
length of the p i p . Steel pipe should not be set on rtgrd hlocks on the trench bottom that
would causeconccntration of the load on small areas of ptpccoaringor cause deformationof
the pipe wall.
Where the bottom of rhc trench is covered with solid, hard objects that might penetrate
the prorcctivc coating, a bedding of crushed rock or sand, 3-6 in. thick, should be placed
under the barrel of the pipe. Screened earth also has been uscd successfully for such a
hcddrng, whcrc it will remain dry during pipc installation and backfill. It may be
advantageous to shape the trcnch bottom under large steel pipe for full arc contact.
Overexcavation and Special Subgrade Densification
When required hy the specifications, the trench should he excavated to a depth of at least 6
rn bclow the bottom of the pipc (Figures 12-1 and 12-2) where the trcnch bottom is
unstable,or where it includes organic matcrials,or whcre the subgradc is cornpoxdofrock
or other hard and unyielding materials. The overescavation should be r c p l a ~ dwith
well-dcnsified material to a dcpth of approximately 2 In. bclow the bottom of the pipe, and
the remaining suhgrade should be complctcd with loose material, as shoun in Figum 12-1
and 12-2. Voids formed by the removal of boulders and othcr large interfering objects
estending below normal excavation limits should be refilled with matcrial as dcscrrbed
above.
Regulations
All appltcable local, state. and federal laws and regulations should hc carefully ohsewed
includrng those relating to the prorcction of cscavatrons, the safety of persons working
theretn, and provision of the required barricrs, stgns, and lights.
12.3 INSTALLATION OF PIPE
Handling and' Laying
Care srmtlar to that excrctsed during loading, tranrporttng, unloadtng,and stringingshould
bc ohwrved during installation of the ptpc in the trcnch. Dielectrically coatcd pipe may
rcqurre addittonal 'ipecial care when handled at rcmpcraturcc bclow that rccommcndcd by
the rnanufacrurer, or uhcn the coating temperature rr ahovc that recommcndcd by the
rnanufacrurer.
('oared prpc \hould not hc strung on rough ground when \torcd at the trcnch ritc, nor
,houlJ II be rolled on such a wrfacc Kollrng of cnatcJ .ehould hc pcrmittcd only uhcn
1111111 I ml\ .1rc h.rrc a n d rath arc pro\ dell nt1 u htrlt I,, rtdl thc n l a w t l \reel
I24 . Sl'ElX. l'll'l~ TRANSPOHTATIOS. ISSTAt.I.A'rION. TESTING 125

Table 12-1 Comparison of Standard Density Tests*

E
t
EMBANKMENT TRENCH j Cnmpacttw Encrgy pcr Volume
I
SEE NOTE 58
i Tert JIWCU fr
1 Standard MSHTO (Standard honor) 12400
AAStTTO 799-74,' ASThl D698-78'
MINIMUM ,SEE NOTE 5 , ii hlcthaf A
Alcrhod B
hlcrhaf C
12400
12300
12400
2 IN LOOSE MATERIAL hlcthod D 12 300
AlaflfKd AASHTO ((hod~ficdProctor) 56 250
AASHTO T18574 ASTM Dl557-iR1"
I
TRENCH WIDTH
9SEESEC 12 1 2 %
Alcthod A
Mcthod B
33 750
33 600
Alclhod C 33 750
Figure 12-1 Densified Pipe Zone Bedding and Backfill hlcthod D 53 600
AST.\l D1557-70"
htcthod A 56 250
.\lctW B 56 000
hlcthod C 56 250
.\lcrhcii D 56 000

-SEENOTE 5, *Satunl in-plxc J c p ~ t sof w~lshave dcmltm from 60 percent to 100 pcrccnr of maxlmum obtained br the standard
AASHTO compaction method. There arc a! kart l\rrecognized density 1cits vhau comyctw tncrg~per uni; rolumc varies
from 12400lo 56 250 f14b/cu ft, and the designer should be sure that the &' valw uwd ~ndcsign n constctcnt u,ith this spcorwd
HI ,SEE NOTE 4 1
dcgrcc dmmpan~onand mcrhod of t ~ r ~ that n g wrll hc uxd during mnstruction.
MINIMUM ,SEE NOTE

2 IN. LOOSE MATERIA

While handling and placing pipe in the m n c h , fabrrc slings should be used. The pipe
BIN.MINIMUM should not k dragged along the bottom ofthe trench or humped. It should be supported by
WELL-DENSIFIED MATERI the sling while preparing to make the joint. The coating on the underside ofthe pipe should
TRENCH WIDTH 1
I,SEE SEC. 12 121
be inspected while it is suspended from the sling, and any visible damage to the coating
should be repaired before loutring the pipe into the trench.
Figure 12-2 Special Subgrade Densification Pipe should k laid to lines and grades shown on the contract drawings and
specifications, c x m p where modified by the manufacturer's detailed layout drawings or
laying schedule, all as approwd by the engineer. All fittings and appurtenances should be at
NOTES TO FIGURES 12-1 AND 12-2 the required locations, and all valve stems and hydrant barrels should be plumb. The pipe
1. Soil densities are expressed as a percentage of maximum dry soil density as determtned by trench should be kept free from water that could rmpair the integrity of bedding and joining
AASHTO T993 I Standard Proctorl or ASTM 06984. operations. On grades exceeding 10 percent, the p ~ p should
e be laid uphill or otherwise held
2 Class C1. C2. and C3 backfills require that the contractor prepare a lirm but yielding subgrade. in place by methods approved by the engineer.
3 Well-densified materlal shall conlorm lo the followinorelative drvdensil~es as a Dercenlaqe of the Special means of supporting the pipe may be provided, but undcr noconditions should
~ a b o r a t ostandard
r~ maximumdry soil dens~lyas determ&d by A A S ~ T993O forcompacled. ioheswe
SOlIS' pipe scct~onsbe installed permanently on timbers, earth mounds, pilcbents, or other similar
supports unless specific pipe designs for these special conditions have been provided by the
Specrf~edBeddtng Class --
Dry Dens~ty engineer.
Slight dcflectrons for horizontal and vertical angle points, long radius curves, or
Cl 95%
alignment corrections may k made by unsymmetrical closure of joints. The manufacturer
should furn~shdata to the engineer and the contractor ind~catingmaximum joinioffscts and
., deflections for each type of iomt furnished.
For free-drain~ngsolls, the relative denslty shall be at leasl 70 percent as determtned by ASTM
02049-695 twlthdrawn, replaced by ASTM D4253-836 and ASTM 4254-8371 Comparallve sot! denstty Assembly of Pipe
lests are shown tn Table 12-1.
4 P ~ p zone
e backfdl hetghl over lop ol ptpe H!I shall be 12 tn m~nlmumfor pope d~ameterlarger than Pipe larger than 24 in. in diameter is normally asmnhled in the trench except undcr the
24 In and 6 in m~nlmumlor p ~ p ed~ameler24 In or less mo'ct unusual condtttons. Smaller-diameter pipe joined by welding or couplings may be
5 Stde slODeS shall be a mtnlmum of U 1 or as requlred by OSHA. other safety orders, or by the Solls asscmhlcd above ground in practicable lengths for handling and then lowxed into the
cngtneer
6 F~gures12-1 and 12-2 represent Class C beddlng as Shown In ASCE Manual No 378 WPCF Manual trcnch h\ rurtablc mcans. wh~challows progrcssttc lowcr~ngofthcasscmhlcd run o f p p if
ol Pracl~ce9. see relrrence 8 the method of awmhltng pipcahrcground prior tolo\rcrtng 11 tntothc ~rcnchI\ uwd.care
I24 . Sl'ElX. l'll'l~ TRANSPOHTATIOS. ISSTAt.I.A'rION. TESTING 125

Table 12-1 Comparison of Standard Density Tests*

E
t
EMBANKMENT TRENCH j Cnmpacttw Encrgy pcr Volume
I
SEE NOTE 58
i Tert JIWCU fr
1 Standard MSHTO (Standard honor) 12400
AAStTTO 799-74,' ASThl D698-78'
MINIMUM ,SEE NOTE 5 , ii hlcthaf A
Alcrhod B
hlcrhaf C
12400
12300
12400
2 IN LOOSE MATERIAL hlcthod D 12 300
AlaflfKd AASHTO ((hod~ficdProctor) 56 250
AASHTO T18574 ASTM Dl557-iR1"
I
TRENCH WIDTH
9SEESEC 12 1 2 %
Alcthod A
Mcthod B
33 750
33 600
Alclhod C 33 750
Figure 12-1 Densified Pipe Zone Bedding and Backfill hlcthod D 53 600
AST.\l D1557-70"
htcthod A 56 250
.\lctW B 56 000
hlcthod C 56 250
.\lcrhcii D 56 000

-SEENOTE 5, *Satunl in-plxc J c p ~ t sof w~lshave dcmltm from 60 percent to 100 pcrccnr of maxlmum obtained br the standard
AASHTO compaction method. There arc a! kart l\rrecognized density 1cits vhau comyctw tncrg~per uni; rolumc varies
from 12400lo 56 250 f14b/cu ft, and the designer should be sure that the &' valw uwd ~ndcsign n constctcnt u,ith this spcorwd
HI ,SEE NOTE 4 1
dcgrcc dmmpan~onand mcrhod of t ~ r ~ that n g wrll hc uxd during mnstruction.
MINIMUM ,SEE NOTE

2 IN. LOOSE MATERIA

While handling and placing pipe in the m n c h , fabrrc slings should be used. The pipe
BIN.MINIMUM should not k dragged along the bottom ofthe trench or humped. It should be supported by
WELL-DENSIFIED MATERI the sling while preparing to make the joint. The coating on the underside ofthe pipe should
TRENCH WIDTH 1
I,SEE SEC. 12 121
be inspected while it is suspended from the sling, and any visible damage to the coating
should be repaired before loutring the pipe into the trench.
Figure 12-2 Special Subgrade Densification Pipe should k laid to lines and grades shown on the contract drawings and
specifications, c x m p where modified by the manufacturer's detailed layout drawings or
laying schedule, all as approwd by the engineer. All fittings and appurtenances should be at
NOTES TO FIGURES 12-1 AND 12-2 the required locations, and all valve stems and hydrant barrels should be plumb. The pipe
1. Soil densities are expressed as a percentage of maximum dry soil density as determtned by trench should be kept free from water that could rmpair the integrity of bedding and joining
AASHTO T993 I Standard Proctorl or ASTM 06984. operations. On grades exceeding 10 percent, the p ~ p should
e be laid uphill or otherwise held
2 Class C1. C2. and C3 backfills require that the contractor prepare a lirm but yielding subgrade. in place by methods approved by the engineer.
3 Well-densified materlal shall conlorm lo the followinorelative drvdensil~es as a Dercenlaqe of the Special means of supporting the pipe may be provided, but undcr noconditions should
~ a b o r a t ostandard
r~ maximumdry soil dens~lyas determ&d by A A S ~ T993O forcompacled. ioheswe
SOlIS' pipe scct~onsbe installed permanently on timbers, earth mounds, pilcbents, or other similar
supports unless specific pipe designs for these special conditions have been provided by the
Specrf~edBeddtng Class --
Dry Dens~ty engineer.
Slight dcflectrons for horizontal and vertical angle points, long radius curves, or
Cl 95%
alignment corrections may k made by unsymmetrical closure of joints. The manufacturer
should furn~shdata to the engineer and the contractor ind~catingmaximum joinioffscts and
., deflections for each type of iomt furnished.
For free-drain~ngsolls, the relative denslty shall be at leasl 70 percent as determtned by ASTM
02049-695 twlthdrawn, replaced by ASTM D4253-836 and ASTM 4254-8371 Comparallve sot! denstty Assembly of Pipe
lests are shown tn Table 12-1.
4 P ~ p zone
e backfdl hetghl over lop ol ptpe H!I shall be 12 tn m~nlmumfor pope d~ameterlarger than Pipe larger than 24 in. in diameter is normally asmnhled in the trench except undcr the
24 In and 6 in m~nlmumlor p ~ p ed~ameler24 In or less mo'ct unusual condtttons. Smaller-diameter pipe joined by welding or couplings may be
5 Stde slODeS shall be a mtnlmum of U 1 or as requlred by OSHA. other safety orders, or by the Solls asscmhlcd above ground in practicable lengths for handling and then lowxed into the
cngtneer
6 F~gures12-1 and 12-2 represent Class C beddlng as Shown In ASCE Manual No 378 WPCF Manual trcnch h\ rurtablc mcans. wh~challows progrcssttc lowcr~ngofthcasscmhlcd run o f p p if
ol Pracl~ce9. see relrrence 8 the method of awmhltng pipcahrcground prior tolo\rcrtng 11 tntothc ~rcnchI\ uwd.care
must be takcn to limit the dcgrccofcurvaturc of the pipc during the loucrtngopcration soas
to not exceed the yrcld strcngth of the pipe matcrial and/or damage the lining or coattng
materials on the prpe. Pipe dcflcction at any joint should he I~mitcdto the manufacturer's
rccommcndationduring the louwingoperation. Pipe that hac O-ring rubhcr gaskctc asscals
must he asscmblcd section by section in the trcnch.
Trestle and ring-girder construction is often used for hiphuay, rncr, and sinitlar
crossrngs. Generally, such installation prcscnts no unusual prohlrmc, provtding thrcc
principal requircmcnts arc met for the field-wcldcd spansi2
Thc ccntcrlinc of the pipe sections is maintained in propcr altgnment \vIicn they are
tacked lor wclding.
* Correct wclding procedures and compctcnt wcldtng opcraton are cmplo)cd to cnwrc
that the wcldcd joint will bc ac strong as the ctccl In the y ~ p c . ~ '
B o w or hcnds in the pipe caused hy dircct rays from the w n arc prcventcd. (Thiscan
be achicved by providing a sun \hield over thc ptpc )
When pipe is installed on the dccks of highway hridgcc, tad~llesarcgcncrally uscd to
support thc pipc at proper intervals and hold-down clamps arc provtdcd as rcquircd.
Usually the only expansion joints nccdcd for ncldcd pipe are thosc that occur where thc
brtdgc contains an cxpanrion joint in its construction. Stccl ptpe is also often rucpendcd
from or attached to the undcrstdc of existing highway brtdpcs, uith a p p p r i a t c attention
given to the flcxibilityofthc bridge's structurc. Exposed prpclincs In any Iocatlon .ihould be
protected against frcezing in areas whcre such a possibility cxtsts
Field-Welded Joints
Tcchnical rcquirements for good ficld wclding arc contained in A\X'\VA C206, Standard for
Field K'cldtng of Stccl Water Pipe." Practical data for ficld use have hccn publ~shcd.'~ If
pipe that has bcen lrned and coated is to bc field u*cldcd,aphort kngth ofthc pipe barrel at
cithrr cnd must he left barc so that the heat ofthc wcldrng operation will not advcnelyaffcct
the protectnc coating. The length of the unprotcctcd scctton may vary dcpcnding on the
kind of protective coating and pipe wall thickncss. Care must be excrciccd whcn cutting and
wclding on pipes with combustible linings and coatings to avoid the risks of fire.
Following completion of the wcld, the gaps in the lining and coating must hc filled,
normally with the same material as that uscd for the pipe. For p i p 24 in. in diamcter and
larger, the loints should be rcpaired from the inside. Where workcrs mu\t cntcr the pipc to
complete the lining, proper ventilation must bc providcd. Joints in pipe smaller than 24 in.
should be repaired from theoutside by means ofhandholcs. In the case of mortar-lined pipe.
the joints may be rcpaircd hy placing mortar on the lining at the hcll cnd of thc unasscnihlcd
pipe,stabbing the pipe,and then pulling an inflated ball through the ioint. Outsidccoatings
of pipc jornts can beeasily accomplished aftcr wclding for anydiamctcr pipeor any coating
system uscd.
'She usc of welded joints results in a rigid pipeline. This stiffness provides a
considerable advantage whcre long, unsupportcd spansarc rcqutrcd It ie alcoadvantagcous
in restratning c1bou.s in soils of low bearing capacity.
W'eldcd joints are capable of retirting thrusts causcd hy clocrd val\-csor hy changes in
drrcction of a pipeline. U'elded joints may be providcd to transmrt cuch thrusts over a
suffictcnt dtctancc toabsorb the forcc through skin friction provided by thc hackfill matcrtal
against the ptpe. In suchcascs, accurate computation ofthc thrust and strength of the wcld
must he madc, particularly for Iargcr pipc undcr high prcscurcc. to detcrminc if thc wcld is
tufficicntlv strong to transmit the forcc from one pipe scctton to the next.
Except during thc construction period whcn an opcn trcnch cxlcts. ptpc with wcldcd
joints uill wually ham no prohlems with exccc~ivcthcrmal c\pancron and contractron.
\Vhrrc ~mmrdiaterhndtng or hackfill of wcldcd-joint vccl pip- is irnlmctical. II I\ advt\able
to urld t h plr In \rr!ion\ n f a p p r o \ ~ m ~ t r4l N\ )to 500 Tt and Ira\ e ~ h end
c rmnt ~inarlJed.
as described in Sec. 8.6. If the final opcn joints arc thcn welded in the early morning hours
whcn the pipe is coolest, a mrnimum of temperature stress will occur in the pipeline.
Pipe laid on piers abovc the ground can be continuously wcldcd; howevct, it is
I
necessary to providc for thermal expansion and contraction.
i ~ e i l : a n d - ~ ~ iRubber-Casket
~ot Joints
Under normal laying conditions, work should procced with the bell end of the pipe facing
the direction of laying. Before setting the spigot in placc, the bell should be thoroughly
clcaned and thcn lubricated in accordance with the pipe manufacturer's recommendations.
After the O-ring rubber gasket has been placed in the spigot groove, it should be
adjusted so the tcnsion on the rubber is uniform around the circumfcrcncc of the joint.
Following'asscmbly, the pipe joint should be checked with a thin metal feeler gauge to
encure that proper gasket placement exists in the spigot groove and that the propcr amount
of jotnt lap has been achieved.
12.4 ANCHORS AND THRUST BLOCKS
The necessity for anchorsor thrust blocks arises at angle points, side outlcrs, and valves,and
on stccp slopes. The type of p i p ioint uscd influcnces the extent of anchortng necessary at
these pints.
All-welded ptpclines lard in trenches will ordinarily need no anchors or thrust blocks
except on extrcmcly stecp slopcs and at discontinuiries whcre thc pipe has been cut for
valves and appurtenances. An all-welded pipeline laid abovc ground on piers may be stable
whcn fillcd and undcr pressure, but may rcquirc heavy anchoragc at angle points and
particularly on stccp slopes to resist stresses arising from temperature changes when the
pipe 15empty.
When other types of joints arc used that have little or no ability to rcsist tcnsion, all of
thc previously mentioned crrtical points must be adequately blocked or anchored. In order
to provide resistance to thrust at angles in largc drameter pipelines, whether buried or
exposed, it is advisable to provide welded joints on cach stdc of the angle point, a distance
sufficient to resist the componenrs of the thrust. 't'ndcr high-pressure conditions, lap-
wcldcd field joints should bc analyzed for propcr strength close to valves and at large
dcncction anglcs.
Whcre pipc is laid on piers, antifriction material should separate the pipe from the
suppnrng structurc. Satisfactory practice is for 90-120 degrees of the pipe surface to be
made to hear on the pier. For p r p on piers, the chrun resultrng from an elbow orbcnd tends
to o\crturn the anchor pier.
Pipelines 1a1d on slopes, particularly above ground, always have a tendency to creep
downhill. It is necessary to provide anchor blocks placed against undisturhcd earth at
suflicicntly frequent intervals on a long, stecp s l o p to reduce the weight of pipe supprtcd
at cach anchoragc to a safe figure. Where pipc is locatcd in a position whcre disturbance of
thc trcnch is unlikcly,concrctc thrust blocks may be used to recict the lateral thrust. \'crttcal
angles with resultant thrust in a downward direction require no special treatment if the pipe
is lard on a firm and carefully trimmed trench bottom, but vertical angles wrth a resultant
thrust upward should k properly anchored.
Soil resistance t o thrust. A forcc causcd by thrust against soil, whcthcr applied
hori7ontally or vertically downuard, may causc consolidation and shcar stratnc in the soil,
allowing a thrust hlock to mow. Thc cafe load that a thrust hlock can transfcr toa gtvcn soil
dcpcnds on thc consoltdation rharactcristics and the passive rcristancc (shcar strcngth) of
that wnl.rhc amount ofhlwk movcmcni pcrmis<ihlc.the arra of the hlnck. and the dntancc
of forcc application hclou ground hnc hlcthod\ of caiculatlng pawvc rc*i\!anCc arc
.~\~ilablc " For dll Iinrk. Jrrarl mkulari~nwarc nccr*urv I h a on perini\\ihlo \oil Frrp (or
must be takcn to limit the dcgrccofcurvaturc of the pipc during the loucrtngopcration soas
to not exceed the yrcld strcngth of the pipe matcrial and/or damage the lining or coattng
materials on the prpe. Pipe dcflcction at any joint should he I~mitcdto the manufacturer's
rccommcndationduring the louwingoperation. Pipe that hac O-ring rubhcr gaskctc asscals
must he asscmblcd section by section in the trcnch.
Trestle and ring-girder construction is often used for hiphuay, rncr, and sinitlar
crossrngs. Generally, such installation prcscnts no unusual prohlrmc, provtding thrcc
principal requircmcnts arc met for the field-wcldcd spansi2
Thc ccntcrlinc of the pipe sections is maintained in propcr altgnment \vIicn they are
tacked lor wclding.
* Correct wclding procedures and compctcnt wcldtng opcraton are cmplo)cd to cnwrc
that the wcldcd joint will bc ac strong as the ctccl In the y ~ p c . ~ '
B o w or hcnds in the pipe caused hy dircct rays from the w n arc prcventcd. (Thiscan
be achicved by providing a sun \hield over thc ptpc )
When pipe is installed on the dccks of highway hridgcc, tad~llesarcgcncrally uscd to
support thc pipc at proper intervals and hold-down clamps arc provtdcd as rcquircd.
Usually the only expansion joints nccdcd for ncldcd pipe are thosc that occur where thc
brtdgc contains an cxpanrion joint in its construction. Stccl ptpe is also often rucpendcd
from or attached to the undcrstdc of existing highway brtdpcs, uith a p p p r i a t c attention
given to the flcxibilityofthc bridge's structurc. Exposed prpclincs In any Iocatlon .ihould be
protected against frcezing in areas whcre such a possibility cxtsts
Field-Welded Joints
Tcchnical rcquirements for good ficld wclding arc contained in A\X'\VA C206, Standard for
Field K'cldtng of Stccl Water Pipe." Practical data for ficld use have hccn publ~shcd.'~ If
pipe that has bcen lrned and coated is to bc field u*cldcd,aphort kngth ofthc pipe barrel at
cithrr cnd must he left barc so that the heat ofthc wcldrng operation will not advcnelyaffcct
the protectnc coating. The length of the unprotcctcd scctton may vary dcpcnding on the
kind of protective coating and pipe wall thickncss. Care must be excrciccd whcn cutting and
wclding on pipes with combustible linings and coatings to avoid the risks of fire.
Following completion of the wcld, the gaps in the lining and coating must hc filled,
normally with the same material as that uscd for the pipe. For p i p 24 in. in diamcter and
larger, the loints should be rcpaired from the inside. Where workcrs mu\t cntcr the pipc to
complete the lining, proper ventilation must bc providcd. Joints in pipe smaller than 24 in.
should be repaired from theoutside by means ofhandholcs. In the case of mortar-lined pipe.
the joints may be rcpaircd hy placing mortar on the lining at the hcll cnd of thc unasscnihlcd
pipe,stabbing the pipe,and then pulling an inflated ball through the ioint. Outsidccoatings
of pipc jornts can beeasily accomplished aftcr wclding for anydiamctcr pipeor any coating
system uscd.
'She usc of welded joints results in a rigid pipeline. This stiffness provides a
considerable advantage whcre long, unsupportcd spansarc rcqutrcd It ie alcoadvantagcous
in restratning c1bou.s in soils of low bearing capacity.
W'eldcd joints are capable of retirting thrusts causcd hy clocrd val\-csor hy changes in
drrcction of a pipeline. U'elded joints may be providcd to transmrt cuch thrusts over a
suffictcnt dtctancc toabsorb the forcc through skin friction provided by thc hackfill matcrtal
against the ptpe. In suchcascs, accurate computation ofthc thrust and strength of the wcld
must he madc, particularly for Iargcr pipc undcr high prcscurcc. to detcrminc if thc wcld is
tufficicntlv strong to transmit the forcc from one pipe scctton to the next.
Except during thc construction period whcn an opcn trcnch cxlcts. ptpc with wcldcd
joints uill wually ham no prohlems with exccc~ivcthcrmal c\pancron and contractron.
\Vhrrc ~mmrdiaterhndtng or hackfill of wcldcd-joint vccl pip- is irnlmctical. II I\ advt\able
to urld t h plr In \rr!ion\ n f a p p r o \ ~ m ~ t r4l N\ )to 500 Tt and Ira\ e ~ h end
c rmnt ~inarlJed.
as described in Sec. 8.6. If the final opcn joints arc thcn welded in the early morning hours
whcn the pipe is coolest, a mrnimum of temperature stress will occur in the pipeline.
Pipe laid on piers abovc the ground can be continuously wcldcd; howevct, it is
I
necessary to providc for thermal expansion and contraction.
i ~ e i l : a n d - ~ ~ iRubber-Casket
~ot Joints
Under normal laying conditions, work should procced with the bell end of the pipe facing
the direction of laying. Before setting the spigot in placc, the bell should be thoroughly
clcaned and thcn lubricated in accordance with the pipe manufacturer's recommendations.
After the O-ring rubber gasket has been placed in the spigot groove, it should be
adjusted so the tcnsion on the rubber is uniform around the circumfcrcncc of the joint.
Following'asscmbly, the pipe joint should be checked with a thin metal feeler gauge to
encure that proper gasket placement exists in the spigot groove and that the propcr amount
of jotnt lap has been achieved.
12.4 ANCHORS AND THRUST BLOCKS
The necessity for anchorsor thrust blocks arises at angle points, side outlcrs, and valves,and
on stccp slopes. The type of p i p ioint uscd influcnces the extent of anchortng necessary at
these pints.
All-welded ptpclines lard in trenches will ordinarily need no anchors or thrust blocks
except on extrcmcly stecp slopcs and at discontinuiries whcre thc pipe has been cut for
valves and appurtenances. An all-welded pipeline laid abovc ground on piers may be stable
whcn fillcd and undcr pressure, but may rcquirc heavy anchoragc at angle points and
particularly on stccp slopes to resist stresses arising from temperature changes when the
pipe 15empty.
When other types of joints arc used that have little or no ability to rcsist tcnsion, all of
thc previously mentioned crrtical points must be adequately blocked or anchored. In order
to provide resistance to thrust at angles in largc drameter pipelines, whether buried or
exposed, it is advisable to provide welded joints on cach stdc of the angle point, a distance
sufficient to resist the componenrs of the thrust. 't'ndcr high-pressure conditions, lap-
wcldcd field joints should bc analyzed for propcr strength close to valves and at large
dcncction anglcs.
Whcre pipc is laid on piers, antifriction material should separate the pipe from the
suppnrng structurc. Satisfactory practice is for 90-120 degrees of the pipe surface to be
made to hear on the pier. For p r p on piers, the chrun resultrng from an elbow orbcnd tends
to o\crturn the anchor pier.
Pipelines 1a1d on slopes, particularly above ground, always have a tendency to creep
downhill. It is necessary to provide anchor blocks placed against undisturhcd earth at
suflicicntly frequent intervals on a long, stecp s l o p to reduce the weight of pipe supprtcd
at cach anchoragc to a safe figure. Where pipc is locatcd in a position whcre disturbance of
thc trcnch is unlikcly,concrctc thrust blocks may be used to recict the lateral thrust. \'crttcal
angles with resultant thrust in a downward direction require no special treatment if the pipe
is lard on a firm and carefully trimmed trench bottom, but vertical angles wrth a resultant
thrust upward should k properly anchored.
Soil resistance t o thrust. A forcc causcd by thrust against soil, whcthcr applied
hori7ontally or vertically downuard, may causc consolidation and shcar stratnc in the soil,
allowing a thrust hlock to mow. Thc cafe load that a thrust hlock can transfcr toa gtvcn soil
dcpcnds on thc consoltdation rharactcristics and the passive rcristancc (shcar strcngth) of
that wnl.rhc amount ofhlwk movcmcni pcrmis<ihlc.the arra of the hlnck. and the dntancc
of forcc application hclou ground hnc hlcthod\ of caiculatlng pawvc rc*i\!anCc arc
.~\~ilablc " For dll Iinrk. Jrrarl mkulari~nwarc nccr*urv I h a on perini\\ihlo \oil Frrp (or
 anchoring ordinary lincs are grvcn in Chaptcr 13. Sornc data lor thc c~lcrrld~ron
olthrust ar
angle p r n t r arc also includcd in Chaptcr 13.
12.5 FIELD COATING OF JOINTS
Acccptable procedures for coating of ficld joints arc dcscrrhcd in appltcable AWWA
standards.
12.6 PIPE-ZONE BEDDING AND BACKFILL
The following discussion relating to pipe beddmg and hackfill is of ncccrsity \omcwhat
gcncral in nature. A foundation study should he performed to prov~dcmore prccrre dcsign
criteria for large projccts or thosc with unutual problems
Pipe-zone beddingand hackfill may hcclassificd as (:lass <:I, C2,orCS (Figure 12-11.
or as othcrwiscdcfined by rhccngrncer. Bedding and hacklill should kdmsrficd around thc
prpe to the spcified height ovcr the top of thc pipe. In the ahwncc of a ywrfic hcrght, thc
backfill should be dcnstficd to not lcss than that called for in Sotc 4 of Fipurcs 12-1 and
12-2.
The dr) density of compacted cohesive soil for each class of k d d m g and backfill, as
shown in Figure 12-1, should not he lcsc than the following:
Soil densities should he csprcsxd as a perccnt of thc lahoramry standard maximum
dry-soil dcnsity as dctcrmincd according to AASHTO 1'99. Thc .\loicturc-l>cnsity
Rclatrons of Soils Using a 5.5-lb (2.5 kg) Rammcr and a 12-in. (105 mtn) Drop,'or ASTXI
D698, Tests for hloisturc-Dcnsity Relations of Soils and Soil-Aggregate .\listurcs, Using
5.5-lb (2.5-kg) Rammcr and 12-in. (304.8-mm) Drop (COD A d ~ p t c d ) .In-place
~ tests of
soil density as requircd by the engineer arc usually made in accordance with ASTM D1556,
Test for Density of Soil in Place by the Sand-Cone h l c t h ~ d , ' ~ oASTM
r D2167, Test for
Density of Soil in Place by the Ruhbcr-Balloon Method."
Densification
Regardless of thc mcthod of densification used, materials must be hrought up at
substantially the same rate on both sides nfthc pipe. Care also should hc taken so that the
pipe is not floated or displaced before backfilling is complete.
Mechanical Compaction
Cohesive soils should be dcnsificd hy compaction using mcchan~calor hand tamping. Care
must he taken not todamagecoatings duringcompactron. Equipment w t h surtablyshaped
tamping fccr for, compacting the material will generally ensure that the rpecified soils
dcnsity is obtained under the lowcr.quadrant of the pipe. At thc time of piacemcnt. the
backfill matcr~alshould contain the optimum moisture contcnt required for compactton.
The moisturc contcnt should k un~formthroughout each layer. Backfillshould be placcd in
layers of not more than 6 in. in thickncss aftcr compaction.
Hydraulic Consolidation
Sod< rdcnuficd as frce dratn~nghy the cngtncer mav he dcnvficd h\ tamptng or by
consolr~lat~on
u ~ r huatcr uwng any or all of thc follou~n[: de\rccs or mctho~h aater lets.
rmmcrsion-type vibrators, bulkheading, and flooding or sluicing. hiaterial should be placcd
In a minimum oftueolayers, the first layer k i n g placcd loose to the spring linc ofthc p i p .
Consolidation ofcarth backfill by hydraulic methods should be used only if both the backfill
and the nativcsoil are frce draining. Materials used in hydraulic consolidation should pass a
I%-in. screen, with not more than 10 percent passing a 200-mesh steve. The thickncss of
layers should not exceed the penetrating depth ofthe vibrators if consolidation is performed
by jetting and internal vibration.
Trench Backfill Above Pipe Zone
Satire backfill material above the p i p zone up to the required backfill surface should be
placcd to the density requircd in the contract specifications. Trench backfill should not be
placed until confirmation that compaction of pipe-zone bedding and backfill complies with
the specified compaction. Cohesive materials should always be compacted with tamping or
rolling equipment. T o prevent excessive linc loads on the p i p , sufficient densificd backfill
should he placed over the pipe before power-operatcd hauling or rolling equipment is
allowd ovcr the pipe.
Interior Bracing of Pipe
Whcn requircd, the dcsign, installation, and performance of pipe bracing during
transportation and installation is generally the responsibility of the contractor. Such bracing
limits the maximum rertical deflection of the pipe durtng installation and backfilling.
GLTIOS: Internal bracing designed for shipments is nor necessarily suitable for
protection of the pipe during backfill operations.
12.7 HYDROSTATIC FIELD TEST
The purpose of the hydrostatrc ficld test is primarily to determine if the field joints are
uatcrtight. The hydrostatic test is usually conducted aftcr backfilling is complete. It is
prforrncd at a fixed pressurc ahove the dcsign working pressurc of the line. If thrust
resistance is providcd by concrete thrust blocks, a reasonable time for the curing of the
blocking must be allowed beforc the test is made.
Field Testing Cement-Mortar-Lined Pipe
Cemcnt-mortar-lined p i p to be tested should be filled with water of approved quality and
allowed to stand for at lcast 24 hours to permit maximum absorption ofwatcr by the lining.
Addrttonal water should he added to rcplace uater absorbed by the ccmcnt-mortar lining.
( P r p with other types of lining may hc testcd without this waiting pcriod.) P i p to be
ccmcnt-mortar lined in place may hc h!drostatrcal)y testcd bcforc or aftcr the lining has
hecn placcd.
Bulkheads
lf the pipeline is to bc tested in segments and valvcs arc nor provided to isolate the cnds, the
ends must be proridcd wrth hulkhcads for tcstrng. .4 conventional bulkhcad usually consists
of a section of pipe 2-3 ft long.on the end of u htch a flat plateor dishcd plate bulkhcad has
hren welded containing thc ncccssary outlcts for accommodating incoming water and
outgoing air.
Air Venting
Thc p~pelineshould be fillcd slowly to prevent pssihle water hammer, and care should be
cwrctwd to allow all ofthc air torscape durrng thc fillrnpopcralton. Aftcr filling thc linc, it
mat. hc nccc\\ary to uw a pump to r a w and marntam thc Jc\ircd prcswrc.
 anchoring ordinary lincs are grvcn in Chaptcr 13. Sornc data lor thc c~lcrrld~ron
olthrust ar
angle p r n t r arc also includcd in Chaptcr 13.
12.5 FIELD COATING OF JOINTS
Acccptable procedures for coating of ficld joints arc dcscrrhcd in appltcable AWWA
standards.
12.6 PIPE-ZONE BEDDING AND BACKFILL
The following discussion relating to pipe beddmg and hackfill is of ncccrsity \omcwhat
gcncral in nature. A foundation study should he performed to prov~dcmore prccrre dcsign
criteria for large projccts or thosc with unutual problems
Pipe-zone beddingand hackfill may hcclassificd as (:lass <:I, C2,orCS (Figure 12-11.
or as othcrwiscdcfined by rhccngrncer. Bedding and hacklill should kdmsrficd around thc
prpe to the spcified height ovcr the top of thc pipe. In the ahwncc of a ywrfic hcrght, thc
backfill should be dcnstficd to not lcss than that called for in Sotc 4 of Fipurcs 12-1 and
12-2.
The dr) density of compacted cohesive soil for each class of k d d m g and backfill, as
shown in Figure 12-1, should not he lcsc than the following:
Soil densities should he csprcsxd as a perccnt of thc lahoramry standard maximum
dry-soil dcnsity as dctcrmincd according to AASHTO 1'99. Thc .\loicturc-l>cnsity
Rclatrons of Soils Using a 5.5-lb (2.5 kg) Rammcr and a 12-in. (105 mtn) Drop,'or ASTXI
D698, Tests for hloisturc-Dcnsity Relations of Soils and Soil-Aggregate .\listurcs, Using
5.5-lb (2.5-kg) Rammcr and 12-in. (304.8-mm) Drop (COD A d ~ p t c d ) .In-place
~ tests of
soil density as requircd by the engineer arc usually made in accordance with ASTM D1556,
Test for Density of Soil in Place by the Sand-Cone h l c t h ~ d , ' ~ oASTM
r D2167, Test for
Density of Soil in Place by the Ruhbcr-Balloon Method."
Densification
Regardless of thc mcthod of densification used, materials must be hrought up at
substantially the same rate on both sides nfthc pipe. Care also should hc taken so that the
pipe is not floated or displaced before backfilling is complete.
Mechanical Compaction
Cohesive soils should be dcnsificd hy compaction using mcchan~calor hand tamping. Care
must he taken not todamagecoatings duringcompactron. Equipment w t h surtablyshaped
tamping fccr for, compacting the material will generally ensure that the rpecified soils
dcnsity is obtained under the lowcr.quadrant of the pipe. At thc time of piacemcnt. the
backfill matcr~alshould contain the optimum moisture contcnt required for compactton.
The moisturc contcnt should k un~formthroughout each layer. Backfillshould be placcd in
layers of not more than 6 in. in thickncss aftcr compaction.
Hydraulic Consolidation
Sod< rdcnuficd as frce dratn~nghy the cngtncer mav he dcnvficd h\ tamptng or by
consolr~lat~on
u ~ r huatcr uwng any or all of thc follou~n[: de\rccs or mctho~h aater lets.
rmmcrsion-type vibrators, bulkheading, and flooding or sluicing. hiaterial should be placcd
In a minimum oftueolayers, the first layer k i n g placcd loose to the spring linc ofthc p i p .
Consolidation ofcarth backfill by hydraulic methods should be used only if both the backfill
and the nativcsoil are frce draining. Materials used in hydraulic consolidation should pass a
I%-in. screen, with not more than 10 percent passing a 200-mesh steve. The thickncss of
layers should not exceed the penetrating depth ofthe vibrators if consolidation is performed
by jetting and internal vibration.
Trench Backfill Above Pipe Zone
Satire backfill material above the p i p zone up to the required backfill surface should be
placcd to the density requircd in the contract specifications. Trench backfill should not be
placed until confirmation that compaction of pipe-zone bedding and backfill complies with
the specified compaction. Cohesive materials should always be compacted with tamping or
rolling equipment. T o prevent excessive linc loads on the p i p , sufficient densificd backfill
should he placed over the pipe before power-operatcd hauling or rolling equipment is
allowd ovcr the pipe.
Interior Bracing of Pipe
Whcn requircd, the dcsign, installation, and performance of pipe bracing during
transportation and installation is generally the responsibility of the contractor. Such bracing
limits the maximum rertical deflection of the pipe durtng installation and backfilling.
GLTIOS: Internal bracing designed for shipments is nor necessarily suitable for
protection of the pipe during backfill operations.
12.7 HYDROSTATIC FIELD TEST
The purpose of the hydrostatrc ficld test is primarily to determine if the field joints are
uatcrtight. The hydrostatic test is usually conducted aftcr backfilling is complete. It is
prforrncd at a fixed pressurc ahove the dcsign working pressurc of the line. If thrust
resistance is providcd by concrete thrust blocks, a reasonable time for the curing of the
blocking must be allowed beforc the test is made.
Field Testing Cement-Mortar-Lined Pipe
Cemcnt-mortar-lined p i p to be tested should be filled with water of approved quality and
allowed to stand for at lcast 24 hours to permit maximum absorption ofwatcr by the lining.
Addrttonal water should he added to rcplace uater absorbed by the ccmcnt-mortar lining.
( P r p with other types of lining may hc testcd without this waiting pcriod.) P i p to be
ccmcnt-mortar lined in place may hc h!drostatrcal)y testcd bcforc or aftcr the lining has
hecn placcd.
Bulkheads
lf the pipeline is to bc tested in segments and valvcs arc nor provided to isolate the cnds, the
ends must be proridcd wrth hulkhcads for tcstrng. .4 conventional bulkhcad usually consists
of a section of pipe 2-3 ft long.on the end of u htch a flat plateor dishcd plate bulkhcad has
hren welded containing thc ncccssary outlcts for accommodating incoming water and
outgoing air.
Air Venting
Thc p~pelineshould be fillcd slowly to prevent pssihle water hammer, and care should be
cwrctwd to allow all ofthc air torscape durrng thc fillrnpopcralton. Aftcr filling thc linc, it
mat. hc nccc\\ary to uw a pump to r a w and marntam thc Jc\ircd prcswrc.
Allowable Leakage
-
The hydrostatic tcst pressure is usually applicd for a perrod of 2.1 hours hcforc thc tcst 1s
assumed to begin, principally to allow for thc lining material to ab5orb a5 much watcr as IS
pssiblc. Aftcr that, the pipeline should be carefully inspected for evidence of leakagc. Thc
amount of leakage that should bc permitted depends on the kind of joints used in the
pipeline.
In making the tcst, the watcr prcssurc should be raised (based on the clevatron at the
lowest point in thc section of the linc undcr tcst) to a level such that the test scction is
subjected to not more than 125 percent of the actual (or design) operating prcssurc or pipe
class, whichever is thc greater. The test prcssurc should bc maintaincd for at lcact 2 hours.
There should be no significant leakage in an all-wlded pipclinc or one that has k e n ~oincd
with properly installed mechanical couplings. On p i p joined wrth O-ring ruhhcr gackets,a
small tolerance for leakage should k allowed. A lcakage of 25 gal pcr in. of dramctcr pcr mile
per 24 hours is usually permitted. Pinhole leaks that dc\.clop in nclded io~ntishould not bc
Supplementary Design
stoppcd by pcening; instead, they should be marked for proper repair by welding. Such
wclding frequently can be accomplished without cmptying the pipclinc, providing pressure
can be relieved.
Ifascction fails to pass the hydrostatic field tcst, it wrll bc necessary to locate, uncover,
Data and Details
and repair or replace any defective pipe, ralrc, joint, or fitting. The prpelrnc must then bc
retested.

References
I SOU'FRZ, G.F. Trcnch Exca\atton and
Racklilltng.Jour. A IlYTil, 48.i 854 (July
1956)
2. REIT),H..\i. Soil hlcchanic\ and Back-
fillmg PracticcsJour. A II'IVA, 48 I2 1497
( k c . 1956).
3. Thc Morsrurc-Density Relalions of Soils
Using n 5.5-lb (2.5 kg) Rammer snd a
12-ln. (305 mm) Drop. AASHTO Srand-
nrd f99-74. AASHTO, Washrngton, D.C
(1 974).
4. Tests for Mosturc-Dcnssy Relations of
Soilssnd Sotl-Aggrcgau M~x!urcs,L'sing
5.5-lb (2.5-kg) Rammcr and 12-in.
(304.8-mm) Drop. ASTM Standard
D698-78. ASTM, Philadclphra, Pa.
(1978).
5. Rclnrivc Density of Cohcsionlcss Sorls.
ASThi Standard D2049-69. ASTAI.
Philadclphia, Pa.(u.ithJraun).
6. T c ~Mcrhods
t for Maximum Index Dcn-
stty of Soh Usrnp V~bratort Tahlc.
ASTM Standard D4253-83 ASTM.
Philadclphia, Pa. (1983).
7. Tcsr hlcthods for hitntmum lndcx Dcn-
sity of Sotls and Calculation of Rclatwc
Dcnsity ASTM Standard D4254-83
ASTM. Ph~ladclphia,h (1983)
8 Dwpn and C~nstructtonof Sanltarp and
Storm Scucrs ASCE Manual No 37
ASCE. h'cu York (1969)
9 hlotwrc-knw! Rclattonwf%d< Lkng
a 10-lh (4 54 kg) Rammcr and an 18-tn
1457 mml Drop AASIITO \tandarrl
TIKO-i4 AASIITO. Wa.rhlnplnn, 1) C.
(19;-I)
10. Tcu .\lcrhtdr for Alot\turc-lkmn Rc-
lartom ol SolR aod So~l-AggrcgatcNIX-
tur- Uvng 10-lh (4 54-kg) Rammcr and
18-tn (457-mm)Drop ASTXI Standard
D1557-78. ASTM. Ph~ladclphla,Pa
(1978).
11. Test for Moisture Densny Rclauons of
Sorls Usmg 10-Ih Rammcr and IRtn
Drop. ASTAI Standard D1557-70
ASTAI. Ph~ladclphe.k (1970)
12. G+WRFTT, G I{ Dc\~gnof LonpSpan
Sclf-Supporr~npStrcl P~pc.]cur
Al'lil, 40 11.1 197 [Nor 1948)
13 F~cldK'cld~ngof Srccl U'atcr Ptpc
A B W A S~andardC2U6-82. AUi'W.4.
Dcntcr. Calo (1982).
14. PUNt, H A. L G+RRIT-, G H Flcld
B'cldtng of Stccl Warcr Ptpc Jour
Alt'Bil. 35 10 1295 ((kt 1943)
15. 'I'~RI+GIII. RAW!.(C I%( x. R R Sod
Mrchsntzs t n kn~rntrrrn~ l'tc~rrtcrJohn
Btlcp and Sons. Scu York (1948)
16 Tr\t for I>cn\li) of Sod In Placc h\ the
Sand-Chc Alcthnl. ASThl Standard
DI556-64 ASThl. Ph~ladclph~a.
OM)
17 Test for t)cn\m of So11In Placc h) thc
Ruhhcr-Rallonn .\lcthd AS I .\I S~and-
ard 112167-hh A F l ,\I, I'lt~ladclph~a.Pa
IIUhh)
The tllu\trations, tables, and descriptions in this chapter arc intended as practical aids to
engineers and draftsmen cngagcd in actual design work. Refcrcnces havc been made to thew
data at rartous points in preceding chaptcrs whcrc the subjccts arc discusscd in dctail.
Captions and explanatory matter in this chaptcr have k e n kept to a minimum on the
assumption that the uwr is familiar with basic design methods.
13.1 IAYOUT OF PIPELINES
The prohlcms inrolvcd in surveying and laying out a pipcline are affected by both the sizeof
the line and its location. hiore dctail and care arc neccssav as the size increases and as a line
passes from rural to urban arcas.
In gencral,a plan and profile, togcthcr with certain other dctails,arc nccssary for any
watcr pipeline. Thcsc should show:
1. Horizontal and vcrtical distances, cither dircctly or hy survey station and elcration (if
s l o p disranccs are giVcn, this fact should k na~cd!;
2. Location of angles or hcnds, both horizontal and vcrtical (point of intersection
prcfcrred);
3. Dcgrec of bends, degrec or radius of curves, tangent d~stancerfor curvcs, or external
drslanccs if clearance is required;
Pa
4 Points of intersection with pipe centerline for tccs, wyes, crosses, or other branches,
togcthcr with direction-rrght- or left-hand, up or down-or angle of flow, viewed
rrom rnlct end;
5. Location and lengthsolall ralves,pumps,or other ~nwrredfittings not supplied by the
pipe manufacturer;
6 Locatron of adjacent or intcrfcring in%tallationsor wucturcc;
Allowable Leakage
-
The hydrostatic tcst pressure is usually applicd for a perrod of 2.1 hours hcforc thc tcst 1s
assumed to begin, principally to allow for thc lining material to ab5orb a5 much watcr as IS
pssiblc. Aftcr that, the pipeline should be carefully inspected for evidence of leakagc. Thc
amount of leakage that should bc permitted depends on the kind of joints used in the
pipeline.
In making the tcst, the watcr prcssurc should be raised (based on the clevatron at the
lowest point in thc section of the linc undcr tcst) to a level such that the test scction is
subjected to not more than 125 percent of the actual (or design) operating prcssurc or pipe
class, whichever is thc greater. The test prcssurc should bc maintaincd for at lcact 2 hours.
There should be no significant leakage in an all-wlded pipclinc or one that has k e n ~oincd
with properly installed mechanical couplings. On p i p joined wrth O-ring ruhhcr gackets,a
small tolerance for leakage should k allowed. A lcakage of 25 gal pcr in. of dramctcr pcr mile
per 24 hours is usually permitted. Pinhole leaks that dc\.clop in nclded io~ntishould not bc
Supplementary Design
stoppcd by pcening; instead, they should be marked for proper repair by welding. Such
wclding frequently can be accomplished without cmptying the pipclinc, providing pressure
can be relieved.
Ifascction fails to pass the hydrostatic field tcst, it wrll bc necessary to locate, uncover,
Data and Details
and repair or replace any defective pipe, ralrc, joint, or fitting. The prpelrnc must then bc
retested.

References
I SOU'FRZ, G.F. Trcnch Exca\atton and
Racklilltng.Jour. A IlYTil, 48.i 854 (July
1956)
2. REIT),H..\i. Soil hlcchanic\ and Back-
fillmg PracticcsJour. A II'IVA, 48 I2 1497
( k c . 1956).
3. Thc Morsrurc-Density Relalions of Soils
Using n 5.5-lb (2.5 kg) Rammer snd a
12-ln. (305 mm) Drop. AASHTO Srand-
nrd f99-74. AASHTO, Washrngton, D.C
(1 974).
4. Tests for Mosturc-Dcnssy Relations of
Soilssnd Sotl-Aggrcgau M~x!urcs,L'sing
5.5-lb (2.5-kg) Rammcr and 12-in.
(304.8-mm) Drop. ASTM Standard
D698-78. ASTM, Philadclphra, Pa.
(1978).
5. Rclnrivc Density of Cohcsionlcss Sorls.
ASThi Standard D2049-69. ASTAI.
Philadclphia, Pa.(u.ithJraun).
6. T c ~Mcrhods
t for Maximum Index Dcn-
stty of Soh Usrnp V~bratort Tahlc.
ASTM Standard D4253-83 ASTM.
Philadclphia, Pa. (1983).
7. Tcsr hlcthods for hitntmum lndcx Dcn-
sity of Sotls and Calculation of Rclatwc
Dcnsity ASTM Standard D4254-83
ASTM. Ph~ladclphia,h (1983)
8 Dwpn and C~nstructtonof Sanltarp and
Storm Scucrs ASCE Manual No 37
ASCE. h'cu York (1969)
9 hlotwrc-knw! Rclattonwf%d< Lkng
a 10-lh (4 54 kg) Rammcr and an 18-tn
1457 mml Drop AASIITO \tandarrl
TIKO-i4 AASIITO. Wa.rhlnplnn, 1) C.
(19;-I)
10. Tcu .\lcrhtdr for Alot\turc-lkmn Rc-
lartom ol SolR aod So~l-AggrcgatcNIX-
tur- Uvng 10-lh (4 54-kg) Rammcr and
18-tn (457-mm)Drop ASTXI Standard
D1557-78. ASTM. Ph~ladclphla,Pa
(1978).
11. Test for Moisture Densny Rclauons of
Sorls Usmg 10-Ih Rammcr and IRtn
Drop. ASTAI Standard D1557-70
ASTAI. Ph~ladclphe.k (1970)
12. G+WRFTT, G I{ Dc\~gnof LonpSpan
Sclf-Supporr~npStrcl P~pc.]cur
Al'lil, 40 11.1 197 [Nor 1948)
13 F~cldK'cld~ngof Srccl U'atcr Ptpc
A B W A S~andardC2U6-82. AUi'W.4.
Dcntcr. Calo (1982).
14. PUNt, H A. L G+RRIT-, G H Flcld
B'cldtng of Stccl Warcr Ptpc Jour
Alt'Bil. 35 10 1295 ((kt 1943)
15. 'I'~RI+GIII. RAW!.(C I%( x. R R Sod
Mrchsntzs t n kn~rntrrrn~ l'tc~rrtcrJohn
Btlcp and Sons. Scu York (1948)
16 Tr\t for I>cn\li) of Sod In Placc h\ the
Sand-Chc Alcthnl. ASThl Standard
DI556-64 ASThl. Ph~ladclph~a.
OM)
17 Test for t)cn\m of So11In Placc h) thc
Ruhhcr-Rallonn .\lcthd AS I .\I S~and-
ard 112167-hh A F l ,\I, I'lt~ladclph~a.Pa
IIUhh)
The tllu\trations, tables, and descriptions in this chapter arc intended as practical aids to
engineers and draftsmen cngagcd in actual design work. Refcrcnces havc been made to thew
data at rartous points in preceding chaptcrs whcrc the subjccts arc discusscd in dctail.
Captions and explanatory matter in this chaptcr have k e n kept to a minimum on the
assumption that the uwr is familiar with basic design methods.
13.1 IAYOUT OF PIPELINES
The prohlcms inrolvcd in surveying and laying out a pipcline are affected by both the sizeof
the line and its location. hiore dctail and care arc neccssav as the size increases and as a line
passes from rural to urban arcas.
In gencral,a plan and profile, togcthcr with certain other dctails,arc nccssary for any
watcr pipeline. Thcsc should show:
1. Horizontal and vcrtical distances, cither dircctly or hy survey station and elcration (if
s l o p disranccs are giVcn, this fact should k na~cd!;
2. Location of angles or hcnds, both horizontal and vcrtical (point of intersection
prcfcrred);
3. Dcgrec of bends, degrec or radius of curves, tangent d~stancerfor curvcs, or external
drslanccs if clearance is required;
Pa
4 Points of intersection with pipe centerline for tccs, wyes, crosses, or other branches,
togcthcr with direction-rrght- or left-hand, up or down-or angle of flow, viewed
rrom rnlct end;
5. Location and lengthsolall ralves,pumps,or other ~nwrredfittings not supplied by the
pipe manufacturer;
6 Locatron of adjacent or intcrfcring in%tallationsor wucturcc;
 --
mire.

7. TIC-inswith proprrty lines, curb lines, road or street centerlines, and other pcrtlnent Table 13-1 Example o f Rpelaylng Schedule
features necessary to define right-of-\ray and locate pipe ccntcrline clearly;
8. Dctailsordcscriptionsofall specials, together with otherdata requlred tocupplcnwnt 24 In. OD x .2SO In. WALL PIPS WITH DRaSSdR CUDS UNLESS WOTPD. 114 xu.
AW'U'A standards (Figure 13-1) (see the "Information Rcgarding Use of This JOINT ALLOWANCI TOR DRSSSSR COUYLINCS. STATIONING 1 s HORIZONTAL
DXSTANCI ALONC BASE OR SURVEY LINE- DRISSZRS, FOR 24 IN. 00 ? l P l
Standard" section of the rclcvant standard); UNLSSS NOTID. VXTN STOPS IN. PIP6 ACCORDING TO AWA C-202 AND COATSD
9. Details, dimensions, and class designation or other description of all flanges and
mechanical field joints; I
LCTH 0. PC. TITTINGS
10. Any special requirements affecting the manufacture of thc pipc or the installation RdS- ( D i r e c t i o n of
CORR HI(.
procedures. TR Stationing)
ou- (1)
lnrcstigation of soil conditions may bc necessary to dctermine protective-coating - LINGS
requirements, excavation procedures, permissible foundation pressures, or dcsign of anchor
or thrust blocks. The location of the table may affect design and installation. Soil
Bogin -S e t t l i n g Basin
k t I'iltar Plant
borlngs are desirable for all installations, csprcially where large water lincs are involved.
Pipe identification may bc by consecutive piece numbcr,orsomcotherschememay he
1 501 L e n g t l v i t h Flange
used In accordance with thecommon practice of the pipe manufacturer or ar established by
mutual agreement bctrwcn the engineer and the manufacturer. A requirement for
consecutive numbering and installation of straight pteces of uniformly cut length is
uneconomical if the pieces arc interchangeable in the line. Special sections may best he
1 2 t PC 111 ( V e r t i c a l )
marked to show their survey station numbcr. (NOTE: General marking rcquiremcnts are
provided in the relevant AWWA standards.)
7
hdd
9-3
A pipe-laying schedule is a valuable tool for the manufacture and installation of a
pipeline system. Such a schedulc is shown in Table 13-1. A xhcdulc should show clearly
For
slop,
rhis
1 3 Plangod P i e c e - 3" Conn
and completely the csxntial details for each pipe piccc. In addition, the schedule should Birr
show the necessary data for proper ssxmbly sequence and for spotting of pipc specials and
sections. A l o g i n River ~ r o s r i n i

13.2 CALCULATION OF ANGLE O F FABRICATED PIPE BEND Pipe f o r Crorsing

Ln r l r e e
In many pipeline jobs, it is necessary or desirable to combine a plan and profile deflccrion in
one fitting. The relationship between 0 (the angle of the fabricated pipe bend), a and B
(deflection angle in the plan and profile, rcspecti\~ely),and y (the slope angle of one leg of
,a
1.8"
End l i v e r Crossing

For
slop< 4 5 Pe. E l l (HORIZONTAL)
rbir v i t h 3" Conn.
3iat,
1 3 SO* Length

25 'h IN BAND-DRESSER TOLERANC

T\ PLAN 1

I
1 6 L Pe d l 1 ( V e r t i c a l )

(1) A11 p l a i n SO' l a n s t b a s r r k e d S)

t q PIPE' the bend) must be known. Although approximate a n ~ l e are s often used, unless the exact
relationship is known, it is impossible to tell how close the approximations are.
A simple relationshipis ~llustratedin Figure 13-2. If flincrcascs theslope angle relative

, : T , 5 m ' 8 F T 7 7 h t N
b-
NOTE Coal lns~deand
20 FT tN 3
Ouls~deper Relevsnl AWWA Slandard
PROFILE
to y, it bcars a plus value. For the general case:

cos 0 = sin y sin ( y + p) + cos y cos ( y + p) cos a

For the special caw when y equals zero:

Rgure 13-1 Example of Adequately Figure 13-2 Man and Profile of Bend in
Detailed Pipe Special Pipe, o n Centerline of Pipe cnc 0 = cns fl coc n
 --
mire.

7. TIC-inswith proprrty lines, curb lines, road or street centerlines, and other pcrtlnent Table 13-1 Example o f Rpelaylng Schedule
features necessary to define right-of-\ray and locate pipe ccntcrline clearly;
8. Dctailsordcscriptionsofall specials, together with otherdata requlred tocupplcnwnt 24 In. OD x .2SO In. WALL PIPS WITH DRaSSdR CUDS UNLESS WOTPD. 114 xu.
AW'U'A standards (Figure 13-1) (see the "Information Rcgarding Use of This JOINT ALLOWANCI TOR DRSSSSR COUYLINCS. STATIONING 1 s HORIZONTAL
DXSTANCI ALONC BASE OR SURVEY LINE- DRISSZRS, FOR 24 IN. 00 ? l P l
Standard" section of the rclcvant standard); UNLSSS NOTID. VXTN STOPS IN. PIP6 ACCORDING TO AWA C-202 AND COATSD
9. Details, dimensions, and class designation or other description of all flanges and
mechanical field joints; I
LCTH 0. PC. TITTINGS
10. Any special requirements affecting the manufacture of thc pipc or the installation RdS- ( D i r e c t i o n of
CORR HI(.
procedures. TR Stationing)
ou- (1)
lnrcstigation of soil conditions may bc necessary to dctermine protective-coating - LINGS
requirements, excavation procedures, permissible foundation pressures, or dcsign of anchor
or thrust blocks. The location of the table may affect design and installation. Soil
Bogin -S e t t l i n g Basin
k t I'iltar Plant
borlngs are desirable for all installations, csprcially where large water lincs are involved.
Pipe identification may bc by consecutive piece numbcr,orsomcotherschememay he
1 501 L e n g t l v i t h Flange
used In accordance with thecommon practice of the pipe manufacturer or ar established by
mutual agreement bctrwcn the engineer and the manufacturer. A requirement for
consecutive numbering and installation of straight pteces of uniformly cut length is
uneconomical if the pieces arc interchangeable in the line. Special sections may best he
1 2 t PC 111 ( V e r t i c a l )
marked to show their survey station numbcr. (NOTE: General marking rcquiremcnts are
provided in the relevant AWWA standards.)
7
hdd
9-3
A pipe-laying schedule is a valuable tool for the manufacture and installation of a
pipeline system. Such a schedulc is shown in Table 13-1. A xhcdulc should show clearly
For
slop,
rhis
1 3 Plangod P i e c e - 3" Conn
and completely the csxntial details for each pipe piccc. In addition, the schedule should Birr
show the necessary data for proper ssxmbly sequence and for spotting of pipc specials and
sections. A l o g i n River ~ r o s r i n i

13.2 CALCULATION OF ANGLE O F FABRICATED PIPE BEND Pipe f o r Crorsing

Ln r l r e e
In many pipeline jobs, it is necessary or desirable to combine a plan and profile deflccrion in
one fitting. The relationship between 0 (the angle of the fabricated pipe bend), a and B
(deflection angle in the plan and profile, rcspecti\~ely),and y (the slope angle of one leg of
,a
1.8"
End l i v e r Crossing

For
slop< 4 5 Pe. E l l (HORIZONTAL)
rbir v i t h 3" Conn.
3iat,
1 3 SO* Length

25 'h IN BAND-DRESSER TOLERANC

T\ PLAN 1

I
1 6 L Pe d l 1 ( V e r t i c a l )

(1) A11 p l a i n SO' l a n s t b a s r r k e d S)

t q PIPE' the bend) must be known. Although approximate a n ~ l e are s often used, unless the exact
relationship is known, it is impossible to tell how close the approximations are.
A simple relationshipis ~llustratedin Figure 13-2. If flincrcascs theslope angle relative

, : T , 5 m ' 8 F T 7 7 h t N
b-
NOTE Coal lns~deand
20 FT tN 3
Ouls~deper Relevsnl AWWA Slandard
PROFILE
to y, it bcars a plus value. For the general case:

cos 0 = sin y sin ( y + p) + cos y cos ( y + p) cos a

For the special caw when y equals zero:

Rgure 13-1 Example of Adequately Figure 13-2 Man and Profile of Bend in
Detailed Pipe Special Pipe, o n Centerline of Pipe cnc 0 = cns fl coc n
1)4 STEEL PIPE bl'l'PI I .\!I S TARY OESICS DETAILS 135

13.3 REINFORCEMENTOF FITTINGS

Tees, crosses, laterals, wycs, hcadcrs, or other fittings that provide means of dividing or
uniting flow in pipclincs do not havc as high a rcsistancc to intcrnal prcssurc as do similar
sizcs of straight pipe of thc samc wall thickncss. This is bccause a portion of the side wall of
the pipe in thcse fittings is rcmovcd to allow for thc branching pipc. Also, therc arc
longitudinal strcsscs in thc throat of unrestrained clbows, owing to distortion or unbalanced
hydrostatic prcssurc.
For ordinary waterworks installations, the wall thickness ofthc pipe commonly uscd is
much grcatcr than prcssure conditions rcquirc. Conscqucntly, thc lou*ercdsafcty factor of
fittings having thc samc wall thickncss as thc straight pipe still leaves adcquatc strength in
most cases, and reinforcing may be unncccssary. If thc pipe is operating at or near maximum
dcsign prcssurc, howcvcr, thcstrcngth ofthc fittings should be invcstigatcd and the proper
reinforcement or extra wall thickncss provided.
Fittings ma). bc reinforced in various ways for rcsistancc to internal prcssurc. Typical
fitting rcinforccmcnts arc collars, wrappcrs, and crotch plates. Thc dcsign stress in thc
rcinforccmcnt should not be grcatcr than the hoop strcss uscd in thc dcsign of the pip.
The type of rcinforccmcntC can he dctcrmincd by the magnitude of the prcssurc-
diameter value PDV and thc ratio of thc branch diamctcr to thc main pipc dramctcr d/D. D .' matnlme ptpe oulslde d~ameter. m , tr = reouired branch cvlmder th&cknessin 3 a

Thc prcssurc-diamctcr valuc is calculated as: TI = rnamlmecylmdet lh8ckness t 61" 1 = branch delleclton angle <dqreeso
TI = requwed rnalnllne cyllndet Ihlckness Iln I T = wrapper thtckners on I
d = branch plpe outslde dtameler ttn W -. overall wrapper wldlh (on 0

PDV = - Pd
D sin2 A
1, = branch cylmder th~cknesstin 8 w = wrapper edge w ~ d t htin.n

figure 13-3 Reinforcement o f Openings In Welded Steel Pipe

U'hcrc:

P = dcs~gnprcssurc (psi) Table 13-2 Recommended Reinforcement TypeC

d = branch outsidc diamctcr (in.)
D = main pipe outsidc diamctcr (in.) PDV d/D M Factor Rcinforcmmnt Type
A = hranch diamctcr angle of dcflcction.
>MXX)
40CO-MW)O
all
>0.7
-
0.00025 PDV
h c h Plate
I~PPC~
For PDV values grcatcr than 6000,thc outla rcinforccmcnt should consist of a crotch >4000 >0.7 1.O W ~ P F
platc designed in accordance with thc method dcscrihcd in Scc. 13.6. For PDV values lcss 4000-6000 50.7 0.00025 PDV Collar
than 6000, thc outlet rcinfommcnt may bc either a wrappcr or collar, depending on the II-1000 0.7 1.O Collar
ratio of thc outlet diamctcr to thc main pipe diamctcr d/D. For a d/D ratio grcatcr than 0.7,a *lkscrcinfo~cmentsarc for rcsatance to internal pmsuurc. ^Ihey shoutd be checked for ablbt).to mist cxrcmzl W.
uSrappcrplatc should be uscd; for a d/D ratio lcss than 0.7.cithcr a collarora wrapper plate
may bc uscd. Thc ratiod/Ddoes not includc thcsin Aas in the PD\rdctcrm~nationbecaux
the controlling factor is thc circumfcrcntial dimensions. Wrappcrs may be substitutcd for or wrapper (2.5ry). Weld arcas should not be considered in the dcsign. Overall width o f t k
collars, and crotch plates may he substituted for wnppcrs or collars. collar or wrapper should not be less than 1.67dIsin A and should not cxcccd Z.Od/sin J . n i s
Wrappers and collars should be designed by thc mcthod described in Scc. VIII of the width rangc produccs a minimum cdgc width of 0.33dIsin 1.Collar cdgc widths in the
ASME Unfircd Pressure Vessel Codc.l This code providcs that thc cross-sectional arca of circumfcrcntial dircction should not be lcss than thc longitudinal cdgc width.
thc rcmoved srccl at the branch is rcplaccd in thc form of a wrappcr or collar. In addirlon to Collars may be oval tn shape, or thcy may he rectangular with mundcd corncn. The
the ASME rcquircmcnts when thc PDV ranges betwccn 4000 and MMO, thc cross-sectional radii at corners should not be less than 4 in. or 20 timcs thc collar thickness, whichever is
arca of the ,rcplaccd stccl should bc multiplied by an M factor of 0.000 25 timcs thc PDV. grcatcr (cxccpt for collars with a lcngth or width lcss than 8 in.). Longitudinal scams should
Figurc 13-3 shows the rcinforccmcrit'of wrapper and collar openings for wcldcd stccl pipc, bc placcd at 90° or more from the ccntcr of thc rcmovcd wction.
and Table 13-2 ltsts a summary of rccommcndcd rcinforccmcnt t p . On the branch outlct ccntcrlinc, the limit linc of thc branch rcinforcemcnt occurs at a
In dctcrmining thc rcquircd stccl rcplaccmcnt,crcdit should begivcn to any thickncss distancc 2.5 times the thickness of the branch from thc wrfaccofthc main pipe runor from
of matcrial in thc main-linc p i p in cxccss of that rcquircd for mtcrnal prcssurc, and to the the top of the collar or wrappcr rcinforccmcnt.
arca of thc matcrial in the wall of thc branch outlet to the allouahlc distancc from thccollar In Figurc 13-3, thc arca T,(d-lr,)/sin 1 rcprcscntc the scction of thc mainlinc pipc
cylindcr rcmoscd by thc o ~ n i n forg the hranch. Thc hoop tension due to prcscurc within
thc pipe that uould he takcn by thc rcmovcd scction ucrc I t prcwnt tnu\t hc carrlcd h! the
-
total arca.i rcprc\cntcd by 22 7' and 51, ( I , r , L or 2 i t , I . - r , 1111 each vdc 01 11ut1t.r
1)4 STEEL PIPE bl'l'PI I .\!I S TARY OESICS DETAILS 135

13.3 REINFORCEMENTOF FITTINGS

Tees, crosses, laterals, wycs, hcadcrs, or other fittings that provide means of dividing or
uniting flow in pipclincs do not havc as high a rcsistancc to intcrnal prcssurc as do similar
sizcs of straight pipe of thc samc wall thickncss. This is bccause a portion of the side wall of
the pipe in thcse fittings is rcmovcd to allow for thc branching pipc. Also, therc arc
longitudinal strcsscs in thc throat of unrestrained clbows, owing to distortion or unbalanced
hydrostatic prcssurc.
For ordinary waterworks installations, the wall thickness ofthc pipe commonly uscd is
much grcatcr than prcssure conditions rcquirc. Conscqucntly, thc lou*ercdsafcty factor of
fittings having thc samc wall thickncss as thc straight pipe still leaves adcquatc strength in
most cases, and reinforcing may be unncccssary. If thc pipe is operating at or near maximum
dcsign prcssurc, howcvcr, thcstrcngth ofthc fittings should be invcstigatcd and the proper
reinforcement or extra wall thickncss provided.
Fittings ma). bc reinforced in various ways for rcsistancc to internal prcssurc. Typical
fitting rcinforccmcnts arc collars, wrappcrs, and crotch plates. Thc dcsign stress in thc
rcinforccmcnt should not be grcatcr than the hoop strcss uscd in thc dcsign of the pip.
The type of rcinforccmcntC can he dctcrmincd by the magnitude of the prcssurc-
diameter value PDV and thc ratio of thc branch diamctcr to thc main pipc dramctcr d/D. D .' matnlme ptpe oulslde d~ameter. m , tr = reouired branch cvlmder th&cknessin 3 a

Thc prcssurc-diamctcr valuc is calculated as: TI = rnamlmecylmdet lh8ckness t 61" 1 = branch delleclton angle <dqreeso
TI = requwed rnalnllne cyllndet Ihlckness Iln I T = wrapper thtckners on I
d = branch plpe outslde dtameler ttn W -. overall wrapper wldlh (on 0

PDV = - Pd
D sin2 A
1, = branch cylmder th~cknesstin 8 w = wrapper edge w ~ d t htin.n

figure 13-3 Reinforcement o f Openings In Welded Steel Pipe

U'hcrc:

P = dcs~gnprcssurc (psi) Table 13-2 Recommended Reinforcement TypeC

d = branch outsidc diamctcr (in.)
D = main pipe outsidc diamctcr (in.) PDV d/D M Factor Rcinforcmmnt Type
A = hranch diamctcr angle of dcflcction.
>MXX)
40CO-MW)O
all
>0.7
-
0.00025 PDV
h c h Plate
I~PPC~
For PDV values grcatcr than 6000,thc outla rcinforccmcnt should consist of a crotch >4000 >0.7 1.O W ~ P F
platc designed in accordance with thc method dcscrihcd in Scc. 13.6. For PDV values lcss 4000-6000 50.7 0.00025 PDV Collar
than 6000, thc outlet rcinfommcnt may bc either a wrappcr or collar, depending on the II-1000 0.7 1.O Collar
ratio of thc outlet diamctcr to thc main pipe diamctcr d/D. For a d/D ratio grcatcr than 0.7,a *lkscrcinfo~cmentsarc for rcsatance to internal pmsuurc. ^Ihey shoutd be checked for ablbt).to mist cxrcmzl W.
uSrappcrplatc should be uscd; for a d/D ratio lcss than 0.7.cithcr a collarora wrapper plate
may bc uscd. Thc ratiod/Ddoes not includc thcsin Aas in the PD\rdctcrm~nationbecaux
the controlling factor is thc circumfcrcntial dimensions. Wrappcrs may be substitutcd for or wrapper (2.5ry). Weld arcas should not be considered in the dcsign. Overall width o f t k
collars, and crotch plates may he substituted for wnppcrs or collars. collar or wrapper should not be less than 1.67dIsin A and should not cxcccd Z.Od/sin J . n i s
Wrappers and collars should be designed by thc mcthod described in Scc. VIII of the width rangc produccs a minimum cdgc width of 0.33dIsin 1.Collar cdgc widths in the
ASME Unfircd Pressure Vessel Codc.l This code providcs that thc cross-sectional arca of circumfcrcntial dircction should not be lcss than thc longitudinal cdgc width.
thc rcmoved srccl at the branch is rcplaccd in thc form of a wrappcr or collar. In addirlon to Collars may be oval tn shape, or thcy may he rectangular with mundcd corncn. The
the ASME rcquircmcnts when thc PDV ranges betwccn 4000 and MMO, thc cross-sectional radii at corners should not be less than 4 in. or 20 timcs thc collar thickness, whichever is
arca of the ,rcplaccd stccl should bc multiplied by an M factor of 0.000 25 timcs thc PDV. grcatcr (cxccpt for collars with a lcngth or width lcss than 8 in.). Longitudinal scams should
Figurc 13-3 shows the rcinforccmcrit'of wrapper and collar openings for wcldcd stccl pipc, bc placcd at 90° or more from the ccntcr of thc rcmovcd wction.
and Table 13-2 ltsts a summary of rccommcndcd rcinforccmcnt t p . On the branch outlct ccntcrlinc, the limit linc of thc branch rcinforcemcnt occurs at a
In dctcrmining thc rcquircd stccl rcplaccmcnt,crcdit should begivcn to any thickncss distancc 2.5 times the thickness of the branch from thc wrfaccofthc main pipe runor from
of matcrial in thc main-linc p i p in cxccss of that rcquircd for mtcrnal prcssurc, and to the the top of the collar or wrappcr rcinforccmcnt.
arca of thc matcrial in the wall of thc branch outlet to the allouahlc distancc from thccollar In Figurc 13-3, thc arca T,(d-lr,)/sin 1 rcprcscntc the scction of thc mainlinc pipc
cylindcr rcmoscd by thc o ~ n i n forg the hranch. Thc hoop tension due to prcscurc within
thc pipe that uould he takcn by thc rcmovcd scction ucrc I t prcwnt tnu\t hc carrlcd h! the
-
total arca.i rcprc\cntcd by 22 7' and 51, ( I , r , L or 2 i t , I . - r , 1111 each vdc 01 11ut1t.r
13.4 COLLAR PLATE DESIGN ( 8.625 - Z(0.25)) ]
[
= 1.0 0.117
sin 90°
Crircria-dara cxample-24-in. x 8-in. tee
Main-pipe size (nominal diameter) 24 in. = 0,951 in?
hlain-pipe cylinder OD D 25 X in.
Main-pipe cylinder thickness q, 0.135 in. (I0 gauge) 13.4.3.3 Area available as excess Tvand alI(~0bIeoarlcr arm.
Branch-outlet size (nominal diameter) 8 in.
Branch-outlet cylinder O D d 8 K in. Area available =A,,
Branch-outlet thickness ! , % in.
Deflection angle 1 90°
Design pressure P 15Opsi
Reinforcement steel allowable stress (The allowable f, 16500psi
stress, based on a design stress resulting from
working pressure, shall not exceed '/:. the minimum - -
sin 90°
- ~ 17) + (5 x 0.25) (0.25 - 0.039)
a'625 2 ( 0 . 2 5 ) ( ~ . ~ 30.1
yield of the steel used for the p i p cylinder or in the
reinforcement, whichever is less.) = 0.410 in?
13.4.1 Reinforcement type 13.4.3.4 Rcinforcemcnr area.

Reinforcement area = A ,

Therefore, for PDV 54000 and d / D 50.7, usc collar unless wrapper is provided. 13.4.3.5 Minimum reinjorcentenr rhickncrr.

13.4.2 Multiplier (rlf-fanor) Minimum reinforcement thickness = T

For PDV ~4000,M = 1.O

13.4.3 Collar design

13.4.3.1 Thcorcriral c$indcr rhickncscs.

Alain p i p (T,) Therefore, use not less than 12-gauge (0.105-in.) steel.

T = 0.10%.
13.4.3.6 Rrinforcemenrtvidrh.
Branch outlet (r,)
w = 0.541
A,=--
2T 2(0.105)- 2'576 in'

13.4.3.7 Minimum allowable width.

13.4. ? 2 Thcorertcal reinforcontnt area. d 8.625
m(min.1 = 3 = = 2.875 in.
l'heorct~calreinforcement arca = A ,
2.875 in. > 2.576 in.

.: F = 2.875 in.
13.4 COLLAR PLATE DESIGN ( 8.625 - Z(0.25)) ]
[
= 1.0 0.117
sin 90°
Crircria-dara cxample-24-in. x 8-in. tee
Main-pipe size (nominal diameter) 24 in. = 0,951 in?
hlain-pipe cylinder OD D 25 X in.
Main-pipe cylinder thickness q, 0.135 in. (I0 gauge) 13.4.3.3 Area available as excess Tvand alI(~0bIeoarlcr arm.
Branch-outlet size (nominal diameter) 8 in.
Branch-outlet cylinder O D d 8 K in. Area available =A,,
Branch-outlet thickness ! , % in.
Deflection angle 1 90°
Design pressure P 15Opsi
Reinforcement steel allowable stress (The allowable f, 16500psi
stress, based on a design stress resulting from
working pressure, shall not exceed '/:. the minimum - -
sin 90°
- ~ 17) + (5 x 0.25) (0.25 - 0.039)
a'625 2 ( 0 . 2 5 ) ( ~ . ~ 30.1
yield of the steel used for the p i p cylinder or in the
reinforcement, whichever is less.) = 0.410 in?
13.4.1 Reinforcement type 13.4.3.4 Rcinforcemcnr area.

Reinforcement area = A ,

Therefore, for PDV 54000 and d / D 50.7, usc collar unless wrapper is provided. 13.4.3.5 Minimum reinjorcentenr rhickncrr.

13.4.2 Multiplier (rlf-fanor) Minimum reinforcement thickness = T

For PDV ~4000,M = 1.O

13.4.3 Collar design

13.4.3.1 Thcorcriral c$indcr rhickncscs.

Alain p i p (T,) Therefore, use not less than 12-gauge (0.105-in.) steel.

T = 0.10%.
13.4.3.6 Rrinforcemenrtvidrh.
Branch outlet (r,)
w = 0.541
A,=--
2T 2(0.105)- 2'576 in'

13.4.3.7 Minimum allowable width.

13.4. ? 2 Thcorertcal reinforcontnt area. d 8.625
m(min.1 = 3 = = 2.875 in.
l'heorct~calreinforcement arca = A ,
2.875 in. > 2.576 in.

.: F = 2.875 in.
I38 S l I 1 I. I'II'E St'I'I't.LUES I'ARY 1)LSIGN DETAILS 139

13.4.3.8 Over~zllrrtnJorccment u*idth. Branch outlet (I,)

d 8.625
IV = 2w + -= 2(2.875) + 0-= 14.375 in.
s ~ n1 s m 90

Use: T = 0.105 in. 13.5.3.2 Theorcticol rein/orcrt~tentarea.

II = 14% in.
Theoretical reinforcement area = A.
13.5 Wrapper-Plate Design
Crircria-doro exoatple-60-in. x 48-in. lateral
hlain-pip size (nominal diameter) 60 in.
Main-pip cylinder OD D 6lhin.
Main-pip cylinder thickness T, ' / ~in.
n
Branch-outlet size 48 in.
Branch-outlet c~linderOD d 49hin.
Branch-outlet thickness r, hiin. A. = 10.405 in.2
Deflection angle i 750
Design pressure P 100psi 13.5.3.3 Area availuble or escess T y and ollowabh orrtler arra.
Reinforcement steel allowable stress (The allowable stress f, 16 500 psi
shall not exceed fi the minimum yield of the steel used Area availabk =A.
for the pipe cylinder or tn the reinforcement, whichever
is less.)

13.5.1 Reinforcement type

A, = 49'875-2(0'188) (0.188-0.188)+(5~0.188) (0.188-0.151)
sin 7S0

13.5.3.4 Rein]mcnnmr area.

Reinforcement area = A ,
-
Therefore, for PDV 56000 and d 20.7 use mapper.
D A, = A, - A.
13.5.2 Multiplier (hf-factor).
-
A, = 10.405 0.035 = 10.370 in?
For 4000 c PDV c 6000
1 3 5 3 . 5 Minimum reinforcement thickness.
hf = 0.000 25 PDV = 0.000 25(4309)= 1.077
Minimum reinforcement thickness = T
Therefore, use M = 1.08.
rn = -- _-= 49.875 25.817 in.
13.5.3 Wrapper design 2 sin 1 2 sin 7S0

13.5.3.1 Thmrtrical cylinder thicknrsses.

Round up to the nearest standard thickness but not less than 12 gauge (0.105 in.).

T = in. (0.25 in.)

I38 S l I 1 I. I'II'E St'I'I't.LUES I'ARY 1)LSIGN DETAILS 139

13.4.3.8 Over~zllrrtnJorccment u*idth. Branch outlet (I,)

d 8.625
IV = 2w + -= 2(2.875) + 0-= 14.375 in.
s ~ n1 s m 90

Use: T = 0.105 in. 13.5.3.2 Theorcticol rein/orcrt~tentarea.

II = 14% in.
Theoretical reinforcement area = A.
13.5 Wrapper-Plate Design
Crircria-doro exoatple-60-in. x 48-in. lateral
hlain-pip size (nominal diameter) 60 in.
Main-pip cylinder OD D 6lhin.
Main-pip cylinder thickness T, ' / ~in.
n
Branch-outlet size 48 in.
Branch-outlet c~linderOD d 49hin.
Branch-outlet thickness r, hiin. A. = 10.405 in.2
Deflection angle i 750
Design pressure P 100psi 13.5.3.3 Area availuble or escess T y and ollowabh orrtler arra.
Reinforcement steel allowable stress (The allowable stress f, 16 500 psi
shall not exceed fi the minimum yield of the steel used Area availabk =A.
for the pipe cylinder or tn the reinforcement, whichever
is less.)

13.5.1 Reinforcement type

A, = 49'875-2(0'188) (0.188-0.188)+(5~0.188) (0.188-0.151)
sin 7S0

13.5.3.4 Rein]mcnnmr area.

Reinforcement area = A ,
-
Therefore, for PDV 56000 and d 20.7 use mapper.
D A, = A, - A.
13.5.2 Multiplier (hf-factor).
-
A, = 10.405 0.035 = 10.370 in?
For 4000 c PDV c 6000
1 3 5 3 . 5 Minimum reinforcement thickness.
hf = 0.000 25 PDV = 0.000 25(4309)= 1.077
Minimum reinforcement thickness = T
Therefore, use M = 1.08.
rn = -- _-= 49.875 25.817 in.
13.5.3 Wrapper design 2 sin 1 2 sin 7S0

13.5.3.1 Thmrtrical cylinder thicknrsses.

Round up to the nearest standard thickness but not less than 12 gauge (0.105 in.).

T = in. (0.25 in.)

 SUPIILEMF.NTARY DESIGS DETAILS 141

*,in.) - 3 sind -\ -- 3
49.875 17.21 I in.

17.2) 1 in. <20.740 in.

:. z t = 20.740 in.

Ths 126-~nx 126-~nx 126-~n . 45' wye sectton has Iwo plates.

Figure 13-6 Two-Plate Wye

Use: T = % in.
W = 93% in.
13.7 NOMOGRAPH USE IN WE-BRANCH DESIGN
13.6 CROTCH-PLATE(WE-BRANCH) DESIGN Thc nomograph design, based on dcsign working pressure plus surge allowance, includes a
safety factor that will keep strcsscs wcll below the yicld point of stecl. The minimum yield
When the PDV cxcccds 6000, crotch-plate reinforcement should he used. Several types of
strcngth of thc stecl used in this rcport is 30000 psi. The design prcssurc uscd in the
platc rcinforccmcnt arc illustrated in Figures 13-4 through 13-6. The following scction on
nomograph was kcpt to 1.5 timcs the working pressure in ordcr to approximate an allowable
nomograph use was takcn from a published study on crotch-plate ( u p b r a n c h ) design at
Los ~ n ~ c l c s ? strcss of 20 000 psi.
Srcp I. Lay a straightcdgc across the nomograph (Figurc 13-7) through thc appropriate
points on thc pipe diamctcr (scc step 2b) and internal-prcssurc scales; read off the depth of
platc from its scalc. This rcading is the crotch depth for I-in. thick platc for a two-plate, 90°,
wyc-branch pipe.
Step 2a. If the wyc branch deflection angle is other than 90°, usc the A'-factor curve
(Figurc 13-8)to gct thc factors which, when multiplicd by the dcpth of platc found in step 1,
1 the aye dcpth d , and the basc dcpth dh for the new wye branch.
~ 1 1gtvc
Srcp Zb. If the wye branch has uncqual-diameter pipe, the larger diametcr pipe will
have becn uscd in steps I and Za, and these results should be multiplied by the Q factors
found on the single-plate stlffcner curves (Figure 13-9) to give d:: and di. These factors
vary w~rhthe ratlo of the radius of the small pipe to thc radius of the large p i p .
Srcp 3. If the wyc dcpth d, found so far is greater than 30 t~mcsthc thicknas of the
platc (1 in.), then &and dh should bc convcrted toconform to a grcater thlckncss r by usc of
the gcncral cquarron:

d = dl (F)(0917- 2-
360)
(13-2)
\I'hcrc:

d l = existtng dcpth of platc

A smgle curved plale serves as remlonemenl lor each 'This 15-11x 15-11x 15-11. 90. wye has two Crolch plates rl = cxtst~ngth~ckncssof plate
branch of lhts 96-11?* 66-117* €.&In.90' tncluded angle and one back plate d = new dcpth of platc
we
r = ncw thickness of platc selccted
Figure 13-4 One-Plate Wye Figure 13-5 Three-Plate Wye 1 = dcnccrton angle of the wye hranch.
 SUPIILEMF.NTARY DESIGS DETAILS 141

*,in.) - 3 sind -\ -- 3
49.875 17.21 I in.

17.2) 1 in. <20.740 in.

:. z t = 20.740 in.

Ths 126-~nx 126-~nx 126-~n . 45' wye sectton has Iwo plates.

Figure 13-6 Two-Plate Wye

Use: T = % in.
W = 93% in.
13.7 NOMOGRAPH USE IN WE-BRANCH DESIGN
13.6 CROTCH-PLATE(WE-BRANCH) DESIGN Thc nomograph design, based on dcsign working pressure plus surge allowance, includes a
safety factor that will keep strcsscs wcll below the yicld point of stecl. The minimum yield
When the PDV cxcccds 6000, crotch-plate reinforcement should he used. Several types of
strcngth of thc stecl used in this rcport is 30000 psi. The design prcssurc uscd in the
platc rcinforccmcnt arc illustrated in Figures 13-4 through 13-6. The following scction on
nomograph was kcpt to 1.5 timcs the working pressure in ordcr to approximate an allowable
nomograph use was takcn from a published study on crotch-plate ( u p b r a n c h ) design at
Los ~ n ~ c l c s ? strcss of 20 000 psi.
Srcp I. Lay a straightcdgc across the nomograph (Figurc 13-7) through thc appropriate
points on thc pipe diamctcr (scc step 2b) and internal-prcssurc scales; read off the depth of
platc from its scalc. This rcading is the crotch depth for I-in. thick platc for a two-plate, 90°,
wyc-branch pipe.
Step 2a. If the wyc branch deflection angle is other than 90°, usc the A'-factor curve
(Figurc 13-8)to gct thc factors which, when multiplicd by the dcpth of platc found in step 1,
1 the aye dcpth d , and the basc dcpth dh for the new wye branch.
~ 1 1gtvc
Srcp Zb. If the wye branch has uncqual-diameter pipe, the larger diametcr pipe will
have becn uscd in steps I and Za, and these results should be multiplied by the Q factors
found on the single-plate stlffcner curves (Figure 13-9) to give d:: and di. These factors
vary w~rhthe ratlo of the radius of the small pipe to thc radius of the large p i p .
Srcp 3. If the wyc dcpth d, found so far is greater than 30 t~mcsthc thicknas of the
platc (1 in.), then &and dh should bc convcrted toconform to a grcater thlckncss r by usc of
the gcncral cquarron:

d = dl (F)(0917- 2-
360)
(13-2)
\I'hcrc:

d l = existtng dcpth of platc

A smgle curved plale serves as remlonemenl lor each 'This 15-11x 15-11x 15-11. 90. wye has two Crolch plates rl = cxtst~ngth~ckncssof plate
branch of lhts 96-11?* 66-117* €.&In.90' tncluded angle and one back plate d = new dcpth of platc
we
r = ncw thickness of platc selccted
Figure 13-4 One-Plate Wye Figure 13-5 Three-Plate Wye 1 = dcnccrton angle of the wye hranch.
142 STEEL PIPE
SL'PPLEUESTARY DESIGS DETAILS 143

"I
W

t! 70

i
f W
E!
g
LL
30

k!
40

#) 0 I0 20 30 40 50

N FACTOR

Swrcs Swmson. H S E r r L h t g n of Wye Branchl I v Sfeel Ptp. JOuc AWWA. 4 7 6 561 fJunR 1955)

For wyes with d e l k l i o n angles from 30' lo W. the N lactors oblalned from Ihe above curves are
apploed 10 the plate deplh d. lound from Ihe nomograph figure 13-71.in accordance wllh the equallons
d. = %d: 6,= Nod.
figure 13-8 N Factor Curves

Source Swamon, H S V A L hslgn 01 Wre B t m c h . ~bor Steel R,P. Jour AWWA 47 6 581 IJuns 1955)

For pipes o l unequal dtameter. land h and 5 tor the larger-dtameter p ~ from
~ e Ftpures 13-7 and 13-8 .
Sovrcs Swanson H S r r rl D w O n er Wp? Blanches lor Stwl P'p. Jwr AWWA 47 6 581 (Jum 19551 -
lhen ad. d'.. crolch deplh o' smgle-olatesldlener and h.5 = 6" base deplh of smgle-plate
.
PIRW lhackness 1 ~n dclleclton angle. 90'
st~llener

Figure 13-7 Nomograph for Selecting Reinforcement Mate Depths of Equal-Diameter Rpes Figure 13-9 Q Factor Curves

I
142 STEEL PIPE
SL'PPLEUESTARY DESIGS DETAILS 143

"I
W

t! 70

i
f W
E!
g
LL
30

k!
40

#) 0 I0 20 30 40 50

N FACTOR

Swrcs Swmson. H S E r r L h t g n of Wye Branchl I v Sfeel Ptp. JOuc AWWA. 4 7 6 561 fJunR 1955)

For wyes with d e l k l i o n angles from 30' lo W. the N lactors oblalned from Ihe above curves are
apploed 10 the plate deplh d. lound from Ihe nomograph figure 13-71.in accordance wllh the equallons
d. = %d: 6,= Nod.
figure 13-8 N Factor Curves

Source Swamon, H S V A L hslgn 01 Wre B t m c h . ~bor Steel R,P. Jour AWWA 47 6 581 IJuns 1955)

For pipes o l unequal dtameter. land h and 5 tor the larger-dtameter p ~ from
~ e Ftpures 13-7 and 13-8 .
Sovrcs Swanson H S r r rl D w O n er Wp? Blanches lor Stwl P'p. Jwr AWWA 47 6 581 (Jum 19551 -
lhen ad. d'.. crolch deplh o' smgle-olatesldlener and h.5 = 6" base deplh of smgle-plate
.
PIRW lhackness 1 ~n dclleclton angle. 90'
st~llener

Figure 13-7 Nomograph for Selecting Reinforcement Mate Depths of Equal-Diameter Rpes Figure 13-9 Q Factor Curves

I
144 STEEL PIPE

W E SECTION BASE
SECTION

Source S r a n ~ ~ lwl .S C I A L Dssgn 01 Wye Bramms Iw Sled P6m Jwr AWWA. 47 6 581 rJons 1955)

Flgure 13-11 Wye Branch Man and layout

Example 1-One-plate design

Re = 30 in.
R, = 21 in.
-\ = 45O
Working pressure, 230 psi
Design pressure, 230 (1,s) = 350 psi

Srrp I . With the larger p i p diameter 60 in. and the design pressure 350 psi, read the
critical plate depth d from the nomograph (r = 1 in., 1 = 90°):

d = 50 in.

Step 2. Using the dcfkaion angle 4S0, find the factors on the A'-factor curve that will
J convert the depth found in step 1 to apply to a 4S0 wye branch ( I = 1 in.):
0 10 20 30 40 54 W 70 00 W 10D 110 120 130 140 150 16O
BASE DEPTH, doOR Ub IN.
d, = N , d = 2.45(50) = 122 in.
S w e Swanson H S f I A1 Deatqn 01 Wve Br&ncfmslor Srmi fipb JWr AWWA 47 6 581 (Jvm 1955) db = N b d = 1.23(50) = 61.5 in.
d; and 6 are one-plate deslBn dmens~ons.d and 4 are two-plate dessgn dmenaons.
Srrp 3. With the ratio of the smaller pipe radius divided b!. the larger pipe radius
Figure 13-10 Selection of Top Depth (R,/RR) = (21/30) = 0.70 and the deflection angle (A = 4j0), use Figure 13-9 to find the Q
factors that give the crotch depths for a single-plate pipe r y e st~ffener( r = 1 in.):

Srcp 4. To find the top dcpth dl or d;, use Figure 13-10, in which dl or d ; is plotted Q, = 0.52
against dh or di. This dimension gives the top and bottom depths of plate at 90° from the Qb = 0.66
crotch dcpths. d; = 0.52(122) = 63.4 in. ,
Srcp 5. The interior curves folio; the cut of the pipe, but the outside crotch radius in d{ = 0.6q61.5) = 40.5 in.
hoth crotches should equal d, plus the radius ofthe pipe,or in the single-plate design, d ; plus
the radius of the smaller pipc. Tangents connecrcd between thew curves complete the outer Srrp 4. &cause the dcpth d& is greater than 30 times the th~ckncssr , the conversion
shape. equation should be used:
The important dcpths of the reinforcement plates, dm db and dl (Figure 13-1 ]),can be
found from rhc nomograph. If a curved extcrior is desired, a radius cqual to the inside pipe
radius plus dl can be used, hoth for the outside curve ofthe a y e section and for the outsidc
curve of the base uction
144 STEEL PIPE

W E SECTION BASE
SECTION

Source S r a n ~ ~ lwl .S C I A L Dssgn 01 Wye Bramms Iw Sled P6m Jwr AWWA. 47 6 581 rJons 1955)

Flgure 13-11 Wye Branch Man and layout

Example 1-One-plate design

Re = 30 in.
R, = 21 in.
-\ = 45O
Working pressure, 230 psi
Design pressure, 230 (1,s) = 350 psi

Srrp I . With the larger p i p diameter 60 in. and the design pressure 350 psi, read the
critical plate depth d from the nomograph (r = 1 in., 1 = 90°):

d = 50 in.

Step 2. Using the dcfkaion angle 4S0, find the factors on the A'-factor curve that will
J convert the depth found in step 1 to apply to a 4S0 wye branch ( I = 1 in.):
0 10 20 30 40 54 W 70 00 W 10D 110 120 130 140 150 16O
BASE DEPTH, doOR Ub IN.
d, = N , d = 2.45(50) = 122 in.
S w e Swanson H S f I A1 Deatqn 01 Wve Br&ncfmslor Srmi fipb JWr AWWA 47 6 581 (Jvm 1955) db = N b d = 1.23(50) = 61.5 in.
d; and 6 are one-plate deslBn dmens~ons.d and 4 are two-plate dessgn dmenaons.
Srrp 3. With the ratio of the smaller pipe radius divided b!. the larger pipe radius
Figure 13-10 Selection of Top Depth (R,/RR) = (21/30) = 0.70 and the deflection angle (A = 4j0), use Figure 13-9 to find the Q
factors that give the crotch depths for a single-plate pipe r y e st~ffener( r = 1 in.):

Srcp 4. To find the top dcpth dl or d;, use Figure 13-10, in which dl or d ; is plotted Q, = 0.52
against dh or di. This dimension gives the top and bottom depths of plate at 90° from the Qb = 0.66
crotch dcpths. d; = 0.52(122) = 63.4 in. ,
Srcp 5. The interior curves folio; the cut of the pipe, but the outside crotch radius in d{ = 0.6q61.5) = 40.5 in.
hoth crotches should equal d, plus the radius ofthe pipe,or in the single-plate design, d ; plus
the radius of the smaller pipc. Tangents connecrcd between thew curves complete the outer Srrp 4. &cause the dcpth d& is greater than 30 times the th~ckncssr , the conversion
shape. equation should be used:
The important dcpths of the reinforcement plates, dm db and dl (Figure 13-1 ]),can be
found from rhc nomograph. If a curved extcrior is desired, a radius cqual to the inside pipe
radius plus dl can be used, hoth for the outside curve ofthe a y e section and for the outsidc
curve of the base uction
146 STEEL PIPE SI'l'Pl.li.4!liNThRY DESIGS DETAILS 147

Try a thickness of I f i in.: Srcp 1. Read the top depth d, from the two-plate dcsign curve in Figure 13-10:

Thickness of reinforcing plate, r = 2 in.

Depth of plate at acute crotch, d, = 57 in.
d; = 63.4(0.725) = 46 in. Depth of plate at obtuse crotch, db = 31in.
Depth of plate at top and bottom, dl = 15 in.
d l = 40.5 (0.725) = 29 in. Outside radius of plate at both crotches, 51 in.

Srrp 5. Find the top depth d ; from the curve for one-plate design in Figure 13-10:
Three-Plate Design
For d i = 29 in., d; = 18 in. The preceding nomograph section has covered the design of one- and two-plate u y
branches without touching on a three-plate design because of its similarity to the two-plate
Final rcsirlrs: dcsign. The function of the third plate is to act like a clamp in holding down the deflection of
the two main plates. In doing so, ir accepts part of the stresses of the other plates and permits
Thickness of reinforcing plate, t = 1% in. a smaller design. This decrease in the depths of the two main plates is small enough ro make
Depth of plate at acute crotch, d; = 46 in. it practical simply to add a third plate to a two-plate design. The additional plate should be
Depth of plate at O ~ ~ Ucrotch,
K d; = 29 in. considered a means of reducing the deflection at the junction of the plates. The two factors
Dcpth of plate at top and bottom, d; = 18 in. that dictate the use of a third plate are diameter of pipe and internal pressure. When the
Outside radius of plate at both crotches equals the top depth plus the inside diameter is greater than 60 in. I D and the internal pressure is greater than 300 psi, a ring
radius of the small pipe d; + R, = 18 + 21 = 39 in. plate can be advantageous. If either of these factors is belou. the limit, the designer should be
alloaed to choosc a third plate.
Example 2-Two-plate design If a third plate is desired as an addition to the two-plate dcsign, its size should b;
dictated by the top depth d,. Because the other two plates arc flush with the inside curface of
RB = R, = 36 in. the pipe, however, the shell plate thickness plus clearance should be subtracted from the top
1 = 53" depth. This dimension should be constant throughout, and the plate should be placed at
Working pressure, 150 psi right angles to the axis of the pipe,giving it a half-ring shape. Its thickness should equal the
Design pressure, 150 (1.5) = 225 psi smaller of the main plates.
The third plate should be to the other reinforcement plates only at the lop and
Step 1. With a pipediameter of72 in. and a pressure of 225 &read thecritical depth of bottom, being left free from the pipe shell so that none of the shell stresses wtll be transferred
plate from the nomograph (t = 1 in., -\ = 90"): to the ring plate.

d = 49 in. 13.8 THRUST RESTRAINT

Step 2. From the h'-factor curve, find the tuw factors at 1 = 53"; then, at r = 1 in.: When a water transmission or distribution pipeline is under internal pressure, unbalanced
forces develop at changes of sizes and direction in the pipeline. This applies to bends, tecs,
dm = 1.97(49) = 96.5 in. reducers, offsets, bulkheads, etc. (Figure 13-12). Thc magnitude of these thrust forces for
db = 1.09(49) = 53.4 in. tecs and bulkheads is equal to the product of the internal pressure and the cross-sccriond
area of the ptpe, or:
Srcp 3. Because dmis greater than 30 times the thickness of the plate, try t = 2 in. in the
conversion equation:
..
Where:

T = chc thrust force (Ib)

P = maxtmum internal pressure including any anticipated rurgc pressure
= d1(0.586) or \talk test preswre if grcater than opcrattng pressure (pst)
dw = 96.5(0.586) = 57 in. A = cross-sectional area of the ptpc (in.')
,Ih = 51.4(0.586) = 31 in. = 0 7854 I)', uhcrc D is thc c~utrtdcd~anretcrof the p p e (tn 1
146 STEEL PIPE SI'l'Pl.li.4!liNThRY DESIGS DETAILS 147

Try a thickness of I f i in.: Srcp 1. Read the top depth d, from the two-plate dcsign curve in Figure 13-10:

Thickness of reinforcing plate, r = 2 in.

Depth of plate at acute crotch, d, = 57 in.
d; = 63.4(0.725) = 46 in. Depth of plate at obtuse crotch, db = 31in.
Depth of plate at top and bottom, dl = 15 in.
d l = 40.5 (0.725) = 29 in. Outside radius of plate at both crotches, 51 in.

Srrp 5. Find the top depth d ; from the curve for one-plate design in Figure 13-10:
Three-Plate Design
For d i = 29 in., d; = 18 in. The preceding nomograph section has covered the design of one- and two-plate u y
branches without touching on a three-plate design because of its similarity to the two-plate
Final rcsirlrs: dcsign. The function of the third plate is to act like a clamp in holding down the deflection of
the two main plates. In doing so, ir accepts part of the stresses of the other plates and permits
Thickness of reinforcing plate, t = 1% in. a smaller design. This decrease in the depths of the two main plates is small enough ro make
Depth of plate at acute crotch, d; = 46 in. it practical simply to add a third plate to a two-plate design. The additional plate should be
Depth of plate at O ~ ~ Ucrotch,
K d; = 29 in. considered a means of reducing the deflection at the junction of the plates. The two factors
Dcpth of plate at top and bottom, d; = 18 in. that dictate the use of a third plate are diameter of pipe and internal pressure. When the
Outside radius of plate at both crotches equals the top depth plus the inside diameter is greater than 60 in. I D and the internal pressure is greater than 300 psi, a ring
radius of the small pipe d; + R, = 18 + 21 = 39 in. plate can be advantageous. If either of these factors is belou. the limit, the designer should be
alloaed to choosc a third plate.
Example 2-Two-plate design If a third plate is desired as an addition to the two-plate dcsign, its size should b;
dictated by the top depth d,. Because the other two plates arc flush with the inside curface of
RB = R, = 36 in. the pipe, however, the shell plate thickness plus clearance should be subtracted from the top
1 = 53" depth. This dimension should be constant throughout, and the plate should be placed at
Working pressure, 150 psi right angles to the axis of the pipe,giving it a half-ring shape. Its thickness should equal the
Design pressure, 150 (1.5) = 225 psi smaller of the main plates.
The third plate should be to the other reinforcement plates only at the lop and
Step 1. With a pipediameter of72 in. and a pressure of 225 &read thecritical depth of bottom, being left free from the pipe shell so that none of the shell stresses wtll be transferred
plate from the nomograph (t = 1 in., -\ = 90"): to the ring plate.

d = 49 in. 13.8 THRUST RESTRAINT

Step 2. From the h'-factor curve, find the tuw factors at 1 = 53"; then, at r = 1 in.: When a water transmission or distribution pipeline is under internal pressure, unbalanced
forces develop at changes of sizes and direction in the pipeline. This applies to bends, tecs,
dm = 1.97(49) = 96.5 in. reducers, offsets, bulkheads, etc. (Figure 13-12). Thc magnitude of these thrust forces for
db = 1.09(49) = 53.4 in. tecs and bulkheads is equal to the product of the internal pressure and the cross-sccriond
area of the ptpe, or:
Srcp 3. Because dmis greater than 30 times the thickness of the plate, try t = 2 in. in the
conversion equation:
..
Where:

T = chc thrust force (Ib)

P = maxtmum internal pressure including any anticipated rurgc pressure
= d1(0.586) or \talk test preswre if grcater than opcrattng pressure (pst)
dw = 96.5(0.586) = 57 in. A = cross-sectional area of the ptpc (in.')
,Ih = 51.4(0.586) = 31 in. = 0 7854 I)', uhcrc D is thc c~utrtdcd~anretcrof the p p e (tn 1
148 STEEL PIPE

There are also small unbalanced forces st bends caused by the velocity of water flow
h ' o t ~ In
: the case of mortar-lined steel prpe, the outside diameter is constdcrcd to be within the pipeline. In general, this velocity isso low in transmission or distributionsystems
the outside dtamcter of the steel shell.
that its effect on thrust is insignificant, and thrust forces caused by velocity can, therefore,
At clbows or bends, the resultant thrust forcc T is:
be neglected.
1 Methods to restrain the thrust forces may be provided by aconcrcte thrust block,or by
T = 2PA sin ( 13-41 the dcvclopmcnt of friction forccs between the pipe and the soil through restrained or
harnessed joints, or by a combination of these two methods.
Where: When thrust blocks are used at elbows or bcnds, the bearing area of the block is
determined by the bearing capacity of the soil against which the thrust forcc will act, or:
1 = the deflection angle of the elbow or bcnd (Table 13-3, Figure 13-13).
Thrust Force
karing Area Of Thrust (I3-')
= Safe Horizontal Bearing Capacityof Soil
Table 13-3 Data for Calculnting Reaction at llpe Elbows for Various Pipe Diameters and Deflection
Angles (see Figure 13-13) The value for safe horizontal bearing capacity of the native soil should be determined from
field tests by qualtfied soil engineers.
Diameter of Pipc lklknmn Angk Restrained or harnessed joints may also be used to resist thrust forccs through the
D d GcfTi~ienr
m. m.' dg C
development of friction forces between the pipe and the soil surroundrng it. When this
method is used, sufficient lengths of pipe must be rcstraincd by welding or harnessing to
6 36 2 0 028 counter the unbalanccd forces. These unbalanced forces are equal to PA at bulkheads arrd
8 64 4 0 055
6 0 082 tees (Table 13-4). As shown in Figure 1 3 - I ~ Athe
, frictional force developed between the
10 100
12 144 8 0.1 10 pipeline and the surrounding soil to restrain this unbalanced force of 2PA sin 1 / 2 is
14 I% 10 0.137 assumed to be distributed uniformly along the restrained length of the pipeline. Properly
16 2% 15 0.206 compacted backfill adjacent to bends will provide lateral restraint and eliminate any
18 324 20 0.273 tendency for movement in the bcnd due to unbalanccd transverse forces. Figure 13-140
20 400 30 0.402
22 484 45 0 602 shows a force diagram, uhercin axial thrusts are equal to PA cos 1 . Figure 13-14c shows
24 576 60 0.785 axial thrusts versus deflection angles. The length of pipeline required to be restrained on
30 900 75 0 957 each side of the bend is then:
36 1% 90 I lli
Smrw Rarnard. R.E. Devgn S ~ d a r dfor
s Stel Water Pipc.Jmn. ACCA. 40.1:24 (Jan.1948).

Where:
length of restrained or harnessed joints on each side of the bend or
elbow (it)
internal pressure (psi)
cross-sectional area of the pipe (in.')
bcnd or elbow deflcctron (degrees)
coefficient of friction between the p i p and the soil .
wight of the prism of soil over the pipe (Ib/ft of pipe length)
weight of the pipc (Ib/ft)
weight of the contained water (Ib/ft)

8. Thrust at Bu1khc.d or Dead End
Swrcs Barnard R E Dcsrpn SI~wtadrlor SlceI Wlrer Am
Jovr AWWA. 40 1 2 4 (Jan 1W81
Figure 13-12 Thrust at Branch o r Tee (top),
Thrust a t Bulkhead or Dead End (bottom) Figure 13-13 Reaction at Pipe Elbow
In the preceding cquatron, all parameters except the value of p , friction coefficient
between the pipc and the soil, can be readily determined. Tests and experience indtcate that
the value o f p is not onlya function ofthe type ofsoil, it is also greatly affected by the degree
ofcompaction and moisture content of the backfill. Therefore, care must be exercised in the
selection of p. Coefficients of frictron arc generally in the range of 0.25 to 0.40.
As shown in Frgure 13-15, an additional horizontal force H will be developed for s
buried pipe to restrarn the p t p from its lateral movement. This restraining forcc is a passive
force. It dcvclops at the time when minutc movement of the p i p is taking place in the
direction of thc resultant thrust force Stnce t h ~ force
s is not included in the calculatron of
restratncd or harncwed ppc Icngth. rt can he considcrcd to providc an added tafcty factor
148 STEEL PIPE

There are also small unbalanced forces st bends caused by the velocity of water flow
h ' o t ~ In
: the case of mortar-lined steel prpe, the outside diameter is constdcrcd to be within the pipeline. In general, this velocity isso low in transmission or distributionsystems
the outside dtamcter of the steel shell.
that its effect on thrust is insignificant, and thrust forces caused by velocity can, therefore,
At clbows or bends, the resultant thrust forcc T is:
be neglected.
1 Methods to restrain the thrust forces may be provided by aconcrcte thrust block,or by
T = 2PA sin ( 13-41 the dcvclopmcnt of friction forccs between the pipe and the soil through restrained or
harnessed joints, or by a combination of these two methods.
Where: When thrust blocks are used at elbows or bcnds, the bearing area of the block is
determined by the bearing capacity of the soil against which the thrust forcc will act, or:
1 = the deflection angle of the elbow or bcnd (Table 13-3, Figure 13-13).
Thrust Force
karing Area Of Thrust (I3-')
= Safe Horizontal Bearing Capacityof Soil
Table 13-3 Data for Calculnting Reaction at llpe Elbows for Various Pipe Diameters and Deflection
Angles (see Figure 13-13) The value for safe horizontal bearing capacity of the native soil should be determined from
field tests by qualtfied soil engineers.
Diameter of Pipc lklknmn Angk Restrained or harnessed joints may also be used to resist thrust forccs through the
D d GcfTi~ienr
m. m.' dg C
development of friction forces between the pipe and the soil surroundrng it. When this
method is used, sufficient lengths of pipe must be rcstraincd by welding or harnessing to
6 36 2 0 028 counter the unbalanccd forces. These unbalanced forces are equal to PA at bulkheads arrd
8 64 4 0 055
6 0 082 tees (Table 13-4). As shown in Figure 1 3 - I ~ Athe
, frictional force developed between the
10 100
12 144 8 0.1 10 pipeline and the surrounding soil to restrain this unbalanced force of 2PA sin 1 / 2 is
14 I% 10 0.137 assumed to be distributed uniformly along the restrained length of the pipeline. Properly
16 2% 15 0.206 compacted backfill adjacent to bends will provide lateral restraint and eliminate any
18 324 20 0.273 tendency for movement in the bcnd due to unbalanccd transverse forces. Figure 13-140
20 400 30 0.402
22 484 45 0 602 shows a force diagram, uhercin axial thrusts are equal to PA cos 1 . Figure 13-14c shows
24 576 60 0.785 axial thrusts versus deflection angles. The length of pipeline required to be restrained on
30 900 75 0 957 each side of the bend is then:
36 1% 90 I lli
Smrw Rarnard. R.E. Devgn S ~ d a r dfor
s Stel Water Pipc.Jmn. ACCA. 40.1:24 (Jan.1948).

Where:
length of restrained or harnessed joints on each side of the bend or
elbow (it)
internal pressure (psi)
cross-sectional area of the pipe (in.')
bcnd or elbow deflcctron (degrees)
coefficient of friction between the p i p and the soil .
wight of the prism of soil over the pipe (Ib/ft of pipe length)
weight of the pipc (Ib/ft)
weight of the contained water (Ib/ft)

8. Thrust at Bu1khc.d or Dead End
Swrcs Barnard R E Dcsrpn SI~wtadrlor SlceI Wlrer Am
Jovr AWWA. 40 1 2 4 (Jan 1W81
Figure 13-12 Thrust at Branch o r Tee (top),
Thrust a t Bulkhead or Dead End (bottom) Figure 13-13 Reaction at Pipe Elbow
In the preceding cquatron, all parameters except the value of p , friction coefficient
between the pipc and the soil, can be readily determined. Tests and experience indtcate that
the value o f p is not onlya function ofthe type ofsoil, it is also greatly affected by the degree
ofcompaction and moisture content of the backfill. Therefore, care must be exercised in the
selection of p. Coefficients of frictron arc generally in the range of 0.25 to 0.40.
As shown in Frgure 13-15, an additional horizontal force H will be developed for s
buried pipe to restrarn the p t p from its lateral movement. This restraining forcc is a passive
force. It dcvclops at the time when minutc movement of the p i p is taking place in the
direction of thc resultant thrust force Stnce t h ~ force
s is not included in the calculatron of
restratncd or harncwed ppc Icngth. rt can he considcrcd to providc an added tafcty factor
I50 STEEL PIPE

Table 13-4 Hydraulic h d o n D e d h i s and Flange Cover Rates per 100 psi of Internal Pressure 13.9 ANCHOR RINGS
Anchor rings for use in concrete anchor blocks or concrete walls arc illustrated in Figure
13-16. Corresponding dimensions and thrust or pull loads arc given in Table 13-5. Rings are
proportioned to accept dead-end pull or thrust imposed by 250 psi internal pressure, with
approximately 500 psi bearing on concrete. The recommended fillet welds for flange
8 attachment offer such a high safety factor against shear that half the amount can be used,
10
70 700 with a weld intermittent on both sides.
101 800
13.10 JOINT HARNESSES
Information for joint harness tie bolts or studs to be used for given pipe diameters and
maximum pressures is shorn in Table 13-6. Harness design data applicable to sleeve
S m Barnard, R E. Dcr~pnStandards for Stccl Wa~erPip.Jmr. AI~K'A.40.1 24 (Jan 1948).
couplings arc shown in Table 13-7 and Figure 13-27.
Data are based on the following conditions: Stud bolts conforming to ASTK A-193,
L Specifications for Alloy-Steel and Stainless Stccl Bolting hiaterials for High-Temperature
k I T = 2PA SIN J12 Scr\.icc, Grade B7 or equal;3 nuts conforming to ASTM A-194, Specifications for Carbon
and Alloy Steel Nuts for Bolts for High-Prcssurc and High-Temperature Service, Grade
ZH;" lug material conforming to ASTM A-283, LOWand Intermediate Tensile Strength
Carbon Steel Plates, Shapes, and Ban, Grade C' or ASTM A-36, Specifications f
Structural Steeltor equal. Stud bolts H-in. through %-in. diameter have UNC t h r e a z

Figure 13-1444 Frictional Forces

Developed Between Pipe a n d Soil
Xv ,
Figure 13-14s Force Diagram-
hi.4 Thrusts = PA c o s A

SWICO Barmra R E hrstgn St~nbaruslor Srnl Water Pqm Jovr AWWA. 40 1 24 (Jan 19181

Figure 13-16 Anchor Ring

Table 13-5 Dimensions and Bearing Loads for Anchor Rings In Concrete (See figure 13-16)

R~ngW~drh Rrmirsibtc Lead

Pipc OD Ring OD A a R~ng
~n. m. rn I 0.rf4 k k ,
6% 8 'h I 13000
8% IOU I 16 OOO
I0 k 13% I "I MOOO
12 VI 15% I VI 35 OOO
14 I8 2 50wO
I6 20 2 55 W O
18 22 2 03 000
20 M 3 110000
DEFLECTION ANGLE 1 24 30 3 IZLIWO
Figure 13-15 Horizontal Force H e U) 4 2150
figure 13-14c Axial ThrustsVersus Deflection Restrains Buried Pipe From Lateral
Angles Movement
I50 STEEL PIPE

Table 13-4 Hydraulic h d o n D e d h i s and Flange Cover Rates per 100 psi of Internal Pressure 13.9 ANCHOR RINGS
Anchor rings for use in concrete anchor blocks or concrete walls arc illustrated in Figure
13-16. Corresponding dimensions and thrust or pull loads arc given in Table 13-5. Rings are
proportioned to accept dead-end pull or thrust imposed by 250 psi internal pressure, with
approximately 500 psi bearing on concrete. The recommended fillet welds for flange
8 attachment offer such a high safety factor against shear that half the amount can be used,
10
70 700 with a weld intermittent on both sides.
101 800
13.10 JOINT HARNESSES
Information for joint harness tie bolts or studs to be used for given pipe diameters and
maximum pressures is shorn in Table 13-6. Harness design data applicable to sleeve
S m Barnard, R E. Dcr~pnStandards for Stccl Wa~erPip.Jmr. AI~K'A.40.1 24 (Jan 1948).
couplings arc shown in Table 13-7 and Figure 13-27.
Data are based on the following conditions: Stud bolts conforming to ASTK A-193,
L Specifications for Alloy-Steel and Stainless Stccl Bolting hiaterials for High-Temperature
k I T = 2PA SIN J12 Scr\.icc, Grade B7 or equal;3 nuts conforming to ASTM A-194, Specifications for Carbon
and Alloy Steel Nuts for Bolts for High-Prcssurc and High-Temperature Service, Grade
ZH;" lug material conforming to ASTM A-283, LOWand Intermediate Tensile Strength
Carbon Steel Plates, Shapes, and Ban, Grade C' or ASTM A-36, Specifications f
Structural Steeltor equal. Stud bolts H-in. through %-in. diameter have UNC t h r e a z

Figure 13-1444 Frictional Forces

Developed Between Pipe a n d Soil
Xv ,
Figure 13-14s Force Diagram-
hi.4 Thrusts = PA c o s A

SWICO Barmra R E hrstgn St~nbaruslor Srnl Water Pqm Jovr AWWA. 40 1 24 (Jan 19181

Figure 13-16 Anchor Ring

Table 13-5 Dimensions and Bearing Loads for Anchor Rings In Concrete (See figure 13-16)

R~ngW~drh Rrmirsibtc Lead

Pipc OD Ring OD A a R~ng
~n. m. rn I 0.rf4 k k ,
6% 8 'h I 13000
8% IOU I 16 OOO
I0 k 13% I "I MOOO
12 VI 15% I VI 35 OOO
14 I8 2 50wO
I6 20 2 55 W O
18 22 2 03 000
20 M 3 110000
DEFLECTION ANGLE 1 24 30 3 IZLIWO
Figure 13-15 Horizontal Force H e U) 4 2150
figure 13-14c Axial ThrustsVersus Deflection Restrains Buried Pipe From Lateral
Angles Movement
152 STEEL PlPE
SUPPI.EhltSTARY 1)ESICS DETAILS 153

Table 13-6 'iie Bolt Schedule for Harnessed joints

I
hlaximum Pressure
25 p i 50 p i 75 psi 100 PI 125 psi CUT TYPE RP AND
TYPE RR PLATE TO
No. No. Xo. No. UNIFORM HEIGHT
Stud of Stud of Stud d Stud of E* e
CONTINUOUS
Diam. Studs D~am. Studs Dim. Studs Diam. Studs Diam. Studs AROUND PlPE

HOLE STUD Dl* + ' h IN.

PLAN
I = PlPE WALL THICKNESS

Type P

RING ARWNO
1 TVPERRM
PLATE TO
k ] - n u ~ ~
HEIGHT
CONTINUOUS ~ m ~
AROUND PlPE

No. No. No.

Stud of Stud of S N ~ of
Dim. S~uds Dirm. Studs Diam. Studs

Notes 1 See Tablcs 13-6 ma 13-7 for dmensnons

*StlTl S 2 See Sec 13 10 lo, deslgn cond4tons
I I'\c thts tahlc ntth l'?blr 13-7 and F&ure 13-17 for lug dcrtgn. Figure 13-17 H a r n e s s Lug Detail
2 Scc vctmn I I I0 for h t C n cmd~tmn\
152 STEEL PlPE
SUPPI.EhltSTARY 1)ESICS DETAILS 153

Table 13-6 'iie Bolt Schedule for Harnessed joints

I
hlaximum Pressure
25 p i 50 p i 75 psi 100 PI 125 psi CUT TYPE RP AND
TYPE RR PLATE TO
No. No. Xo. No. UNIFORM HEIGHT
Stud of Stud of Stud d Stud of E* e
CONTINUOUS
Diam. Studs D~am. Studs Dim. Studs Diam. Studs Diam. Studs AROUND PlPE

HOLE STUD Dl* + ' h IN.

PLAN
I = PlPE WALL THICKNESS

Type P

RING ARWNO
1 TVPERRM
PLATE TO
k ] - n u ~ ~
HEIGHT
CONTINUOUS ~ m ~
AROUND PlPE

No. No. No.

Stud of Stud of S N ~ of
Dim. S~uds Dirm. Studs Diam. Studs

Notes 1 See Tablcs 13-6 ma 13-7 for dmensnons

*StlTl S 2 See Sec 13 10 lo, deslgn cond4tons
I I'\c thts tahlc ntth l'?blr 13-7 and F&ure 13-17 for lug dcrtgn. Figure 13-17 H a r n e s s Lug Detail
2 Scc vctmn I I I0 for h t C n cmd~tmn\
154 STI.1:LPII'I: .

Table 13-7 Dimensions of Joint Harness Tie Bdts or Studs ancl Lugs for R u k r Casketed joints
- - - - -- -- --
Stud Hok
Diamctcr T T!pe A Y lr X HB E !IF Dtamcter
% H P 3% 5 I% 5 3% 3 2 %
% % P 5 5 1% 5 4'/L 3% 2 M
5 I% 5 4% 3% 2 I
Ring 1% 6 4% 3% 2 1H
Rmg I 7 4% 3% 2% 1%
Ring 2 7% 5 3v4 2% I%
Ring 2% 8 5% 3% 2% I%
Ring 2% 9 5% Y 2% 1%
R~ng 2% Rmg 5% 3% 2% I%
Rina 2: Rine 5% 4 2% I%
13 ~ i 4 2'' ~tng 6 4 2% 2 Sourcs Barnard R E Del pn Slodards lot Steel Water em Sourca Barnard R F Derqn Sfaoaardr for Srnr Wafer Prpe
14 K~ng 2% R~ng 6% 4K 2% 2% J O UAWWA
~ 40 1 24 (Jan Igr8) Jwr AWWA. 40 I 24 (Jan 19481
15% Ring 3 Ring 6% 4%. 2% 2% See Tables 13-8 and 13-9
NOTES: Figure 13-18 Reinforcing Pad for ~ a~ped Figure 13-19 Nipple With Cap
1. Dimensions shown abwc are in inches.
2. F i l k ~wclds shall mcct the min~mumrcquiremcnts ofthe American Institute of Steel Construction Sprcikation cxccpt as Opening
follows: Filkt urlds shall be K ~ n minimum
. cxccpl when urld~ngto 'A.m. stccl pipe shcll where the) shall be YM in.
3. Use thcu dtmcnsions ullh Finurc 13-17 and Tabk 13-6.
4. Scc xction 13.10 for dcstgn &nditions,
WHOLE OR PART LEN
OF DRESSER COUPL
stud bolts I-in. diameter and larger have 8 UN thrcads per inch. Maximum bolt stress FORM
allowable is 40 000 psi, based on:
PIPE ENTRAN
) , (D - 0.9743
bolt tensile stress a m = 0.7854

Where:

N = number of threads per inch.

Source Blrtwd. R E Drssgn SlrnnUards lor Sled W m r Rp.. SWrca Barnerd. R E Design Smndards lor Srw W8far Pw.
Harness l u g arc normally spaced equally around the pipe. In assembling the harness, Jour A W A . 40 1 24 (Jan t9r81 J W c AWWA. 4O 124 (Jon 19481
the nuts shall be tightened gradually and equally until snug to prevent misalignment and to Figure 13-20 Flanged Connection for Figure 13-21 Wall Connection Using
ensure that all studs carry equal loads. Thc threads of the studs shall protrude a minimumof Screw-Joint Pipe Coupling
2 in. from the nuts when the piping is pressurized.
The pressures shown in Tablc 13-bare the maximum that the harnesses arcdesigned to
withstand. The design pressure must include an anticipated allowance for surge prcssurc.
The field-test pressure must never exceed the design prcssurc.

13.11 SPECIAL AND VALVE CONNECTIONS AND OTHER

APPURTENANCES -
Special connections are shown in Fi$rc 13-18 (with Tables 13-8 and 13-9), Figures 13-19
through 13-22(wirh Table 13-IO),and Figure 13-23(with Tablc 13-1 1). Some cxamplcsof
vault and manhole design are shown in Figures 13-24 through 13-26. Figures 13-27 and
13-28 illustrarc blow-offconncctions. Figure 13-29 shows a relief-valve manifold layout.
Special tapping machines for mains under prcssurc are availahlc and have k n used for Source Barnard R E Dcrogn Sfanaardslor Sfwl Wafer Am Swrca Bbm8ld. R E Dssngn Slaodards Iw St*, WBmr Ptm
many years Figure 13-30 illustrates the method. The reinforcing pad is eliminated unless JOUIA W A 40 1 74 fJan 19481 Jwr A W A 40 1 24 (Jan 19481

pressure requires it. The ourlet is ordinarily a piece of extra-hcav!.. standard-wight p i p Rgure 13-22 Extra-Heavy Half Coupling Figure 13-23 Thredolets
w ~ t han ..\\T'WA standard plare flange atrachcd. Thc tapptng \ a h is special and allows Welded t o Pipe a s Threaded Outlet
proper clcarancr for rhc curtcr on the drdling machlnr
154 STI.1:LPII'I: .

Table 13-7 Dimensions of Joint Harness Tie Bdts or Studs ancl Lugs for R u k r Casketed joints
- - - - -- -- --
Stud Hok
Diamctcr T T!pe A Y lr X HB E !IF Dtamcter
% H P 3% 5 I% 5 3% 3 2 %
% % P 5 5 1% 5 4'/L 3% 2 M
5 I% 5 4% 3% 2 I
Ring 1% 6 4% 3% 2 1H
Rmg I 7 4% 3% 2% 1%
Ring 2 7% 5 3v4 2% I%
Ring 2% 8 5% 3% 2% I%
Ring 2% 9 5% Y 2% 1%
R~ng 2% Rmg 5% 3% 2% I%
Rina 2: Rine 5% 4 2% I%
13 ~ i 4 2'' ~tng 6 4 2% 2 Sourcs Barnard R E Del pn Slodards lot Steel Water em Sourca Barnard R F Derqn Sfaoaardr for Srnr Wafer Prpe
14 K~ng 2% R~ng 6% 4K 2% 2% J O UAWWA
~ 40 1 24 (Jan Igr8) Jwr AWWA. 40 I 24 (Jan 19481
15% Ring 3 Ring 6% 4%. 2% 2% See Tables 13-8 and 13-9
NOTES: Figure 13-18 Reinforcing Pad for ~ a~ped Figure 13-19 Nipple With Cap
1. Dimensions shown abwc are in inches.
2. F i l k ~wclds shall mcct the min~mumrcquiremcnts ofthe American Institute of Steel Construction Sprcikation cxccpt as Opening
follows: Filkt urlds shall be K ~ n minimum
. cxccpl when urld~ngto 'A.m. stccl pipe shcll where the) shall be YM in.
3. Use thcu dtmcnsions ullh Finurc 13-17 and Tabk 13-6.
4. Scc xction 13.10 for dcstgn &nditions,
WHOLE OR PART LEN
OF DRESSER COUPL
stud bolts I-in. diameter and larger have 8 UN thrcads per inch. Maximum bolt stress FORM
allowable is 40 000 psi, based on:
PIPE ENTRAN
) , (D - 0.9743
bolt tensile stress a m = 0.7854

Where:

N = number of threads per inch.

Source Blrtwd. R E Drssgn SlrnnUards lor Sled W m r Rp.. SWrca Barnerd. R E Design Smndards lor Srw W8far Pw.
Harness l u g arc normally spaced equally around the pipe. In assembling the harness, Jour A W A . 40 1 24 (Jan t9r81 J W c AWWA. 4O 124 (Jon 19481
the nuts shall be tightened gradually and equally until snug to prevent misalignment and to Figure 13-20 Flanged Connection for Figure 13-21 Wall Connection Using
ensure that all studs carry equal loads. Thc threads of the studs shall protrude a minimumof Screw-Joint Pipe Coupling
2 in. from the nuts when the piping is pressurized.
The pressures shown in Tablc 13-bare the maximum that the harnesses arcdesigned to
withstand. The design pressure must include an anticipated allowance for surge prcssurc.
The field-test pressure must never exceed the design prcssurc.

13.11 SPECIAL AND VALVE CONNECTIONS AND OTHER

APPURTENANCES -
Special connections are shown in Fi$rc 13-18 (with Tables 13-8 and 13-9), Figures 13-19
through 13-22(wirh Table 13-IO),and Figure 13-23(with Tablc 13-1 1). Some cxamplcsof
vault and manhole design are shown in Figures 13-24 through 13-26. Figures 13-27 and
13-28 illustrarc blow-offconncctions. Figure 13-29 shows a relief-valve manifold layout.
Special tapping machines for mains under prcssurc are availahlc and have k n used for Source Barnard R E Dcrogn Sfanaardslor Sfwl Wafer Am Swrca Bbm8ld. R E Dssngn Slaodards Iw St*, WBmr Ptm
many years Figure 13-30 illustrates the method. The reinforcing pad is eliminated unless JOUIA W A 40 1 74 fJan 19481 Jwr A W A 40 1 24 (Jan 19481

pressure requires it. The ourlet is ordinarily a piece of extra-hcav!.. standard-wight p i p Rgure 13-22 Extra-Heavy Half Coupling Figure 13-23 Thredolets
w ~ t han ..\\T'WA standard plare flange atrachcd. Thc tapptng \ a h is special and allows Welded t o Pipe a s Threaded Outlet
proper clcarancr for rhc curtcr on the drdling machlnr
 T&le 13-8 Plate Dimensions and Drill Sizes for Reinforced Tapped Openings (See Figure 13-18)

SIX or Dnll I)imcn~ionrof Platc

S I Xof 1'1pc Tap for Pipc Tap T "
M
In. In. in. ra
244N C-1 MANHOLE
H '%I 'A I 'h FnAME AND COVER
'/I ZY12 '4 I 'R
W I'/, b
Ih IM
I 11'9 Ih 2 vn
I 'h I 'R '12 2 'h
I 'h I W'I '/I 3
2 2 YM vz 3 '/I
2 '/I 2% W 4 'h
3 3 '14 314 5
3 '4 3 '/* 'A 5 'h FL
4 4 '/i A
' 6
'D~amctcrof plate pad bcforc C U I V I ~to~ fit outs& d PIP. .
Snrtrce. Barmrd, R.E Dcr~gnStaxlards for Steel U'atcr Pipe. Jnn.AU'K'A. 40:1:24 (Jan. 1948). LOCATE OVER
OPERATING NU
Table 13-10 Dimensions of Extra-Heavy
Half-Couplings(See Figure 13-22)
Table 13-9 Maximum Size of Threaded
Openings for G i n Size PipeWith Reinforcing
Pads (See Figure 13-18) Overall Dimensions
Coupling Size
in. P
rn. B
I"
Plrn
Pipc Size Maximum S i x Tsppcd Opening* STREET
rn. m. 'h*

1 IN 12 IN.
.- 7
'/4
12 Yr 2 Y? 11.44 I
14 3
I 70 I ' .:
I '14 2 07 I 1%
16 3 YI
18 3 VI I V? 2.31 I 14
.
20 4 2
2 'h
2.81
3.31 I 10
I "m
*Forsiria larger than given, u x rhcconnmion show in 3 4.00 I 'lr
Figurn 13-19, 13-20. or 13-22. 3 '4 4.63 261'‘'
Sotmc brnard. R.E. W i n Stands& for S t e l Wa~cr 4 5.13 2 '11.
Pipe.J a r . AK'W, *1:24 (Jan. 1948).
'Secure thex r t m hy hushing down E-m. coupling.
Source: Barnard. R.E Dcsign Standards fbr Stccl T a m
pipe.]^?. AllTl3,40.1:24 (Jan. 1948).
Table 13-11 Dimensions Fig. Thredolets (See Figure 13-23)

DRAINHOLE ~4-INDIAM.3

Soacre Goor 1 F S f M Rmlrnc Aou,renawes Jour AWWA 41 1 47 (Jan 19491

Figure 13-24 Casing and Removable Two-Piece Roof
 T&le 13-8 Plate Dimensions and Drill Sizes for Reinforced Tapped Openings (See Figure 13-18)

SIX or Dnll I)imcn~ionrof Platc

S I Xof 1'1pc Tap for Pipc Tap T "
M
In. In. in. ra
244N C-1 MANHOLE
H '%I 'A I 'h FnAME AND COVER
'/I ZY12 '4 I 'R
W I'/, b
Ih IM
I 11'9 Ih 2 vn
I 'h I 'R '12 2 'h
I 'h I W'I '/I 3
2 2 YM vz 3 '/I
2 '/I 2% W 4 'h
3 3 '14 314 5
3 '4 3 '/* 'A 5 'h FL
4 4 '/i A
' 6
'D~amctcrof plate pad bcforc C U I V I ~to~ fit outs& d PIP. .
Snrtrce. Barmrd, R.E Dcr~gnStaxlards for Steel U'atcr Pipe. Jnn.AU'K'A. 40:1:24 (Jan. 1948). LOCATE OVER
OPERATING NU
Table 13-10 Dimensions of Extra-Heavy
Half-Couplings(See Figure 13-22)
Table 13-9 Maximum Size of Threaded
Openings for G i n Size PipeWith Reinforcing
Pads (See Figure 13-18) Overall Dimensions
Coupling Size
in. P
rn. B
I"
Plrn
Pipc Size Maximum S i x Tsppcd Opening* STREET
rn. m. 'h*

1 IN 12 IN.
.- 7
'/4
12 Yr 2 Y? 11.44 I
14 3
I 70 I ' .:
I '14 2 07 I 1%
16 3 YI
18 3 VI I V? 2.31 I 14
.
20 4 2
2 'h
2.81
3.31 I 10
I "m
*Forsiria larger than given, u x rhcconnmion show in 3 4.00 I 'lr
Figurn 13-19, 13-20. or 13-22. 3 '4 4.63 261'‘'
Sotmc brnard. R.E. W i n Stands& for S t e l Wa~cr 4 5.13 2 '11.
Pipe.J a r . AK'W, *1:24 (Jan. 1948).
'Secure thex r t m hy hushing down E-m. coupling.
Source: Barnard. R.E Dcsign Standards fbr Stccl T a m
pipe.]^?. AllTl3,40.1:24 (Jan. 1948).
Table 13-11 Dimensions Fig. Thredolets (See Figure 13-23)

DRAINHOLE ~4-INDIAM.3

Soacre Goor 1 F S f M Rmlrnc Aou,renawes Jour AWWA 41 1 47 (Jan 19491

Figure 13-24 Casing and Removable Two-Piece Roof
 158 STEEL PIPE SUPPLF..\lENTARY I)ESIGN DETAILS 159

24-IN MANHOLE

LADDER RUNGS
-f;-

CUT TO FIT OVER

VALVE BONNET

6 IN.

GRAVEL-FILLEDDRAINHOLE 14IN I AND POCKET Source God L E SIN1 Ptpdmc ApDvnmanceJ Jour A W A . For tangent-lype blowoll, see Figure 9-1.
41.1 471J.n 1949)

Sourre God L E Steel Popalms App,purlsnanc.* Jwr A W A . 41 1 47 (Jan 1949) Figure 1 3 - 2 7 Blowoff With Riser for flgure 1 3 - 2 8 B l o w o R Connection
Figure 1 3 - 2 5 Section of Casing GMng Access to Gate Valve Qaring Attaching Pump S e c t i o n

BLIND FLANGE
LIFTING

l&IN GATE VALVES 1

, 58 FT 5 IN. ,
I
-t
0 \

HANDLE WELD
ALL AROUND
COTTER PIN

Hlnged-Cover T y p
Source Goof L E St"! P m h m A~purlanmcesJoul AWWA. 41 1 47 (Jan 19491

Figure 13-26 Access M a n h o l e Figure 1 3 - 2 9 M a n i f o l d Layout of Reliefvalves and Pressure R e g u l a t o r s

---.-. .. .- .-.. - . -
 158 STEEL PIPE SUPPLF..\lENTARY I)ESIGN DETAILS 159

24-IN MANHOLE

LADDER RUNGS
-f;-

CUT TO FIT OVER

VALVE BONNET

6 IN.

GRAVEL-FILLEDDRAINHOLE 14IN I AND POCKET Source God L E SIN1 Ptpdmc ApDvnmanceJ Jour A W A . For tangent-lype blowoll, see Figure 9-1.
41.1 471J.n 1949)

Sourre God L E Steel Popalms App,purlsnanc.* Jwr A W A . 41 1 47 (Jan 1949) Figure 1 3 - 2 7 Blowoff With Riser for flgure 1 3 - 2 8 B l o w o R Connection
Figure 1 3 - 2 5 Section of Casing GMng Access to Gate Valve Qaring Attaching Pump S e c t i o n

BLIND FLANGE
LIFTING

l&IN GATE VALVES 1

, 58 FT 5 IN. ,
I
-t
0 \

HANDLE WELD
ALL AROUND
COTTER PIN

Hlnged-Cover T y p
Source Goof L E St"! P m h m A~purlanmcesJoul AWWA. 41 1 47 (Jan 19491

Figure 13-26 Access M a n h o l e Figure 1 3 - 2 9 M a n i f o l d Layout of Reliefvalves and Pressure R e g u l a t o r s

---.-. .. .- .-.. - . -
 Freezing in Underground P i p e s
The freezing of water in buricd pipes is usually due to thecoolingoithc surrounding soil to a
p i n t below 32OF (O°C). Soil-temperature variations are related to now of hcat in soils. Air
temperature is the most important factor affecting soil tcmpcraturc and frost penetration.
The most common method of expressing the seasonal effect of air tempcraturcs on
water is the freczing indcx? The indcx is the cumulative total of d c g m d a y s below the
frcczing point in any winter. In this context, a degree-day is a unit representing 1degree (F)
of difference below 32OF in the mean outdoor tcmperature for one day. Values for
midwinter days having tcrnperatures above freezing-that is, negative degrec-days-are
subtracted from the total.
Temperature data for many localities are availabkRA dccign curve relating frost-depth
pcnctrarion to thc freczing index is shown in Figure 13-31. Thccurve wasdcvcloptd by thc
C S Army Corps of ~ n g i n c e r slo~from
~ an analysis of frost penctration rccords of the
northern Unitcd States. The data on the sevcral soils in Figurc 13-31 are from obscrrations
made at Ottawa, 0nt.7
Experimental work on the subject of frost penetration7 indicates that:
Theoretical equations for computation of frost dcpth are not free from error. The
Corps of Engineers design curve (Figure 13-31) is thc best aid currently ava~lablefor
estimating frost penetration.
Procedure ,an weld oullel and saddle to man gbb boll on gale valve adapler 11requared and drtllmg machme. c Insert Frost penetration is significantly greater in disturbed soil than in undisturbed soil.
lwl and dr~llhole an mam. d wblhdraw 1001. close gate. and remove machine Water pipes may safely be placed at less dcpth in clay soils than m sandy soils. Frost
penctratlon has becn found about 1% times as deep in sand as in clay.
figure 13-30 Tapping Main Under Pressure
hlaximum frost penetration may occur several weeks before or aftcr the freczing index
for a winter reachcs a maximum. Water mains have frozcn as late ac June in Winnipeg,
Alan.
Frost penctratesdccper in soils on hillsides with northern exposure than in thoscwith
13.12 FREEZING IN PIPELINES southern cxposurc.
Dependence on the saying that "running water doesn't freeze" is bad design practice. water * Cndisturbed continuous snow cover has rcduced frost penctntion in the Ottawa
in a pipeline will freeze, running or not, if its temperature drops a fraction ofa degree helow climate by an amount cqual to or greater than the snow-cover thickness.
32OF (0°C). If the water is losing its heat to the surrounding medium in a gircn locality, it
will freeze if not moved out of that locality before its temperature d r o p helow 32OF (0%).
1W
In this sense, the running of the watcr is important in that warmcr watcr is running in to
replace the water that is near freezing. Under some circumstances, agitated watcr may not 80
turn to ice even when the temperature is as low as 28O to 29OF (-2.2O to -l.i°C), but this
condition cannot be predicted or dcpcnded on. The only safe condition is one where the
z w
Z M
watcr tcmpcrature stays above 32OF (O°C) with a margin, i f p s i b l c , of l o or tOF(0.S' or I!
1%) against contingencies. The heat added to the moving \rater as a result of frictional 2 40

resistance to flow is negligible for large pipe with low vclac~tics,but it may k considerable I
y 30
for small pipe with high velocities. ul

Calculations rclative to the prcvcption of frcczing in pipclincr arc bawd on thc same *
gcncral principles of hcat transmission and loss that govern similar calculations applled to p
'" 20

buildings and othcr installations. It is wcll established that cornplctc frcczing of water
occurs whcn 144 Btu of hcat pcr pound of watcr IS cxtractcd after the temperature of the
mass has becn lowered to 32OF (O°C). Also, with certain cxccptions, the ratioof the weight 10
of watcr existing as ice to the weight of liquid water at any time during cooling is directly m 403 6W 1000 2000 4MX) 6000
proportional to thc ratioofthe British thermal unlts per pound withdrawn mthc 144 Btu per FREEZING INDEX. DEGREE DAYS
pound rcquircd for complete frcczing.
\Yarer containing only ice particlcs (frazil or nerdlc lcr) may c a w w i o u s trouble Measurements were made in Ollawa. Ont . 1947-51 R~ghtend of each hortzonlal floe mttcales martmum lrosl depth at
hecaurc these can quickly block a ppclinc b? adhcr~ngto talvcs or an! minor oh\truct~on\. marlmum lrntng mdex lell enu mdncales lreezlng mdea a tlme ol maxtmurn Irost d ~ p l h 0 relet, lo measurements made ~n
li\pcrlrnce ~nd~carcs that the uatcr mu\t hc malntalncJ ;11 ahout 32 l o lo 32S°F sand ~nlewolaled O m clay mervolaled X In sand by excavallon ,. and +tn clay by excavamn
(0OhC ro 0 3°(:) to avo~dtrouhlc Figure 13-31 Maximum Frost Penerr~tionand Maximum freezing Index
 Freezing in Underground P i p e s
The freezing of water in buricd pipes is usually due to thecoolingoithc surrounding soil to a
p i n t below 32OF (O°C). Soil-temperature variations are related to now of hcat in soils. Air
temperature is the most important factor affecting soil tcmpcraturc and frost penetration.
The most common method of expressing the seasonal effect of air tempcraturcs on
water is the freczing indcx? The indcx is the cumulative total of d c g m d a y s below the
frcczing point in any winter. In this context, a degree-day is a unit representing 1degree (F)
of difference below 32OF in the mean outdoor tcmperature for one day. Values for
midwinter days having tcrnperatures above freezing-that is, negative degrec-days-are
subtracted from the total.
Temperature data for many localities are availabkRA dccign curve relating frost-depth
pcnctrarion to thc freczing index is shown in Figure 13-31. Thccurve wasdcvcloptd by thc
C S Army Corps of ~ n g i n c e r slo~from
~ an analysis of frost penctration rccords of the
northern Unitcd States. The data on the sevcral soils in Figurc 13-31 are from obscrrations
made at Ottawa, 0nt.7
Experimental work on the subject of frost penetration7 indicates that:
Theoretical equations for computation of frost dcpth are not free from error. The
Corps of Engineers design curve (Figure 13-31) is thc best aid currently ava~lablefor
estimating frost penetration.
Procedure ,an weld oullel and saddle to man gbb boll on gale valve adapler 11requared and drtllmg machme. c Insert Frost penetration is significantly greater in disturbed soil than in undisturbed soil.
lwl and dr~llhole an mam. d wblhdraw 1001. close gate. and remove machine Water pipes may safely be placed at less dcpth in clay soils than m sandy soils. Frost
penctratlon has becn found about 1% times as deep in sand as in clay.
figure 13-30 Tapping Main Under Pressure
hlaximum frost penetration may occur several weeks before or aftcr the freczing index
for a winter reachcs a maximum. Water mains have frozcn as late ac June in Winnipeg,
Alan.
Frost penctratesdccper in soils on hillsides with northern exposure than in thoscwith
13.12 FREEZING IN PIPELINES southern cxposurc.
Dependence on the saying that "running water doesn't freeze" is bad design practice. water * Cndisturbed continuous snow cover has rcduced frost penctntion in the Ottawa
in a pipeline will freeze, running or not, if its temperature drops a fraction ofa degree helow climate by an amount cqual to or greater than the snow-cover thickness.
32OF (0°C). If the water is losing its heat to the surrounding medium in a gircn locality, it
will freeze if not moved out of that locality before its temperature d r o p helow 32OF (0%).
1W
In this sense, the running of the watcr is important in that warmcr watcr is running in to
replace the water that is near freezing. Under some circumstances, agitated watcr may not 80
turn to ice even when the temperature is as low as 28O to 29OF (-2.2O to -l.i°C), but this
condition cannot be predicted or dcpcnded on. The only safe condition is one where the
z w
Z M
watcr tcmpcrature stays above 32OF (O°C) with a margin, i f p s i b l c , of l o or tOF(0.S' or I!
1%) against contingencies. The heat added to the moving \rater as a result of frictional 2 40

resistance to flow is negligible for large pipe with low vclac~tics,but it may k considerable I
y 30
for small pipe with high velocities. ul

Calculations rclative to the prcvcption of frcczing in pipclincr arc bawd on thc same *
gcncral principles of hcat transmission and loss that govern similar calculations applled to p
'" 20

buildings and othcr installations. It is wcll established that cornplctc frcczing of water
occurs whcn 144 Btu of hcat pcr pound of watcr IS cxtractcd after the temperature of the
mass has becn lowered to 32OF (O°C). Also, with certain cxccptions, the ratioof the weight 10
of watcr existing as ice to the weight of liquid water at any time during cooling is directly m 403 6W 1000 2000 4MX) 6000
proportional to thc ratioofthe British thermal unlts per pound withdrawn mthc 144 Btu per FREEZING INDEX. DEGREE DAYS
pound rcquircd for complete frcczing.
\Yarer containing only ice particlcs (frazil or nerdlc lcr) may c a w w i o u s trouble Measurements were made in Ollawa. Ont . 1947-51 R~ghtend of each hortzonlal floe mttcales martmum lrosl depth at
hecaurc these can quickly block a ppclinc b? adhcr~ngto talvcs or an! minor oh\truct~on\. marlmum lrntng mdex lell enu mdncales lreezlng mdea a tlme ol maxtmurn Irost d ~ p l h 0 relet, lo measurements made ~n
li\pcrlrnce ~nd~carcs that the uatcr mu\t hc malntalncJ ;11 ahout 32 l o lo 32S°F sand ~nlewolaled O m clay mervolaled X In sand by excavallon ,. and +tn clay by excavamn
(0OhC ro 0 3°(:) to avo~dtrouhlc Figure 13-31 Maximum Frost Penerr~tionand Maximum freezing Index
 SCPPL.EhlENTARY DESIGN DETAILS 163

Freezing in Exposed Pipes

Water in exposed pipelines will freeze when the available heat represented by thedegrcesof
water tcmpcrature above the freezing point (320F,0°C) has been lost. Heat loss may bedue
to radiation; to convection; and to conduction through the pipe u d l and insulation, if any, Table 13-12 Heat Balance Factors
and through the water film adjacent to the pipe wall. Data have been The heat -
balance is illustrated by Figure 13-32. The heat input is equal to HI + H2,with HI being the Terminology and Required Data
British thermal units pcr square foot ofexposed pipeline per hour available from the Specif% Svmhol hkaninz Unit I Svmbal Mrsnin# t lnir
heat of water above 32OFat the inlet end, and H2being the British thermal units per square
foot of pipe pcr hour generated by frictional energy. (Equations for HI and H 2 arc givcn in
Table 13-12.) The heat losses are givcn by: T* uater temp. at p i p OF v velocity
inkt C frinwn coefliintt
Ti u-rm fmzing temp. OF abs. = 492 flict~bss: ft/1000 ft
Tz air temp. "F ah.* 1000 it
& temp. differenrial OF L wall thiclolw in.
bcturtn air and t' insulatm thiclncu in.
-
uater (T, T2) k pipe wall thermal Btu/fr'/hr/
OFh.
I' wind ve!&ry mph conduniviry
Equations for values of factors and explanation of symbols arcgiven inTable 13-12. Values callicient
of exponential powers of D and v are given in Table 13-13. Values for conduction heat- Pipeline k' insulation thermal
transfer, cmissivity factors, and wind velocity factors arc givcn in Tables 13-14.13-15, and cunducrivity
oafficicnt
13- 16, respectively. E emissivity (pipe
diametert wall. insulationl

Herr-Lass Fmon
Hear transfer^
by ndiition

-'k
L'
by conduction (through insulation)

by d u n i o n (through p i p urll)
Table 13-13 Values of D and v
through umr film
v
D Avcm
Pipe Diameter Water ~ c k i t ~ -
in. Do] /PI ,.@I Heat-Input Facton
= I325Q(T, - 32) heat nwilabk due to temp. of water
12 1.6 2 17 Dl above 32OF
I8 18 3 24
24 19 4 30 HI s hear generated by friction
36 20 5 36 D
48 2I 6 42
8 53 *Equals 460 plus air tempmture in degrm Fahrenheit.
60 22 tlnsidc dtametn for thin urlls; ~vcrsgcdiameter for thick urlls.
72 23 I0 63
12 7.3 :Hazen-Willims formuls.
84 24 F k r degree Fahrenheit diNermt*l.
% 25 I4 83 Sourrt. R~ddick,T.M.; Linduy.N.L.;&TomC.htmio. F m n n g o f Water In Expavd R p e l i ~ . J n n .A1~WA~44211.1035
I6 92
18 10 1 (Nor 199).
10 11 0
.
S m r Riddck. T h4 ;L m d y . S L & Tomas%i.Anton10 Frecztng nf I i t c r tn F ~ p c Piprltnn
d Jnur A tT'Vi9.42 11 1035
(Nov. 19501
 SCPPL.EhlENTARY DESIGN DETAILS 163

Freezing in Exposed Pipes

Water in exposed pipelines will freeze when the available heat represented by thedegrcesof
water tcmpcrature above the freezing point (320F,0°C) has been lost. Heat loss may bedue
to radiation; to convection; and to conduction through the pipe u d l and insulation, if any, Table 13-12 Heat Balance Factors
and through the water film adjacent to the pipe wall. Data have been The heat -
balance is illustrated by Figure 13-32. The heat input is equal to HI + H2,with HI being the Terminology and Required Data
British thermal units pcr square foot ofexposed pipeline per hour available from the Specif% Svmhol hkaninz Unit I Svmbal Mrsnin# t lnir
heat of water above 32OFat the inlet end, and H2being the British thermal units per square
foot of pipe pcr hour generated by frictional energy. (Equations for HI and H 2 arc givcn in
Table 13-12.) The heat losses are givcn by: T* uater temp. at p i p OF v velocity
inkt C frinwn coefliintt
Ti u-rm fmzing temp. OF abs. = 492 flict~bss: ft/1000 ft
Tz air temp. "F ah.* 1000 it
& temp. differenrial OF L wall thiclolw in.
bcturtn air and t' insulatm thiclncu in.
-
uater (T, T2) k pipe wall thermal Btu/fr'/hr/
OFh.
I' wind ve!&ry mph conduniviry
Equations for values of factors and explanation of symbols arcgiven inTable 13-12. Values callicient
of exponential powers of D and v are given in Table 13-13. Values for conduction heat- Pipeline k' insulation thermal
transfer, cmissivity factors, and wind velocity factors arc givcn in Tables 13-14.13-15, and cunducrivity
oafficicnt
13- 16, respectively. E emissivity (pipe
diametert wall. insulationl

Herr-Lass Fmon
Hear transfer^
by ndiition

-'k
L'
by conduction (through insulation)

by d u n i o n (through p i p urll)
Table 13-13 Values of D and v
through umr film
v
D Avcm
Pipe Diameter Water ~ c k i t ~ -
in. Do] /PI ,.@I Heat-Input Facton
= I325Q(T, - 32) heat nwilabk due to temp. of water
12 1.6 2 17 Dl above 32OF
I8 18 3 24
24 19 4 30 HI s hear generated by friction
36 20 5 36 D
48 2I 6 42
8 53 *Equals 460 plus air tempmture in degrm Fahrenheit.
60 22 tlnsidc dtametn for thin urlls; ~vcrsgcdiameter for thick urlls.
72 23 I0 63
12 7.3 :Hazen-Willims formuls.
84 24 F k r degree Fahrenheit diNermt*l.
% 25 I4 83 Sourrt. R~ddick,T.M.; Linduy.N.L.;&TomC.htmio. F m n n g o f Water In Expavd R p e l i ~ . J n n .A1~WA~44211.1035
I6 92
18 10 1 (Nor 199).
10 11 0
.
S m r Riddck. T h4 ;L m d y . S L & Tomas%i.Anton10 Frecztng nf I i t c r tn F ~ p c Piprltnn
d Jnur A tT'Vi9.42 11 1035
(Nov. 19501
Table 13-14 Conduction Heat-Transfer Values Example of calculation. Problcm: An exposed, uninsulated steel pipeline is 48 in.
in diameter, 0.25-in. thick, 10 000-ft long, and has a C factor of 140. Will this line freeze
Assumed Thickness Heat Transfer Value when carrying 25 mgd of water entering the pipe at 35OF,with an outside air tcmpcraturcof
Suhstancc L' in. Rrdf1'/hP~ -S°F, and a 35-mph wind blowing?
R p #nor"&
Stccl For the conditions given:
Cast irm
CaKrctc Q=25,TW=35.D=48,l= 10,/=0.55,~=3.I,&=492-[460+(-5)]=37, V=35.
Wood slave
Aluminum Snlurion:
Ashcnm ccmcnt
Inn~luta
Dry air
Heat input equals HI+ H2.
Watcr
Icc 48(10)
-
HI = 1325(25) (35 322= 207 Bru/ft2/h
RiR magncsta
"Foamal&'t -. uL
'Bru ycr squarc h o t prr hour pcr dcgrcc Fahrcnhot drffcrcn~ralpcr inch th~ckncssof mtcr~al.
+A prduct of Panhurgh Carnrng Cnrp. Plttshurgh, k
Snrtrrr Rtdd~ck.TA1 .Lindsay, X L .&Tomass~,AntonioFmnngof U'atcrin E x p d P~prlmcs. Jmr .-1Il.1:9.42 11.1035
(No! 19%)
Hcar losses-calcrlarcd using Eq 13-7:

Table 13-t5 G n i s s ~ t yFactors

Emissivity Fanw
Marcrial E
Asphaltic p i n t (hlxk) 0.9
U h t c c1umel 0.9
Aluminum p i n t 0.4
Cnc imn 0.7
U'ood (dreued) 0.9
A s k t a cement 0.9
Aluminum A .

h, + h,, = 0.5 + 3.4 = 3.9

Table 13-16 Wlnd Velocity Facton

Factor
U'ind Velait!
mrh
..

Because the h e n input is 207.5 Btu/ft2/h and the heat loss is 140 Btu/ft2/h, the
pipeline is safe against freezing under the design conditions. Further calculation shows that,
for the same temperature conditions, heat input and heat loss are equal the pipeline is
about 14 800 ft long and the velocity is 3.1 ips; or, stated conversely, the \.clocity in the
10 00041 line could he as low as about 2.1 fps before ice might form near the outlet.
Table 13-14 Conduction Heat-Transfer Values Example of calculation. Problcm: An exposed, uninsulated steel pipeline is 48 in.
in diameter, 0.25-in. thick, 10 000-ft long, and has a C factor of 140. Will this line freeze
Assumed Thickness Heat Transfer Value when carrying 25 mgd of water entering the pipe at 35OF,with an outside air tcmpcraturcof
Suhstancc L' in. Rrdf1'/hP~ -S°F, and a 35-mph wind blowing?
R p #nor"&
Stccl For the conditions given:
Cast irm
CaKrctc Q=25,TW=35.D=48,l= 10,/=0.55,~=3.I,&=492-[460+(-5)]=37, V=35.
Wood slave
Aluminum Snlurion:
Ashcnm ccmcnt
Inn~luta
Dry air
Heat input equals HI+ H2.
Watcr
Icc 48(10)
-
HI = 1325(25) (35 322= 207 Bru/ft2/h
RiR magncsta
"Foamal&'t -. uL
'Bru ycr squarc h o t prr hour pcr dcgrcc Fahrcnhot drffcrcn~ralpcr inch th~ckncssof mtcr~al.
+A prduct of Panhurgh Carnrng Cnrp. Plttshurgh, k
Snrtrrr Rtdd~ck.TA1 .Lindsay, X L .&Tomass~,AntonioFmnngof U'atcrin E x p d P~prlmcs. Jmr .-1Il.1:9.42 11.1035
(No! 19%)
Hcar losses-calcrlarcd using Eq 13-7:

Table 13-t5 G n i s s ~ t yFactors

Emissivity Fanw
Marcrial E
Asphaltic p i n t (hlxk) 0.9
U h t c c1umel 0.9
Aluminum p i n t 0.4
Cnc imn 0.7
U'ood (dreued) 0.9
A s k t a cement 0.9
Aluminum A .

h, + h,, = 0.5 + 3.4 = 3.9

Table 13-16 Wlnd Velocity Facton

Factor
U'ind Velait!
mrh
..

Because the h e n input is 207.5 Btu/ft2/h and the heat loss is 140 Btu/ft2/h, the
pipeline is safe against freezing under the design conditions. Further calculation shows that,
for the same temperature conditions, heat input and heat loss are equal the pipeline is
about 14 800 ft long and the velocity is 3.1 ips; or, stated conversely, the \.clocity in the
10 00041 line could he as low as about 2.1 fps before ice might form near the outlet.
I66 STEEt. PIPE SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAlLS 167

Warming of Water in Exposed Pipelines Therefore, the stress in the line is the same as that which would exist if it were stretched by
the same amount that it would shorten if it were free to do so. This is a conservative
In desert areas and in the tropics it may be desirable to determine the rise in water assumption. Few pipelinn are perfectly straight between anchor points, and temperature
temperature caused by exposure of pipe to sun and wind. In this case, the heat input is changes are usually gradual, so most lines actually can change their kngth by a small
calculated in accordance with the same basic principles of hcat transfer used to dctcrmine amount, relieving the thermal stress somewhat. T o calculate thermal stress:
heat losses in lines undergoing cooling. The values of factors to be used in theequations in a
given instance should be determined locally. Data applicable tocalculation of hcat loads for Shortening due to temperature change U ris found as:
air-conditioning and cooling units may bc helpful.
(1) -
TI T2=AT
13.13 DESIGN OF CIRCUMFERENTIAL FILLET WELDS -=
lLT AT(K)
L
Any wcld that is continuous will contain water, so wcld size is insignificant from a xal-weld
aspect. Once wclded, the weld must withstand any longitudinal forces applied to it; LC., it (2) ALr = L (AT) (K)
docs not behave as an unstressed seal weld, since it is the only restraint that prevents motion Elongation due to longitudinal tension .U, is found as:
ofthe pipe a! the joint. In areas of a pipeline not affected by pipelinc features that give rise to
longitudinal stresses (elbows, valves, reducers, etc.), the only longitudinal stress normally
encountered is due tochange in temperature or tobcam bending from uneven settlement of
the pipeline. T o minimize longitudinal stresses, it is customary in specifications to call for
one joint rvery 400-500 ft to be left unwcldcd until the joints on both sides oiit are welded.
This joint IS later welded at the coolest time during the working day. Determinationofweld
size then is as follows (see Figure 13-33): According to the assumption above:
AL, (stress elongarion) = ALT (temperature shortening)
1 = lillet wcld leg size (in.)
p = throat dimension (in.) Substituting (2) into (4):
AT = temperature change (OF)
T = temperature (OF) (5) J L , = J L r
K = constant linear cocfticicnt of thermal expansion for steel
5 6.33 x in./inPF
L = length of pipelinc (ft)
.U = change in length (ft)
E = Young's modulus = 30 X I d psi
Sp = stress in pipe wall (psi)
S, = stress in weld (psi)
t = pipe wall (in.).

Assume an anchored straight pipeline is welded at a temperature TI.The temperature Sp = JT(6.33 x lo4) (30x I@)= JT(189.9 psi)
is then reduced to T2.The pipelinc would then tend to reduce in length by an amount that is For 40°F change in temperature:
a function of TI-T2, L, and K. Since the ends are anchored, it cannot changcits-length.
Sp = 189.9(40) = 7596 psi (stress in pipe wall)

Gtkularia for filltr s k :

The wcld must carry its load through its least dimension (its throat). T o be
conservative, assume no penetration at the throat. The full force of a unit kngth of pipe wall
in the circumferential direction must be carried by a unit length of fillet wcld throat also
measured in the circumferential direction. Call this unit length 2.

Figure 13-33 Fillet Nomenclature

I66 STEEt. PIPE SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAlLS 167

Warming of Water in Exposed Pipelines Therefore, the stress in the line is the same as that which would exist if it were stretched by
the same amount that it would shorten if it were free to do so. This is a conservative
In desert areas and in the tropics it may be desirable to determine the rise in water assumption. Few pipelinn are perfectly straight between anchor points, and temperature
temperature caused by exposure of pipe to sun and wind. In this case, the heat input is changes are usually gradual, so most lines actually can change their kngth by a small
calculated in accordance with the same basic principles of hcat transfer used to dctcrmine amount, relieving the thermal stress somewhat. T o calculate thermal stress:
heat losses in lines undergoing cooling. The values of factors to be used in theequations in a
given instance should be determined locally. Data applicable tocalculation of hcat loads for Shortening due to temperature change U ris found as:
air-conditioning and cooling units may bc helpful.
(1) -
TI T2=AT
13.13 DESIGN OF CIRCUMFERENTIAL FILLET WELDS -=
lLT AT(K)
L
Any wcld that is continuous will contain water, so wcld size is insignificant from a xal-weld
aspect. Once wclded, the weld must withstand any longitudinal forces applied to it; LC., it (2) ALr = L (AT) (K)
docs not behave as an unstressed seal weld, since it is the only restraint that prevents motion Elongation due to longitudinal tension .U, is found as:
ofthe pipe a! the joint. In areas of a pipeline not affected by pipelinc features that give rise to
longitudinal stresses (elbows, valves, reducers, etc.), the only longitudinal stress normally
encountered is due tochange in temperature or tobcam bending from uneven settlement of
the pipeline. T o minimize longitudinal stresses, it is customary in specifications to call for
one joint rvery 400-500 ft to be left unwcldcd until the joints on both sides oiit are welded.
This joint IS later welded at the coolest time during the working day. Determinationofweld
size then is as follows (see Figure 13-33): According to the assumption above:
AL, (stress elongarion) = ALT (temperature shortening)
1 = lillet wcld leg size (in.)
p = throat dimension (in.) Substituting (2) into (4):
AT = temperature change (OF)
T = temperature (OF) (5) J L , = J L r
K = constant linear cocfticicnt of thermal expansion for steel
5 6.33 x in./inPF
L = length of pipelinc (ft)
.U = change in length (ft)
E = Young's modulus = 30 X I d psi
Sp = stress in pipe wall (psi)
S, = stress in weld (psi)
t = pipe wall (in.).

Assume an anchored straight pipeline is welded at a temperature TI.The temperature Sp = JT(6.33 x lo4) (30x I@)= JT(189.9 psi)
is then reduced to T2.The pipelinc would then tend to reduce in length by an amount that is For 40°F change in temperature:
a function of TI-T2, L, and K. Since the ends are anchored, it cannot changcits-length.
Sp = 189.9(40) = 7596 psi (stress in pipe wall)

Gtkularia for filltr s k :

The wcld must carry its load through its least dimension (its throat). T o be
conservative, assume no penetration at the throat. The full force of a unit kngth of pipe wall
in the circumferential direction must be carried by a unit length of fillet wcld throat also
measured in the circumferential direction. Call this unit length 2.

Figure 13-33 Fillet Nomenclature

 The wcld metal ir as strong as the parent mctal, soconsider the allowable strcss to hc I5 000 watcr as it leaves the assembly way. Alternatively, the pipc may be capped toexclude water,
pci ( %yield) in the pipe wall. then concrete weighted or coated to overcome its bouyancy. The pi}* lengths arc welded in
continuous strings. The completcd pipe string is transfcrrcd to launchways (Figure 13-34),
which lead to the sea. Once shore assembly is complete, the reinforced head of thc pipe
string isattached toa pull barge by wire ropeand pulled along the bottom by a winch until it
for A?' = 40°F is in position (Figure 13-35).
A variation of the bottom-pull method is the floating-string method of pipe
S, = 7596 psi installation. The line is initially assembled in long segments and transferred to the
launchways. It is then pulled off the launchway by a tug, floated out to location, and sunk
(Figure 13-36). Individual strings arc connected by divers, as in the pipe laying method, or
strings are joined by picking up the end of the last piece installed and putting it on a deck of a
spccial tie-in platform, where the connection to thc beginning of the next string is made.

leg size then is: -------

NOTE: In areas where a valve anchor block or other pipeline appurtcnances can
introduce tcnsion into the line, the tension due to the appurtenances should bc checked to
determine if it cstahlished the minimum Iillet size. These axial stresses can nevcrcxcccd half
the hoop strcss cauxd by internal pressure. That tcnsion and the thermal tension are not
additive hccausc the tensioncanonly exist if thc pipe is not restrained, and the thermal strcss
can only exist if it is restrained. The greater tcnsion applies for design purposes. See k c . 1.6. TIE-IN STATION . . .

13.14 SUBMARINE PIPELINES Source Haydm W M 6 R s u h y k P J E~n0my8MOlher~y)nConwdtral~onr(w~LI1peham~IerRpeI1~

ROC S t ~ l n l N N nHNtDutOnprm
fK Vraam IngcnoeurmrptMsAwJ Anrmrp. Belp~um119711
The t v w of construction used has a great influence on design and on total costs of a swem.
A bri;idiscussion of different available construction tcchiiques will illustrate thcir;ffcct. Figure 13-34 Submarine Pipeline-Assembly a n d h u n c h i n g
There are basically two systems for constructing submarine pipelines: pipe-laying systcms
and pipe-pulling s>5tcrns.
Pipe Laying
In a pipe-laying system, the pipe is transported hy water to the laying platform, which is a
barge equipped primarily with a heavy cranc and horse. The horse is a winch capable of PIPFON LAUNCHWAY, (WINCH ON BARGE .
moving on skid bcams in two directions with cables extending vertically downward into the
watcr. On arrival at the job site, the cranc picks up the pipc segment and holds it while the
horsc is centered above it. The pipe, once attached to the horse, is lowred to the bottom.
Divers report the position of the segment in relation to the completed r c c t m bcforc ~ tand
,
the horse is moved up and down, forward and backward, and sideways until the spigot end
..
lines up with the k l l end of the completed scction.
Pipe Pulling
Pipe pulling has been crolved by theoil industry through rivers, hays,and open occan. The
pip-pulling method requires pipe capable of uithstanding thc tcnsdc ctrcw\ developed
during the pulling oycrarion. The method is usually wed with stecl ptpe hccauw of these
high tcncilc wcscec.
A ~tccl-pipepullinpo~rationhcginson assemhly waysc<tahl~\hcda\horc, on u hich all
the pipe I< ccratcd and u r a p p d . To prcvcnt f l o a t q . thc pipe ma\ hc .illnurtl tn till ~ ~ t h
 The wcld metal ir as strong as the parent mctal, soconsider the allowable strcss to hc I5 000 watcr as it leaves the assembly way. Alternatively, the pipc may be capped toexclude water,
pci ( %yield) in the pipe wall. then concrete weighted or coated to overcome its bouyancy. The pi}* lengths arc welded in
continuous strings. The completcd pipe string is transfcrrcd to launchways (Figure 13-34),
which lead to the sea. Once shore assembly is complete, the reinforced head of thc pipe
string isattached toa pull barge by wire ropeand pulled along the bottom by a winch until it
for A?' = 40°F is in position (Figure 13-35).
A variation of the bottom-pull method is the floating-string method of pipe
S, = 7596 psi installation. The line is initially assembled in long segments and transferred to the
launchways. It is then pulled off the launchway by a tug, floated out to location, and sunk
(Figure 13-36). Individual strings arc connected by divers, as in the pipe laying method, or
strings are joined by picking up the end of the last piece installed and putting it on a deck of a
spccial tie-in platform, where the connection to thc beginning of the next string is made.

leg size then is: -------

NOTE: In areas where a valve anchor block or other pipeline appurtcnances can
introduce tcnsion into the line, the tension due to the appurtenances should bc checked to
determine if it cstahlished the minimum Iillet size. These axial stresses can nevcrcxcccd half
the hoop strcss cauxd by internal pressure. That tcnsion and the thermal tension are not
additive hccausc the tensioncanonly exist if thc pipe is not restrained, and the thermal strcss
can only exist if it is restrained. The greater tcnsion applies for design purposes. See k c . 1.6. TIE-IN STATION . . .

13.14 SUBMARINE PIPELINES Source Haydm W M 6 R s u h y k P J E~n0my8MOlher~y)nConwdtral~onr(w~LI1peham~IerRpeI1~

ROC S t ~ l n l N N nHNtDutOnprm
fK Vraam IngcnoeurmrptMsAwJ Anrmrp. Belp~um119711
The t v w of construction used has a great influence on design and on total costs of a swem.
A bri;idiscussion of different available construction tcchiiques will illustrate thcir;ffcct. Figure 13-34 Submarine Pipeline-Assembly a n d h u n c h i n g
There are basically two systems for constructing submarine pipelines: pipe-laying systcms
and pipe-pulling s>5tcrns.
Pipe Laying
In a pipe-laying system, the pipe is transported hy water to the laying platform, which is a
barge equipped primarily with a heavy cranc and horse. The horse is a winch capable of PIPFON LAUNCHWAY, (WINCH ON BARGE .
moving on skid bcams in two directions with cables extending vertically downward into the
watcr. On arrival at the job site, the cranc picks up the pipc segment and holds it while the
horsc is centered above it. The pipe, once attached to the horse, is lowred to the bottom.
Divers report the position of the segment in relation to the completed r c c t m bcforc ~ tand
,
the horse is moved up and down, forward and backward, and sideways until the spigot end
..
lines up with the k l l end of the completed scction.
Pipe Pulling
Pipe pulling has been crolved by theoil industry through rivers, hays,and open occan. The
pip-pulling method requires pipe capable of uithstanding thc tcnsdc ctrcw\ developed
during the pulling oycrarion. The method is usually wed with stecl ptpe hccauw of these
high tcncilc wcscec.
A ~tccl-pipepullinpo~rationhcginson assemhly waysc<tahl~\hcda\horc, on u hich all
the pipe I< ccratcd and u r a p p d . To prcvcnt f l o a t q . thc pipe ma\ hc .illnurtl tn till ~ ~ t h
170 S T E E L PIPI:.

Index

Am-and-vacuum valves, 98-99 requtrcmcnts of. 115

Air entrainment and release, 33 sclcct~onof. 115-17
Air-release 'alves, 98-99 Cald \\orktng, 10, 12-13
Alr venting, 129 Collapc-rcs~%toncc of steel p i p , 39
Amencan Watcr Works Association standards for Collan, 134-35
coatings and Itnings, 117-19 collar plate, 136-40
Anchor rlngs, 96, 151 dc~ign.136-38
Anchors, 127-28 Compactton
RELEASED TO LOWER PIPE Appurtcnanccs SN ..\lcchan~calcompactton
Srr Fitttngs and appunenanm foottngs, 80
C~nnccttons
Concrete
SOWGO Wayden W M 6Pmseckvf P J E c ~ s ~ O t h c r D e y g n C o n s ~ O e r a t t ~ t ~ ~ L a r g e O ~ a mPt rmr Smmlern
R ~ t ~ n HarbcurCongrerr Aqueducts
(K Vfaam Ingenlsvrsverpubbshsrl Anfwsrp Be@wn (197rj economical diameter of p i p , 32-33 hloaoff, 97
Aswnbly of ptpe. 125-26 flanged, 97
Rsure 13-36 S u b m a r i n e Pipeline-floating S t r i n g Positioning Atmospheric cormsion. I1 1 spectal, 154
to other ptpe matcrial, 96
Backfill Corrosion
Scr PIF-zone bedding and backfill allonancc, 39
Lay Barge Beddtng atmosphcrtc, I 11
Smaller diameter pipelines are sometimes laid tosea o r across rivers from a lay barge, which Sm Ply-zone bedding and backfill htochcmral, 108
Bell-and-%pigot joints, 86, 127 bondtng of joints. l I2
has on-board facilities for welding pipc sections together. The pipc string is fed over the e n d
Bending stress of steel, 8 cathodlc protection, I 11-12
o f t h e barge as the barge moves along t h e route o f t h e pipeline, adding pipe as i t goes. T h e B~ochcmtcalcorrosion, 108 control methods. I1 1
p i p e undergoes bending s r r e s x s a s i t is laid, s o t h e barge should include quality-control Blouoff connections, 97 crc\'tce, 109
facilities for checking the roundness o f t h e circumferential welds. Bolt hok pos~tion.95 elccrrolyr~c,107
Bouquet Canyon pipeline, 4 galranic, 102. 104
Boussinesq equation. 62-63 tntcrnal of steel pipe, l 1 I
Brittle fracture, 12-13 o \ c n leu., 101
References Brtrtk material, 4 seventy of, 109
Buckling, 61-62 roll tnvestigations, 109-110
1. ASME Cnfired Prnsure Vclrcl Cak. 9. R e p n on Frost Penetration (1944115). Bulkheads, I29 stress and fatigue, 108
2. SUANSOS,H.S. ET AL. Dcllgn of U'y US Army 6 r p s of Engrs.. N c r England
Branches for Steel hpc.Jour. A U T A , wr\c!., 113
Dic., Boston (1947). Calculattons theory, 101
47:6581 (June 19551. 10. Addendum KO. 1, 1945-47. Repon on
3. Specdicatlons for Alloy-Steel and Stain- Frost Pemtration (1944-45). US Army angle of fabricated p i p bend, 132-33 Couplings
less Steel Bolting .\latcnrts for High- G r p s of Engn., Sew England Dir., collar design, 136-38 grwr cd-and-shouldered, 89-90
Temperature S e r v ~ c .ASThl Standard Boston (1949). definition of symbols, 34 slcc\c. 88-89
A193-80. ASThl.Ph~l&lphm. Pa.(1980). 11. Rloorcr. T.h4.; LINDCAY,N.L.: k entrance head loss. 26 Cm\tcr corroston, 109
4. Spec~ficat~ons for Grbon and Alloy Stccl T o v ~ s sA
~ s, ~ n s r o Frccztng
. of Water flow through fittings, 27-28,32
Nuts for Bolts for ~ t ~ h - ~ a sa ud k in Exposed Pipelines. Jnur. ACIf'A, now through pipe, 26 Dcn\~fication,128
Htgh-Tcmpcraturc Sen=. ASTM S t a d - 42:11:1035 War. 1950). frccxing m exposed p i p , I65 Dcstgn
ard A194-80. AST.\l. Philadelphta, Pa.
(I 980). The jnlloft'ing references arc not cited in loss of head through friction, 26 Scr Plpe design
5. Spectfications for L o r and lntermcdtatc rhr r n r . losxs due to elbows, fittings, and valves, 2 6 2 7 Distribution system
Tensile Strenpth Grbon Steel Plates. - B ~ ~ N A RRDE.. ' k n p Standards for
S~cclWater Ptpe Jmr. .4lt"U.A, 40 1.24
nomograph, 141, 144-47
pressure rise, 55-56
economical diameter of p t p , 32-33
Ducttle material, 3
Shapes and Bars. ASTM Standard A283-
79 AST.\I, Ph~ladclphu.Pa (1979) (Jan 1948). vcloc~tyhead loss, 26 Ducttlttv of stccl, 3-4
6. Spectficauon lor Structural Stccl .4STM - GOIT.L E Steel Plpeline Appurtenances
Jnur. AWV'A. 41.1 47 (Jan. 1949).
urapper dcstgn, 138-40
Carhodtc protection, 111-13
ducttltty tn dcstgn, 10
Standard A36-77 ASTM, Phtlrdclphls. effect\ of cold working on, 10, 12
Pa (1977). - HFRTZBERG. L B Suggested Nontech-
ntcal Manual on Corroston for Water
Charpy V-notch impact test, 13-14
7. LEGGET.R.F. b. C R ~ ~ F O RCOB . Sod Chcck analysis, 20 Economical d~amctcrof p i p , 32-33
Tcmpcraturcs tn U atrr Works Practtce Works Orrraton k u r . A W r A . 48 6 7 19 Coattngs and Itnings Elast~c-plamcrange of steel, 6 7
Jmir. A11'11':4.44 10 923 f Oct l WZl appltcatlon of, 119 Elastlc~ty
8 Hcattnp. Vcnt~lar~n~ and Air-Cnnditionmp AWWA standards, 117-19 SCC.\lodulus of elasticity of stccl
G u ~ d cAmcr Sw Iicattn~and Atr Con-
.
dtt~nntnpEngn \cu York ovcr\tcu. I I5
rccon~mcndat~ons. 119
Elcctrtc fuston nclding. 16. 19
Elcctrtc rcwtancc wcUtng. 16
170 S T E E L PIPI:.

Index

Am-and-vacuum valves, 98-99 requtrcmcnts of. 115

Air entrainment and release, 33 sclcct~onof. 115-17
Air-release 'alves, 98-99 Cald \\orktng, 10, 12-13
Alr venting, 129 Collapc-rcs~%toncc of steel p i p , 39
Amencan Watcr Works Association standards for Collan, 134-35
coatings and Itnings, 117-19 collar plate, 136-40
Anchor rlngs, 96, 151 dc~ign.136-38
Anchors, 127-28 Compactton
RELEASED TO LOWER PIPE Appurtcnanccs SN ..\lcchan~calcompactton
Srr Fitttngs and appunenanm foottngs, 80
C~nnccttons
Concrete
SOWGO Wayden W M 6Pmseckvf P J E c ~ s ~ O t h c r D e y g n C o n s ~ O e r a t t ~ t ~ ~ L a r g e O ~ a mPt rmr Smmlern
R ~ t ~ n HarbcurCongrerr Aqueducts
(K Vfaam Ingenlsvrsverpubbshsrl Anfwsrp Be@wn (197rj economical diameter of p i p , 32-33 hloaoff, 97
Aswnbly of ptpe. 125-26 flanged, 97
Rsure 13-36 S u b m a r i n e Pipeline-floating S t r i n g Positioning Atmospheric cormsion. I1 1 spectal, 154
to other ptpe matcrial, 96
Backfill Corrosion
Scr PIF-zone bedding and backfill allonancc, 39
Lay Barge Beddtng atmosphcrtc, I 11
Smaller diameter pipelines are sometimes laid tosea o r across rivers from a lay barge, which Sm Ply-zone bedding and backfill htochcmral, 108
Bell-and-%pigot joints, 86, 127 bondtng of joints. l I2
has on-board facilities for welding pipc sections together. The pipc string is fed over the e n d
Bending stress of steel, 8 cathodlc protection, I 11-12
o f t h e barge as the barge moves along t h e route o f t h e pipeline, adding pipe as i t goes. T h e B~ochcmtcalcorrosion, 108 control methods. I1 1
p i p e undergoes bending s r r e s x s a s i t is laid, s o t h e barge should include quality-control Blouoff connections, 97 crc\'tce, 109
facilities for checking the roundness o f t h e circumferential welds. Bolt hok pos~tion.95 elccrrolyr~c,107
Bouquet Canyon pipeline, 4 galranic, 102. 104
Boussinesq equation. 62-63 tntcrnal of steel pipe, l 1 I
Brittle fracture, 12-13 o \ c n leu., 101
References Brtrtk material, 4 seventy of, 109
Buckling, 61-62 roll tnvestigations, 109-110
1. ASME Cnfired Prnsure Vclrcl Cak. 9. R e p n on Frost Penetration (1944115). Bulkheads, I29 stress and fatigue, 108
2. SUANSOS,H.S. ET AL. Dcllgn of U'y US Army 6 r p s of Engrs.. N c r England
Branches for Steel hpc.Jour. A U T A , wr\c!., 113
Dic., Boston (1947). Calculattons theory, 101
47:6581 (June 19551. 10. Addendum KO. 1, 1945-47. Repon on
3. Specdicatlons for Alloy-Steel and Stain- Frost Pemtration (1944-45). US Army angle of fabricated p i p bend, 132-33 Couplings
less Steel Bolting .\latcnrts for High- G r p s of Engn., Sew England Dir., collar design, 136-38 grwr cd-and-shouldered, 89-90
Temperature S e r v ~ c .ASThl Standard Boston (1949). definition of symbols, 34 slcc\c. 88-89
A193-80. ASThl.Ph~l&lphm. Pa.(1980). 11. Rloorcr. T.h4.; LINDCAY,N.L.: k entrance head loss. 26 Cm\tcr corroston, 109
4. Spec~ficat~ons for Grbon and Alloy Stccl T o v ~ s sA
~ s, ~ n s r o Frccztng
. of Water flow through fittings, 27-28,32
Nuts for Bolts for ~ t ~ h - ~ a sa ud k in Exposed Pipelines. Jnur. ACIf'A, now through pipe, 26 Dcn\~fication,128
Htgh-Tcmpcraturc Sen=. ASTM S t a d - 42:11:1035 War. 1950). frccxing m exposed p i p , I65 Dcstgn
ard A194-80. AST.\l. Philadelphta, Pa.
(I 980). The jnlloft'ing references arc not cited in loss of head through friction, 26 Scr Plpe design
5. Spectfications for L o r and lntermcdtatc rhr r n r . losxs due to elbows, fittings, and valves, 2 6 2 7 Distribution system
Tensile Strenpth Grbon Steel Plates. - B ~ ~ N A RRDE.. ' k n p Standards for
S~cclWater Ptpe Jmr. .4lt"U.A, 40 1.24
nomograph, 141, 144-47
pressure rise, 55-56
economical diameter of p t p , 32-33
Ducttle material, 3
Shapes and Bars. ASTM Standard A283-
79 AST.\I, Ph~ladclphu.Pa (1979) (Jan 1948). vcloc~tyhead loss, 26 Ducttlttv of stccl, 3-4
6. Spectficauon lor Structural Stccl .4STM - GOIT.L E Steel Plpeline Appurtenances
Jnur. AWV'A. 41.1 47 (Jan. 1949).
urapper dcstgn, 138-40
Carhodtc protection, 111-13
ducttltty tn dcstgn, 10
Standard A36-77 ASTM, Phtlrdclphls. effect\ of cold working on, 10, 12
Pa (1977). - HFRTZBERG. L B Suggested Nontech-
ntcal Manual on Corroston for Water
Charpy V-notch impact test, 13-14
7. LEGGET.R.F. b. C R ~ ~ F O RCOB . Sod Chcck analysis, 20 Economical d~amctcrof p i p , 32-33
Tcmpcraturcs tn U atrr Works Practtce Works Orrraton k u r . A W r A . 48 6 7 19 Coattngs and Itnings Elast~c-plamcrange of steel, 6 7
Jmir. A11'11':4.44 10 923 f Oct l WZl appltcatlon of, 119 Elastlc~ty
8 Hcattnp. Vcnt~lar~n~ and Air-Cnnditionmp AWWA standards, 117-19 SCC.\lodulus of elasticity of stccl
G u ~ d cAmcr Sw Iicattn~and Atr Con-
.
dtt~nntnpEngn \cu York ovcr\tcu. I I5
rccon~mcndat~ons. 119
Elcctrtc fuston nclding. 16. 19
Elcctrtc rcwtancc wcUtng. 16

Elrctrolytrc corrmion, 107
Entrance head loss, 26
Expanston loina, 80
Extenor prnm, 57
External load
buckling, 61-62
computer programs, 63
dcflcction determination, 58-61
extreme conditions, 62-63
load determination, 57-58
normal prpe installations, 62
External pressure
applfcd calculations, 39-40
atmosphcrc or flutd environments, 39
Fatrgue corrosion
Srr Strcss and fatigue corrosion
held-wcldcd ioints, 126-27
Frllct uclds, 166-68
Fttttngs and appurtenances, 95-99
dc\tgnatton, 93.95
o\cr\icw, 93
rccommcndattons, 99
rernforccmcnt, 134-35
tc.ttng. 95
Flanged connections, 97
Flanges, 89
Flou through littinp, 27-28.32
Flou through ptpc. 26
Franure mcchan~cs,12-13-
Frccnng in ptpelrnes
c x p v d p~pes.162, 165
orcrvicw. 160
underground p i p , 161
Frrcttonal resistance
soil-ptpe, %
Galvanic corrosion, 102, IOJ
Ga\kcts, 86.89
Ha7cn-Williams formula. 21-22
Head loss through friction. 26
Srr dv Calculations
Hcrman Schorcr design. TI-72
Hoop stress, h6
H!draulics
air entrainment and relcau. 33
calculartons. 26-28, 32
dcfintt~onof srmhols. 34
cconom~cald~amctcrof p~pe,32-3)
formula\. 21-22
o\rr\teu, 21
rccommcridatrons. 33-34
H!dro\tattc ficld tcst
atr \enttng. 129
allouahlc Irakape. I'M
hulkhead\. 120
ltcld trwnp lcmvnt-mortar-lrncd p l y . 120
,n'r\tcu. 129
INDEX 173
Installation crotch-plate, 140-41 Sleeve couplrnps, 88
anchors and thrust blocks. 127-28 fitttngs rernforccment, 134-35 ptpc la!out, 88-89
aswmhly of ptpe, 125-26 frcemg in ptpeltncs, 160-62, 165-66 Slip 1t11nts.87
hcll-and-spigot ruhhcr-paskct joints, 127 jo~ntharnesses, 151, 154 Sod-p~pcfrrcttonal resistance, 96
field coating of jotnts, 128 nomograph, 141, 144-47 Stccl p1pc
ficld-welded pints, 12627 pipeline layout. 131-32 desgn wcsscs. I
handling and laytng, 123. 125 spectal connections, 154 ductrl~ryand ytcld strength, 3-4, 10, 12
hydrostat~cfield tcst. 129-30 submarme pipelines, 168-70 h ~ ~ t o r1-2
y,
overvtu., 121 thrust restraint, 147-49 tntcrnal corrmion of, I t I
pipe-zone hcdding and backfill, 128-29 Prpe iotnts Lock-Bar, 1-2
Insulating ioints, 98 See Jornts phystcal characteristics. 3
Interior prlsm. 57 Pipe wall thickness rccommcndatrons, 15
Iowa deflcctron formula. 58-62 corroston allowance, 39 rrwcd. 1
external pressure, 39-40 stccl ~clcct~on,14-15
Jornts tntcrnal prcssurc, 36-37 strcngth. 10, I2
abovcground condrttons. 91 mlnrmum, 40 strcsq and stram. 4-9
hcll-and-sptgot, 86, I27 orwvicu~,36 structural dcsrgn. I 2
hondtng of, 112 prcssurc limtts. 38 tcnston stress and yield strength, 37-38
elpanston and cnntracnon, 70-91 recommendattons, 40 uses, 2
field coatmg. 128 tolerance, 38-39 ucldcd. 2
ficld-ucldcd. I2627 vs. srtffcning rings, 67-68 Stcuart formula. 40
ground frlnton and ltnc tension, 91-92 worktng tension stress in steel, 37-38 Strength of stccl
insulatrng, 98 Pipe-mnc hcdding and backlill cffccts of cold working on, 10, I 2
ovcrncu, 86 denstfication, 128 Strcss and fat~guccorrosion, 108
rccommendatmns. 92 hydraulic consolidation, 128-29 Stress and stram of steel, 4-7
slip, 87------------____ intcrtor hncing of pipe, 129 analysts based on strain, 8-9
stuffing-hox expansion. 91 mechanical compaction, 128 hcndtng strcss, 8
underground condrtions. 90 overview, 128 hoop strcss, 66
wclded, 87-88 trench hack811 above pipe zone, 129 pipe shell, 72-73
Pocketing, 71 ring grrdcr. 73-74
Ladle analysis, 19-20 Pressure Irmitr, 38 shear stress, 12-13
Lay harp, 170 Pressure surge strarn In dcsrgn, 7-8
Linings See Watcr hammer tension stress, 37-38
Scr Coatings and linings Pressure uavc velocity. 53 Strtnpcing of s~ectptpe, 122
Live-load cficn. 60 Stuffinp-box expanston ioinr, 91
Load Ring-girder construction Submartnc ptpelines
Srr Exrernal load assembling pipe, 80 lay bar~e,170
Lock-Bar ptpe, 1-2 concrete footings, 80 over\icw, 168
design facton,
continuous pipelines,
74 76-77 ptpe layrng, I68
Manholes. 97-98 p i p pullrng, 168-69
Manning formula. 22 expansion ioints, 80 Supports
Manufanurc of we1 p~pe Herman Schorer design, 71-72 gradrcnt to prevent pocketing. 71
clcctre fuuon ucldrng. 16. 19 installatton of spans, 78 ovcrvtcw. 66
clcctrtc rcwtance uclding. 16 low-prcssurc pipe, 77 ptpe dcllcct~onas hcam, 70
Marston thcory. 57-50 pipe half full, 74.76 ring-ptrdcr constructton, 71-74.76-78,80
Mechamcal companion. 128 stress in pipe shell, 72-73 saddle, 66-69
M m l u l u ~of cla\rtoty of wcl. h stress in rrog girder, 73-74 Surge-ua\c theory, 51-54
hfndulu\ of \oil rcacttnn. W-61 Riveted pipe. I
Rubber gaskets, 8 6 , d Tcnsmn strcss of steel ptpe, 37-38
. .. Sa dle supports
Testrng of steel ptpe
check analyst<, 20
Penstocks, 37 /&a1 load. 67 chcmtcal propcrtrcs, 19-20
ccnnnmtcal dramctcr of prpe, 32-31 hoop strcss, 66 dimcn\ional proyrtics, 20
I ' t y dcflcct~onar beam, 70 maximum saddle, 68-69 hydrostatic tc\t, 20
calc ulatron mcthmls, 70-il spans, 66 ladlc analyvs, 19-20
Prpc devpn wall rhrckness vs. srtffcning rings, 67.-68 phystcal propcrtrcs, 20
anchor rmgs. IT1 Scohcy formula, 22 Thrust block\, 127-28
a n ~ l cof Idhr~ntcdptpe hmd. 132-33 Shcar wc\s, 12-1 3
orrunrlcrrtit~allillcr arldr. 166-hR

Elrctrolytrc corrmion, 107
Entrance head loss, 26
Expanston loina, 80
Extenor prnm, 57
External load
buckling, 61-62
computer programs, 63
dcflcction determination, 58-61
extreme conditions, 62-63
load determination, 57-58
normal prpe installations, 62
External pressure
applfcd calculations, 39-40
atmosphcrc or flutd environments, 39
Fatrgue corrosion
Srr Strcss and fatigue corrosion
held-wcldcd ioints, 126-27
Frllct uclds, 166-68
Fttttngs and appurtenances, 95-99
dc\tgnatton, 93.95
o\cr\icw, 93
rccommcndattons, 99
rernforccmcnt, 134-35
tc.ttng. 95
Flanged connections, 97
Flanges, 89
Flou through littinp, 27-28.32
Flou through ptpc. 26
Franure mcchan~cs,12-13-
Frccnng in ptpelrnes
c x p v d p~pes.162, 165
orcrvicw. 160
underground p i p , 161
Frrcttonal resistance
soil-ptpe, %
Galvanic corrosion, 102, IOJ
Ga\kcts, 86.89
Ha7cn-Williams formula. 21-22
Head loss through friction. 26
Srr dv Calculations
Hcrman Schorcr design. TI-72
Hoop stress, h6
H!draulics
air entrainment and relcau. 33
calculartons. 26-28, 32
dcfintt~onof srmhols. 34
cconom~cald~amctcrof p~pe,32-3)
formula\. 21-22
o\rr\teu, 21
rccommcridatrons. 33-34
H!dro\tattc ficld tcst
atr \enttng. 129
allouahlc Irakape. I'M
hulkhead\. 120
ltcld trwnp lcmvnt-mortar-lrncd p l y . 120
,n'r\tcu. 129
INDEX 173
Installation crotch-plate, 140-41 Sleeve couplrnps, 88
anchors and thrust blocks. 127-28 fitttngs rernforccment, 134-35 ptpc la!out, 88-89
aswmhly of ptpe, 125-26 frcemg in ptpeltncs, 160-62, 165-66 Slip 1t11nts.87
hcll-and-spigot ruhhcr-paskct joints, 127 jo~ntharnesses, 151, 154 Sod-p~pcfrrcttonal resistance, 96
field coating of jotnts, 128 nomograph, 141, 144-47 Stccl p1pc
ficld-welded pints, 12627 pipeline layout. 131-32 desgn wcsscs. I
handling and laytng, 123. 125 spectal connections, 154 ductrl~ryand ytcld strength, 3-4, 10, 12
hydrostat~cfield tcst. 129-30 submarme pipelines, 168-70 h ~ ~ t o r1-2
y,
overvtu., 121 thrust restraint, 147-49 tntcrnal corrmion of, I t I
pipe-zone hcdding and backfill, 128-29 Prpe iotnts Lock-Bar, 1-2
Insulating ioints, 98 See Jornts phystcal characteristics. 3
Interior prlsm. 57 Pipe wall thickness rccommcndatrons, 15
Iowa deflcctron formula. 58-62 corroston allowance, 39 rrwcd. 1
external pressure, 39-40 stccl ~clcct~on,14-15
Jornts tntcrnal prcssurc, 36-37 strcngth. 10, I2
abovcground condrttons. 91 mlnrmum, 40 strcsq and stram. 4-9
hcll-and-sptgot, 86, I27 orwvicu~,36 structural dcsrgn. I 2
hondtng of, 112 prcssurc limtts. 38 tcnston stress and yield strength, 37-38
elpanston and cnntracnon, 70-91 recommendattons, 40 uses, 2
field coatmg. 128 tolerance, 38-39 ucldcd. 2
ficld-ucldcd. I2627 vs. srtffcning rings, 67-68 Stcuart formula. 40
ground frlnton and ltnc tension, 91-92 worktng tension stress in steel, 37-38 Strength of stccl
insulatrng, 98 Pipe-mnc hcdding and backlill cffccts of cold working on, 10, I 2
ovcrncu, 86 denstfication, 128 Strcss and fat~guccorrosion, 108
rccommendatmns. 92 hydraulic consolidation, 128-29 Stress and stram of steel, 4-7
slip, 87------------____ intcrtor hncing of pipe, 129 analysts based on strain, 8-9
stuffing-hox expansion. 91 mechanical compaction, 128 hcndtng strcss, 8
underground condrtions. 90 overview, 128 hoop strcss, 66
wclded, 87-88 trench hack811 above pipe zone, 129 pipe shell, 72-73
Pocketing, 71 ring grrdcr. 73-74
Ladle analysis, 19-20 Pressure Irmitr, 38 shear stress, 12-13
Lay harp, 170 Pressure surge strarn In dcsrgn, 7-8
Linings See Watcr hammer tension stress, 37-38
Scr Coatings and linings Pressure uavc velocity. 53 Strtnpcing of s~ectptpe, 122
Live-load cficn. 60 Stuffinp-box expanston ioinr, 91
Load Ring-girder construction Submartnc ptpelines
Srr Exrernal load assembling pipe, 80 lay bar~e,170
Lock-Bar ptpe, 1-2 concrete footings, 80 over\icw, 168
design facton,
continuous pipelines,
74 76-77 ptpe layrng, I68
Manholes. 97-98 p i p pullrng, 168-69
Manning formula. 22 expansion ioints, 80 Supports
Manufanurc of we1 p~pe Herman Schorer design, 71-72 gradrcnt to prevent pocketing. 71
clcctre fuuon ucldrng. 16. 19 installatton of spans, 78 ovcrvtcw. 66
clcctrtc rcwtance uclding. 16 low-prcssurc pipe, 77 ptpe dcllcct~onas hcam, 70
Marston thcory. 57-50 pipe half full, 74.76 ring-ptrdcr constructton, 71-74.76-78,80
Mechamcal companion. 128 stress in pipe shell, 72-73 saddle, 66-69
M m l u l u ~of cla\rtoty of wcl. h stress in rrog girder, 73-74 Surge-ua\c theory, 51-54
hfndulu\ of \oil rcacttnn. W-61 Riveted pipe. I
Rubber gaskets, 8 6 , d Tcnsmn strcss of steel ptpe, 37-38
. .. Sa dle supports
Testrng of steel ptpe
check analyst<, 20
Penstocks, 37 /&a1 load. 67 chcmtcal propcrtrcs, 19-20
ccnnnmtcal dramctcr of prpe, 32-31 hoop strcss, 66 dimcn\ional proyrtics, 20
I ' t y dcflcct~onar beam, 70 maximum saddle, 68-69 hydrostatic tc\t, 20
calc ulatron mcthmls, 70-il spans, 66 ladlc analyvs, 19-20
Prpc devpn wall rhrckness vs. srtffcning rings, 67.-68 phystcal propcrtrcs, 20
anchor rmgs. IT1 Scohcy formula, 22 Thrust block\, 127-28
a n ~ l cof Idhr~ntcdptpe hmd. 132-33 Shcar wc\s, 12-1 3
orrunrlcrrtit~allillcr arldr. 166-hR
 T h r u ~ forces
t
Valvcs, 98-99
roll rcswanm to, 127-28
unbalanced. 95-96 Velocity head loss, 26
Thrust restraint, 147-49
Tolerance, 38-39 Wall thickness
Set Pipe wall thickness
Transportation
air. 122 warming water in exposed pipeline, 166
Water hammer
handlina, 122
allou.sncc for, 55
loadingand unloading, 122
modcs, 121-22 checklist for pumping mains, 54
cffecl of conduit, 53
overview, 121
cffcct of friction, 53
rail, 121-22
overrieu; 51
stringing, 122
pressure rise calculations, 55-56
truck, 122
studies for, 54-55
water, 122
Trenching sUrg+waW theory rela~ionrhi~, 51-54
welded ioints, 87-88, 126-27
hottom preparation, 123 U'cldcd pipe. 2
depth, 122
ovcrcxcavation, 123 wrappers, 134-35
design, 138-40
regulations, 123
width, 122-23 W c branch dmign, 95, 140-41
nomograph usc in, 141,144-47
om-plate, 145-46
Unbalanced thrust forces, 95-96
threeplate, 147
Vacuum ralrcs two-plate, 146-47
Srr Air-and-vacuum valves
Yield strength of steel, 3-4, 37-38
Young's modulus, 54