VOLUME 2 (M-Z)

THEMES DEPICTED IN WORKS OF ART

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 ENCYCLOPEDIA of
Comparative Iconography
 ENCYCLOPEDIA of
Comparative Iconography
THEMES DEPICTED IN WORKS OF ART

VOLUME 2

M-Z

Editor
Helene E. Roberts

FITZROY DEARBORN PUBLISHERS

CHICAGO LONDON
•

Sausaiito Public Library

Sausalito, California 94S65
 1

Copyright © 1998 by
FITZROY DEARBORN PUBLISHERS

All rights reserved including the right of reproduction in whole or in

part in any form. For information write to:

FITZROY DEARBORN PUBLISHERS

70 East Walton Street
Chicago, Illinois 6061
USA

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All Rights Reserved

ISBN 1-57958-009-2

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data is available.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available.

First published in the USA and UK 1998

Typeset by Proof Positive/Farrowlyne Associates, Inc., Evanston, Illinois

Printed by Braun-Brumfield, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan

Cover illustration:

Joos van Cleve, St. Jerome in His Study, circa 15 24-1 5 30, oil on wood
panel, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University, Fogg Art Museum
(Courtesy of the Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University Art Museums,
Gift of Howland Warren, Dr. Richard P. Warren, and Mrs. Grayson
M. P. Murphy)
 CONTENTS

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ENTRIES page vii

ENCYCLOPEDIA ENTRIES M-Z 537

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS 969
INDEX OF ANCIENT MYTHOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL PERSONAGES, PLACES,
AND CONCEPTS 975
INDEX OF JUDEO-CHRISTIAN PERSONAGES, PLACES, AND CONCEPTS 989
INDEX OF REFERENCES TO THE BIBLE AND OTHER SACRED BOOKS IOOI

INDEX OF OTHER CULTURES, RELIGIONS, AND MYTHOLOGIES IOO7

INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART IOII

INDEX OF AUTHORS, LITERARY TEXTS, COMPOSERS, FILMMAKERS, AND FOLKTALES IO5I

INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS 1065

 ALPHABETICAL LIST
OF ENTRIES

Volume I Calumny by Claire Lindgren

Caricature/Cartoon by Margaret A. Sullivan
Abandonment by Helene E. Roberts
Choice/Choosing by Elizabeth Powers
Abduction/Rape by Andrew Stephen Arbury
Comic by Barry Wind
Abundance by Liana De Girolami Cheney
Communion by Valerie (Hutchinson) Pennanen
Adultery by Sarah S. Gibson
Crucifixion by Alicia Craig Faxon
Annunciation by Don Denny
Apocalypse by Don Denny
Damned Souls by Alicia Craig Faxon and Nancy
Apotheosis/Deification by Claire Lindgren
Frazier
Arms Raised by Dimitri Hazzikostas
Dance/Dancers/Dancing by Alicia Craig Faxon
Artists/Artby Julie F. Codell
Ascent/Descent by Paul Grimley Kuntz and
Dawn/Dawning by Rudolf M. Bisanz
Lee Braver Death by Elaine Shefer
Automata by Karen Pinkus Destruction of City by Eugene Dwyer

Avarice by Priscilla Baumann Devotion/Piety by Rudolf M. Bisanz

Dreams/Visions by Elaine Shefer
Bacchanalia/Orgy by Sarah S. Gibson Drunkenness/Intoxication by Beth S. Gersh-Nesic
Baptism by Don Denny
Bath/Bathing by Alicia Craig Faxon Ecstasy by Valerie (Hutchinson) Pennanen
Beheading/Decapitation by Diane Apostolos- Envy by Eugene Dwyer
Cappadona Evil Eye by Eugene Dwyer

Gina Strumwasser
Betrayal by Excess by Eugene Dwyer
Birth/Childbirth by Beth S. Gersh-Nesic Expulsion by Sarah S. Gibson and Paul Grimley Kuntz
Vlll ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ENTRIES

Fame by Liana De Girolami Cheney Months by Shane Adler

Fatal Woman/FenimeFatale by Alicia Craig Faxon
Female Beauty and Adornment by Elise Goodman
Fools/Folly by Margaret A. Sullivan
Fortune by Liana De Girolami
Kuntz, and Lee Braver
Funeral/Burial by Stephen Lamia
Gaze by Eugene Dwyer
Grieving/Lamentation by Dimitri Hazzikostas
Hair/Haircutting by Alicia Craig Faxon
Hanging by Janice McCullogh
Harvesting by Brucia Witthoft
Music by Yona Pinson
Naked/Nude by Kathryn Moore Heleniak
Cheney, Paul Grimley Night by Stephen Lamia
Nightmare by Petra ten-Doesscbate Chu
Offering by Erica Cruikshank-Dodd
Order/Chaos by Paul Grimley Kuntz and Lee Braver
Path/Road/Crossroads by Christine M. Boeckl
Patronage by Claire Lindgren
Peace by Liana De Girolami Cheney
Peasantry by Margaret A. Sullivan

Hermaphrodite/Androgyne by M. Ann Simmons Penitence/Repentance by Christine M. Boeckl

Honor/Honoring by Liana De Girolami Cheney Physiognomy by Margaret A. Sullivan
Humors by Zirka Zaremba Filipczak Plague/Pestilence by Christine M. Boeckl

Hunting/Hunter/Huntress by Sarah S. Gibson Pointing/Indicating by Fritz Laupichler

Pregnancy by Beth S. Gersh-Nesic
Imagination/Creativity by Liana De Girolami Cheney Protestantism by Christine M. Boeckl

Journey/Flight by Sarah S. Gibson and Alicia Craig

Reading by Alicia Craig Faxon
Faxon
Judaism by Nancy Frazier Sacrifice by Alicia Craig Faxon
Sanctuary by Claudia Hill
Judgment by Andrew Stephen Arbury
Seasons by Shane Adler
Justice by Gina Strumwasser
Self-Portraits I: Men by Christine M. Boeckl
Kiss/Kissing by Alicia Craig Faxon Self-Portraits II: Women by Fredrika Jacobs
Serpent's Bite by Sarah S. Gibson
Shepherds/Shepherdesses by Sarah S. Gibson
Labor/Trades/Occupations by Stephen Lamia
Shipwreck by Alicia Craig Faxon
Labyrinth/Maze by Priscilla Baumann
Laughter by Andrew Stephen Arbury
Sin/Sinning by Christine M. Boeckl
Sleep/Sleeping by Petra ten-Doesschate Chu
Light I:The Lamp in the Niche by Erica
Sport by Karen Pinkus
Cruikshank-Dodd
Sublime by David D. Nolta
Light II: Divine, Natural, and Neon by Helene E.
Roberts
Temptation by Alicia Craig Faxon
Logos/Word by Erica Cruikshank-Dodd
Toilet Scenes by Diane Apostolos-Cappadona
Love and Death by Liana De Girolami Cheney
Luxury by Eugene Dwyer
Upside Down by Janice McCullogh

Vanity/Vanitas by Liana De Girolami Cheney

Volume 2
Vices/Deadly Sins by Liana De
Girolami Cheney
Madness by Fritz Laupichler Virgin/Virginity by Diane Apostolos-Cappadona
Margins/Outsiders by Priscilla Baumann Virtue/Virtues by Liana De Girolami Cheney
Marriage/Betrothal by Brucia Witthoft Visiting/Visitation by Alicia Craig Faxon
Martyrdom by Alicia Craig Faxon Voyeurism by Eugene Dwyer
Masks/Personae by Elaine Shefer
Melancholy by Corinne Mandel Whiteness by Shane Adler
Metamorphosis by Alicia Craig Faxon Widowhood by Karen Pinkus
Mirror/Reflection by Elaine Shefer Witchcraft/Sorcery by Yona Pinson
Misfortune by Fritz Laupichler
Money by Edward J. Nygren Zodiac by Paul Grimley Kuntz
 MADNESS
Fritz Laupichler

The following iconographic narratives and motifs are covered in the discussion of the theme Madness:

HERCULES JESUS HEALING THE REALISTIC DEPICTIONS OF

POSSESSED AT GERASA MADNESS
AJAX
ATHAMAS DAVID PLAYING THE HARP MODERN DEPICTIONS OF
TO CURE SAUL MADNESS
OTHER GREEK AND ROMAN
MYTHS SAINTS HEALING MADNESS LITERARY THEMES OF
MADNESS
NEBUCHADNEZZAR

537
538 MADNESS
 MADNI SS 539

Artus Quellinus the Elder, The Woman

from the Madhouse (Frenzy), circa 1650,
statue, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,
Rijksmuseum. (Courtesy of the
Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, The
Netherlands)

Madness as a phenomenon is as old as the history of Lycurgus, king of the Edones in Thrace, opposed the intro-
humankind, and the changes in its depiction in art duction of the Dionysus cult. For punishment, Dionysus struck
reflect the varying estimation of madness and insanity by soci- him with madness, whereupon Lycurgus cut off his own legs,
ety and by artists. Under the entry "Pazzia," Cesare Ripa mistaking them for his vine shoots. His gruesome action is
describes madness in his Iconologia (1603) as a laughing man shown in the Roman Lycurgus mosaic of the second century.
clothed in a long black dress, riding on a reed, with toy wind- Melampus, one of the great Greek seers, cured King
mills as attributes; alternatively, as a barefooted maiden with Proteus's daughters of madness. As his price, Melampus
tousled hair, clothed in a shot-colored dress, with a bearskin received parts of the authoritative power of Argolis. The scene
and a candle. appears on a Lucanian nestoris of about 380 B.C. Cybele, the
Madness is only represented sporadically in the visual arts in great mother of the gods, drove her paramour, Attis, to mad-
general. Thematically it covers depictions of simple emotional ness when he broke his faith by loving the nymph Sagaritis. In
disturbances (such as melancholy), real eruptions of madness, his frenzy he castrated himself and died immediately. A terra-
madhouse scenes, and portraits of insane persons. In a broader cotta statue in the Beautiful Style from Cyprus depicts him. He
sense, the spectrum includes the madness sent by the gods as gained prominence in the cult of Cybele during Roman times.
vengeance or punishment to persons from Greek and Roman Her priests are reputed to have castrated themselves and simu-
mythology; healings of the possessed by Jesus Christ and a num- lated madness in commemoration of Attis's death.
ber of saints (for instance St. Cyriacus of Rome); and represen- Ino, the wife of Athamas, king of Thebes, brought up
tations of insanity, including real madmen since the sixteenth Dionysus, the son of Zeus, the king of gods, and the mortal
century, madhouse scenes since the eighteenth century, portraits Semele.The vengeful Hera, wife of Zeus, descended into Hades
of insane persons, and descriptions of lunatic imaginations. and asked for help. The Fury Tisiphone, one of the Erinyes who
Madness may be defined as disorder of mind and soul that pursued the mortal Orestes, caused Ino and Athamas to
causes insane imaginations, and it can be represented by mim- become mentally disturbed, whereupon Athamas killed his son
icry and gestures, by the pictorial description of hallucinations, Learchus because he considered him to be a stag. Ino threw her-
by lunatic activities, or by the physiognomy alone. The subject self into the sea with her son Melicertes. An Apulian bell krater

of madness must be differentiated from, on the one hand, rep- of 340-330 B.C. and Pio Fedi's sculpture The Fury of Athamas
resentations of the fool, in the sense of court jester or (circa 1890) in Florence, Italy, depict their story.
Schalksnarr, which must be iconographically verified in each The gods caused many instances of madness, sometimes not
single case; and on the other hand, medical illustrations (since directly but through an intermediary, for the purpose of
the beginning of the nineteenth century) and pictorial represen- revenge, often for some petty slight. The results nearly always
tations of psychiatry patients. led to the victim's self-destruction, and frequently, as a result of
In the sphere of antique mythology, eruptions of madness the madness, the victims killed other innocentmembers of their
and activities deriving therefrom occur in the stories of families.The representations of Odysseus, who plowed with an
Hercules, Ajax, Lycurgus, Melampus, Attis, and Athamas. ox and an ass yoked together and sowed salt because he did not
Hercules married Megara, the daughter of King Creon, who want to join the war with Troy, are worth mentioning, but they
bore him several children. His enemy, the goddess Hera, sent do not strictly belong in the present context because his mad-
him an attack of madness, whereupon Hercules killed all his ness was feigned. Representations of madness and insanity in
children by throwing them into a fire; his action is depicted in Greek and Roman mythology
are infrequent; the few excep-
a calyx krater from Paestum, Italy (350-325 B.C.), and a paint- tions are not reproduced to any extent in the art of later peri-
ing (circa 1620) by Alessandro Turchi in the Alte Pinakothek in ods, even in the Renaissance and Baroque periods, which often
Munich, Germany. drew on Greek and Roman mythology for subject matter.
Ajax, the bravest Greek hero (after Achilles) during the war Christian iconography contributes to the madness theme in
against Troy, lost a quarrel about the weapons of Achilles. He the visual arts with examples from the Old Testament (Saul,
was struck with madness by Athena, the goddess of wisdom, Nebuchadnezzar), the New Testament (healing of the possessed
and raved against a herd of cattle, fancying they were his ene- at Gerasa), and the legends of saints.
mies. The scene is pictured in a Hellenistic drinking vessel from When the spirit of God had left King Saul, he fell into a deep
Boeotia, now in the National Museum in Athens, Greece; in a melancholy, and the young David cheered him up by playing
black-figured amphora of about 540 B.C. by Exekias in the his harp (I Samuel 16:23). The representation of this scene was
Musee Municipal in Boulogne, France; and by Nicolas Poussin, very popular for centuries. Whereas medieval depictions usual-
in his painting The Kingdom of Flora (1631) in the Galerie Alte ly only show Saul suffering and lying on his bed, later artists
Meister in Dresden, Germany. such as Rembrandt van Rijn are interested in both the mental-
540 MADNESS

ly diseased Saul and the harp-playing David. The differences During the Renaissance and Baroque periods, artists and
can be seen by comparing folio 26v of the French Shah-Abbas- their patrons often chose miraculous healings of the possessed
Bible (circa 1250) to Rembrandt's painting David Playing the as themes. Examples include the altarpieces of Matthias
Harp Before Saul (before 1669) in the Stadel Institut in Griinewald, Cyriacus Heals Arthemia in the Stadel Institut in

Frankfurt, Germany. Frankfurt, and Peter Paul Rubens, Ignatius of Loyola Heals the
Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, corresponding to a Possessed (circa 1615-1616) in the Kunsthistorisches Museum
prophecy of Daniel, had to live in the wilderness for seven in Vienna, Austria. Rubens depicts the demoniac crisis of hys-
years like an animal, without understanding, because of his teria so strikingly that psychiatrists J. M. Charcot and Paul
hubris (Daniel 4:32-34). The scene is depicted on folio 252 in Richer integrated this picture as an example in their
artistic

the Spanish Beatus-Apocalypse (circa 950) and by Santi di Nouvelle iconographie Salpetriere. Also worth mention are the
Tito in Nebuchadnezzar Eating Grass (before 1603), in the realistic altarpiece (1628) by Rutilio di Lorenzo Manetti in S.

Museo Gregoriano Etrusco in the Vatican. The madness of Domenico in Siena, Italy, and works by Lodovico Carracci and
David at the court of the king of Gath is seldom depicted and Jacob Jordaens, inferred from engravings after the paintings.
is irrelevant to this analysis because it was insanity feigned as In the course of time, belief in supernatural causes of mad-
self-protection. ness crumbled; insane persons were increasingly considered
Among New Testament scenes, representations of the heal- only unsocial and consequently were imprisoned with crimi-
ing of the possessed at Gerasa (Matthew 8:28-34, Mark nals. The first special hospitals for mad persons were built in

5:1-20, Luke 8:26-39) are worth mention because, in compar- Spain in the fifteenth century; the rest of Europe did not follow
ison with other scenes of this kind, they appear frequently in suit until the seventeenth century.

the visual arts, particularly in book illuminations of the ninth In the garden of the madhouse of Amsterdam, The
and tenth centuries. In the vicinity of Gerasa Jesus Christ met a Netherlands, was the statue now called The Woman from the
man possessed by demons living naked in a graveyard. Jesus Madhouse (Frenzy) (circa 1650), attributed to Artus Quellinus
drew the demons out of the man and into a herd of pigs, which the Elder (1609-1668). It depicts a woman who has torn off
thereupon threw themselves into the Sea of Genezareth and her clothes seated on a stump; she seems ready to jump up in

drowned. Examples of this scene appear on an ivory relief, the wild excitement, but her maniacal disturbance is so great that
so-called Magdeburg- Antependium (970); on folio 53V of the coordinated movements are impossible. On the pedestal are
Codex Aureus (1040) from Echternach; and on the painting four reliefs representing the heads of insane patients who want
Christ and the Possessed (circa 1 660-1 690) by Mattia Preti in to liberate themselves from captivity. This sandstone statue,
the Uffizi Gallery in Florence. Mary Magdalen,
reminiscent of representations of the penitent
The representations of miraculous healings of Christ, as is now in the Rijksmuseum
Amsterdam. Also in the
in

signs of the might and glory of God, were expressions of a deep Rijksmuseum is the terra -cotta group Two Madmen (1673) by
desire for salvation. Since the twelfth century this longing Pieter Xavery. Long interpreted iconographically as Orlando
away from the figure of Chris* and toward a number of Furioso, it is actually two madmen who suffer from their state
-
turned
saints.The number of representations of miraculous healings of of mind and their situation. The three statues in the Boboli
saints is therefore relatively high. Cyriacus of Rome, who Gardens at Florence, which are named Mattacim (Jokers), are
healed Arthemia, daughter of Emperor Diocletian, and Jobia, representations of madmen as well, for which studies in a mad-
daughter of the king of Persia, is an outstanding example. His house must have been made; the group is attributed to Romolo
healing skills are pictured on folio 57V in the Passionate (circa di Francesco Ferrucci (circa 1621).
1 1 from Zwiefalten; in Matthias Griinewald's painting
30) The 49 almost life-size heads showing physiognomic stud-
Cyriacus Heals Arthemia (early sixteenth century) in the Stadel ies by eighteenth-century Austrian sculptor Franz Xaver
Institut in Frankfurt; and in Bartholomaus Bruyn the Elder's Messerschmidt probably do not represent the effects of mental
Cyriacus Heals Arthemia (before 1555) in the Alte Pinakothek illness, but rather the transformation of the demon of madness

in Munich. into human grimaces. German poet Nikolaus Lenau com-

In medieval Europe, insane people were treated as if they mented: "There must have been something in this sculptor,

were condemned by God and therefore had to be exorcised or which could have let him become a fool. Fortunately it was
persecuted as bewitched or devilish. In Wild Man, a woodcut deposited within him as art." This estimation applies to many
created in 1520, Lucas Cranach the Elder depicts such a mad- artists.

man running amok in the woods. In 1691 Giacomo Maria In the English graphic arts of the eighteenth century, the rep-
Giovannini published a print after Lodovico Carracci that resentation of madness and insanity reached a new social and
shows A Fool Running to the Monastery of St. Benedict in psychological intensity. William Hogarth, in the eighth and last
Order to Regain Her Sanity. engraving of the series The Rake's Progress (1735), depicts the
Sometimes "fools" were locked up in wooden cages to be interior of a lunatic asylum. After an attempted suicide, the fet-
shown to onlookers for money, as in the anonymous woodcut tered titular hero is cared for by a group of attendants and
The Fools' Cage (circa 1550). It is sometimes difficult to dis- priests. The similarity of this group to representations of the
tinguish these representations of fools from those of the court Pieta is remarkable. The radical depiction of the group in this

jester or Schalksnarr without intensive iconographic research. print probably forms the first exact physiognomic study of
Pieter Bruegel the Elder's Dulle Griet (Dull = Mad), which has lunatics. In 1775 William Dickinson published the copper
frequently been interpreted as a representation of a mad- engraving Madness, which portrays a madwoman in chains,

woman, is actually a personification of avarice. after a painting of Robert Edge Pine.

 MADNESS 541

Francisco de Goya, probably influenced by Hogarth and English painter Richard Dadd murdered his father out of
inspired by his own physical and mental crisis of the years after persecution mania, whereupon he was locked up in the mad-
1790, painted the interior of the lunatic asylum of Zaragoza, house of London for the During this time he pro-
rest of his life.

Spain, around 1790. The inmates, who are acting out their hallu- duced several watercolors. Agony, Raving Madness (1854)
cinations, are represented through grotesque pantomime. Unlike quite conventionally shows a mad person put in chains and
the Hogarth print, neither attendants nor chains are recognizable. lying on straw in his cell. The watercolor, however, without
Two versions exist: Casa de locos (circa 1795) in Madrid, Spain; interest in the actual situation in the madhouse, Bethlem
and Corral de locos (1793-1794) in Dallas, Texas. (Bedlam), reveals only disturbance and despair.
The German romantic Wilhelm Kaulbach, inspired by In his painting The Ward of the Madwomen at S. Bonifazio
Hogarth and encouraged by his academic teacher Peter in Florence (1865), Italian painter Telemaco Signorini depicts
Cornelius, visited the lunatic asylum of Dusseldorf, Germany. the great excitation of female patients who, wildly gesticulat-
Deeply impressed by what he saw, Kaulbach depicts the differ- ing, show first signs of protest against their situation. This
ent states of mind and the physiognomies of the well-clothed painting, obviously influenced by Goya, impressed Edgar
inmates with great exactness in his drawing The Madhouse Degas. The perspective of the madhouse interior anticipates
(1835). Male and female patients, not separated from each Vincent van Gogh's Vincent's Sleeping Room at Aries (1889).
other, show no signs of excitement or disinhibition. Chains or The lithograph Madness (circa 1901) by Austrian expres-
fetters are not recognizable, and an attendant with a bunch of sionist Alfred Kubin, from the series Demon and
keys in his hand does not intervene. The treatment of the theme Nightphantoms (first published in 1923), was produced while
is nearly without emotion, and the scene resembles a theater the artist was at least temporarily insane. Kubin reported that
performance with an allegorical and typological representation after having visited an exhibition of works by Max Klinger, an
of lunatics. attack of demons and a hallucinatory episode of artistic imagi-
Between 182.2 and 1823 French painter Theodore Gericault nation drove him to transform his obsessions cathartically into
produced 10 pictures of lunatics for the director of the hundreds of drawings and prints. Madness shows the mad
Salpetriere in Paris, probably to document clinical studies, for Kubin himself and a small demon with a hammer driving a nail
instruction, or as patterns for medical illustrations. These into the artist's head. Kubin's pen drawing The Madhouse
paintings represent — for the first time in art —portraits of (1914) depicts an attempted escape of panic-stricken insane
insane persons without distorted mimicry, dramatization, persons from a madhouse court. An attendant, dressed in nine-
demonizing, or any attributes of lunacy. Five of the original 10 teenth-century clothing and holding a whip in his hand,
paintings are extant: portraits of a kidnapper, a woman suffer- observes the scene but does not interfere.
ing from obsessive envy, a kleptomaniac, a man suffering from The lithograph Nietzsche and the Madness (1 907-1 908) is
delusions of military rank, and a woman addicted to gambling. the work of Luigi Russolo, the cofounder of Italian futurism.
Soon after Gericault's portrait cycle, prints of insane persons Nietzsche's head, exactly portrayed, appears directly beside
appeared in the medical publications of J. E. Esquirol (1838), Insanity, represented as a woman's head. Both heads nearly
Karl-Heinrich Baumgartner Alexander Morison
(1840), merge and form an inseparable unit. The stat-
into each other
(1848), and Maximilian Leidesdorf (1865). These prints mani- ue Mad Virgin (19 12) by the Belgian sculptor Rik Wouters is an
fested interest in physiognomies as a mirror of the mental state expressionistic study of movement inspired by the American
of madhouse patients. dancer Isadora Duncan.
Gericault's artistic attainment becomes evident if his por- The German expressionist Erich Heckel, stimulated by his
traits are compared with the etching Hunger, Madness, Crime experiences in hospitals during World War I and because of his
1845) by the Belgian artist Antoine Joseph Wiertz. A
(circa interest in social and psychological problems, produced several
woman driven mad by social misery and hunger has killed her paintings with representations of insane persons, including
childand cut off one leg to put it into a cooking pot. Although Blind Lunatics at Table (1914) and From a Madhouse (19 14).
bloodthirsty and terrible, the scene does not arouse horror Simultaneous use of different perspectivistic viewpoints creates
because Wiertz does not succeed in expressing the physiog- an unstable space and an undefined and threatening composi-
nomic indications of introverted madness in a psychologically tion in both paintings.
convincing manner. Swiss artist Paul Klee exchanged drawings with Alfred
In a series of drawings by the German classicist-romantic Kubin and collected artworks of mad persons. French painter
painter Bonaventura Genelli, From the Life of an Artist (after Jean Dubuffet also used such works for the development of his
1850), the drawing View into the Madhouse holds an exception- Art Brut. This influence is evident, for instance, in Klee's col-
al position. It was created out of the "desire also to record in pen- ored lithograph A Man in Love (1923). It symbolically repre-
cil the physiognomic language of human disturbance" (Genelli). sents sexual obsession through the expressions of lunatics. This
For this purpose the artist climbed up the wall of the madhouse circumstance made it simple to defame Paul Klee and his art in

garden to look down at the inmates. Genelli expressed the affects the exhibition "Entartete Kunst" (Degenerated Art) of 1937 in
of the insane persons compassionately and seriously: the mad- Munich as mad and degenerate. A decade and a half earlier,

ness of ecstatic enthusiasm, the megalomaniac, and the mad- physician and art historian Hans Prinzhorn published his fun-
woman disappointed in her hope for lover's bliss. The main sub- damental book on the works of art of lunatics, Bildnerei der
ject of the drawing, however, is romantic fantasy and its special Geisteskranken (1922), in which he tried to analyze the "orig-
affinity with the unusual and the grotesque and its specific mix- impulse" that he thought inherent to all human
inal creative
ture of compassion and observation. beings. The question of whether the pictorial representations of
542. MADNI SS

lunatics have a special artistic value is brought up to the 1990s ers and herbs in her hair, the maddened Ophelia flees to her
in the exhibition- catalogue Parallele Visionen: Kiinstler und watery death in the river. Many nineteenth-century artists
Aubenseiter (Parallel Visions: Artists and Outsider) (Basel, painted this scene; perhaps the best known version is by John
Switzerland, 1993). Everett (1851-1852). In Shakespeare's tragedy
Millais
The lithograph Dance in a Madhouse (1917), by American Macbeth, Lady Macbeth, plotting with her husband to kill the
graphic artist George Bellows, is stylistically a romantic work, king, completes the task herself but collapses under the psychic
and the influence of nineteenth-century art is evident. However, pressure of the situation and becomes mad. Important
Bellows takes more interest in the picturesque-melodramatic Shakespeare illustrators include Henry Fuseli, Daniel
aspects of the scene and much less in the illness of the patients. Chodowiecki, Eugene Delacroix, Peter Cornelius, Oskar
The Mad Woman —
(1925) by Otto Dix similar to the drawing of Kokoschka, and Max Slevogt.
Luigi Russolo — is made of two spheres brought together like a In Goethe's Faust, Gretchen yields herself to her beloved,
montage: the realistic individual portrait is positioned above, and but conscious of having committed a sin, she kills her child and
the phantasmagoria of the delusional ideas is positioned below. becomes insane. Although the number of illustrated editions of
The painting The Great Paranoic (1936) by Spanish surre- Faust is large, there have been only a few attempts by out-
alist Salvador Dali depicts a head consisting of writhing and standing artists to treat this great literary work pictorially.
winding figures. These figures, illusionistically as well as pho- Goethe himself commended the drawings of Peter Cornelius,
tographically exact, project nervous energy and a mental con- the academic teacher of Kaulbach. In Scene in the Jail (1815)
stitution, the name of which is expressed in the title: paranoia and other works, Cornelius, enthusiastic about bringing back
as expression of hallucinations and delusional ideas. to life the central figures of national sagas, shows Gretchen as
American graphic artist Robert Riggs pursued intensive a saint —a repentant Mary Magdalen —
and an angel brings her
studies in the psychiatric department of the Philadelphia State a martyrs' wreath as a sign of salvation. The lithographs of
Hospital in Pennsylvania. In his lithograph Psychopathic Ward Eugene Delacroix also won Goethe's recognition. The etchings
(1945), he presents the patients and their situations with pho- of Max Slevogt and the woodcuts of Ernst Barlach deserve
tographic accuracy. The American pop artist Roy Lichtenstein mention.
created a series dealing with science-fiction themes Madness is represented in the world's literature, religions,
(1963-1964). The painting Mad Scientist (1963), a reproduc- and mythologies. In giving visual embodiments to these descrip-
tion of an unknown comic strip, shows in a cool and detached tions, artists have also depicted their personal observations of
manner how a megalomaniacal scientist handles a machine madness, both in others and, in a few cases, in themselves.
with which he threatens humanity.
German painter and draftsman Jan Peter Tripp spent some
time in a psychiatric hospital in 1972. While there, he sketched See also Fools/Folly; Humors; Melancholy; Physiognomy
his fellow patients. The and Jakob,
portrait drawings Else
which radiate a great suggestive power, are veristic and exact;
each wrinkle and each pore are visible, and the subjects' states
Selected Works of Art
of psychic ruin are clearly recognizable.
Since 1968 Austrian artist Arnulf Rainer, known from the Hercules
Documenta 1972 exhibition, has photographed himself again The Madness of Hercules, calyx krater, 350-325 B.C.,
and again with grimaces and in poses that are adapted from old from Paestum, Italy, now in Madrid, Spain, Museo
photographs of madhouse patients who have not been manip- Archeologico
ulated by psychopharmacological drugs. The work of Franz Turchi, Alessandro, The Raving Hercules (Hercules and
Xaver Messerschmidt provides the model for Rainer's physical- Omphale), oil Munich, Germany,
painting, circa 1620,
language self-representation, which attempts to preserve the Alte Pinakothek
culturally discriminated and provocative physiognomic singu- Canova, Antonio, Hercules (in His Madness) Killing His
larity of madhouse patients. Sons, painting, 1799, Bassano del Grappa, Italy, Musico
In addition to the representations deriving from classical Civico
mythology, Christian iconography, and the madhouse pictures Allar, Andre-Joseph, Hercules Discovering His Dead Son,
and portraits of insane persons in a broader sense, a number of sculpture, before 1926, Toulon, France, Musees
insane figures from postclassical literature also occur in the Municipaux
visual arts. The main subject in Ludovico Ariosto's epic poem
Orlando Furioso, which the Roland saga has been combined
in Ajax
with Arthurian legends, is the unfortunate love of Orlando for Exekias, The Suicide of Ajax, black-figured amphora, circa
Angelica. This love drives him to madness because Angelica 540 B.C., Boulogne, France, Musee Municipal
does not return his affections and prefers the love of Medoro. The Madness of Ajax, drinking vessel, from Boeotia, now in
Although many artists have derived subjects from this story, Athens, Greece, National Museum
perhaps the most elaborate are Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld's Poussin, Nicolas, The Kingdom of Flora, 1631, Dresden,
frescoes (1822-1827) in the Casino Massimo, Ariosto Hall in Germany, Galerie Alte Meister
Rome. Fuseli, Henry, The Mad Ajax, After Slaying the Lambs,
In Shakespeare's drama Hamlet Ophelia loves Hamlet, who Recovers Himself and Is Surprised by His Comrades,
rejects her out of his world-weariness. Singing and with flow- drawing, 1768, Zurich, Switzerland, Kunsthaus
 MADNESS 543

Athamas Xavery, Pieter, Two Madmen, terra-cotta group, 1673,

Athamas Kills His Son Learchus, bell krater, 340-330 B.C., Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum
from Apulia, now in Geneva, Switzerland, private Giovannini, Giacomo Maria, A Fool Running to the
collection Monastery of St. Benedict in Order to Regain Her Sanity,
Flaxman, John, The Fury of Athamas, marble sculpture copper engraving, 1691
group, 1790-1794, Ickworth House, Suffolk, England, Ferrucci, Romolo di Francesco, Mattacini, stone figure group,
Ickworth House circa 1621, Florence, Italy, Boboli Gardens
Fedi, Pio, The Fury of Athamas, sculpture, circa 1890, Hogarth, William, The Rake's Progress, copper engraving,
Florence, Italy 1735, London, The Bethlem Royal Hospital and the
Maudsley Health Authority
Other Greek and Roman Myths Dickinson, William, Madness, copper engraving, 1775
Melampus Cures the Daughters of Proteus of Madness, Goya, Francisco de, Corral de locos (Yard of a Madhouse),
nestoris, from Lucania, circa 380 B.C., now in Naples, oil on tin, 1793-1794, Dallas, Texas, Southern Methodist

Italy, Museo Archeologico Nazionale University, Meadows Museum

The Madness of Lycurgus, Roman mosaic, second century, Goya, Francisco de, Casa de locos, oil painting, circa 1795,
Taormina, Italy, Villa S. Pankrazia Madrid, Spain, Academia de San Fernando
Mad Attis Castrates Himself, terra-cotta statue, Beautiful Gericault, Theodore, Portrait of a Kidnapper, oil painting,
Style, from Cyprus, now in Paris 1822, Springfield, Massachusetts, Museum of Fine Arts
Gericault, Theodore, Portrait of a Kleptomaniac, oil painting,
Nebuchadnezzar 1822, Ghent, Belgium, Musee des Beaux-Arts
Beatus- Apocalypse, circa 950, New York, Pierpont Morgan Gericault, Theodore, Portrait of a Man Suffering from
Library (M. 644, fol. 252) Delusions of Military Rank, oil painting, 1822,
Santi di Tito, Nebuchadnezzar Eating Grass, before 1603, Winterthur, Switzerland, Oskar Reinhart Collection
Vatican, Museo Gregoriano Etrusco Gericault, Theodore, Portrait of a Woman Addicted to
Gambling, oil painting, 1822, Paris, Louvre
Jesus Healing the Possessed at Gerasa Gericault, Theodore, Portrait of a Woman Suffering from
Magdeburg- Antependium, ivory-relief, 970, Darmstadt, Obsessive Envy, oil painting, 1822, Lyon, France, Musee
Germany, Landesmuseum des Beaux-Arts
Codex Aureus, from Echternach, 1040, Niirnberg, Germany, Kaulbach, Wilhelm, The Madhouse, pencil drawing, 1835,
Germanisches Nationalmuseum (Ms 1 56142, fol. 53V) Berlin, Germany, Staatliche Museen
Preti, Mattia, Christ and the Possessed, oil painting, circa Wiertz, Antoine Joseph, Hunger, Madness, Crime, etching,
1 660-1 690, Florence, Italy, Uffizi Gallery circa 1845
Genelli, Bonaventura, View into the Madhouse, pencil
David Playing the Harp drawing, after 1850, Leipzig, Germany, Museum der
Shah- Abbas-Bible, French, circa 1250, New York, Pierpont- Bildenden Kiinste
Morgan Library (M. 638, fol. 26v) Dadd, Richard, Agony, Raving Madness, watercolor drawing,
Rembrandt van David Playing the Harp Before
Rijn, Saul, 1854, London, The Bethlem Royal Hospital and the
before 1669, Frankfurt, Germany, Stadel Institut Maudsley Hospital Health Authority
Vedder, Elihu, The Lost Mind, 1864-186 5, New York,
Saints Healing Madness Metropolitan Museum of Art
Passionate, Zwiefalten, circa 11 30, Stuttgart, Germany, Signorini, Telemaco, The Ward of the Madwomen at
Wurttembergische, Landesbibliothek (Cod. bibl. 20, S. Bonifazio in Florence, 1865, Venice, Italy, Gallery
36-58, fol. 57V) of Modern Art in Ca Pesaro
Griinewald, Matthias, Cyriacus Heals Arthemia, early
sixteenth century, Frankfurt, Germany, Stadel Institut Modern Depictions of Madness
Bruyn, Bartholomaus, the Elder, Cyriacus Heals Arthemia, Kubin, Alfred, Madness, lithograph, circa 1901
before 1555, Munich, Germany, Alte Pinakothek Russolo, Luigi, Nietzsche and the Madness, lithograph,
Rubens, Peter Paul, Ignatius of Loyola Heals the Possessed, 1907-1908, Milan, Italy, Raccolta della Stampe, Castello
circa 1615-1616, Vienna, Austria, Kunsthistorisches Sforzesco
Museum Wouters, Rik, Mad Virgin, bronze statue, 1 9 1 2, Antwerp,
Belgium, Musee Royal des Beaux-Arts
Realistic Depictions of Madness Kubin, Alfred, The Madhouse, pen drawing, 1914, Linz,
Cranach, Lucas the Elder, Wild Man, woodcut, 1 520, Berlin, Austria, Landesmuseum
Germany, Kupferstichkabinett Heckel, Erich, Blind Lunatics at Table, oil painting, 1914,
The Fools' Cage, woodcut, circa 1550, Niirnberg, Germany, Monchengladbach, Germany, Stadtisches Museum
Germanisches Nationalmuseum Abteiberg
Quellinus, Artus, the Elder, The Woman from the Madhouse Heckel, Erich, From a Madhouse, oil painting, 1914,
(Frenzy), sandstone statue, circa 1650, Amsterdam, Gelsenkirchen, Germany, Stadtisches Museum
Rijksmuseum Bellows, George, Dance in a Madhouse, lithograph, 19 17
544 MADNESS

Klee, Paul, A Man in Love, lithograph, 1923 Hollander, Eugen, Die Medizin in der klassischen Malerei,
Dix, Otto, The Madwoman, oil painting, 1925, Mannhein, Stuttgart, Germany: F. Enke, 1950
Germany, Kunsthalle , Plastikund Medizin, Stuttgart, Germany: F. Enke,
Dalf, Salvador, The Great Paranoic, oil painting, 1936, 191 2
Rotterdam, The Netherlands, Museum Boymans van Norman, Psychiatry and Psychology in the Visual Arts
Kiell,

Beuningen and Aesthetics: A Biography, Madison, Wisconsin:

Riggs, Robert, Psychopathic Ward, lithograph, 1945 University of Wisconsin Press, 1965
Tripp, Jan Peter, Jakob, pencil watercolor drawing, 1963, Leeuwenberg, Jaap, Beeldhouwkunst in het Rijksmuseum,
Pforzheim, Germany, Collection R. Kraus Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Staatsuitgeverij, 1973
Liechtenstein, Roy, Mad Scientist, oil painting, 1972, Cologne, Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae, Zurich,
Germany, Museum Ludwig Switzerland, 1981
Tripp, Jan Peter, Else, pencil watercolor drawing, 1972, Lyons, Albert S., Histoire Illustree de la Medicine, Paris:
Pforzheim, Germany, Collection R. Kraus Presses de la Renaissance, 1979
MacGregor, John, The Discovery of the Art of the Insane,
Literary Themes of Madness Princeton, New Jersey, and London: Princeton University
Cornelius, Peter, Faust: Scene in the Jail, pencil drawing, Press, 1989
1 81 5, Frankfurt, Germany, Stadel Institut, Graphische Miller, Margaret, "Gericault's Paintings of the Insane,"
Sammlung Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institute 4 (1941)
Carolsfeld, Julius von, Ariost-Frescoes, circa 1822, Rome, Prinzhorn, Hans, Bildnerei der Geisteskranken, Berlin:
Casino Massimo, Ariosto Hall Springer, 1922
Millais, John Everett, Ophelia, 1851-1852, London, Tate Putscher, Marielene, Geschichte der Medizinischen Abbildung,
Gallery Munich, 1972
Reitman, Francis, Insanity, Art, and Culture, New York:
Philosophical Library, 1954
Further Reading Richer, Paul, L'Art et la Medicine, Paris, 1901

Allen, J. B. L., "Mad Robin: Richard Dadd," Art Quarterly Rosoman, Leonard, On Breugel's "Mad Meg," London:
30:1 (Spring 1967) Cassell, 1969
Bhattacharya-Stettler, Therese, Noxmentis: Die Darstellung Salaman, Malcolm Charles, Shakespeare in Pictorial Art,

von Wahnsinn in der Kunst des 1 9 Jahrhunderts, Bern, London and New York: The Studio, 19 16
Germany, 1989 Sanchez, Alfonso E. Perez, et al. Goya and the Spirit of

Clair, Jean, Wunderblock: Fine Geschichte der Modernen Enlightenment, Boston: Little, Brown, 1989
Seele, Wein, Germany, 1989 Schadewaldt, Hans, and L. Binet, Kunst und Medizin, Koln,
Coplans, John, Roy Lichtenstein, New York: Praeger, 1972; Germany: Schauberg, 1967
London: Allen Lane, 1972 Sheon, Aaron, "Caricature and the Physiognomy of the
Dotson, Esther Gordon, Shakespeare Illustrated, 1770-1820 Insane," Gazette des Beaux-Arts 6:88 (October 1976)
(Ph.D. diss., New York University, 1973) Vogt, Helmut, Das Bild des Kranken, Munich: Lehmann,
Ebert, Hans, Bonaventura Genelli, Weimar, Germany, 1971 1980
Eitner, Lorenz, Gericault, His Life and Work, London: Orbis, Wegner, Wolfgang, Die Faustdarstellungen vom 10:
1982 Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart, Amsterdam, The
Geus, Armin, Krankheit und Kranksein, Marburg, Germany: Netherlands: Staatsuitgeverij, 1962
Basilisken-Presse, 1983 Zigrosser, Carl, Acta Medica: A Collection of Medical
Gorsen, Peter, Kunst und Krankheit, Frankfurt, Germany: Prints Presented to the Philadelphia Museum of Art,
Europaische Verlagsanstalt, 1980 Philadelphia: Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1955
 AS

margins/outsiders
Priscilla Baumann

The following periods are covered in the discussion of the theme Margins/Outsiders:

MEDIEVAL
RENAISSANCE
EIGHTEENTH-TWENTIETH
CENTURY

545
546 MARGINS / OUTSIDERS

"* i-*W

French School, Bayeux Tapestry: Harold Journeying to Normandy, eleventh century, embroidered linen,
Bayeux, France, Musee de la Tapisserie. (Courtesy of Foto Marburg/Art Resource, New York)
 MARGINS / OUTSIDERS 547

Many common contemporary expressions make

ence to "the margin" or "the edge." Certain people or
refer-
activities are termed "marginal" or "beyond the pale"; the
emotionally unstable are often categorized as "borderline" or
recipients, as well as certain physically or emotionally handi-
capped persons. Feminists argue that women have been treated
as marginal citizens throughout much of the history of Western
civilization. From the Middle Ages to the present, marginal

"over the edge"; fashion in dress, food, language, or literary members of society have included lepers, Jews, prostitutes,
taste is considered either "in" or "out." This contemporary witches, Gypsies, moneylenders, midwives, sexual deviants, and
vocabulary echoes the universal human reflex to organize and the physically malformed. During the Victorian Age, the poor,
judge society, a process that often relegates those elements per- especially the homeless and the criminal, were particularly iden-
ceived as less desirable to the periphery. tified as marginal. In every century, the margins of society have

Etymologically, the margin refers to the border, the edge, or been clearly defined physically, socially, and morally. From
the frontier. The originalmeaning of the term marginal evolved schoolchildren scolded when their handwriting slips outside the
from a common medieval practice whereby the blank parch- margins on their paper, to those persecuted or ostracized by
ment of a manuscript surrounding or framing a written text society, the visible and invisible bounds of acceptable behavior
was decorated with humorous, scatological, or subversive illus- and belief constrain us all. These perceived or real margins,
trations — hence, the negative connotation frequently associated along with the forbidden, feared, misunderstood, or despised
with the term. subjects relegated within their boundaries, have inspired artists
Throughout history, societies have repeatedly created their and their iconographic vocabularies for centuries.
own metaphoric margins as invisible but powerful walls for com-
Artists use various strategies to identify the marginal:
protection, barriers for exclusion, or signs of danger. positional devices, where and symmetry negate or
centrality
Depending on the period in time, the specific subjects relegated minimize the marginal; specific iconographic markers like
to the margins shift, and these changes in popular taste or polit- peculiar costumes or attributes; or depiction of a clearly mar-
ical necessity are reflected in art with varying iconography and ginal subject in a realistic or sentimental manner to transform
creative emphasis. In the physical world, geographic markers their meaning or importance.
like rivers or mountains form natural margins that separate, During the Middle Ages, scurrilous, subversive, or sinful sub-
protect, or enclose space. Political or national boundaries form jects were placed safely within the margins. One example is

similar, although more arbitrary, margins. Charlemagne creat-
ed "marches," or military margins, on the frontiers of his
realm, which formed a buffer zone between relatively peaceful
inner lands and the chaotic, lawless, and frightening wilderness
of the regions outside.
Intellectually and philosophically, the marginal refers to
ideas and concepts too alien or threatening for popular or gen-
eral acceptance. Theories of an advanced nature might be
described in a complimentary manner as being "on the cutting
edge," but a mystical poet or ragged street musician might be
described in a derogatory sense as living "on the fringe." Moral
convictions not approved by the establishment might likewise
be considered marginal and their resulting activities con-
found in the eleventh-century Bayeux Tapestry, with its clearly
articulated horizontal bands at the upper and lower edge of an
embroidered linen strip. In the border under a scene in which
Harold is being led to William, a naked man and woman are
shown about to copulate. This audacious counterpoint to the
scene unfolding above hints at many possible meanings.
Regardless of the intended effect, however, the overt sexual
activity and shocking state of undress of the couple mean that
they couldn't have been placed anywhere else but in the margin.
The twelfth-century central tympanum in the narthex of the
Church of the Madeleine (1120-1132) at Vezelay, France,
offers a more sophisticated example of placing the undesirable
in the borders, at the edge, and as far as possible from the cen-

demned. At various times, such marginal activities might have ter. In the eight compartments of the archivolt, different kinds

included the efforts of suffragettes, abolitionists, or proponents of human impairment are depicted: organic defects of the blind,
of euthanasia. The theological state of limbo —an intermediate the deaf, and the mute; mental illness and possession by the
place between heaven and hell, where souls, through no fault of devil; and various physical disabilities like lameness or paraly-
their own, await redemption —
constitutes yet another sort of sis. The artist implies a hierarchy of these imperfect states and
fringe area. Psychological statisticians use the term outlier to places the most seriously ill farthest from the central figure of
describe exceptions: those members of society not within the Jesus Christ. Similarly, unusual races like the floppy-eared
normal distribution. examples make specific refer-
All of these Panotii, considered monstrous because of their paganism and
ence in some way to the margin or the boundary and to the imagined deformities, are found on the lowest register, within
realm that lies beyond that limit. the borders of the lintel.

Marginal members of contemporary twentieth-century soci- On the exterior walls of many Romanesque churches, cor-
ety might include migrant workers, illegal aliens, or welfare bel sculptures of lewd, antic, or aberrational subjects decorate
548 MARGINS / OUTSIDERS

the cornice or string course. These images are placed a signifi- Another group of traditional outsiders were the Jews.
cant distance from any centrally planned sculptural program, During the early medieval period, they were often depicted
often not plainly visible from the ground, and often relegated wearing exotic headgear, sometimes called a Phrygian cap, of a
to the periphery of the building. Romanesque painting follows pointed, conical, or bell shape. This distinctive sign of other-
an analogous technique of exclusion. At Nohant-Vicq, in the ness was a recognizable marker and universally comprehended.
province of Berry, France, a fresco of the Last Supper (twelfth In a manuscript from Speyer, Germany (circa 1233-1236),
century) depicts Judas in the foreground, separated from Christ showing the triumphant entry of Jesus into Jerusalem, the
and the other apostles by the horizontal barrier of the dining doorway of the city is filled with men adorned with conical
table. The asymmetrical placement of Judas serves to isolate hats. Sculptural examples follow the same iconography, as on
him, exclude him from the others, and thereby indicate his the tympanum at Strasbourg Cathedral in France, where a Jew
treachery. helping Jesus carry the cross is identified by a sharply pointed
A scene from the fourteenth-century The Cloisters hat.Another example appears at Rouen Cathedral in France,
Apocalypse provides an example of the medieval technique of where the Jews stoning St. Stephen wear hats shaped like
the diagrammaticalh conceived composition, where centrality steeply pointed cones.
and symmetry create a hieratic and static effect. Christ, the Later in the medieval period, prejudice against the Jews
largest and most imposing figure, surrounded by a mandorla increased dramatically, and increasingly scurrilous depictions
and the symbols of the Evangelists, sits at the exact center. Four of the Jew appeared in manuscripts and woodcuts. The empha-
rectangular frames placed at each corner of the picture contain sis shifted to a denunciation of the Jew as heretic, sorcerer, and
six elders each. The resulting effect of controlled order reflects worshiper of the devil, as well as instigator of well poisonings,
the medieval belief in a timeless, cosmic equilibrium, with God ritual murders of Christian children, and desecrations of
at its center, the ultimate source of power. eucharistic hosts. The Jew of this period was often depicted
Fifteenth-century Italian painters employed similar methods with exaggerated Semitic features, frequently with horns, often
to emphasize the hierarchical importance of their subjects. In engaging in lewd activities, and in close proximity to the devil,
Gentile da Fabriano's The Adoration of the Magi (1423), two or even disguised as a devil. A fifteenth-century wood carving
miserable beggars, stooped outcasts, are placed in a lower right on a choir stool in Aerschot, Belgium, shows a Jew riding back-
panel of a predella. Not a part of the central painting, the beg- wards on a large goat, the devil's favorite animal, holding the
gars are outside of the architectural center of the individual animal's tail in a provocative gesture. This rich vocabulary, one
scene. Both figuratively and compositionally, these figures have that stereotyped and caricatured its subject, was frequently
been marginalized. In Expulsion from Paradise (circa 1445), used to identify the Jew as the ultimate outsider, the most mar-
Giovanni di Paolo depicts Adam and Eve at the very edge of a ginal member of Christian society.
panel, pushed by an angel away from the fertile garden and into With the rise of secular painting following the Reformation,
the unknown. In another version of this scene, in a fresco in the many subjects previously ignored or given minor attention
Brancacci Chapel in Florence, Italy (circa 1427), Masaccio began to challenge artists in new ways. Gradually, the very
emphasizes the grief ofthis moment of loss. His Adam and Eve, members of society hitherto deemed marginal began to occupy
overwhelmed with remorse and shame, are shown scurrying a central position —worthy subjects for artists to depict and for
away to the margins of the painting. In the Middle Ages, the society to commission.
edges of a panel, tympanum, or building assumed a dramatic Similarly, artists have traditionally portrayed the peasant as
and symbolic value, one appreciated by all observers. Soon, a marginal creature, crude and perhaps bestial in appearance.
however, such didactic effects lost much of their impact, and Sometimes the toward these "lower orders"
artist's attitude
artists were compelled to discover new methods to emphasize would be sufficient to relegate them to a lesser stratum of soci-
and develop their message. ety. One such example is Cornelius Mahu's Wedding Dance in a

Apart from the hierarchy established by a compositional Barn (1645), where the exaggerated boisterousness of the rural
scheme, artists also resorted to traditional iconography in order folk is represented in hopes of eliciting a reaction of disdain
to identify marginal subjects. Lepers, for example, considered for from the viewer. Throughout the seventeenth century, Dutch
centuries the most despised of outcasts, were forced to live and and Flemish artists reveled in this humorous and satiric
beg outside the normal limits of a village or town, sounding a bell approach to the peasant populace. Elsewhere, however, painters
or clapper to warn others of their approach. Artists often includ- like Louis Le Nain in France stressed the human dignity of the
ed such noisemakers in their representations of the leper and peasant, as in Peasant Family (circa 1640). This kinder and
inevitably identified them by a spotted skin: red when painted, more sensitive reflection on the plight of the peasant was a
raised welts if worked in stone. These sure signs of leprosy iden- theme renewed again, and very powerfully, in the nineteenth
tified the ostracized in all media and were understood by every- century. A very different view of the peasant is found in a series
one. On a sculpture on the south porch wall at Moissac, France, of etchings by Francisco Goya called Los Caprichos
the poor man Lazarus is clearly identified as a leper in this man- (1794-1799). Far from idealizing his subject, Goya emphasizes
ner, replete with dogs licking his sores. An analogous icono- a horrifying spectrum of human violence, with its demonic and
graphic example appears in a stained-glass panel in the cathedral pathological sadism. Goya's dispossessed, the losers in war as
at Bourges, France, where Lazarus, covered with red sores, well as in life, offer a timeless view of human suffering as a
stands outside a rich man's house. He is relegated to a half- result of the ravages of war and economic deprivation.
medallion, adjacent to the one showing the rich man at a table, Following the upheaval in society caused by the Industrial
and thus forced visually and symbolically into the margins. Revolution as well as the exodus of a starving populace from
 MARGINS / OUTSIDERS 549

Ireland because of the potato famine of the 1840s, a new kind depicts a day when social classes mingled freely, and the paint-
of art evolved, merging social conscience and interest in the ing describes a variety of morally doubtful characters, all clear-
documentary. Marginal subjects —the poor, homeless, crimi- ly identified by their physical attributes: the fallen woman, the
nals, the insane, prostitutes, and unwed mothers became the — aristocratic roue, the fortune-teller, the acrobat, the bookmak-
central focus of artists and no longer served as incidental fig- er, the pickpocket, as well as an assortment of gamblers and
ures intended merely to animate a scene or landscape. In his swindlers.
many novels, Charles Dickens drew attention to the plight of As a result of the economic depression of the 1870s in

mistreated laborers, destitute widows, children forced into a
life of begging, and the injustices of an overcrowded industrial
world. His descriptions of the abysmal working conditions of
the mills and the cruelties and injustices of orphanages and
prisons helped to effect social change and influenced the work
of many nineteenth-century artists.
In France, interest in the less fortunate and often forgotten
people of the metropolis emerged as a major artistic
Theodore Gericault created sympathetic studies of the physical
characteristics of men and women in insane asylums and pris-
ons and sketched human heads and limbs found in morgues.
His painting The Madman (182.1-1824) mirrors the horrors of
dementia in hopes of eliciting a profound response in the social
conscience of the viewer. Charles Meryon's engravings of claus-
trophobic city walls and threatening shadows of tenement
streets impress on the observer the ugliness of the overcrowded
metropolis and the concomitant evil effects on the people
forced to live in such miserable conditions. Gustave Dore's
nightmarish wood engraving of a prison yard, with its
England, hundreds of workers were unemployed and pressed to
the margins of existence. Artists mirrored the social anguish of
thisperiod in diverse ways. In his painting Hard Times (1885),
Hubert von Herkomer portrays the grim search for work in a
sentimental but hopeful vein. Other artists criticized the system
that fostered the labor disputes and strikes that divided com-
munities. In Robert Koehler's painting The Strike, threatening
theme. workers crowd around the front steps of a mill owner's office.
Many painters chose to portray the dismal poverty and inhu-
man living conditions of the urban population, stressing themes
such as mourning for the death (by famine or disease) of an
infant, the humiliating search for a place to sleep, or the hope-
lessness of daily life when the husband/father has become a
drunkard. In the tradition of William Hogarth, and mirroring
the influence of the temperance union, George Cruikshank
The Bottle (1847) and The
created a series of illustrations for
Drunkard's Children (1848). Luke Fildes's Applicants for
Admission to a Casual Ward (1874) shocks the viewer with its
incar- realistic portrayal of the hungry and homeless: shivering men,

cerated denizens hopelessly shuffling in a circle under the heart- women, and children huddled together under a street lamp,
less eye of two guards, evokes the modern problems of an snow falling lightly in the gloom.
industrial and impersonal society where the lower classes, often In growing freedom of
the twentieth century, despite a
forced into a life of crime, seem to find no way out of their expression in art and life, and actions still
certain subjects
plight. Honore Daumier concentrated on the prosaic world of retain their element of shock or scandal, and particular people
the Parisian common folk —
the laundresses, mountebanks, and remain marked as outsiders. Today's society offers a contem-
—
blacksmiths and on groups of quite ordinary people in public porary analogue to the medieval attitude toward lepers in its
situations. Daumier's The Third-Class Carriage (1861), for reaction to the person with HIV/AIDS, quarantined in a limbo
example, presents a banal subject but hints at the alienation of isolation and lonely suffering. Present prejudice against
and lack of communication between human beings in crowded Gypsies (Romanies) in central Europe mirrors the communal
industrial cities. distrust of Jews during the Middle Ages. Historically, itinerant
During the Victorian Age, many painters in England exam- peddlers were viewed with mistrust or even fear because they
ined the problems of society's poor and developed an iconog- existed outside the accepted boundaries of society, with no
raphy fully appreciated by the public. It was widely believed, known families or relatives and no established residences.
for example, that physiognomy directly reflected character, and Similarly, in today's world, men and women recoil from the
artists felt compelled to specifically detail facial expression, as homeless who live their rootless, transient lives pushed to the
well as the size and shape of the head, in order to fully identi- physical and emotional limits of marginalization.
fy themoral quality of the subject. Servants and lower-class The phenomenon of homelessness, with its concomitant
workers were often depicted with a tendency toward prog- alienation and despair, has been studied carefully by twentieth-
nathism (in which the jaws project beyond the upper part of the century sociologists, following the pioneering efforts of Emile
face), whereas the aristocrat would be shown with a straight Durkheim, who referred to aspects of this societal disorder as
profile and refined features. Dickens insisted that evil character anomie. But even the homeless, despite their unstable and dan-
was invariably detectable to the experienced eye. The criminal gerous existence, show proof of spontaneous and persistent
was considered a race apart, with quite distinctive features, creative powers, as evidenced in their tenuous "gardens,"
including a low forehead, broad and heavy features, and a thick unusual and offbeat creations of plant and inanimate life, the
neck. One of John Tenniel's illustrations of a wife beater for latter objects often salvaged from rubbish heaps. These
Punch (May 30, 1874) clearly depicts such characterization. poignant gardens attest to the irrepressible human urge to cre-
The concept of a specific criminal physiology persisted ate beauty in the least promising of spots and offer only one
throughout the nineteenth century and is shown in an array of example of what has been termed Outsider Art.
sketches in Havelock Ellis's The Criminal (1890). Although Currently, the subject of Outsider Art has elicited much con-
physical coarseness equaled moral ugliness, a certain hierarchy troversy. The term itself, coined in the 1970s, harks back to the
of criminal types existed as well, as evidenced in William passionate efforts of Jean Dubuffet, who championed the mer-
Powell Frith's Derby Day (1858). This encyclopedic panorama its of extracultural art, which he called Art Brut. Dubuffet
550 MARGINS / OUTSIDERS

prized the artwork of psychotic patient Adolf Wolfli because he and and the outsider always exists. The artist reflects
desires,
was uneducated, a social misfit, and had neither art training thesemetamorphoses of taste and morality and offers pictorial
nor professional aspirations. In Dubuffet's opinion, contact and tangible proof of the existence and influence of the margin.
with the art establishment destroyed the creative impulse.
Today, the term Outsider Art still defies precise definition.
Does it mean that the artist has had no art training? No con- See also Abandonment; Madness; Melancholy; Music
tact with the art world? Does it suggest that the artist has
removed himself or herself from normal communal life, choos-
ing the path of eccentricity? That the artist is slipping into
Selected Works of Art
schizophrenia? Does the term imply a lack of education or
social sophistication as established by the dominant culture? Medieval
Should women artists be included? Originally, the creative Bayeux Tapestry, embroidered linen, eleventh century,
efforts of primitives and were classified in the cate-
folk artists Bayeux, France, Musee de la Tapisserie
gory of Outsider Art, but now that judgment has been reevalu- Archivolts, sculpture, circa 11 30, Aulnay-de-Saintonge,
ated. Since folk artists and primitives, as well as artists from France, Church of Saint-Pierre
black, Hispanic, or other ethnic communities, develop and cre- Tympanum, sculpture, central portal of narthex, n 20-1 13 2,
ate within a particular society that nurtures and responds to Vezelay, France, Church of the Madeleine
them, can they be considered true outsiders? From various per- Last Supper, fresco, west choir wall, twelfth century, Nohant-
spectives, and at various times, anyone might be regarded as an Vicq, Church of Saint-Martin
insider or an outsider. The center creates the margins, and as World Map, manuscript, Psalter, thirteenth century, London,
the center shifts, so do those margins. Thus, the concept of British Library (Add MS 28681, fol. c>r)
Outsider Art remains frustratingly elusive as well as inconclu- Gospel Book, manuscript, from Speyer, Germany, circa
sively defined. Ultimately, through its rigid sociological stratifi-
1233-1236, Karlsruhe, Germany, Landsebibliothek
cations, the concept may serve to dehumanize both the art and (Bruchs.I, fol. 17)
the artist.
While art critics and art historians may determine what
Renaissance
seems to belong in the category of Outsider Art, it has been the
The Cloisters Apocalypse, manuscript, fourteenth century,
artists themselves who have cultivated the character or per-
New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, The
sonality of the outsider. Beginning in the nineteenth century, as
Cloisters (fol. 5V)
a result of the aesthetics of the romantic movement, great
Gentile da Fabriano, The Adoration of the Magi, 1423,
emphasis was placed on the individuality of the artists, their
Florence, Italy, Uffizi Gallery
introverted sensitivity, and the emotional expressivity of their
Masaccio, Expulsion from Paradise, fresco, circa 1427,
work. An early Self-Portrait (circa 1810) by Caspar David
Florence, Italy, Santa Maria del Carmine, Brancacci
Friedrich, for example, epitomizes these qualities. The artist's
Chapel
probing, intense gaze suggests his relentless search for a reali-
Giovanni di Paolo, Expulsion from Paradise, circa 1445,
ty beyond the obvious and his determination to follow this
uncompromising vision regardless of the consequences. One of
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Robert
Lehman Collection
Gustave Courbet's self-portraits, Self-Portrait, Man with a
jew Astride a Goat, wood carving on choir stool, fifteenth
Pipe (circa 1 846-1 847), depicts a brooding, veiled, and enig-
century, Aerschot, Belgium, Church of Notre Dame
matic image of the artist, while a halo of unruly hair frames
the face and hints at his independent character. Max
Eighteenth-Twentieth Century
Beckmann's Self-Portrait in Tuxedo (1927), with its monu-
mental frontality and confrontational stare, reinstates the
Mahu, Cornelius, Wedding Dance in a Barn, 1645, private
collection
artist's solitary role as seer and critic of the world around him.

The romantic movement has been described as a veritable war Friedrich, Caspar David, Self-Portrait, circa 18 10, Berlin,
of liberation, not only against established institutions of soci- Germany, Staatlich Museen
ety, but against the bedrock of tradition and authority. Gericault, Theodore, The Madman, 1 821-1824, Ghent,

Modern artists, as direct inheritors of this legacy, have often Belgium, Musee des Beaux-Arts
come to regard themselves as different, not bound by ordinary Courbet, Gustave, Self-Portrait, Man with a Pipe, circa
conventions, and as loners, set apart from the surrounding 1 846-1 847, Montpellier, France, Musee Fabre
society. Artists, therefore, almost by definition have become Hunt, William Holman, Scapegoat, 1855, Manchester,
outsiders, or "others." England, Manchester Art Gallery
Like the biblical scapegoat set loose in the wilderness Frith, William Powell, Derby Day, 1858, London, Tate

(Leviticus 16:2.0-2.1), those members of society castigated for Gallery

their "otherness" —whether because of social rank, physical Daumier, Honore, The Third-Class Carriage, 1861, New
disability, religion, ethnicity, or morals —are relegated to the York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, the H. O. Havemeyer
margins of the community in an effort to ignore their existence Collection
or to prevent their assimilation into the group. Society seems to Tenniel, John, The Wife Beater, from Punch LXVI (May 30,
constantly redefine its margins according to new perceptions 1874)
 MARGINS / OUTSIDERS 551

Herkomer, Hubert von, Hard Times, 1885, Manchester, Harvey, Bessie, Black Art: Ancestral Legacy: The African
Manchester City Art Galleries Impulse in African-American Art, Dallas, Texas: Dallas
Wolfli, Adolf, Saint Adolf portant des lunettes, 1924, Museum of Art, 1989
Lausanne, Switzerland, Collection de l'Art Brut Jones, Michael Owen, Exploring Folk Art: Twenty Years of
Beckmann, Max, Self-Portrait in Tuxedo, 1927, Cambridge, Thought on Craft, Work, and Aesthetics, Logan: Utah
Massachusetts, Harvard University, Busch-Reisinger State University Press, 1993
Museum Kenaan-Kedar, Nurith, Marginal Sculpture in Medieval
France: Towards the Deciphering of an Enigmatic Pictorial
Language, London and Brookfield, Vermont: Scholar
Press, 1995
Further Reading
Lewis, Susan, "Beyond the Frame: Marginal Figures and
Arnheim, Rudolph, The Power of the Center, Berkeley Historiated Initials in the Getty Apocalypse," /. Paul Getty
and London: University of California Press, 1988 Museum Journal 20 (1992)
Balmori, Diana, and Margaret Morton, Transitory Gardens, MacGregor, John Monroe, The Discovery of the Art of the
Uprooted Lives, New Haven, Connecticut, and London: Insane, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press,
Yale University Press, 1993 1987
Blumenkranz, Bernhard, "Le juif medieval au miroir de Maizels, John, Raw Creation: Outsider Art and Beyond,
l'art chretien," Etudes Augustininennes (1966) London: Phaidon, 1996
Camille, Michael, Images on the Edge: The Margins of Mellinkoff, Ruth, Outcasts: Signs of Otherness in Northern
Medieval Art, London: Reaktion, 1992 European Art of the Late Middle Ages, Berkeley and
Cardinal, Roger, Outsider Art, New York: Praeger, 1972; London: University of California Press, 1993
London: Studio Vista, 1972 Randall, Lilian M. C, Images in the Margins of Gothic
Center for Medieval and Early Renaissance Studies, Papers Manuscripts, Berkeley and London: University of
from the Twenty-Seventh Annual Conference, "On the California Press, 1993
Margins," Binghamton, New York, 1993 Terkla, Daniel, "Cut on the Norman Bias: Fabulous Borders
Cowling, Mary, The Artist as Anthropologist: The and Visual Glosses on the Bayeux Tapestry," Word and
Representation of Type and Character in Victorian Image 11:3 (July-September 1995)
Art, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Thevoz, Michel, Art Brut, New York: Rizzoli, 1976
Press,1989 Treuherz, Julian, Hard Times: Social Realism in Victorian Art,
Hall, Michael D., and Eugene W. Metcalf, editors, The London: Lund Humphries, 1987
Artist Outsider: Creativity and the Boundaries of Vlack, John Michael, and Simon J. Bronner, Folk Art and
Culture, Washington, D. C: Smithsonian Institution Art Worlds, Ann Arbor, Michigan, UMI Research Press,
Press, 1994 1986
 marriage/betrothal
Brucia Witthoft

The following motifs are covered in the discussion of the theme Marriage/Betrothal:

COURTSHIP JOINING OF HANDS THE WEDDING NIGHT

WEDDING CONTRACT WEDDING FEASTS MARRIAGE BY PROXY
PREPARATION FOR THE WEDDING DANCES MARRIAGE PORTRAITS
WEDDING WEDDING PROCESSIONS FILMS
EXCHANGING VOWS
EXCHANGING RINGS

553
5 54 MARRIAGE / BETROTHAL
 MARRIAGE / BETROTHAL 555

Jan van Eyck, Amolfini Wedding (Portrait

of Giovanni Amolfini and Giovanna
Cenami), 1434, London, National Gallery
(Courtesy of the National Gallery, London)

Marriage is the union of sexuality and property, and as This alliance is similarly portrayed in William Shakespeare's
such it has been a central concern of every human play Henry V and in the film versions of the play (directed by
society and viewed as a fundamental condition of human life: Laurence 1944; directed by Kenneth Branagh, 1989).
Olivier,
"For as in the days that were before the flood they were eating Even the prosperous peasants painted by Pieter Bruegel the
and drinking, marrying and giving in marriage, until the day Elder in Peasant Wedding Banquet (circa 1565) seek to ally

that Noah entered into the ark" (Matthew 24:38). Uniting two their child with an heir to fertile fields.

persons, or more generally two families, has historically been a Among custom of exchanging
the propertied classes, the
long and complex process. The time required for negotiation, property in marriage was formalized as bride-price
(a payment

betrothal, celebration, and consummation was often propor- that the groom owed to his wife's parents) or dowry (money or
tional to the social status of the parties involved. Remarkably, objects of value given by the bride's family to the groom, either
many of these rituals and customs have been conserved in the totally into his control or under conditions stipulating disposal
Western marital process despite vast transformations in reli- upon the death of the wife). For example, the price of the adul-
gious and economic practices. Marriage is frequently the sub- teress whom Hosea purchased to live with him in a monoga-
ject of novels and motion pictures, and therefore plays an mous relationship was 15 pieces of silver and one and a half
important part in twentieth-century popular culture: a formal homers (approximately 16 bushels) of barley (Hosea 3:2).
wedding photograph is often the most prominent work of art Probably because the purchase of a bride prevails largely in

in the American household. tribal societies without significant narrative art forms, it is

Marital customs were depicted on Greek pottery and rarely represented. Dowry, on the other hand, has appeared in

Roman sarcophagi. Later, sacred weddings began to appear in Renaissance paintings of marriage processions, such as the
medieval Christian art. Scenes of "real" wedding customs painted Florentine cassone (a traditional Italian chest that held
began to appear in the Renaissance, particularly on some the dowry) Wedding of Leonora Bardi and Ippolito
Florentine marriage chests and in early Netherlandish painting. Buondelmonte (fifteenth century), and in paintings of marriage
Married couples appeared in Dutch paired and joint portraits, feasts such as Apollonio di Giovanni's Wedding of Dido and
and by the eighteenth century, the subject of marriage eventu- Aeneas (fifteenth century). Among the prosperous peasantry
ally attracted the sharp-witted criticism of artists such as and small merchant classes, the dowry consisted of household
William Hogarth. Because marriage is a contract carrying per- linens, personal clothing, and jewelry. The rich, in addition,
sonal and financial obligations, its depiction in art can serve as received monetary endowments or real estate. The pile of coins
a record of, or witness to, that contract. on the table in Hogarth's Betrothal from Marriage a la Mode
Marriage in the primitive sense, reflected in the Old (1745) represents such a financial settlement.
Testament story of Jacob and his wives, was the purchase of a Marriage is a process, not a single event. The stages in this

female's reproductive capacity by the labor, wit, or strength of process are remarkably consistent in Western culture. First is a
a male. Females were assessed such a value because, when food determination of marriageability, that is, selection of a spousal
supplies were ample, women represented the limiting factor in candidate on the basis of physical maturity, health, financial
population. Jacob worked to pay for his two wives (not coinci- standing, clan, tribal, or even political affiliation. Parents and
dentally, a job that increased the population of his father-in- relatives may make this choice; children's rights to refuse a
law's sheep) and was rewarded by the opportunity to father proposed spouse vary. Selection is followed by negotiation,
children of his own. The competition between his wives to bear which is concerned largely with monetary arrangements but
children emphasizes the biological, rather than psychological, may also in some societies determine issues such as whether the
rewards of marriage. wife remains under the jurisdiction of her own family, becomes
Property, in the tangible sense of land, as well as the forging her husband's property, or acquires legal independence. A suc-
of familial or dynastic alliances, has been the motive for many cessful negotiation leads to betrothal, an ambiguous state
historical and literary weddings. The Marriage of Solomon and sometimes considered as binding as marriage but preceding the
Sheba (circa1460) by Piero della Francesca depicts one such physical consummation. Physical union is usually required for
scene in contemporary forms, with symbolic references to the the completion of the process, and the establishment of a new
hoped-for union of Eastern and Western Christianity in the household, with concomitant financial settlement.
mid-fifteenth century. In the fresco, Solomon and his bride Sexual attraction is often considered an accidental impedi-
grasp hands (see description of Roman marital customs, below) ment to the selection of a desirable marital partner, although
to seal the marriage contract in the presence of numerous wit- legend and literature have long recognized the mystery of "the
nesses. The conquest of France by King Henry V of England way of a man with a maid" (Proverbs 30:19). In the world of
yielded Katherine, daughter of the French king, as his bride. the ancient Greeks, concubinage and the low status of women
556 MARRIAGE / BETROTHAL

virtually eliminated the romantic impulse from marriage. In the sexes. Sumptuary laws attempted to control the extent of
medieval times and later, among the underclass withno prop- the festivities, which clearly served the additional purpose of
erty to divide, the choice of a wife or husband did depend establishing, via "potlatch" economics, the power of the host.
on which personal preference conflicted
attraction. Cases in Sinos points out that the public nature of the festivities, in the
with familial goals are described in Giovanni Boccaccio's absence of written contracts, also served to "publish" the wed-
"Third Tale of the Second Day" of The Decameron (1349-13 51), ding before witnesses. Both feasting and the procession are rep-
Geoffrey Chaucer's "The Merchant's Tale" from The Canterbury resented on a Francois vase (sixth century B.C.) in the story of
Tales (1385-1400), as well as various fourteenth-century novel- the marriage of the mortal Peleus and the sea goddess Thetis.
les. The main character of Daniel Defoe's Moll Flanders (172.2) The wedding procession, which transferred the bride from
marries according to her own preferences and divorces just as her state as a child in her parents' home to a woman in her hus-
easily and informally. Dalliance and amorous glances occur band's, followed the feast. At evening, the groom grasped the
in contexts separate from marital imagery, as in the anonymous bride by the wrist and, with a mock show of force, removed her
The Month of May (before 1407), a calendar fresco in the Torre from her mother. She traveled by wagon in a torchlit procession
Aquila in Trent, Italy. to her new home, accompanied by attendants (often including
Roman law specified that a son could reject the bride cho- a child, who appears to represent the god of erotic love, Eros).

sen for him by his father and that the father had the power to Sinos notes that this procession is the most common wedding
veto his son or daughter's choice of a mate, clearly implying scene to be portrayed on black-figured vases, indicating that it
that the young people in Roman society had at least some was the most significant event of the wedding process. Often
opportunity to meet and adjudge potential partners. Literature the couple are depicted riding in a chariot, conflating them with
suggests that late medieval and early modern Europe saw per- the Olympian weddings of the gods, although the actual vehi-
sonal choice largely in conflict with family interest. It was not cle in Athenian practice was a plain wagon. Later red-figured

until the Enlightenment that treatment of marriage as an eco-
nomic transaction began to be thought of as immoral.
America's agrarian democracy and the rootlessness of conti-
nental expansion left both the choice and the marital arrange-
ments to the participants, as seen in John Rogers's popular
plaster sculpture Going to the Parson (1875).
Betrothal and marriage in ancient Greece can be studied
from abundant visual evidence and literary references. Wedding
scenes appear on both black-figured and red-figured vases,
especially on objects for women's use, according to John
Oakley and Rebecca Hague Sinos (The Wedding in Ancient
Athens, 1993) on objects for women's use. While ancient Greek
vases more frequently portray the earlier moment when, still on
foot, the groom has taken hold of his bride to lead her away.
One red-figured vaseshows the couple departing in a shower of
old shoes thrown by the wedding guests.
After a ritualized reception, the couple were put to bed in
the groom's paternal home to the accompaniment of song and
ribald jokes. The door was guarded by the thyroros (a friend of
the groom) as wedding guests and friends remained outside all
night to sing, bang on the walls, and create a general distrac-
tion apparently meant to drown out the young girl's cries of
pain. At dawn, the couple rose to another day of festivities,
offering food to guests who arrived with gifts.

marriage was arranged through negotiations between the par- Almost every element of the ancient Athenian wedding cer-
ents of the couple, mythology tells of brides being won by a emony is instantly recognizable today. The special preparation
trial, as in the story of Hippodamia. and dress of the bride, the importance of a shared meal, the
Marriage in the Greek world was a rite of passage, which, release from the father's household and departure for a new
like any change of state or place, was dangerous. Just as a trav- one, and the opportunities for lewd remarks and mock-hostile
eler crossing a bridge is not so secure as one standing on firm behavior are constants that seem to have survived every social
ground, transitions suspend people between secure roles, mak- transformation in the ensuing centuries. The direct basis for
ing them vulnerable —
in Greek terms, vulnerable to the whims marital practices in the medieval and Renaissance periods was
of the gods. To mitigate the risk, a bride and her family sacri- Roman law and custom. And while Roman legal terms defined
ficed to the gods before her wedding. The young woman dedi- marriage for Roman practices appear to have been
later eras,
cated objects to Artemis indicative of her childhood (toys, few alterations, to Greek rituals.
closely related, with a
ornaments) and requested the protection of the Olympians as As in Greece, Roman marriage ordinarily began with
she passed from childhood in one household to adulthood in research and negotiation. Roman myth incorporated an ele-
another. Both bride and groom were bathed in water drawn ment of violence, however, most notably in the story of the
and carried from a sacred spring in a loutrophoros (wedding Sabine women (the subject of a Peter Paul Rubens painting).
pitcher). The vessel might be decorated with marital imagery, Livy, theRoman historian (59 b.c.-a.d. 17) was the source of
perhaps of the wedding procession. The bride was led to her Rome's foundation myth, which symbolized the integration of
bath with accompanying musicians and gaily dressed women. the supposed immigrants with native tribal peoples. Actual
She was then dressed in a special which when
garment: a belt, Roman practice is probably better represented in either the let-

tightly bound around her waist symbolized her virginity, and ters of Pliny the Younger, who was looking for a suitable wife
when undone by the groom, her deflowering. She wore jewel- for the niece of Junius Maricus (Treggiari, p. 87), or in Roman
ry, a crown, a veil, and bridal sandals. comedy. Plautus, in Trinummus (early second century B.C.), has
The ancient Greek wedding began with a feast. Families of a character say, "My me
you to arrange a mar-
son has sent to
both the bride and groom participated, as well as friends and riage-tie and good feeling between you and us. He wants to
clients of the couple's fathers. Men and women ate separately marry your sister; my decision is the same and I want it too"
in accordance with the customary Greek practice of separating (442-445; in Treggiari, p. 108). The introduction of profes-
 MARRIACK / BETROTHAL 557

sional marriage brokers in the imperial epoch was an addition traditions: once the bride is in the house, she is legally married.
to the process, probably reflecting the increased complexity of In Roman law, her presence indicated consent, and consent, not
the larger Roman society. consummation, is the essence of contract. Inside, she performed
The prescribed dress of Roman brides mimicked the garments certain rites, such as putting a coin in the hearth to ensure pros-
said to be worn by the wife of a priest of Jupiter, the king of the perity and fertility. A festive dinner took place in the groom's

gods. Thus, the tie between marital practice and organized reli- house the following day. The wedding feast and the postcon-
gion was more explicitly delineated in imperial Rome than it had summation dinner might be and both served as displays
lavish,
been in classical Athens. The Roman bride's dress was supposed of familial power. Although history includesmany examples of
to be woven on an archaic upright loom; her girdle, like that of divorce in the Roman world, there is no doubt that marriage
the Greeks', was tied with a special knot that the groom would was intended to be a true partnership and sharing of responsi-
loose. Her hair was parted with a spear and combed into six bility, and inscriptions on tombs often convey the grief of the

braids. This process is described in Lucius Apuleius's The Golden surviving spouse (Treggiari, pp. 245:^.
Ass (4:2.6) and appears in a Pompeiian fresco Dressing the Bride Roman law and custom proved a powerful influence on the
(first century B.C.), now in Naples, Italy. Christian societies of medieval and early modern Europe, shap-
Roman society tolerated many nonstandard cults. The non- ing social behavior as they had shaped the Roman Catholic
standard, Dionysian preparation of a bride or initiate, with its Church. The hands is the most fre-
fact that the joining of
attendant whipping and musical accompaniment, appears to be quently chosen act in medieval and Renaissance imagery testi-
depicted in a fresco in the Villa of Mysteries in Pompeii (first fies to the power of Roman precedent. It is seen in Gothic man-

century B.C.). The groom was also carefully, though never so uscript illumination (late thirteenth century), on Lorenzo
violently, prepared: Roman biographer and historian Suetonius Ghiberti's bronze Gates of Paradise (circa 1440) for the
refers to sending a groom for a haircut. Even the house itself Baptistery in Florence, in Francesca's frescoes in Arezzo, and is

was prepared, with greens and lit with torches, probably resem- the subject of Jan van Eyck's Arnolfini Wedding (Portrait of
bling the decorations on the Ara Pacis Augustae in Rome. Giovanni Arnolfini and Giovanna Cenami) (1434). To this tra-
A assumed the role of ausper (soothsay-
friend of the family dition, Christianity added —
rather, developed from a mere hint
er) and read the omens; it was considered "shocking" to omit in Roman practice —
an emphasis on the spiritual dimension of
this part of the ritual. The groom came to the wedding "sur- the marital bond. The Jewish duty to marry, because of the
rounded by a great crowd of kinsmen and connections and sac- emphasis placed on family in celebration of holidays and the
rificing in the temples and public shrines." Attendance at the Sabbath, may have been an ingredient in the formation of
weddings of friends and relatives was considered a duty Christian practice. The Anglican prayer book states the
(Treggiari, p. 164). Christian view clearly: marriage is a sacrament, given to
A written contract for the dowry might be witnessed and mankind by God when he created Eve. Its purposes are to bring
sealed at the wedding. InRoman law (and in common law ever children into the world, to "prevent fornication," and for the
since) a handshake sealed a contract. Thus, the joining of the mutual "society, help and comfort" of the couple through good
hands of the bride and groom, the most frequently represented and bad fortune.
marital image in Roman art, relates marriage to the larger Wedding scenes from the Old and New Testaments appear
world of Roman law and custom. This scene appears on a num- in art as idealized or abstracted versions of actual practice,
ber of sarcophagi, such as one held by the British Museum in designed to illustrate moral principles, yet reflecting some
London on which the depicted arrangement of guests and wit- aspects of the artist's own experience. In the Old Testament,
nesses simulates the iconography of military triumphal monu- marriage is more often mentioned than described in detail, so
ments. A similarity between depictions of weddings and tri- that artists wishing to illustrate Old Testament weddings had to
umphal processions reappears in Italian Renaissance imagery draw upon later custom. Only a modest number of biblical
(see Francesca, below). examples of marriage are depicted in art with any frequency.
Uxorem diicere, or deducere, meant literally to lead a bride To begin at the beginning, Adam and Eve are married in the
to her new home. The Romans, however, sent the groom ahead Garden of Eden by God, who joins their hands, Roman fashion
after the feast so that he awaited her at his home. The bride was (Heimann, 1975). The marriage of Solomon and Sheba is not
tearfully, perhaps forcibly, torn from her mother. The deductio recounted in I Kings 10, but Sheba's arrival in a lavish proces-
in domum mariti, or pompa (wedding procession) took place sion and her gifts to the king, who reciprocates by giving "all
by torchlight. Three young boys led the bride, her many atten- her desire," parallel marital customs. This elusive description
dants threw nuts to the crowd, while onlookers sang obscene grows into the formal conjoining of hands depicted by Ghiberti
ditties and repeatedly shouted hymen hymenaee (the marriage on the Gates of Paradise and as a component of Francesca's
song). The marriage procession, not the conjoining of hands, True Cross fresco cycle in Arezzo, Italy. The wedding of Tobias
was the most important element in the classical Roman cere- (Apocrypha, Tobit 8:4-5) seems to have been especially popu-
mony because it served to publish the wedding, as in classical lar in the seventeenth century, the subject of paintings by Pieter

Athens, and because the physical removal of the bride once Lastman, Nikolaus Knupfer, and Jan Steen. Tobias appears in
again served as metaphor for her change of state. The proces- hiswedding chamber in Pieter Lastman's delightful painting
sion was neither a legal requirement, nor was it prescribed by Wedding Night of Tobias and Sarah (16 11). In this work, the
religious doctrine. It was a ritual tied directly to marriage itself. bride sits on the edge of the bed as Tobias, on his angel's advice,
When she reached her new home, her attendants lifted the broils a piece of fish to drive off the devil that has murdered her
bride over the threshold. This echoes primitive bride-stealing previous suitors.
558 MARRIAGE / BETROTHAL

Two marriages in the New Testament are frequently por- met before a notary to swear out a legal agreement. Without
trayed in art of. the fourteenth through the sixteenth century: any formal participation of the bride, the couple were now con-
Mary's marriage to Joseph, and the marriage at Cana, where sidered engaged. Courtship was the next step, during which the
Jesus Christ, as a guest, performed a protoeucharistic miracle. groom would visit his betrothed, bring her gifts, and dine with
The Marriage of the Virgin is not described in the Gospels; only her family. Because it was the groom's duty to furnish the new
Matthew and Luke recount the infancy cycle. In both, Mary is home (usually, the designated bedroom in the paternal house),
espoused to Joseph but the union unconsummated (Matthew he also ordered a bed, a pair of wedding chests, and a lettncio
1:18-19, Luke 1:27). A considerable body of extrabiblical leg- (daybed).
ends have accrued to this marriage, most prominent among The bride took part in the process for the first time on the
them the story of the choice of suitors. Joseph and other hope- "day of the ring." Combining Roman and Jewish or Byzantine
ful men each lay a bare branch upon the altar of a temple. custom, she and her fiance declared their willingness to marry
God's choice of Joseph as Mary's spouse —to deceive the devil and shook hands. The notary, a key figure in the mercantile cli-
as well as skeptical contemporaries —was indicated when his mate of the fifteenth century, conducted the ceremony. He then
branch was found to have sprouted leaves and flowers repeated the formula, "what God hath joined together," etc. A
overnight. In Raphael's Marriage of the Virgin (1504), the dis- rare example of this scene is found in the fresco cycle Works of
appointed suitors break their worthless sticks as the hands of Charity (late fifteenth century) done by a follower of Domenico
Mary and Joseph are joined by a priest. Ghirlandaio in S. Martino del Vescovo in Florence. Although
Depictions of Mary's marriage, lacking any specific biblical the laws of many Italian communes stipulated the presence of
narrative details, are based upon late medieval and Renaissance a priest, in practice there was usually none. In fact, one law
marriage customs. Similarly, the depictions of the marriage at states specifically that the notary takes the place of the priest.
Cana look very much like the wedding feasts described in In northern Europe the ceremony may have taken place on the
Florentine law and literature, or like mythological weddings, steps of the church, as depicted by Robert Campin in Marriage
such as the portrayal of the Wedding of Dido and Aeneas in of the Virgin (circa 1430) in the Prado in Madrid, Spain. Van
Apollonio di Giovanni's fifteenth-century Aeneid manuscript Eyck's Arnolfini Wedding shows the couple joining hands in
illuminations. The patterns of Renaissance marriage, therefore, their bedroom, in the presence of a witness the artist— whose —
may be used to interpret biblical and secular weddings por- image is reflected dimly in the mirror behind them.
trayed in art. At this ceremony, or within a few days, the groom gave his
Marriage in the Renaissance combined elements of Roman wife a ring. This custom, believed to be of Byzantine origin, had
custom and law, Jewish and Christian medieval practice, and been practiced by the Jews of the Diaspora since the seventh
contemporary power politics. The process began with the selec- century. In Renaissance Christian ceremony, the influence of
tion of a possible candidate. Mothers might look over the Roman practice on the one hand, and the ring tradition on the
young people they saw in church to judge apparent health and other, led to a doubling of ritual. On the "day of the ring," a
attractiveness; fathers might be more directly concerned with wedding banquet took place either at the bride's father's home
financial stability and political alliances. In Florence, a special or outside in the street to accommodate a large crowd of guests.
—
type of bank account the monte delle dote enabled families — Sumptuary laws attempted in vain to control the expense by
to budget for their daughters' dowries as modern families save limiting the number of guests or the number of dishes, but the
for college tuitions. opportunity for lavish display served the same power-enhanc-
Once a candidate for a child's spouse was selected, a process ing function that it had in ancient societies. Because the laws
not very different from that found in the ancient world ensued. were written and enforced to support the power of the ruling
Again, the stages in marrying consisted of negotiation, factions, enforcement against that class was negligible. Objects
betrothal, celebration, transfer of the bride to the groom's from the donora and gifts of gold and silver were often dis-
household, and consummation. played at the feast, as in Giovanni's Wedding of Dido and
Prebetrothal financial negotiations were conducted by a mar- Aeneas manuscript illuminations. If the wedding feast took
riage broker or by relatives of the families. A dowry consisted of place outdoors, tents might be strung across the street.
two parts. The donora (material goods) consisted largely of The wedding procession was in the Renaissance Christian
linens and clothing. These objects were evaluated by a profes- ceremony, as it was in Rome, the central and most public ele-

sional appraiser and are often listed in Florentine merchants' ment in the ritual. At the end of the banquet, the groom took
ricordi (memoirs). The donora played an important part in the his bride through the streets to her new home while the groom's
ceremonial transfer of the bride, as it was carried in the wedding party may have enacted a ritualized abduction (as was still the
chests that were such a prominent feature of Florentine mar- custom in village weddings in many rural areas well into the
riage customs. The Buondelmonte wedding procession depicted nineteenth century). The Renaissance procession was a festive
on a fifteenth-century cassone shows that even heavy chests demonstration related to other displays of power, such as the
could be transported on the back of a single porter. (The story triumphal entries staged by returning monarchs, and the dono-
of Leonora Bardi and Ippolito Buondelmonte is recounted in an ra was carried through the streets like war booty. The spirit of
anonymous quattrocento novella.) For peasants and small mer- the event can from works such as Francesca's
be judged
chants, the donora was the major or entire dowry. The rich, Triumph of Fedengo da Montefeltro (circa 1459). Here, on the
however, also exchanged substantial sums of money. back of his wedding portrait, the duke rides in glory, accompa-
When two families were substantially in agreement, the nied by courtiers and symbolic figures. His "triumph" is anal-
fathers of the bride and groom, and often the groom as well, ogous to the images that illustrate Petrarch's "Triumph of Love,
 MARRIAGE / BETROTHAL 559

Chastity, Death, etc." on a pair of panels in the Isabella Stewart mandated the publication of banns, or intents to marry, in the

Gardner Museum in Boston. In Florence, processions were on churchin advance of the wedding date, the presence of a priest,

foot —
sumptuary laws restricted the use of horses or parade as well as the presence of witnesses. This seems to have initiat-
wagons. Musicians, friends, and allies of the groom's party, ed the practice of celebrating the wedding vows with a conju-
accompanied the bride. Because the procession is a vital rite, gal mass inside the church before the altar. The sacramental rit-

even the Virgin, on her way to Joseph's home, is led by a musi- ual gradually supplanted earlier custom, although not without
cian and accompanied by a crowd in Giotto's fresco Marriage, considerable resistance among conservative families. There
Procession of the Virgin (i 303-1 306) in the Arena Chapel in remained the basic components of the process — selection, nego-
Padua, Italy. tiation, contract, and celebration — but the bride's banquet was
Actual wedding processions were large and rowdy. There postponed until after the church ceremony, and the groom's
was good reason for a large party to accompany the newly mar- banquet became obsolete. The wedding party still wandered
ried couple as the parade provided opportunities for expres- about on foot: first to the church, then back to dine, physical
sions of hostility and jealousy.Rude joking, throwing objects, travel retaining its symbolic significance as change of state. Jan
and even street barricades faced the wedding parade. (A novel- Steen's Village Wedding (1653) shows that the common people
la by Agnolo Firenzuola follows a street gang as they intercept continued to transfer the bride to her husband's home as they
a wedding procession and demand a ring as ransom.) The had a century earlier.
throwing of stones and filth at the house of a newly married By the seventeenth century, there was no longer a special
couple was a practice that had to be specifically forbidden by category of art (like Greek loutrophoroi or Florentine wedding
the Florentine Statuti of 141 5. chests) associated with weddings. Portraits of married couples,
A second banquet took place when the triumphal procession either paired panels that formed a sort of secular diptych, or a
reached the groom's home. Gifts were exchanged; the guests portrait of the husband and wife together, such as Rembrandt
danced, drank, and played games. The couple would then be van Rijn's so-called Jewish Wedding (circa 1666), commemo-
put to bed, a scene not considered suitable for artistic interpre- rated weddings or anniversaries. Peter Paul Rubens chronicled
tation. (Pictures of bedded couples are likely to depict either the politically significant marriage of France's Henry IV and
adultery or rape.) A flurry of smaller celebrations continued for Marie de Medicis, which took place by proxy (1 621-1624).
several days, like aftershocks following an earthquake, as the Because Henry would not accept the loss of status that travel-
bride made a return visit to her parents, distributed gifts to her ing to his bride would have entailed, and Marie, as a maiden,
female relatives, and banqueted. could not properly travel to him, Henry sent a stand-in to Italy.
By the sixteenth century, weddings had evolved
aristocratic The king's glove served to represent him for the handclasp,
into staged spectacles the development of
important in which sealed the marriage.
European theater, but their essential components were The reforms of the Council of Trent were paralleled, to
unchanged. Peasant weddings in early modern Europe followed some extent, by continental Protestant churches. In England,
similar patterns. The Peasant Wedding Banquet (circa 1565) however, most of medieval canon law, with its flexible stan-
and Peasant Wedding Dance (1566) depicted by Bruegel are the dards, remained in place. The abdication of the authority of the
best examples of sixteenth-century custom among the more church was most sharply challenged under Oliver Cromwell
prosperous peasantry. In the former work, a crowned bride is (1642), when the ceremony outlined in the Book of Common
dressed in finery and sits between her parents before a cloth of Prayer was denounced as "popish," and again 1653, when in

honor. A pair of wheat sheaves hangs above her head. The lord Parliament declared weddings that took place in church or
of the manor has dropped in to offer congratulations; he chats before a clergyman illegal. This extreme position was unac-
with a monk. All present belong to the bride's party. The ceptable to much of the English population. Lawrence Stone
groom's family and friends are not included, but in all proba- has characterized the result as "chaos," each family electing its

bility they are celebrating outside the door shown at the rear. own combination of secular and religious ceremonies, leaving
The wedding dance will follow the meal. As late as the nine- endless scope for deception and litigation. These events may
teenth century, Russian peasant weddings resembled scenes have spawned the spread to the middle classes of the loosely
from Bruegel. Maximovich Maximov's The Magician
In Vasili construed marriage customs prevalent among the poor. An
Arrives at the Village Wedding (1874), family and friends sit on example of this would be Defoe's character, Moll Flanders,
rough benches, gay banners hang from the rafters, and musi- who several times in the course of the novel marries and sepa-
cians entertain the company. Judging from peasant customs rates on the basis of mutual agreement. The legal situation in
documented in countries isolated since the nineteenth century England was not regularized until the passage of the Marriage
such as Sardinia and Albania, at some point the groom was to Act of 1753.
grab his bride and drag her away. She entered her new home, The conditions in the English colonies in the Western
where the mock tears of the wedding abduction might correct- Hemisphere provided further impetus for change. Religious dis-
ly describe her future. She was the person of lowest status in the sidents who settled New England had their own ceremonies,
household, subject to the orders of her mother-in-law and the loosely based on post-Tridentine principles as adopted by
wives of her husband's older brothers. Not until she bore a son European sects. But primitive living conditions for the strug-
was she accorded a measure of dignity. gling settlers limited the scope of the visual arts to occasional
The twenty-fourth session of the Council of Trent in 1563 European-derived portraits, usually of married persons.
gave the Roman Catholic Church actual control of European Narrative painting begins to appear in the English colonies only
marriage for the first time. New regulations for record keeping late in the eighteenth century.
560 MARRIAGE / BETROTHAL

The Enlightenment profoundly affected traditional views of associates modern Jewish customs in Morocco to a lost biblical
marriage. As each person was accorded both autonomy and world. In Delacroix's painting, guests recline on the ground in

equality, the notion of arranged marriage, particularly those a stuccoed courtyard. A bride enters from the left, leading a
arranged for advantage, became anathema. Hogarth's novel-in- dance to the accompaniment of lute and tambourine. In her
pictures Marriage a la Mode chronicles the personal and social rich, colorful costume and dark complexion, Delacroix seems

effects that result from two fathers' attempts to control their to allude to the biblical Rachel or Esther. The simple, earthy
children's' choice of mate for their own gain. In Betrothal, an expression of this scene. was in contrast to the artifice of the
impoverished aristocrat, having disdained to profit from busi- European society of Delacroix's time.
ness ventures, offers his distinguished ancestral line in exchange The Health of the Bride (1889) by Stanhope Forbes is an
for a non-pedigreed businessman's hard cash. Hogarth makes it example of such European social artifice. In Forbes's painting,
clear that the young couple have not been consulted and are a wedding dinner takes place in the confined space of a con-
already looking elsewhere for returned affection. ventional nineteenth-century parlor. Prim women sit stiffly
Courtship, celebrated in poem and novel, became a matter upright in their boned corsets, knives and forks placed precise-
between the young, who were granted greater opportunities for ly beside each dinner plate. Queen Victoria set just such an

social contact. In actual practice, of course, individual choice example for the middle class of late nineteenth-century
often coincided with class interests — a girl who dressed in silk England. Edwin Eandseer's Windsor Castle in Modern Times
and played the harp attracted richer suitors than did the peas- (Queen Victoria, the Prince Consort and the Princess Royal at
ant maid. Antoine Watteau's Fetes Champetres and The Windsor) (1 840-1 843) depicts the ruler herself as a bourgeois
Embarkation for Cythera (1717) depict in fantasized form the wife and mother, surrounded by family, pets, and upholstered
dalliance that children of the upper classes were now permitted. furniture.
The couple who married upon personal choice then presided Coerced marriage was still a social problem addressed by a
over household and land in a partnership in which the wife, number of painters. In Vasili Vladimirovich Pukirev's The
although still unequal in law and status, nevertheless gained Unequal Marriage (1862), a young, pale, beautiful bride and a
some personal autonomy. Such a couple appears, posed infor- distinguished elderly groom stand before a priest. The priest's

mally, in Thomas Gainsborough's Robert Andrews and His face thrown into darkness, as the light from behind and
is

Wife (circa 1748). Andrews, with dog and gun, stands beside above him illuminates the unhappy young woman. Grim-faced
an ornate bench upon which his elegantly dressed wife is seat- witnesses form a tenebrous background to the scene. The
ed, and together they survey their domain, the rich grain fields sequel to such a union, a cold and loveless partnership, is por-
and meadows that provide their wealth. Their appearance and trayed in works such as William Quiller Orchardson's Le
pose are reminiscent of Elizabeth Bennett and Mr. Darcy, Jane Mariage de Convenance (1883). Here, an unhappy couple sit at
Austen's characters from Pride and Prejudice (1813), at opposite ends of a long table, scarcely willing to bid each other
Pemberley. good day.
Nineteenth-century painting dealt with sexuality and mar- The persistence of long-standing behavioral patterns, even
riage in a variety of ways. Romanticism intensified the empha- after the intellectual impact of the Enlightenment and the eco-
sis on individual choice, placing sexual attraction and emo- nomic transformations of the Industrial Revolution, is a
tional bonds foremost in the choice of marriage partners. When remarkable feature of marriage imagery in all schools of nine-
the romantic artists dealt with marriage customs, they tended teenth-century painting. Negotiation, betrothal, preparation of
to portray a "natural" society of peasants or tribes inspired the bride, shared meals, and obligatory travel remain as promi-
by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Salon painters, on the other hand, nent themes. In John Henry Frederick Bacon's A Wedding
—
chronicled bourgeois social customs sometimes approvingly, Morning (1892), a bride stands in a bedroom, holding up her
occasionally critically — with faithful attention to detail. veil to assist an older woman (her mother?) in pinning a seam
American genre scenes emphasized freedom from family ties of her dress. In addition to being observed by other marriage-
and showed how a nation of immigrants and migrants left able young women, a little girl (her sister?) watches the bride
arrangements for marriage up to the couples themselves. and perhaps sees in the bride her own future.
Unions that crossed political or social boundaries became The greatest change in nineteenth-century marital behavior
the subject matter of romantic literature, appearing in works occurred in the initiation of the process. Increasingly, the choice
such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's Werther (1774), Emily of a partner rested with individuals. New social patterns, like
Bronte's Wuthering Heights (1847), and Alessandro Manzoni's informal dances and cafes, provided meeting places for children
The Betrothed (3 vols., 1827). Eugene Delacroix illustrated of the middle class. Pierre-Auguste Renoir's Le Moulin de la
Goethe's Faust (1808, 1832), a story of illicit sexual attraction Galette (1876) is an earthier version of the amorous gardens
(among other themes) fascinating to the romantic spirit. painted by Jean-Honore Fragonard, a place where flirtation
Among the romantics, only artists such as Philipp Otto Runge and courtship might enable the youth of Paris to select a mate.
saw in intimate family relations a passion as exciting as the A state of courtship might persist for years, as long as financial
attraction of exotic and illicit love. In his Wir Drei (1804, We constraints prevented the couple from establishing a household
Three) the artist, his wife, and his brother are bound together of their own, a situation depicted by Arthur B. Hughes in The
by a "community of understanding" (Honour, p. 251) deeper Long Engagement (1859). Hughs offers little hope for his
than any other social tie. engaged couple: they look at the names they carved into a tree
A longing for earlier, more "natural" human relations led trunk years ago, names that the ivy is already beginning to
Delacroix to travel to North Africa; his Jewish Wedding (1839) obliterate.
 MARRIAGK / BETROTHAL 561

The initiative in taking the next step was also increasingly Steen, Jan, The Proposal, oil on canvas, seventeenth century,
left to individuals. Rogers's aforementioned sculpture Going to private collection
the Parson depicts an awkward young man and his blushing Vois, Ary de, Rustic Courtship, oil on panel, 1656, London,
fiancee on a visit to a comfortably middle-aged minister to ask Wallace Collection
him to preside at their wedding. The scenario is frequently Terborch, Gerard, The Suitor's Visit, oil on canvas, circa
repeated in popular culture. Innumerable Hollywood films 1658, Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art
(such as Frank Capra's It Happened One Night, 1934) bring an Mulready, William, The Sonnet, 1839, London, Victoria and
attractive young couple before a minister or justice of the peace Albert Museum
and his wife, who serves as witness. The contrast between the Hughes, Arthur, The Long Engagement, 1859, Birmingham,
sexual personae of the young and the postsexual coziness of the England, Birmingham City Art Gallery
older married couple is part of modern myth.
Sadler, Walter Dendy, Sweethearts, 1892, London, Guildhall
The wedding procession is the subject of Marc Chagall's Art Gallery
romanticized Village Wedding I (1909) and Village Wedding II
(19 10). Two musicians lead a bride and groom through a vil- Wedding Contract
lage street. They are followed by family and watched by Steen, Jan,Wedding of Tobias and Sarah, oil on canvas, circa
passersby —the painting a kind of Polish shtetl (small town)
1667, Brunswick, Germany, Staatliches Herzog Anton-
version of Giotto's Arena Chapel Marriage Procession of the Ulrich Museum
Virgin painted 600 years earlier. Although Chagall's painting is Hogarth, William, Betrothal, from Marriage a la Mode, 1745,
probably based on his childhood memories, the artist's choice painting and engraving
of a subject is just as likely based on a desire to preserve an ide-
Charles, James, Signing the Register, circa 1880s, Bradford,
alized past, like Delacroix's Jewish Wedding.
England, Bradford City Art Gallery
Although largely abandoned by avant-garde artists, the sub-
King, Frank, Gasoline Alley: "Closer and Closer," 1941,
ject of marriage is a staple of contemporary popular culture.
comic strip
Weddings are recorded by a photographer, who is as essential
to the ceremony as the Renaissance notary or the post-
Preparation for the Wedding
Tridentine priest. The record includes a formal portrait in
Dressing the Bride, fresco from Pompeii, first century B.C.,
which the bride's dress is artfully draped around her feet, as
Naples, Italy, National Museum
well as a large group of "candid" shots depicting the wedding
Premarital Rites {Cult of Dionysus), fresco, first century B.C.,
dance and the cutting of the wedding cake. The popular
Pompeii, Villa of Mysteries
iconography of twentieth-century marriage is displayed in a
Halliday, Michael Frederick, The Measure for the Wedding
long series of episodes of the comic strip Gasoline Alley by
Ring, 1855, private collection
Frank King. Nina and Skeezix are childhood sweethearts
Rogers, John, Going to the Parson, 1875, plaster sculpture,
whose first step toward marriage is recorded in "Closer and
Framingham, Massachusetts, Danforth Museum of Art
Closer" (1941). The story of Skeezix and Nina's courtship and
Bacon, John Henry Frederick, A Wedding Morning, 1892.,
marriage satisfied a demand for a vision of a world more sta-
Port Sunlight, England, Lady Lever Art Gallery
ble and more cohesive than contemporary reality supplies. It is
also a genuine record of the persistence of centuries-old marital
Exchanging Vows
customs.
Ghirlandaio, follower of, Marriage, fresco cycle from
Technology has changed, but has not destroyed, old cus-
toms. The shoes thrown at an Athenian couple are today tied
Works of Charity, late fifteenth century, Florence, Italy,
to the back of an automobile. The wedding dance that took
S. Martino del Vescovo
Pukirov, Vasili Vladimirovich, The Unequal Marriage, 1862,
place in Bruegel's sixteenth-century barn is now held in a rent-
ed hall, the bagpiper replaced by a disk jockey. Twentieth-cen- Moscow, Russia, State Tretyakov Gallery
Frith, William Powell, The Marriage of the Prince of Wales,
tury marriage is still a process that begins with the selection of
a partner; includes a period of betrothal; requires a ceremony 1865, England, Collection of Her Majesty, the Queen of
of special clothes, meals, and dancing; and concludes in a wed- England
ding journey. Its place as the subject of popular art is as secure
as its earlier role in sacred works and genre painting. Exchanging Rings
Marriage of St. Francis
Sasetta, to Lady Poverty, panel from
Sansepolcro Altarpiece, 1437-1444, Chantilly, France,
See also Abduction/Rape; Adultery; Birth/Childbirth; Love
Musee Conde
and Death; Widowhood
Verona, Michele da, Betrothal, panel, circa 1490, Berlin,
Germany, Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz
Raphael, Marriage of the Virgin, 1504, Milan, Italy, Brera
Veronese, Paolo Caliari, Mystical Marriage of St. Catherine,
Selected Works of Art
oil on canvas, circa 1570s, Venice, Italy, Accademia
Courtship Schiavone, Andreas, The Marriage of Cupid and Psyche, oil
The Month of May, from Labors of the Months, calendar on panel, before 1563, New York, Metropolitan Museum
fresco, before 1407, Trent, Italy, Torre Aquila of Art
562 MARRIAGE / BETROTHAL

Lichtenstein, Roy, The Engagement Ring, oil on canvas, 1961, Giotto, Marriage Procession of the Virgin, fresco, 1 303-1 306,
collection of Mr. and Mrs. S. L. Newhouse Jr. Padua, Italy, Arena Chapel
Wedding of Leonora Bardi and Ippolito
Florentine School,
Join nig of Hands Buondelmonte, carved chest, fifteenth century, Waltham,
Sarcophagus with Marriage Scene, Roman sculpture, London, Massachusetts, Brandeis University
British Museum Piero della Francesca, Triumph of Federigo da Montefeltro
Bible Moralisee, circa 1230, Oxford, Bodleian Library (2706, (reverse of portrait), 1459, Florence, Italy, Uffizi Gallery
F. 6) Steen, Jan, Village Wedding, 1653, Rotterdam, The
Decretwn Gratiani, Flemish illuminated manuscript, late Netherlands, Museum Boymans-van Beuningen
thirteenth century, Baltimore, Maryland, Walters Art Hicks, George Elgar, Changing Homes, 1862, London,
Gallery(MS 10.135, f-2-75 Geffrye Museum
Speculum Humanae Salvationis, Italian illuminated Frith, William Powell, For Better. For Worse, 1881, Forbes
manuscript, circa 1370, Cologne, Germany, Historisches Magazine Collection
Archiv (W105) Chagall, Marc, Village Wedding (I), 1909, Foundation E. G.
Campin, Robert, Marriage of the Virgin, circa 1430, Madrid, Biihle, Zurich, Switzerland
Spain, Prado Chagall, Marc, Village Wedding (II), 19 10, Paris, private
Eyck, Jan van, Arnolfini Wedding (Portrait of Giovanni collection
Arnolfim and Giovanna Cenami), 1434, London, National
Gallery The Wedding Night
Ghiberti, Lorenzo, Marriage of Solomon and Sheba, from Sodoma, II, Marriage of Alexander and Roxana, fresco, circa
Gates of Paradise, gilt bronze, circa 1440, Florence, Italy, 1 5 17, Rome, Villa Farnesina, bedroom
Baptistery Lastman, Pieter, Wedding Night of Tobias and Sarah, 161 1,
Piero della Francesca, The Marriage of Solomon and Sheba, Boston, Massachusetts, Museum of Fine Arts
fresco, circa 1460, Arezzo, Italy, San Francesco Steen, Jan,The Prayer of Tobias and Sarah, oil on canvas,
1654, Utrecht, The Netherlands, Centraal Museum
Wedding Feasts Knupfer, Nikolaus, The Prayer of Tobias and Sarah, oil on
Francois Vase, Wedding of Peleus and Thetis, Greek, sixth canvas, 1654, Utrecht, The Netherlands, Centraal Museum
century B.C., Florence, Italy, Archaeological Museum
Apollonio Giovanni, Wedding of Dido and Aeneas,
di Marriage by Proxy
fifteenth century, Florence, Italy, Biblioteca Riccardiana Rubens, Peter Paul, Proxy Marriage of Henry IV and Marie
(Ms 492, Aeneid) de Medicis, 1621-1624, Versailles, France
Veronese, Paolo, Marriage at Cana, oil on canvas, 1563,
Paris, Louvre Marriage Portraits
Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, Peasant Wedding Banquet, circa Rembrandt van Rijn, Jewish Wedding, circa 1666,
1565, Vienna, Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Rijksmuseum
Steen, Jan, The Marriage at Cana, oil on canvas, 1660s, Gainsborough, Thomas, Robert Andrews and His Wife, circa
Blessington, Ireland, Sir Alfred Beit Collection
1748, London, National Gallery
Steen, Jan, The Marriage at Cana, oil on canvas, 1676, Runge, Philipp Otto, Wir Drei, 1804, destroyed
Pasadena, California, Norton Simon Museum Landseer, Sir Edward, Windsor Castle in Modern Times
Maximov, Maximovich, The Magician Arrives at the
Vasili
(Queen Victoria, the Prince Consort and the Princess
Village Wedding, 1874, Moscow, Russia, State Tretyakov
Royal at Windsor), 1840-1843, London, Royal
Gallery
Collection
Forbes, Stanhope, The Health of the Bride, 1889, London, Orchardson, William Quillter, Le Manage de Convenance,
Tate Gallery
1883, Glasgow, Scotland, City Art Museum
Wedding Dances Films
Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, Peasant Wedding Dance, oil on
Capra, Frank, Happened One Night,
It film, 1934
panel, 1566, Detroit, Michigan, Detroit Institute of Arts
Henry V, film, 1944
Olivier, Laurence,
Delacroix, Eugene, Jewish Wedding, 1839, Paris, Louvre
Branagh, Kenneth, Henry V, film, 1989

Wedding Processions
Francois Vase, Wedding of Peleus and Thetis, sixth century
Further Reading
B.C., Florence, Italy, Archaeological Museum

Marriage of Thetis and Peleus, Greek dinos, circa 580 B.C., Aiazzi, G., Ricordi Storici di cino di Filippo di cino Rinuccini,
London, British Museum Florence, Italy: Stamperia Piatti, 1840
Wedding Chariot, Greek dinos, circa 530 B.C., Salerno, Italy, Balsdon, John Percy Vyvian Dacre, Roman Women: Their
Provincial Museum History and Habits, London: Bodley Head, 1962
Marlay Wedding Procession, Greek pyxis,
Painter, circa 440 Barbaro, Francesco, Directions for Love and Marriage in Two
B.C., London, British Museum Books, London, 1677
 MARRIAGF / BETROTHAL 563

Boccaccio, Giovanni, // Decameron Little, Alan MacNaughton Gordon, A Roman Bridal Drama
Brooke, Christopher, The Medieval Idea of Marriage, Oxford at the Villa of the Mysteries, Wheaton, Maryland: Star
and New York: Oxford University Press, 1989 Press, 1972
Carter, Charles Frederick, The Wedding Day in Literature and Molho, Anthony, Marriage Alliance in Late Medieval
Art, New York: Dodd and Mead, 1900 Florence, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University
Chartier, Robert, editor, A History of Private Life, Volume Press, 1994

Three: Passions of the Renaissance, Cambridge, Molho, Anthony, and J. Kirchner, "Dowry Fund and
Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1987 Marriage Market in Early Quattrocento Florence,"
Cowley, Robert, Marriage a-la-Mode: A Re-view of Hogarth's Journal of Modern History 49:3 (1978)
Narrative Art, Manchester: Manchester University Press, Oakley, John, and Rebecca Hague Sinos, The Wedding m
Ancient Athens, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press,
1983
DeGubernatis, Angelo, Storia Comparata degli Usi Nuziali in 1993
Italia, Milan, 1878
Rehm, Rush, Marriage to Death: The Conflation of Wedding

editor, A History of Private Life, Volume

and Funeral Rituals in Greek Tragedy, Princeton, New
Duby, George,
Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1995
Two: Revelations of the Medieval World, Cambridge,
Sacchetti, // Trecento Novelle, Florence, Italy: Unione
Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1987
Tipografico, 1946
Fatini, Giuseppe, editor, Novelle del Quattrocento, Turin,
Saslow, James M., The Medici Wedding of 1589: Florentine
Italy,1929
Festival as"Theatrum Mundi," New Haven, Connecticut,
Firenzuola, Agnolo, Tales of Firenzuola, Paris, 1889
and London: Yale University Press, 1996
Gersdorff, Dagmar von, Liebespaare Eheleute, Berlin:
Schubring, Paul, Cassoni: Truhen und Truhenbilder der
Basilisken-Presse, 1987
Italicnischenfruhrenaissance, Berlin: K. W. Hiersemann,
Hagstrum, Jean M., Esteem Enlivened by Desire: The Couple,
192.3
from Homer to Shakespeare, Chicago and London:
Seidel, Linda, Jan Van Eyck's Arnolfini Portrait: Stories of an
University of Chicago Press, 1992
Icon, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University
Hall, Edwin, The Arnolfini Betrothal: Medieval Marriage and Press, 1993
the Enigma of Van Eyck's Double Portrait, Berkeley and Stone, Lawrence, Uncertain Unions, Oxford and New York:
London: University of California Press, 1994 Oxford University Press, 1992
Heimann, Adelheid, "Die Hochzeit von Adam und Eva im Thomas, George, editor, Le Livre du Chastel de Labour par
Paradies nebst Einigen Anderen Hochzeitzbildern,"
Jean Bruyant, 1909
Wallraf-Richartz Jahrbuch 37 (1975) Treggiari, Susan, Roman Marriage: "Justi Coniuges, " From
Herlihy, David, and Christiane Klapisch-Auber, Tuscans and the Time of Cicero to the Time of Ulpian, Oxford:
Their Families, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Clarendon Press, 1991
1978
Press, Witthoft, Brucia, "Marriage Rituals and Marriage Chests in
Honour, Hugh, Romanticism, New York: Harper and Row, Quattrocento Florence," Artibus et Historiae 5 (1982)
1979 Wolfthal, Diane, "A Hue and a Cry: MedievalRape Imagery
Johnston, Harold Whetstone, The Private Life of the Romans, and Its Transformation," Art Bulletin LXXV:i (March
New York: Cooper Square, 1973 1993)
 MARTYRDOM
Alicia Craig Faxon

The following iconographic narratives are covered in the discussion of the theme Martyrdom:

CHRIST AS THE LAMB ON ST. CATHERINE OF ST. LAWRENCE

THE ALTAR ALEXANDRIA ST. LUCY
CHRIST AS MARTYR ST. CECILIA
ST. SEBASTIAN
EARLY CHRISTIAN MARTYRS ST. HIPPOLYTUS
ST. STEPHEN
ST. AGATHA ST. JAMES THE MAJOR PROTESTANT AND MODERN
ST. AGNES ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST SECULAR MARTYRDOM
ST. ANDREW

565
566 MARTYRDOM

Flemish School, Martyrdom of Saint Hippolytus with a Bishop and Saints Catherine, Bavo, and Elizabeth of
Hungary, fifteenth century, tempera and oil on panel, Walter M. Cabot Fund, Boston, Museum of Fine Arts.
(Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston)
 MARTYRDOM 567

A martyr is defined as a person

rather than give
person tortured or killed for their
person who
up
who elects to suffer or die
his or her faith or principle, or a
beliefs, or,

suffers great pain or misery over a long period of

by extension, a
Eighteenth-century English historian
The Decline and

within it
Fall
Christianity destroyed the
of the
Edward Gibbon,
Roman Empire, declared that
Roman Empire as a growing cell
with different aims and allegiance; this thesis has been
in

time. Martyrdom is the state of becoming a martyr; the death disputed, possibly even disproved, but it offers an interesting
or suffering of a martyr; or severe, long-lasting suffering, tor- insight into the threat of martyrs to the system of government
ment, or torture. Often the belief for which the martyr has that condemned them. They were ultimately uncontrollable,
died in one era becomes triumphant and accepted later, espe- unshakable, and unbribable, and their "citizenship was in

cially in the case of Christianity, and the martyrs become can- heaven," not on Earth in the Roman Empire. Persecutions
onized. The word martyr originally came from the Greek word ceased when Constantine the Great, a converted Christian,
for witness and was first used in referring to the apostles as became emperor in a.d. 306 and later declared Christianity the

witnesses to Christ's ministry and resurrection (Acts 1:8, 22). official religion of the state.

After the persecution of the early Christians, however, it was
restricted to those who had suffered and died for their faith.
Russian novelist Fyodor Mikhaylovich Dostoyevsky summed
up this state of affairs in an epithet: "Men reject their prophets
and slay them; but they love their martyrs and honor those
whom they have slain" (The Brothers Karamazov, part III,
book VI, ch. 3).
Martyrdom seldom appears in the ancient or classical
world, not because persons did not die for their
because the concept and category were not described
form. There were many sacrifices, but those sacrificed, like
Iphigenia or the sons of Brutus, did not choose to die but were
designated by others and were victims rather than martyrs.
Even in the Old Testament, the main story of human sacrifice
is the sacrifice of Isaac by Abraham, not Isaac's self-chosen
martyrdom for a principle.
Constantine the Great was proclaimed emperor at York in
306 and became senior ruler of the empire in 312 after defeat-
ing Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge. The victory
enabled him to rule with Licinius as joint emperor. In 313
Constantine and Licinius met at Milan and agreed to recognize
the legal status of the Christian church and pursue a policy of
religious toleration. This agreement was commonly known as
the Edict of Milan, but actually was neither an edict nor issued
beliefs, but at Milan. The proclamation establishing Christianity as the
in that state religion was not issued until 380 under Theodosius I, fol-
lowed by an edict in 391 prohibiting pagan worship.
Although Constantine the Great was not baptized a
Christian until he lay on his deathbed in 327, the persecution
of Christians stopped in 313 and a new era for Christians
began. Constantine became a champion of the once outlawed
sect. The age of martyrs came to an end and their glorification

The first Christian victim and martyr can be seen in the per- began with the building of numerous churches in their honor
son of Jesus Christ himself, who made willing atonement for under Constantine.
the sins of others by his own life. He is often described as the As many of the first Christian converts were Jews, the new
Paschal Lamb sacrificed at Easter, and is even pictured as a sect had kept the prohibition against idols until around a.d.
lamb on the altar, as in the central panel of The Ghent 200. After that time the tombs of the martyrs in the catacombs
Altarpiece (1432.) in St. Bavo in Ghent, Belgium, by Jan and were decorated with paintings, not of their martyrdoms, but
Hubert van Eyck. Jesus Christ's martyrdom on the cross is, of mainly of Old Testament themes of deliverance, such as Jonah's
course, pictured in the many paintings of the Crucifixion. deliverance from the whale, the deliverance of Daniel from the
The era that produced the greatest number of Christian lions' den, Noah delivered from the deluge, Moses striking the
martyrs began with the fierce persecutions of early believers in rock to get water in the wilderness, or the deliverance of the
A.D. 64 under Nero and lasted until the reign of Diocletian in three Hebrews from the fiery furnace. There were also repre-
the fourth century a.d. Christianity was an outlawed sect, so sentations of the Last Supper and its commemoration in the

Christians met in the catacombs or burial places in Rome and Eucharist, Mass, or Communion. These rituals were especially
decorated the walls with symbols of the religion: the Good significant in terms of the recognition of martyrs. Soon
Shepherd stood for Christ, and Old Testament stories such as Christians developed the custom of having a funeral service and
the sacrifice of Abraham or the escape from the fiery furnace communion at martyrs' tombs on the day of their martyrdom
referred to Christ's sacrifice or present persecution. Thousands or victory over death. The tomb holding their remains was
of Christians died during this time, often as organized enter- often used as a table or altar in the service, prefiguring the
tainment in Rome, thrown to lions, broken on the wheel, cru- importance of the actual remains of the martyrs as relics, both
cified, or even buried alive. Because their allegiance was to in terms of liturgical practice of the church and of church con-
Christ as ultimate lord and savior, they regarded their alle- struction. An example of this is the priest kissing the altar at the
giance to him higher than that to the emperor and the Roman beginning of the Roman Catholic Mass, revering the relics

state and were, therefore, seen as subversive and dangerous. enclosed there. In the Mass the martyrs come before all other
568 MARTYRDOM

saints in worship and in intercessional prayers. Following the orders such as the Jesuits prepared novices for possible martyr-
early practice of memorial services on the day of
for martyrs dom in Protestant territory or the non-Christian world by
their death, martyrs' days are celebrated throughout the church focusing on the heroism of martyrs and their sacrifices for their
year in the calendars of Roman Catholic, Orthodox, and faith. Seventeenth-century and Baroque art pictured vividly the
Anglican churches. The liturgical color for martyrdom is red, sufferings of martyrs. The accidental rediscovery of the
signifying the blood shed for their faith. Catacomb of Priscilla in 1578 set off a campaign to rebuild
The earliest mention of the preservation of relics and the had fallen into disrepair.
early martyries that
memorial services for saints at their tombs or the places they Sometimes the discovery of the remains of a martyr created
were martyred occurs in the Martynum Policarpi (circa new works of art and architecture, as in the case of St. Cecilia.
156-157). The biblical reference to praying before the throne A Roman woman whose martyrdom may have taken place any-
of God is in Revelation 6:9, and receiving white robes as a time between 177 and the fourth century, Cecilia's body was
reward for martyrdom is referred to in Revelation 7:13-17. supposedly interred in the Catacomb of Callixtus and later put
There were local calendars naming martyrs, their place of mar- in the Church of St. Cecilia-in-Trastevere in Rome. Her sar-

tyrdom, and the day of their festival in Rome as early as 354, cophagus was opened in 1599, and her body was found intact
and in the more general Breviarum Syriacum of 411. Many of in a coffin of cypress wood, lying on her right side, her head

the legends of the saints and martyrs were codified in the bound with a cloth. According to legend, Cecilia was martyred
Golden Legend, written by Jacopo da Voragine, archbishop of by receiving three wounds in the neck and breast, after which
Genoa in the thirteenth century. The Acta Sanctorum, a collec- she lived three days and gave
her possessions to poor
all

tion of the early lives of saints and martyrs, was compiled by a
group of Jesuits known as Bollandists. It was begun in the sev-
enteenth century and is not yet finished. Unfortunately, much
of the evidence was documented a number of years, even cen-
turies, after the life of the original martyr, by which time the
material was often more legendary than accurate and very dif-
Christians. In 1600 Stefano Maderno was commissioned to
sculpt a statue of St. Cecilia for the church. Having seen her
body when the sarcophagus was opened, he created a very
touching and beautiful memorial, showing her reclining on her
side in the same attitude as the body in the cypress wood coffin.
St. Cecilia was a very popular martyr and may be the subject

ficult to verify. Often the relics of saints are quite genuine, but of an early half-length drawing on a wall of the Catacomb of St.
little is known about the martyr; and in other cases, the story Lorenzo (before 313). Although she was the patron saint of
is well known, but the connection to the material remains of music, she was not shown with a musical instrument until after
the martyr is tenuous. the fifteenth century. Jan van Eyck painted her playing the organ
One consequence of the legalization of the Christian faith with a heavenly choir in the Ghent Altarpiece, and Lucas van
was the building of numerous churches for worshipers. Leyden, in an early sixteenth-century painting now in Munich,
Constantine the Great was zealous in the building of martyries, Germany, showed her as a single figure holding a portable
or shrines built in honor of a martyr. The first basilica erected organ. Some of the most famous representations of her are in a
by Constantine the Great and Pope Sylvester was to preserve series of frescos by Domenichino (1613-1614) in the Chapel of
the tomb of the martyred St. Peter. The transept of the church St. Cecilia in the Church of San Luigi dei Francesi in Rome.

was over the trophy of Gaius marking St. Peter's grave, and the
church was therefore a martyry.
There were two main types of martyries. The first was built
around a central dome under which the altar was placed, mak-
ing the relic the focus of the entire plan. There
radiating from the altar, usually in the form of a Greek cross.
In some Lorenzo in Milan (circa
early churches, such as San
Another dramatic case of the discovery of a saint's relics
occurred in 1634 when the painter and architect Pietro da
Cortona was given permission to rebuild the crypt of the
church of the Academy of St. Luke at his own expense in order
were four aisles to make a tomb for himself. In October 1634 the body of the
martyr St. Martini was discovered in excavating the space. At
this point Cardinal Francesco Barberini took charge and in

370), the central altarwas surrounded by a circular ambulato- 1635 ordered the rebuilding of the entire church. Pietro da
ry. San Stefano Rotondo in Rome, built during the rule of Pope Cortona designed the building, which was dedicated in 1650 to
Simplicius (468-483) is one of the largest and oldest martyries the martyred St. Martini and to St. Luke, the patron saint of
built on a central plan, although only two of the aisles now artists whose church it had originally been.

remain. The second type was the basilica with the altar located In painting and sculpture martyrs are often portrayed wear-
over relics, tombs, or catacombs where martyrs were buried, ing a crown and holding a palm frond as symbols of their mar-
such as St. Peter's or San Sebastiano in the Via Appia, also built tyrdom. "The victor's crown of gold" stood for a victory over
during the reign of Constantine the Great. death and was adapted from the classical custom of rewarding
The cult of relics became very popular under the reign of winners, such as athletes or poets, with a wreath, at first of lau-
Emperor Theodosius in the late fourth century, and many
I rel, but later of gold. Among the Romans, the palm frond was
martyries were built to house them in the fourth through the a conventional symbol of victory, again indicating the martyr as
sixth century. Martyrs' remains were much sought after, espe- one who wins everlasting life. An example of this convention
Second Council of Nicaea in 787, which ruled
cially after the can be seen in the sixth-century a.d. church of S. Apollinare

that no church could be consecrated if it did not have relics. Nuovo Ravenna, Italy. A procession of male and female mar-
in
Pilgrimages were made, especially during the Middle Ages, to tyrs is depicted in mosaic on each side of the interior.
churches and shrines devoted to the relics of martyrs. In addition to these general symbols of martyrdom, certain
Martyrs were also exalted during the Counter-Reformation saints are identified by the distinctive attributes of their martyr-
and Catholic Restoration, with the militant campaign of the dom, such as the wheel (an instrument of torture and death) with
Roman Catholic Church against Protestantism. Religious St. Catherine of Alexandria; a human skin with St. Bartholomew,
 MARTYRDOM 569

who was flayed to death; and an X cross with St. Andrew. ple by Mantegna, the saint is bound to a classical arch and rid-
Sometimes saints are shown with a gruesome token of their dled with arrows. The broken arch and scattered fragments of
deaths, as in the case of St. Peter Martyr, who is portrayed with sculpture may allude here to the passing of the classical, pagan
a knife planted firmly in his head. St. John the Baptist is usually world. An unusual variant of this theme by Antonio del
shown as he is about to be decapitated with a sword. In The Pollaiuolo shows St. Sebastian raised on a pole in the center of
Beheading of John the Baptist by Caravaggio, the saint's head is the composition, while on the ground below six crossbowmen
being held down to the block, and a rivulet of blood flows from • are loading their weapons or taking aim. This composition
his neck. A variant of this scene shows the kneeling saint with the enables the artist, who was also a sculptor and engraver, to
executioner about to swing his sword, as in the painting by Pierre show three active poses in pairs, each a mirror image of its
Puvis de Chavannes in the Barber Institute of Fine Arts in partner. Hendrik Terbrugghen shows the aftermath of the
Birmingham, England, and numerous other examples. shooting party, with St. Sebastian, slumped on the ground,
The first Christian to be martyred was Stephen, a deacon in being released from his bonds by St. Irene and a maid. Another
the early church, who was stoned to death for his witness to representation exploiting the drama of torchlight is that of
martyrdom is shown in many paint-
Christ (Acts 7:54-60). His Georges de Tour whose night scene depicts the recumbent
la

ings, including Rembrandt van Rijn's first dated painting figure of St. Sebastian lying on the left while a kneeling St. Irene

(1625) in the Musee des Beaux-Arts in Lyons, France; Adam and others holding torches look down on the wounded martyr.
Elsheimer's painting of 1 602-1 605 in the National Gallery of St. Agnes was one of the most popular female martyrs. Her

Scotland in Edinburgh; Annibale Carracci's work in the legend is one of the oldest in church history and is attested to
Harvard Art Museums in Cambridge, Massachusetts; and Fra by St. Jerome's mention of the spread of her cult in the fourth
Angelico's Chapel of Nicholas V in the Vatican. Even as late as century. She was supposedly martyred under either the
the nineteenth century, John Everett Millais's painting (1895) in Emperor Decius's or Diocletian's persecutions in the third or
the National Gallery in London and Gustave Dore's wood fourth century. The son of a prefect of Rome saw her and
engraving depict the theme. wanted her as his wife, but she refused him, citing Christ as her
Rembrandt depicts Stephen's martyrdom very actively, heavenly bridegroom. The son fell ill and his father tried to
showing his persecutors on all sides actuallythrowing stones make Agnes accept him, finally chaining her and stripping her
at the saint while he sinks to his knees, looking up at heaven naked before his soldiers. In response to her prayers, her hair
and asking forgiveness for his murderers. In other representa- grew long and covered her entirely, protecting her modesty. She
tions, such as Annibale Carracci's, the witnesses to the event was imprisoned and prayed not to be dishonored referring to —
are shown placing their clothes at Saul's feet. Still others show a practice of putting a virgin martyr in a brothel to be violated,
the saint alone, dead or dying, as in
John Everett Millais's St. as Roman law forbade the execution of a virgin (Hall, p. n).
Stephen, an oil young haloed martyr is
of 1895, where the An angel visited her in prison, bringing her a white and shining
stretched out on the ground, surrounded by a few stones, his robe of martyrdom. After unsuccessfully trying to burn her to
murderers appearing only as shadowy figures in the right death (the flames kept being extinguished), an executioner
background. Some artists represent the stoning of Stephen killed herby the sword.
with his vision of Godand angels in heaven, as in
the Father There are several churches in Rome built in her honor. The
Annibale Carracci's version in the Louvre in Paris, while oth- oldest, Sant'Agnese Fuori le Mura, originally constructed by
ers show a vision of the Trinity, as in Lodovico Cigoli's paint- Constantine the Great over the tomb of the martyr, was recon-
ing (before 161 3) in the Academy in Venice, Italy. In St. structed under Pope Honorus (625-638). Several early repre-
Stephen Glory (before 1660), Giacomo Cavedone depicts a
in sentations of St. Agnes are in this church, including a relief

post-martyrdom version with angels carrying the soul of from a fourth-century altar frontal showing her as an orant, or
Stephen to heaven. praying figure with arms raised, and a mosaic depicting her as
St. Sebastian, another popular early martyr, was an officer a court lady (625-638). Sant'Agnese in Piazza Navona is a sev-
in the army of Diocletian in the third century. When he refused enteenth-century church that replaced an older one begun by
to sacrifice to Roman gods, he was stripped and bound to a the architects Girolamo and Carlo Rainaldi in 1652. In

stake for archery practice. He survived this ordeal with the help 165 3-1 65 5 Francesco Borromini designed the facade of the
of a Christian woman named
Irene, who unbound him and church. A sculpture of St. Agnes by Ercole Ferrata (1660) in
healed him, but Sebastian was disposed of more efficiently this church shows her on the pyre of flame, looking up to heav-
later. St. Sebastian's martyrdom was a favorite subject of artists en in entreaty. She is also represented by Titian presenting her
as it allowed them a chance to show a minimally clad anatom- martyr's palm to Christ (sixteenth century), in the Louvre in

ical study. His ordeal was painted, among others, by Antonio Paris;and by Paolo Veronese, in the Academia in Venice, as a
del Pollaiuolo (circa 1475), the painting now located in the patroness of maidens presenting a nun to the Madonna imv
National Gallery in London; by Andrea Mantegna (circa teenth century). Tintoretto painted The Martyrdom of St.
1455-1460), now in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, Agnes (sixteenth century), in the church of S. Maria dell'Orto

Austria; by Hendrik Terbrugghen 1625), now in the Allen Art

( in Venice, as a theatrical spectacle. An unusual twentieth-cen-
Museum at Oberlin College in Ohio; by Georges De La Tour tury representation of Agnes shows the angel bringing the
St.

(circa 1649), in the Gemaldegalerie in Berlin; and by Louise white and shining robe of martyrdom to the saint in prison.
Bourgeois in a 1990 engraving. Painted by Frank Cadogan Cowper, a very late Pre-Raphaelite
One of the most common representations of St. Sebastian painter, this work is now in the Tate Gallery in London.
shows him young man in a loincloth tied to a stake or pil-
as a Another very popular female martyr was St. Agatha. vir- .1

lar, usually pierced by some arrows. In the Renaissance exam- gin believed to have died under the persecutions of Emperor
570 MARTYRDOM

Decius at Catania Legend says she was desired by

in Sicily. painting and high altar a sculpture of the saint by Bernini soars
Quintian, the prefect of and when she refused him he had
Sicily, upward from the earthly zone toward heaven.
her tortured by cutting off her breasts. She is often represented Poet T. S. Eliot made martyrdom the subject of his play The
in art with a pair of pincers or with her breasts on a plate. The Cocktail Party (1950), in which a young woman, Celia, ends
legend continues with a huge volcanic eruption of Mount Etna. up as a martyred missionary. There is also a strong tradition of
The citizens of Catania fled to the tomb of St. Agatha and put Protestant martyrdom, particularly in the reign of Mary Tudor
the relic of her veil on a lance as a banner, miraculously stop- (Bloody Mary). A Roman Catholic married to Philip II of
ping the lava. St. Agatha is the patron saint of Catania, and a Spain, she attempted to return England, which had become
town northwest of Mount Etna, Sant'Agata di Militello, is Protestant under Henry VIII, to Roman Catholicism. A number
named after her. Italian families and families of Italian descent of Protestants would not forsake their beliefs, and their fates
originally from that area bear the name Santagata in honor of beheading, burning, etc. —are detailed in John Foxe's Book of
the saint and her town. Martyrs. Another set of Protestant martyrs were the Scottish
There are a number of artistic representations of St. Agatha, Covenanters, who subscribed to the National Covenant (1638)
the most dramatic showing her bound to a column, stripped to or to the Solemn League and Covenant (1643) to uphold the
the waist, and threatened by an executioner with shears. These principles of the Reformed Presbyterian Church. They would
include Sebastiano del Piombo's Martyrdom of St. Agatha (six- not renounce their allegiance, even when condemned to die.
teenth century)
in the Pitti Palace in Florence and Margaret Wilson was condemned in 1683 for being a
Parmigianino's Agatha and Her Executioner (early sixteenth
St. Covenanter and was tied to a stake in Wigtown Bay to drown
century) in S. Giovanni in Parma, Italy. as the tide rose. Millais's The Martyr of Sol way (1871) is a
In the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance, altarpieces poignant view of her watching the waves rise.
for churches and private chapels frequently depicted martyr- A secular martyrdom has often been bestowed on those who
doms, sometimes of the patron saint of the donor. The fif- were killed because of their principles, such as Joan of Arc,
Martyrdom of Saint
teenth-century triptych altarpiece of the Nathan Hale, Abraham Lincoln, Sacco and Vanzetti, and
Hippolytus with a Bishop and Saints Catherine, Bavo, and Martin Luther King Jr. Lincoln's death was referred to by
Elizabeth of Hungary, now in the Museum of Fine Arts in Samuel Cole in the poem In April: "Twas April when they laid
Boston, by an unknown Flemish artist, possibly influenced by the martyr's crown / On Lincoln's brow." Walt Whitman com-
Hugo van der Goes, is just such an altarpiece. Although the memorated Lincoln's assassination in the poem "Oh Captain,
spectacle of someone being pulled to pieces by four horses My Captain." Nathan Hale, the American Revolutionary spy
going in opposite directions might not seem particularly attrac- killed by the British, died saying, "I regret that I have but one
tive subject matter in the twentieth century, contemplation on life to give for my country." He was commemorated in sculpture
the sacrifice of martyrs was encouraged during this period. This by Frederick MacMonnies. Ben Shahn painted a secular Passion
was a time when relics, or physical remains of saints, such as of Sacco and Vanzetti, two anarchists wrongly condemned for
bones, nails, etc., were in great demand as objects of venera- their beliefs. Their story is dramatized in the play Winterset by
tion, bestowing merit on the possessor. Picturing a martyr's Maxwell Anderson. Martin Luther King Jr. has many icons ded-
painful deathwas an appropriate object of edification and wor- icated to his memory, one of the most dramatic being a giant
ship. The work itself bristles with excitement and movement, sculptured head by John Wilson in Washington, D.C.
the horsemen and henchmen contrasting with the still central Still another type of secular martyrdom involves suffering

figure of the saint. from great pain or misery over a long period of time, as
Another era during which the martyrdoms of saints were described by the poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in Vittoria
extensively pictured and written about was the Counter- Colonna, stanza 6: "She knew the life-long martyrdom / Of
Reformation of the seventeenth century, when the Roman waiting for some one to come / Who nevermore would come
Catholic Church attempted to counteract the inroads of again." Phrases such as "she is a martyr to migraine headaches"
Protestantism by dramatizing the sacrifices of earlier saints. or "he was a martyr to gout" (or even to imaginary diseases)
New churches and missionary orders like the Jesuits commis- refer to suffering from debilitating and lengthy illnesses that are
sioned explicit, and often gory, paintings and sculptures dra- equated to the painful process of religious martyrdoms.
matizing martyrdom. These vivid depictions, which draw the One attribute shared by sacred and secular depictions of
spectator emotionally into the event, appear in works like The martyrdoms is the presentation of the victims with sympathy
Conversion of St. Paul and The Crucifixion of St. Peter in S. and admiration, as heroes or heroines. The viewpoint is that of
Maria del Popolo in Rome; The Martyrdom of St. Matthew in a sympathetic observer seeing the event, usually in all its dra-
the Contarelli Chapel in S. Luigi dei Francesi in Rome, by matic possibilities. The viewer is asked to admire and possibly
Caravaggio; and The Martyrdom of St. Agatha in the Staatliche even emulate the martyr.
Museen in Berlin-Dahlem, by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo. One of the main differences between sacred and secular
The church of San Andrea al Quirinale in Rome, commis- martyrdoms is the element of the divine. Depictions of martyr-
sioned of Gian Lorenzo Bernini by Cardinal Camillo Pamphili doms of saints sometimes include visions of heaven, angels,
for the novices of the Jesuit order in 1758, was planned in its God, Christ, or the Trinity, so that the viewer is same
seeing the
architecture, sculpture, and painting to re-create the drama of vision as the saint. Representations of religious martyrdoms or
the martyrdom of St. Andrew. The convex curve of the church martyrs often appear in places of worship, especially in the
facade reaches out into the world; in the interior the painting Roman Catholic and other liturgically traditional churches,
Martyrdom of St. Andrew by Guglielmo Cortese (circa 1670) and are not excluded from many Protestant churches. In certain
shows the saint's death on an X-shaped cross, while over the branches of the Christian church, some martyrs are worshiped.
 MARTYRDOM 571

Special healing powers are attributed to some, such as St. Caravaggio, St. Andrew, 1607-16 10, Cleveland, Ohio,
Margaret or St. Barbara. Despite the differences between Museum of Art
sacred and secular martyrdoms, both continue to inform the Bernini, Gian Lorenzo, San Andrea al Quirinale, church,
present with their spirit, their power, and their principles. 1658-1670, Rome
Bernini, Gian Lorenzo, Martyred St. Andrew Rising to
Heaven, sculpture, 165 8-1 670, Rome, San Andrea al
See also Apotheosis/Deification; Beheading/Decapitation;
Quirinale
Crucifixion; Death; Ecstasy
Cortese, Guglielmo, Martyrdom of St. Andrew, oil, circa
1670, Rome, San Andrea al Quirinale
Domenichino, St. Andrew, early seventeenth century, Rome,
Selected Works of Art
San Andrea della Valle
Christ as the Lamb on the Altar
Eyck, Jan and Hubert van, The Ghent Altarpiece, oil on St. Catherine of Alexandria
panel, 1432., Ghent, Belgium, St. Bavo Master of the First Prayer Book of Maximilian I, St. Catherine
of Alexandria, miniature on vellum, from Hours of
Christ as Martyr William, Lord Hastings, late 1470s, London, British
Guttoso, Renato, Crucifixion, oil, 1942, private collection Library
Marmion, Simon, The Martyrdom of St. Catherine, miniature
Early Christian Martyrs on vellum, 1475-1481, London, Victoria and Albert
Procession of Martyrs, mosaic, sixth century, Ravenna, Italy, Museum
San Apollinare Nuovo Raphael, St. Catherine of Alexandria, oil, circa 1507,
Nanni di Banco, Four Crowned Martyrs, marble sculpture, London, National Art Gallery
circa 14 13, Florence, Italy, Orsanmichele Caravaggio, St. Catherine of Alexandria, oil, circa 1597,

Delaroche, Paul, The Christian Martyr, oil, 1855, Paris, Lugano-Castagnula, Switzerland, Thyssen-Bornemisza
Louvre Collection
Puvis de Chavannes, Pierre, The Cavalcade of the Martyrs, El Greco, St. Catherine with Her Wheel, oil, before 1614,
circa 1898, Paris, Pantheon Boston, Museum of Fine Arts
Preti, Mattia, St. Catherine of Alexandria Visited in Prison by
St. Agatha the Emperor, oil, circa 1640-164 3, Dayton, Ohio, Dayton
Sebastiano del Piombo, Martyrdom of St. Agatha, oil, first Art Institute
half of sixteenth century, Florence, Italy, Pitti Palace Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, St. Catherine, oil, 1857, London,
Parmigianino, Agatha and Her Executioner, oil, early
St. Tate Gallery
sixteenth century, Parma, Italy, S. Giovanni
Cerrini, Giovanni Domenico, Cycle of St. Agatha, circa 1630, St. Cecilia
Rome, St. Agatha of the Goths St. Cecilia, drawing, before 313, Rome, Catacomb of
Zurbaran, Francisco de, St. Agatha, 1630-1633, Montpellier, St. Lorenzo
France, Musee Fabre Eyck, Jan van, St. Cecilia Playing the Organ, from The
Ghent Altarpiece, oil on panel, 1432.,Ghent Belgium,
St. Agnes St. Bavo

St. Agnes as Orant, relief sculpture, fourth century, Rome, Leyden, Lucas van, St. Cecilia, oil on panel, early sixteenth

Sant'Agnese Fuori le Mura century, Munich, Germany, Gemaldegalerie

St. Agnes, mosaic, 6Z5-638, Rome, Sant'Agnese Fuori le Maderno, Stefano, St. Cecilia, sculpture, 1600, Rome,
Mura St. Cecilia-in-Trastevere
Veronese, Paolo Caliari, St. Agnes Presenting a Nun to Domenichino, Life of St. Cecilia, frescoes, Rome, San Luigi
the Virgin Mary, oil, sixteenth century, Venice, Italy, dei Francesi, Chapel of St. Cecilia
Academia Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, St. Cecilia, pen and brown ink
Titian, St. Agnes, oil, sixteenth century, Paris, Louvre drawing, 1856-1857, Birmingham, England, City
Tintoretto, Jacopo, The Martyrdom of St. Agnes, oil, Museum and Art Gallery
sixteenth century, Venice, Italy, S. Maria dell'Orto
Ferrata, Ercole, St. Agnes on the Pyre, sculpture, 1600, Rome, St. Hippolytus
Sant'Agnese in Navona
Piazza Flemish School, Martyrdom of Saint Hippolytus with a
Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista, Martyrdom of St. Agnes, oil, circa Bishop and Saints Catherine, Bavo, and Elizabeth of
1719, Berlin, Gemaldegalerie Hungary, oil on tempera on panel, fifteenth century,
Cowper, Frank Cadogan, St. Agnes in Prison Visited by an Boston, Massachusetts, Museum of Fine Arts
Angel with a Shining Robe, oil, 1905, London, Tate Bouts, Dirck, Martyrdom of St. Hippolytus, panel, circa
Gallery 1475, Bruges, Belgium, St. Savior's Church

St. Andrew St.James the Major

El Greco, St. Andrew, painting, circa 1590, New York, Mantegna, Andrea, The Martyrdom of St. James, fresco, circa
Metropolitan Museum of Art 1455, Padua, Italy, Church of the Erematani
572. MARTYRDOM

St. John the Baptist St. Stephen

Donatello, Feast of Herod, gilt bronze on baptismal font, Elsheimer, Adam, The Stoning of St. Stephen, oil, 1602-1605,
circa 142.5, Siena, Italy, Cathedral Edinburgh, National Gallery of Scotland
Titian, Salome with the Head of John the Baptist, oil, circa Cigoli (Ludovico Cardi), Martyrdom of St. Stephen, before
1 Rome, Galleria Doria-Pamphili
5 1 1
, 161 3, Venice, Italy, Academy
Venice
Caravaggio, The Beheading of John the Baptist, oil, Rembrandt van Rijn, The Stoning of Stephen, oil, 1625, Lille,
608-1 609, La Valetta, Malta Cathedral
1
France, Musee des Beaux-Arts
Puvis de Cha vannes, Pierre, Beheading of St. John the Baptist, Cavedone, Giacomo, St. Stephen in Glory, before 1660,
oil, 1869, Birmingham, England, Barber Institute of Fine
Modena, Italy, Pinacoteca Estense
Arts Millais, John Everett, St. Stephen, oil, 895, London, 1

Beardsley, Aubrey, Salome with the Head of John the Baptist,

National Gallery
pen and ink drawing, 1892, Princeton, New Jersey,
Princeton University Library Protestant and Modern Secular Martyrdom
Millais,John Everett, The Martyr of Solway, oil, 1871,
St. Lawrence
Liverpool, England, Walker Art Gallery
St. Lawrence, mosaic, mid-fifth century, Ravenna, Italy,
Jones, Lois Mailou, Meditation (Mob Victim), oil, 1944,
Mausoleum of Galla Placidia
private collection
Angelico, Fra, Life of St. Lawrence, frescoes, 1448, Vatican,
Gorky, Arshile, Agony, oil, 1947, New York, Museum of
Chapel of Nicolas V.
Modern Art
Donatello, St. Lawrence, relief sculpture, first half of fifteenth
Shahn, Ben, The Passion of Sacco and Vanzetti, oil, 1967,
century, Florence, Italy, San Lorenzo
Syracuse, New York, Joe and Emily Lowe Art Gallery,
Titian,Martyrdom of St. Lawrence, oil, circa 1 548-1 547,
Syracuse University
Italy, Church of the Gesuati
Venice,
Bronzino, Agnolo, Martyrdom of St. Lawrence, 1569,
Florence, Italy, San Lorenzo
Further Reading
Rubens, Peter Paul, Martyrdom of St. Lawrence, sixteenth
century, Schleissheim, Germany, Castle Cheney, Liana De Girolami, "The Cult of St. Agatha,"
Bernini, Gian Lorenzo, Martyrdom of St. Lawrence, marble, Women's Art Journal 17:1 (Spring/Summer 1996)
circa 161 6, Florence, Italy, Contini-Bonacousi Collection Eliot, T. S., The Cocktail Party, New York: Harcourt Brace,

1950; London: Faber, 1950

St. Lucy Fish, Arthur, John Everett Millais, London: Cassell, 1923
Lorenzetti, Pietro, St. Lucy, circa 1332, Florence, Italy, San Freedberg, David, "The Representations of Martyrdom
Lucia Frole Rovinante
During the Early Counter-Reformation in Antwerp,"
Caravaggio, Burial of St. Lucy, oil, 1608, Syracuse, Sicily,
Burlington Magazine 118 (1976)
Church of San Lucia
Gallonis, A., Tortures and Tormente of the Christian
Zurbaran, Francisco de, St. Lucy, 1636, Chartres, France,
Martyrs, Paris: 1903
Musee
Gerson, PL, "La lapidation de St. Etienne peintre par
Rembrandt en 1625," Bulletin des Musees et Monuments
St. Sebastian
Lyonnais 3:4 (1989)
Mantegna, Andrea, St. Sebastian, circa 145 5-1460, Vienna,
Grabar, Andre, Early Christian Art, New York: Odyssey
Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum
Press, 1968
Martyrdom of St. Sebastian, miniature on vellum, from Hours
, Martyrium, Paris: College de France, 194 3-1 946
of Marguerite Foix, circa 1470-1480, London, Victoria
Hall, James, Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art,
and Albert Museum (fol. 205V-206)
Pollaiuolo, Antonio del, The Martyrdom of St. Sebastian, oil,
New
York: Harper and Row, 1979
Male, Emile, L'Art religieux apres le Concile de Trente,
circa 1475, London, National Gallery
Veronese, Paolo, The Martyrdom of St. Sebastian, oil, 1560s,
Paris, 1932
Venice, San Sebastiano
Italy,
Mancinelli, Fabrizio, Catacombs and Basilicas: The Early
Terbrugghen, Hendrik, St. Sebastian Tended by Irene and Her Christians in Rome, Florence, Italy: Scala, 1981
Maid, oil, 1625, Oberlin, Ohio, Oberlin College, Allen Art Puppi, Lionello, Torment in Art, New York: Praeger, 1991
Museum Thompson, C, Van Dyck: Variations on the Theme of
La Tour, Georges De, St. Sebastian Tended by Irene by St. Sebastian, Edinburgh: National Gallery of Scotland,
Torchlight, oil, 1649, Berlin, Germany, Gemaldegalerie 1975
Piot, Rene, Martyrdom of St. Sebastian, painting, circa 1913, Waterhouse, Ellis, Italian Baroque Painting, London:
Paris, Musee d'Art Moderne Phaidon, 1962
Ciry, Michel, St. Sebastian, etching, 1950 Wittkower, Rudolf, Art and Architecture in Italy, 1600-1750,

Bourgeois, Louise, St. Sebastian (The Pins), engraving, circa Baltimore, Maryland, and Harmondsworth, England:
1990 Penguin, 1975
 MASKS/PERSONAE
Elaine Shefer

The following periods are covered in the discussion of the theme Masks/Personae:

ANCIENT NINETEENTH CENTURY

MEDIEVAL TWENTIETH CENTURY
SEVENTEENTH AND
EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES

573
574 MASKS / PERSONAE
 MASKS / PERSONA! 575

James Ensor, Scandalized Masks, 1880s,

painting, Brussels, Musee Royaux des
Beaux-Arts de Belgique. (Courtesy of
A. C. L., Brussels)

M an is least himself
Give him a mask and he
when he talks in his own
will tell the truth.
(Oscar Wilde)
person. including the incongruous, and emphasizing short lines and
surprise happenings, these types of
felt.

exert
Rather than mimicking
some control over an environment
masks made
reality,
their meanings
they allowed people to
that they found hostile
To paint or sculpt the human face is to transform it. This activ- or, at best, incomprehensible. A particular fear could thus be
ity is already part of mask iconography because the very act of overcome by wearing a mask even more fearful. The ugly and
re-creating brings about something or someone else while the the grotesque, the real and the unreal —
these have become hall-
subject itself remains the same. Re-creating, then, produces marks of mask iconography, features that remain present even
ambiguity and equivocation. In some ways, a metamorphosis when there is no intention to inspire fear.
or transfiguration takes place, not only of the subject but also Although religious and funerary masks are known from
of the artist. Transfiguration implies mystery, and it often antiquity — having been discovered in Spartan, Carthaginian,
implies something shameful that must be hidden from view. —
and Mycenaean tombs the mask type that has most clearly
Hence, the adoption of a persona and use of a mask. persisted throughout the ages, and has had the strongest influ-
The secrecy implied by a mask is evidence of a human ence on subsequent artists, derived from the Greek theater. The
dilemma, our private search for a "real" self. By wearing masks, ancestor of modern mask imagery, of which caricature and car-
are individuals hiding or revealing who they "really" are? Are tooning are a part, developed prior to Attic comedy in mimic
they indulging in fantasies by playing a role, adopting a persona, farce, staged in centers inhabited by the Dorian people.
or demonstrating more than one "real" self? The complexities Corinthian vases provide early evidence of the mimes or comics
and ambiguities inherent in the use of a mask are apparent even who participated in this early Dorian or Megaron comedy,
in the hard-edged definition Webster's New World Dictionary of which was rude in form, popular in appeal, and intended to
the American Language (1957) gives the word: "a covering for evoke boisterous merriment. These pagan figures, who
the face or part of the face" that serves "to conceal or disguise ridiculed the legends of the gods, wore masks that appear to
identity"; "a likeness of a person's face ... a sculpted or mold- have depicted either Dionysus or his demons, thus stressing the
ed likeness that can identify a character." mischievous side of an untroubled world. These masked mimes
By helping people to become what they desire, in either a performed a mythological burlesque, in a sense.
positive or negative sense, the mask has always had a magical, In these stock, male, demonic characters lie the roots of one
symbolic quality. This quality can be traced to cultures in of the most popular characters in art, the clown, originally
Africa and Oceania where masks symbolized the authority of a called marikas, a name connected to the Greek word moros
particular spirit or power because of the widespread belief that (the generic term for mimic fool). Of the female characters
the head was the prime residence of such powers. Essentially Mormo, Akko, and Alphito, visages described by Plutarch as
protective, these cult objects helped guarantee social order by "terrifying masks designed to frighten children and cause
. . .

frightening away interfering spirits. Examples of these types of terror" (Nicoll, Harlequin, p. 28) — lies another popular char-
masks include: an owl mask from Baining used as a protection acter in art, the witch. The British School of Athens has
for children; a fire-spitter mask from the Ivory Coast used to unearthed a sixth-century B.C. clay statuette of the witchlike
drive away "soul-eating" spirits; a mask from Mali used to type that persisted into and beyond the medieval period. The
ensure the fertility of the soil, an abundance of rain, and good statuette is of an old woman with a heavily lined face, hideous
crops; and the Ibibio mask from southwestern Nigeria used to jaw, and one or two teeth peering through her mouth (Nicoll,
ward off the demon (Elsen, p. 26). p. 28). In the Berlin Museum is a terra-cotta rendering (no.
Formally, masks show a relationship between reality and 7042a) of another famous type: Maison, the comic Megarian
abstraction. Elements of reality are present in all of them —the cook, symbol of gluttony (Nicoll, p. 29). In addition to the fool
eyes of the wearer in the owl mask, the features of different ani- and the witch, other early character types include the doctor,
mals in the fire-spitter, the antelope's ears in the mask from the comic thief, and the animal mimic dancer, who imperson-
Mali, and the features of a human being in the Ibibio mask. ated animals by wearing animal masks. In addition to terra-
None, however, could be said to imitate an actual person, type, cotta figurines, these masks found their way onto vases such as
or animal. The owl of the natural world has been transformed an amphora in Berlin on which men are disguised as horses
in the Baining mask into something mysterious, related to trib- (Flickinger, fig. 14), a sixth-century B.C. amphora in the British

al symbols; the fire-spitter is a conglomeration of various ani- Museum in London displaying actors with bird masks (Journal
mals; the antelope can be recognized in the Mali mask only by of Hellenic Studies, vol. II, plate XIV), and bronzes such as that
its and the Ibibio mask is a head based on both a realistic
ears; of an actor with the head of a rat (Bibliotheque Nationale,
and an abstract concept. By setting the real against the abstract, Paris, no. 3682).
576 MASKS / PERSONAE

The mime dances influenced Artie plays such as Aristophanes' side ofhuman nature. In fact, the masks of mime were thought
//>< Wasps (produced 42.2 B.C.), The Birds (produced 414 B.C.), by the Church fathers to hide humankind's purer character. A
and The Frogs (produced 405 B.C.). In The Clouds (produced statement made by St. Jerome (fourth century) addresses this
423 B.C.), the chorus wore masks with birdlike features. Doric- conflict: "For while we were created in God's image and like-

farce not only influenced the Athenian theater but also pro- ness, by reason of our own perversity we hide ourselves behind
vided the basis for the development of types that would out- changing masks. . . . We . . . have a counterfeit mask for every
last the Roman period, show up in the commedia dell'arte of sin in which we are inclined" (Barasch, p. 261).
Renaissance Italy, and ultimately find their way into the plas- The Church protest against mimic drama reveals that the
tic arts. idea that man was made in the image of God wasn't always
Given the small number of actors required to play a myriad readily accepted. Although the Church spoke of the mask as
of male and female roles in Athenean theater, as well as the vast that which disguised humanity's true,, pure nature, the mask
size of the theater itself, no surprise that the mask played a
it is instead revealed what the Church would have liked to have
primary role and was invariably double the
in the actor's attire kept hidden: humanity's impure, ungodly image. Herein lies the
size of the performer's face. The mask was the simplest means inherent ambiguity of the mask, one that continues to plague
of giving the illusion of permanency to a favorite type of char- artists well into the twentieth century.
acter and of revealing to the audience something important During the medieval period, the mask became increasingly
about that character. Caricaturists would come to rely on this associated with evil, sin, and the devil. Satanic clamor and dia-
device. In order to manifest the characters with the playwright's bolical dress were perpetuated in the performances of the jon-
intended mood or establish them as a particular type or ethnic gleurs, masked dancing mimes who "with hair combed back . . .

affiliation, masks would be cast into well-defined, recognizable effeminate in look take on the shape and disguise of a tender
. . .

shapes. Seen at close range, even the most comic mask had a girl." These "soft limbed boys" were criticized for their ability to
terrifying look, although practical necessity might explain such "transform and transfigure their bodies with indecent dance and
grotesqueness: had they not been so crudely fashioned, they gesture, indecently unclothing themselves or putting on horrible
would have appeared featureless from a distance. From the masks" (Nicoll, Masks, p. 138).
medieval period, this grotesque quality came to be associated Secular entertainment continued throughout the Middle
with humankind's spirit, its sinful soul, with which it was in Ages in spite of the Church's condemnation of the mask as an
constant battle. upon and deludes people (Chambers, p. 10).
artifice that plays

Julius Pollux, an author of the second century a.d., identi- It isno wonder that when the Church took possession of the
fied almost 30 classical tragic masks, from representations of theater and began to produce religious comedies, the mask
extreme old age to the very young, godlike types. The became the motif used to personify evil. The religious mystery
"squalid" wore masks that had downcast eyes or were "pale of plays —
medleys of mysticism and farce had a more significant —
face" (Wiles, p. 74). Although each mask was described so that role in medieval life than did the secular, sporadic entertain-
there can be no mistaking the character, masks didn't always ment of traveling jongleurs. The mask took on a new role but
restrict themselves to one type of emotion particular to a given with an old meaning: nonhuman.
It depicted a
character. Menedemus of the new comedy had a raised right The story of God necessarily demanded the story of the
eyebrow and a horizontal left one, so that one profile indicat- devil. As opposed to the Scriptures, however, in which the devil,
ed anger, the other calm. The actor playing Menedemus would as the embodiment of temptation and darkness, was presented
have to turn one way or the other to reveal the emo-
his face as a serious character, the mystery plays transformed him into
tion he was representing. Each mask was a kind of sign lan- a comic type. Satan is brought in for the merriment of the audi-
guage that the Greek audience had come to know by heart: the ence in such plays as The Creation, Lucifer's Fall; the serpent is

unraised eyebrows of the "dark, young man"; the "young man similarly represented in The Garden of Eden and The Nativity.
with curled hair" and one wrinkle in his brow; or the "rustic In the mystery plays, the devil is not so much evil as he is irre-

type" with wide and a flat nose.

lips sponsible or extravagantly silly, characterizations perhaps
Mime drama existed throughout the Roman period and into reflecting the subconscious wish to reduce one's enemies to the
the medieval period when it was gradually replaced by a new ridiculous so as to reduce their power and to relieve the audi-
religious drama, the mystery play. Mime offered a circus type ence's fear.
of entertainment, one that would eventually have strong reper- Although varied in appearance, the "Devyls Hede," or "the
cussions in the world of modern art. The roots of these reper- Demones Heed," was always fearsome (Nicoll, Masks, p. 190).
cussions lie in the medieval period, during which religious lead- Some representations of the devil consisted of animal masks
ers generally looked down on such popular entertainment. As with pointed snouts and huge horns The Devil Astaroth
far back as the fourth century, Roman Catholic Church records (Hermann, fig. 125), or the mask from Sterzing in the
repeatedly warned that any person connected with the circus or Ferdinandeum in Innsbruck, Austria (Hermann, fig. 128)
pantomime could not be received into the Church. Bishops while others were just plain grotesque. This latter quality could
were told that they should not have histriones (actors), buf- be seen in the devil Belial depicted in a miniature by J.
foons, or acrobats at their dinners. Priests were forbidden to Stainburger V. Sprinzensti in Jacobus Da Teramo's Ob Jesus
attend such entertainments or to visit places of public spectacle. das recht hah gehabt, dass er die Holl under Teufel hat berauht
Such decrees are indicative of the interest demonstrated by Studien in the Bibliothek in Salzburg, Austria, with its long,
laypersons mimic drama in spite of the threat that the
in projecting jaw, crooked nose, and wart on the right side of
masked mimics posed by revealing the more playful and sinful the face.
 MASKS / PERSONAE 577

Warts, used so frequently by painters and caricaturists to a leering mask. Behind the shoulder of Night, whose elbow
satirize the old and ugly, come from a tradition going back to leans on the mask, there is an additional running frieze of tiny,

the secular entertainers, who had inherited some of this snarling masks. Within this grandiose allegory of princely and
characterization from the classic mime. Several masks pre- papal power, the leering mask can be seen as a symbol of evil or
served in Innsbruck show warts and resemble what would false dreams. This would coincide with Niccolo Machiavelli's
later become the image of Punch. The humorous manner in The Prince (published 1532, written 15 13), in which an appeal
which the Church portrayed evil shows the continuation of is made in vain to Lorenzo de'Medici to liberate and unify Italy.

the satirical tradition that began in the Greek theater, where In the Renaissance, both attitudes toward masks —the clas-
actor's costumes were padded with material to fill out bellies sical and the medieval —were alive. But the Renaissance
and buttocks. This heritage is still well mined in present-day brought a new dimension of interaction to what had been two
caricatures. separate and opposed traditions. The medieval mask, conceal-
Diabolical were also associated with the
connotations ing and awesome in itself, covered that which was supposedly
"mouth of hell." An early example of this icon is a manuscript hideous or terrible. In the Renaissance, the hideous was cov-
illumination from the Winchester School's Psalter of Winchester ered by a mask of beauty so the significance of concealment
(before 1161) in the British Museum in London. The mouth of was inverted —for to remove the mask is, after all, to ruin the
hell is not technically a mask but is derived from it, character- illusion. "Truly, to destroy the illusion is to upset the whole
ized by an exaggerated independent head, a predominant play" (Barasch, p. 264).
mouth, and deformed features. Appropriated by Anglo-Saxon The link between the medieval period and the present is the
England, the mouth of hell took the shape of the jaws of a Italian commedia dell'arte, a comedy of professional players
devouring beast (Swallowing Human Figure, a bronze closing that became active about 1550 or before. The commedia dell'
ring at the Church of St. John the Baptist in West Yorkshire). By arte probably derived from the Atellan farce of Rome, which
the seventh century, Gregory the Great had already gathered all was an important link between the Greeks and medieval jon-
the relevant biblical quotations in his Moralia and had used the gleurs and other itinerant entertainers. The Atellan farce
image of a monstrous beast to convey Satan's evil nature. In emanated from the ancient city of Atella, one of the first places
Gregory's writings, Satan is initially identified as "a Behemoth, known to have a theater. Like the wandering medieval mimics,
or huge land beast, and then as the Leviathan or sea monster, his the Atellan troupes were itinerant companies that performed in
shape shifting from lion to dragon to whale to bird." Scholar public squares. Since they did not belong to the regular theater,
Joyce Galpern notes that this was a "search for an iconography they were looked down upon and not taken seriously, labeled
of hell that could be understood by pagan and Christians alike" "traveling comedians" instead of "actors."
(Galpern, p. 142.). This early farce —with its flair for the exaggerated, its rever-
By the sixteenth century, mask imagery became more ambigu- sals of sexual roles, its masks and satire — formed the basis of
ous, neither concealing nor revealing, representative of either evil what became known in fourteenth-century France as imageria
or virtue. In Annibale Carracci's painting Hercules at the populaire, or image d'Epinal. This entertainment manifested
Crossroads (circa 1596) at the Museo Nationale Capodimonte in itself in comic strips, political carica-
children's picture books,
Naples, Italy, the mask is placed behind Voluptas rather than and the like. Ironically, image d'Epinal suffered
ture, folklore,
Virtus. Agnolo Bronzino does the same in his painting Exposure much the same fate in the minds of contemporary literati and
of Luxury (1540s) at the National Gallery in London, where two later historians as did the performances of the Atellanae in the

masks represent fraude (deceit) and gelosia (jealousy). In this minds of the Roman intelligentsia, or the medieval mimics in
respect, both artists were following the tradition established by the minds of Church fathers. Not considered high art, image
Cesare Ripa, the codifier of Renaissance iconography, who in d'Epinal was looked upon as unimportant, unworthy of notice,
Iconologica described fraude as "a lady, richly ornamented, and an attitude that persisted well into the nineteenth century. It

with the mask of a beautiful youth under which is hidden the face was the commedia dell'arte that carried this tradition into the
of an old woman, deformed and ugly" (Barasch, p. 254). modern era.
Other painters, like Raphael in his Parnassus (1 510-15 11, Comic does not necessarily mean funny, and it is here that
Stanza della Segnatura in the Vatican) and Giorgio Vasari in his the commedia dell'arte distinguishes itself from other traditions
Allegorical Portrait of Lorenzo de'Medici, used the mask in a of mask usage. By revealing humankind's weaknesses, naivete,
more classical sense to reveal and identify. In Raphael's deceitfulness, cowardice, and insecurities, the mask of the com-
Parnassus, a delicate mask identifies the Muse who holds it in media dell'arte allowed the audience to laugh and cry at itself.
her hands. The Vasari painting contains four masks. Vasari As George Sand commented:
explained in a letter that the ugly, distorted one represents vice;
The Commedia dell'Arte is not only a study of the
the one next to a glass vase stands for virtue; while a beautiful
grotesque and facetious . . . but also a portrayal ot real
one, hanging from the spout of a vessel, almost merges with the
characters traced from remote antiquity down to the pre-
face of Lorenzo de'Medici.
sent day in an uninterrupted tradition of fantastic humor
The negative connotations of the mask were perpetuated in
which is in essence quite serious and, one might say, even
the Renaissance in works such as Michelangelo's Tomb of
sad, like every satirewhich lays bare the spiritual pover-
Giuliano de'Medici (designed 1521, carved 1 524-1534) in the
ty of mankind. (Duchartre, p. 17)
Medici Chapel in S. Lorenzo in Florence. To this unusual effi-
gy —there is no inscription, and the effigy has been replaced by Clown iconography, beginning with the commedia dell'arte
two allegorical figures for —
day and night Michelangelo added and the figure of Pantalone, is based on the concept of the trag-
578 MASKS / PF.RSONAE

ic-comic hero. Initially, the characterization of Pantalone was and is constantly in difficulties either on his own or on his
always the same: a mean, stingy, garrulous character played master's account. (Duchartre, p. 127)
with the same darkish brown mask of a hooked nose, strag-
In short, "he is a chameleon, which takes on every colour"
gling gray beard,and a few wisps of hair from under a cap.
(Marmontel, p. 41 8).
Pantalone appeared in many roles: the old father, the greedy
The evolution of Harlequin's personality, from the
merchant, the doting husband, the silly guardian, the aged
Renaissance to the nineteenth century, reflects a change in the
chancellor. Yet, in all these roles, he was to take himself very
ratio between his physical and mental spirit. Artists were fasci-
seriously, a fact that gave the role such a comic touch.
nated by the various personalities reflected in hismask, which
The multidimensional view of Pantalone's humanity was not
gave a strange expression of craftiness, sensuality, and aston-
commedia dell'arte, but it was
the only distinctive feature of the
ishment that was both disturbing and alluring. The potentiali-
the way the mask itself was used. The mask was never static, a
ties latent in the mask were innumerable, sometimes suggesting
technique whose roots lay in Greek times in the mask of
a cat, other times a satyr or an African.
Menedemus, which had two sides: anger and calm. The com-
The legend of the multifaceted Harlequin, the comic-melan-
media delParte went further by asking its characters to express
cholic clown, derives not only from his suggestive mask but
a wider range of emotions, although they neither wept nor
also from his costume. Many
and early seventeenth-
sixteenth-
laughed. Its indefinable expressions were full of possibilities.
century engravings show Harlequin in a costume of motley
One did not put on a mask, one "played the mask" (Madden,
patches that settle into formalized lozenges or triangles by the
p. 112.), to such an extent that roles were not interchangeable.
seventeenth century, when Harlequin becomes a city man, a
Commedia dell'arte confused identities and did not draw a
courtier who has moved from patchwork poverty to order and
clear distinction between art and life. Actors did not change out
elegance. Claude Gillot's engravings The Humours of
of their foolish identities at the end of their performance but
Harlequin (Duchartre, p. 35) show these lozenges, and it is the
were known, both on stage and off, as fools. "He who wore the
same costume Paul Cezanne and Pablo Picasso will put on their
harlequin mask became a harlequin" (Nicoll, Harlequin, p.
Harlequins (Nicoll, Harlequin, p. 5; Arnason, p. 337). The ori-
41), just as much as he who painted the mask became that
gin of the multipatches and colors is connected to Harlequin's
mask. The commedia dell'arte, in fact, verified what the
multifaceted personality (Nicoll, Harlequin, pp. 6, 25, 68). As
medieval bishops had feared: the mask is not a disguise, it is a
one writer noted, he is
revelation.
Pantalone's usual companion was Dottore, a character a messenger between heaven and earth, or between civi-

known for his doctorlike characteristics. The popularity of lizationand the savage world ... he has special status as
Dottore as an object of ridicule — a type developed in early a being both superior and inferior to normal humans, clos-
mime as well as in early religious plays —was evident in seven- er both to divinity and animality than ordinary mortals;
teenth-century engravings (Duchartre, pp. 197-203) and con- his confusion of role and self, stage and life; his ties with
tinued into the satirical genre scenes of Jan Steen's seventeenth- idiocy and with mysticism (Nicoll, Harlequin, p. 70)
. . .

century charlatan-doctor paintings, in which Dottore became

It is no wonder that so many artists could see so much in
an actual medical doctor. His original character, that of a jurist
Harlequin's character with which to identify.
from Bologna, Italy, the center of legal studies, is best depicted
Much Harlequin iconography resides in the peculiar quality
in Honore Daumier's nineteenth-century caricatures. Other
of this figure, who is always searching for his "true" self,
artists also loved to depict the foolish affectations and academ-
unable to separate art from from man. The var-
reality, artifice
ic excesses of this pedantic, hypocritical tyrant, who spoke
ious depictions of Harlequin types derive from his diverse ori-
above the head of his companions even as they jeered openly or
gins, which can be traced to Dionysian ritual, classical African
behind his back.
slave comedy, the trickster god Mercury, and the medieval
Pietro Longhi's painting Pantalone, Dottore and Arlecchino
devil.
1750) not only captured these excesses but also included
(circa
another character who was to enjoy wide fame in nineteenth-
From this tradition evolved the figure of Pulcinello — foolish

and twentieth-century art: Arlecchino, better known as

or shrewd, dull or witty —who would appear in art in various
contexts. In Giovanni Domenico Tiepolo's Sherzi di Fantasia
Harlequin. Physically, Harlequin is best visualized as being
etchings (1750), Pulcinello, in a long beak-nosed mask, sits
made of rubber. He knew how to dance, jump, and pantomime.
next to the magus in deep conversation. In this series of etch-
Personally, he could be either stupid, forgetful, and buffoonish,
ings there are even intimations of mortality {A Magus and
or playful, cunning, and wise. An eighteenth-century writer
Other Figures with Punchinello, Levey, p. 216). In one partic-
rightly described him as
ular etching, a group of ill-assorted figures scrutinize the effigy
... a mixture of ignorance, naivete, wit, stupidity and of Punchinello on his tombstone. Death is an especially inter-
grace. He is both a rake and an overgrown boy with occa- esting phenomenon: "even for Punchinello there is death, but in
sional gleams of intelligence and his mistakes and clumsi- death he is still an object of curiosity and wonder" (Levey, pp.
ness often have a wayward charm. His acting is patterned 216, 217). Yet, this is but one side of Pulcinello: mellow, calm,
on the lithe, agile grace of a young cat, and he has a super- and even philosophical in his old age. In La Vita Di Pulcinella
ficial coarseness which makes his performances all the (1750), Tiepolo shows the other side of Pulcinello, when he
more amusing. He plays the role of a faithful valet, always was young: the. dancer, the clown, the circus performer walking
patient, credulous and greedy. He is eternally amorous, a tightrope (Duchartre, pp. 210-213).
 MASKS / PERSONAE 579

clown iconography, however, none was more famous

In the always stands in front of the zigzag movements of Harlequin.
for artifice and disguise than Pierrot, a French invention who Pierrot was one decidedly
a perfect character for Watteau:
provides much imagery for nineteenth-century artists working French in and now trans-
origin, transformed several times,
in France. First brought to light in Moliere's play Don Juan formed again. Through Watteau, the characters of Gilles and
(1665), Pierrot later became popular in the eighteenth-century Pierrot were transfigured into a dual ancestor for all tragic
artwork of Antoine Watteau. On stage, Pierrot's personality clowns: the heartbroken Pagliacci and the Pierrots Lunaires of
changed from Moliere's simple, harmless, and not very intelli- the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
gent peasant to what was once the figure of Harlequin: a funny, The nineteenth-century romantics admired Watteau's
hungry valet, often frustrated in love. In the seventeenth centu- Pierrot-Gilles, who represented a character, like themselves,
ry, this type of figure pleased the French public, which demand- who was too sensitive and feeling to survive a rising bourgeois
ed spirit in everything. More importantly, it suited the charac- society. Pierrot-Gilles was a stroller, a vagabond who sought
ter of the actor known as Dominique, who transformed the outdoor world of fetes champetres (country festivals) and
Pierrot's personality to suit his own. This was, and is, typical of hastily constructed, temporary stages in garden settings. His
actors and painters, whose usage of the Pierrot character was gardens were always Edens, but their theatricality revealed
often autobiographical. This also seems to have been the case them as an artificial paradise. Pierrot-Gilles was always a gay,
with Watteau, who reinterpreted Pierrot in the eighteenth cen- joyous musician and songster, but his merriment also appears
tury under the name of yet another clown, Gilles, in a painting contrived, artificially maintained, a hint at an underlying
of that title (1718) Louvre in Paris. Was Gilles an actor
in the melancholy: almost always a symptom of the martyrdom of
on the French stage whom Watteau decided to call Gilles, or those who worship art in a crass society.
was he another clown in his own right? What was Watteau's The romantic image of Pierrot, the suffering clown, experi-
relationship to one or both of these clowns? It appears that enced further blows from reality in great part because of the
Pierrot enjoyed great fame and popularity at the Theatre de la physical changes Paris underwent at this time. Street life, with
Faire, where he in fact did have a competitor, or possibly a dou- its connection to comedy-farce, the circus, and carnival life in

ble, named Gilles, whose name can be traced to clown in France, was being swallowed up into Georges-Eugene
English. Gilles, in order to satisfy the demands of the public, Haussmann's new boulevards. Comedy became more and more
eventually changed his uncouth, bedraggled appearance to the bourgeois and more and more pessimistic. Clown dialogues
more attractive aspects of Pierrot, with whom he practically lost the liberating delight of nonsense and the bawdiness,

fused into one character. becoming bitter verbal duets of biting satire, degrading parody,
While Pierrot played his part on the stage, Gilles grew in and mechanical repetition. Everywhere were images of
popularity at parades, which included farces or little comedies bondage, enmity, and death.
full of jokes, gross antics, indecency, and satire. It was during This fin de siecle atmosphere had an influence on many
Watteau's lifetime that this light-hearted genre, always present- French artists who were experimenting with various kinds of
ed outdoors and free of charge, received an enormous stimulus facial distortions. Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, following the
by achieving a certain degree of literary respectability through example of Edgar Degas, involved himself with the world of
the writings of Thomas Simon Gueulette. Gueulette wrote entertainment, like that in the Moulin Rouge, which represent-
numerous parades, one of which he starred in himself as Gilles. ed a kind of circus transported from the street into the world of
Watteau's painting, Gilles, seems to be connected to Gueulette 's the bourgeois. Toulouse-Lautrec produced a type of theatrical
series, L'Education de Gilles. In the painting, Gilles's unusual painting in a mime-caricaturist style that he hoped would be
size can be explained by Watteau's primary task, which was to accepted as popular culture for the bourgeois spectator. Relying
attract public attention from afar. The monumentality of the heavily upon cosmetics, and strong, unnatural light-
distortion,
figure was a scheme of composition that Watteau took from the and Parisian personae
ing, his portraits of the dancers, singers,
original founder of the theatrical painting genre, Jacques attending the Moulin Rouge became a critique of Parisian soci-
Callot, who used huge figures in his commedia dell'arte ren- ety. The effect of these frightening masks was not lost on peo-

derings. Even though Watteau knew these Callot prints, his ple such as the mother of Yvette Guilbert, who was horrified by
painting assumes a wholly different meaning. Callot's figures the ugliness of the portraits that Toulouse-Lautrec painted of
are soulless ruffians in comparison to Watteau's shy, lonely her daughter {Yvette Guilbert, 1894).
Gilles —
an image that is, as one critic has suggested, if not a In Belgium, James Ensor produced a body of work that is an
self-portrait of the artist, then certainly a self-revelation even more concrete example of how artists used the mask to
(Sitwell, pp. 67-68). combine personal angst with fin de siecle melancholy. In
Watteau's Gilles could just as easily have been called Pierrot Ensor's etchings and paintings, the mask takes on the form of a
(as is true of his other paintings of that figure), because for demon, and much of this iconography can be traced to his
Watteau there was no difference between the two. In paintings, domineering family, who fostered in him a constricting and
as on the stage, the Pierrot of the comedies and the Gilles of the humiliating dependence. This biographical element is evident in
parades are identical twins. Pierrot was also transformed by Self-Portrait with Masks (1889). In his Scandalized Masks
Watteau into a moving, almost tragic figure: still victimized but (1883), the biographical element again appears, this time as an
no longer ridiculous, still shy but no longer cowardly, and often old woman in a bespectacled mask, said to be Ensor's grand-
deeply musical. Over and again, Watteau honors the Pierrot fig- mother, who invades the space of a lonely drinker, said to be
ure with these attributes, as in L' Amour du Theatre Italien Ensor's expatriate, alcoholic father. Ensor's uses of the mask
(circa 1716). In Watteau's work, the rigidly posed Pierrot can be read both formally and metaphysically. In Scandalized
580 MASKS / PERSONAE

Masks, for example, the mask is used realistically in depictions a marvelous divination he has of the invisible and of the atmos-
of masked people'. His Haunted Furniture (1885) exhibits a phere created by our vices . . . our vices that turn our faces into
wider range of mask usage, and therefore a more ambiguous masks" (Julian, p. 2.44).
meaning: these are no longer the masks Ensor saw in his moth- The broad interpretation of the mask that Ensor made is evi-
er's shop in Belgium, nor are they masks covering people's faces dent in The Astonishment of the Mask Wouse (1889). Here
as in Scandalized Masks. Without the actor, they take on a life again he indulges in the game of making the viewer guess where
of their own, nestled in curtain folds, half hidden in moldings, art ends and where life begins. More than that, the work ques-
peeping from behind a wardrobe, and materializing in midair. tions the very meaning of the mask itself. When someone puts
Like some ancient Dorian masks, they aim to invoke fear, as on a mask, is he or she hiding that which is evil or displaying
can be seen in the petrified child's face in the painting. Like the it? The Astonishment of the Mask Wouse is, first and foremost,

medieval mask, they appear unclean, intent upon disturbing a caricature of an ordinary person, a symbol of bourgeois stu-
orderly thoughts (i.e., the child's), soiling innocent minds, and pidity. Masks lie on the ground as if having been put to rest in

inflicting fear. Elisor's The Entry of Christ into Brussels (1888) an attic following a carnival. The Mask Wouse, meant to be
is also reminiscent of medieval mystery plays such as The human, looks much less so than does the grinning specter in the
Coming of Anti-Christ and Doomsday, in which the masked top-right corner. The masks on the floor belie their condition as
devil had a major role. In Haunted Furniture, Ensor has gone a mere objects by exhibiting a certain nervous animation. They
step further.Not only do people replace the devil, but people seem possessed by a subliminal life, ever ready to rise and blow
themselves become masks: autonomous, spectral beings. This their horns. Aware of this, the Mask Wouse is uneasy, even
transfiguration —
the face becomes the mask means that art — shocked, to the delight of the emerging spirits. The ultimate
no longer imitates life, but the reverse. It is a reversal that can irony is that she, the bourgeoise, is more grotesque and, —
be traced back to the commedia dell'arte tradition, in which therefore, more of a mask —
than are the quivering, grimacing
became a role.
characters did not play a role but ("He who trappings.
wore the harlequin mask became a harlequin" [Nichol, By working with three species of masks objects, spirits, —
Harlequin, p. 41].) —
and caricatures of real people and analyzing transitions
The religious event originally known as Christ's Entry into among them, Ensor effectively explores most of the complexi-
Jerusalem became, in The Entry of Christ into Brussels, a car- ties and ambiguities inherent in mask iconography. Ultimately,

nival. The world became, in Elisor's work, a

political-religious Ensor's view was pessimistic as his masks are never far from the
farce, a symbol of human meanness and stupidity, an exposure most foreboding of all masks: the skull, the ultimate symbol of
of vice and vanity. In more personal terms, Jesus Christ, for death. The "mask of death" appears more prevalently in his

whom the crowd appears to have no use, is a symbol of the Evening in Karl J ohan Street (1890), inwhich ghoulish figures
artist, Ensor, whom the crowd also does not have the ability to rush toward the spectator in a vacuumlike sweep. (These are
understand. Ensor's identification with Christ is further sym- the same masks that face the spectator in many antiwar posters
bolized by a white-faced, hooked-nose Pierrot, who appears in in the twentieth century, such as John Steuart Curry's painting
the painting no fewer than seven times: near a family group, Parade to War [1938], in which soldiers bearing the faces of
wearing a blue hat; in the foreground, over the shoulder of a death skulls march to the cheers of the crowd in a ticker-tape

bishop; upward to the left, whispering obscenities into the ear parade.)
of a white nun, who pretends to faint at the offense; and with Ensor's work could not have escaped the attention of the
a wry smile, at the lower left margin. In this painting, Pierrot young Pablo Picasso, whose arrival in Paris coincided with
has a double role, as both observer and schemer, that identifies Ensor's artistic struggles. The connection between the two

him as a stand-in for the artist. Ensor, like Watteau, frequently artistsseems apparent, for in 1904 Picasso replaced suicidal
used the figure of Pierrot as an alter ego, a lurking demon. He artistsand blind beggars in his paintings with circus entertain-
appears in Ensor's paintings Intrigue, Portrait of Old Woman ers and wandering acrobats. The figure that will appear over
with Masks and Self-Portrait with Masks. In Skeletons Fighting and over again in Picasso's art is Harlequin, who, like the
for Body of a Hanged Man ( 1 89 1 ), Ensor's biting satire on mat- Pierrot figure in the works of Watteau and Ensor, will be rein-
rimony, Pierrot is part of a greedy crowd, watching a hanging terpreted to fit the artist's own personal needs.
husband — a mere marionette in the hands of his wife —about to As opposed to the boisterous, playful Harlequin of the com-
be eaten by three different women. media dell'arte, Picasso's Harlequin is silent, still, and contem-
Ensor's deep misanthropy, which lay at the root of his pre- plative. The thin, rubbery quality of the harlequin's body,
occupation with masks, was immediately recognized when his which in the was used for dance and acrobatics, is now
past
art became known. The French decadent Jean Lorrain ascribed inactive, having taken on an emaciated, unmanly look. Out of
to his hero in Monsieur de Phocas (1901) a particular neurosis, its traditional place and role, Harlequin becomes a tragic figure

"being ... his insight into the corruption of his fellow men that who demands our sympathy. Like Ensor, however, Picasso was
every face appears to him as a hideous mask." A "homeopath- preoccupied with more than the solemnity of Harlequin. His
ic cure" is offered: "Don't be afraid, the only chance you have depiction of him in The Death of the Harlequin (1905-1906) is
to be cured of this obsession with masks is to familiarize your- evidence of his ultimate concern: death. The grave mood of this
self with them and to see them day by day. . . . Their imagined painting is similar to Renaissance entombments and crucifix-
ugliness will attenuate your painful awareness of the ugliness of ions. As with Picasso, Ensor, and Watteau, the Harlequin type
mankind." Ensor's art is used as an example of how this exor- also served as an alter-ego for Englishman Aubrey Beardsley in
cism works. "You will see what a man this Ensor is and what his drawing The Death of Pierrot (1896). In all of these artists'
 masks / PERSONAE 581

works, the mask is no longer used to distort reality but to tionship, but with the more universal problem of woman as a
reveal another dimension of the human character and often the cursed sexual temptation. The viewer is thus faced with five
artist's own soul in the process. It is only through the use of a women, or five masks. This was not an original theme, but it
fictional type that he is able to show the feelings that haunted was Picasso's intention to make the final statement about it.
him: alienation, fraternity, jealousy, and love. The once happy- The faces he painted are distorted, inhuman masks that are
go-lucky Harlequin became, in Picasso's work, a figure of supposed to provoke a fear of the evil spirit within the woman's
pathos, not because he is a victim, but because he is an agent of body. He understood the mask to be a "weapon ... to help
his own fate. people avoid coming under the influence of the spirits again."
The persona of the clown used as a symbol of human suf- Recalling a day in the Trocadero Museum when he first saw
fering has its roots in the romantic tradition. But in Picasso's such masks, Picasso admitted that the idea of masks in the
work, the clown issymbol of the artist's alienation
not just a Demoiselles came to him not because of the forms he saw there
from society, it is much more On one level, Harlequin
personal. in the museum, but "because it was my first exorcism painting"

symbolizes the alienation experienced by many in modern soci- (Rubin, p. 55).

ety, much like Toulouse-Lautrec's cafe and dance-hall personae. The mask has remained a perplexing element in the history

Harlequin, joined by Columbine, is a sad bohemian, like the of art. Strongly rooted in a theatrical tradition, it has fascinat-
bored and lonely creatures in Picasso's Family of Saltimbanques ed artists throughout the ages because of its ambiguous possi-

(1905). On the personal level, however, Harlequin is a picture bilities: those who paint the mask, just as those who "play" the
of Picasso himself, unable to sit with the women who had mask, are in fact a part of that "disguise." Like painting, the
caused the death by suicide of his best friend, Carlos mask will always remain a fascinating subject, because both
Casagemas. In other paintings, such as Harlequin's Family forms only provide questions, never answers.
(1905), The Mother's Toilet, and The Wedding of Pierrette,
Harlequin, accompanied by Columbine, is a symbol of the trag-
ic estrangement that Picasso feels from the woman with whom
See also Automata; Caricature/Cartoon; Comic; Evil Eve
he shares his life. In these paintings, especially The Wedding of
Pierrette, the so-called Harlequin seems to be more of a Pierrot
type in the tradition of Watteau, a type that was revived at the
end of the nineteenth century. His melancholia might be
Selected Works of Art
explained by his failures with women. It was this clown that
Picasso was to identify with Charlie Chaplin. Although much Ancient
in this painting is different from Picasso's self-portraits in the Mask of an Old Woman, clay, sixth century B.C.
form of Harlequin, the ultimate meaning, symbolized here by a Maison, The Megarian Cook, terra-cotta, Berlin, Germany,
new set of masks, is still apparent: the melancholy ascetic's Berlin Museum
rejection of erotic love. The provocative, grotesque appearance
of the masks reveals something of the moral and sexual tension Medieval
that was always part of Picasso's conception. Swallowing Human Figure, bronze closing ring, Adel, West
Although the Harlequin character does not appear in Yorkshire, Church of St. John the Baptist
Picasso's Demoiselles d' Avignon (1907), the work displays the
same fear and rejection of erotic love. By shutting his eyes on Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries
the last vestige of carnival-theatrical life, as seen on Steen, Jan, The Doctor's Visit, 1663-1665, Philadelphia,
Montmarte, and looking to African and Iberian societies, Philadelphia Museum of Art, John G. Johnson Collection
Picasso hoped to make a final statement on the evil of erotic Schalcken, Godfried, Visit to the Doctor, 1669, Germany,
love. For Picasso, these primitive masks were of much less private collection
interest as formal things than as actual spirits. As he stated, Rosa, Salvator, La Nenzogna (Philosopher Showing a Mask
"They were magic things intercesseurs, mediators; ... I too
. . . to Another Person), circa 161 5, Florence, Italy, Galleria
believe that everything is unknown, that everything is an Pitti

enemy! ... I understood what the Negroes used their sculpture Longhi, Pietro, Pantalone, Dottore and Arlecchino, circa
for" (Rubin, p. 255). Like the young Germans working in 1750, Venice, Italy, Museo Civico
Dresden and Berlin during the first decade of the twentieth cen- Tiepolo, Giovanni Domenico, scenes from La Vita Di
tury who also used masks, Picasso shows that he is having trou- Pulcinella, 1750, M. Victor Rosenthal Collection
ble sustaining a human relationship with the women he paint- Tiepolo, Giovanni Domenico, A Magus and Other Figures
ed in the Demoiselles. A parallel can be drawn between with Punchinello, 1750, Washington, D.C., National
Picasso's Demoiselles and Ernst Kirchner's Girl Under a Gallery, Rosenwald Collection
Japanese Umbrella (1909), both of which suggested, in effect, a Watteau, Antoine, Gilles, 171 8, Paris, Louvre
violent sexual attack on the model. Kirchner's assertion over Watteau, Antoine, The Italian Comedians, 1706, Washington,
hismodel is different. Picasso gave an assertive, dominating D.C., National Gallery of Art, Kress Collection
power to the woman, but not so that she should dominate. The Watteau, Antoine, L'Amour du Theatre Italien, circa 1-16,
masks are so strong that, as the peoples who use them, Picasso Berlin, Germany, Staatliche Museen, Gemaldegalerie
hoped to exorcise that power out of her body. In the Lancret, Nicolas, A Scene at the Theatre Italien, Strasbourg,
Demoiselles, Picasso deals not with one personal sexual rela- France, Musee des Beaux-Arts
582 M \sks |'l RSON \l

Nineteenth ( entury kahlo, Frida, The Mash. i^4S, Mexico, Dolores Olmcdo
Manet, Edouard, The Old Musician, oil on canvas, c86i, Collection
Washington, D.< ., National Gallery ol An
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composition board. 1939, New York. Museum Greek and Roman Performance. Cambridge and New
of Modern \rt York: Cambridge University Press, 1991
 MELANCHOLY
Corinne Mandel

The following periods are covered in the discussion of the theme Melancholy:

CLASSICAL NINETEENTH AND

„„„„,„.,
MEDIEVAL TWENTIETH CENTURIES

RENAISSANCE TO
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

583
584 MELANCHOLY

I
 MI I.ANCHOLY 5«5

Albrecht Diirer, Melancolia /, i 514,

engraving, Washington, D.C., National
Gallery of Art, Rosenwald Collection.
(Courtesy of the National Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C.)

Old Democritus under

on a stone with book on knee;
Sits
a tree, lectively convey. What
winged woman, with her hand on her cheek, is the pose of the
is certain is that the pose of Diirer's

About him hang there many features, melancholiac. Although popularized by Diirer and emulated by
Of Cats, Dogs and such like creatures, —
numerous artists from Giambologna to Giorgio de Chirico,
Of which he makes Anatomy, Michelangelo to Auguste Rodin the woman's pose has an —
The seat of black choler to see. ancient pedigree that can be traced as far back as representa-
Over his head appears the skie, tions of mourners in the funerary processions of ancient Egypt.
And Saturn Lord of Melancholy. While such circumstances are manifestly quite different from
those of Diirer's winged woman or Burton's Democritus for —
With these words, Robert Burton begins the explanation to the that matter —
the pose suggests the sorrow and despair that has
frontispiece of his The Anatomy of Melancholy (1621). The
been attributed to the melancholiac since Greek antiquity.
frontispiece represents a kind of visual summa of the nature of
According to the theory of the humors as first set out by
the melancholiac, exemplified by Democritus (German philoso- Hippocrates in the fourth century B.C., the human body pro-
11
pher Philipp Melanchthon's and Burton's "fatuously happy
duces four fluids that affect physiognomy and personality and
Greek philosopher): jealous, solitary, amatory, hypochondria- that are intimately related to the workings of the macrocosm.
and beset by mania. His attributes, or rather
cal, superstitious,
In the ideal scenario, the four fluids, or humors (blood, yellow
his panaceas, are the borage and hellebore plants. From
bile, black and phlegm), are in perfect accord so that the
bile,
Burton's characterization, the melancholic state hardly seems
body is healthy and enjoys equilibrium. However, such a state
an enviable one. It entails living alone on the fringes of society
is rarely, if ever, attained. Of the four humors, by far the most
and finding solace in a kind of sardonic laughter, a terrible
discussed, and the most potentially damaging, is the black bile
laughter originally dedicated to the god Saturn. This state can secreted by the liver; too much black bile makes a person
even lead to sterility, as Sigmund Freud explained in 1917: melancholic. According to Theophrastus and Aristotle, if the
black bile is cold, then the person is unfaithful, slovenly, dis-
The distinguishing mental features of melancholia are a
honest, unhappy, cowardly, and avaricious and has a propensi-
profoundly painful dejection, cessation of interest in the
outside world, loss of the capacity to love, inhibition of
ty to indulge in alcohol. The melancholiac affected by cold

all activity, and a lowering of the self-regarding feelings

black bile does not, in other words, excel in human relation-
ships. If the black bile is hot, conversely, then the melancholiac
to a degree that finds utterance in self-reproaches and
self-revilings, and culminates in a delusional expectation has the enviable potential of separating mind and body, and of

of punishment. (Freud, pp. 243-258)

becoming a genius. According to Aristotle, "hot" melancholi-
acs are:
And yet, melancholiacs have not only been celebrated in the
all those . . eminent in philosophy or politics or poetry
Western tradition, but countless men and women have also
.

or the arts. . . .An example from heroic mythology is

made a concerted effort to attain this state. One might even say
Heracles. . . . Among the heroes many others evidently-
that the melancholic disposition has been in vogue among the
suffered in the same way, and among men of recent times
literati since Greco-Roman times.
Empedocles, Plato, and Socrates, and numerous other
Perhaps the quintessential representation of melancholy, to
well known men, and also most of the poets.
which Burton's Democritus defers, was created in 15 14 by
Albrecht Diirer. This engraving, Melancolia I, shows a Socrates' "deity," in other words, not only infused him with
wreathed, winged woman with a swarthy complexion seated wisdom but also enabled the great sage to experience revelation
with her left hand on her cheek, her right hand holding a com- in a manner that later ages would analogize to the Platonic

pass on a closed book, her stare directed away from her work. divine "mania" and to the son of God in his earthly manifesta-
She isaccompanied by a sleeping dog, a studious cupid, and is tion as Jesus Christ.
surrounded by numerous objects: sphere, polyhedron, hammer, Because there is said to be an intimate connection between
nails, saw, plane, pincers, another compass, crucible, bellows or microcosm and macrocosm, melancholy has been related to the
clyster, scales, hourglass, bell, magic square, keys, purse, seven- autumn season, to the element of earth, to the mineral lead, and
runged ladder, and grindstone. In the background, a rainbow with regard to the times of day, to the evening (or sometimes to
appears over the water, a comet shoots through the sky, and a the night that properly belongs to the phlegmatic). The melan-
bat shows the viewer the engraving's title. Diirer's engraving choliac has also been thought of as cold and dry. It is on this
contains a plethora of symbols connected with the melancholi- account that the planet Saturn, Burton's "Lord of Melancholy,"
ac, although to this day historians of art have been unable to is connected to the melancholiac personality. According to the

agree upon a singular meaning that these symbols might col- Babylonian astrological tradition as filtered through such
586 Ml-LANCHOIY

sources as Servius and the ninth-century Islamic Picatrix, the melancholy, as a "useful madness." As the scholar Noel Brann
planet Saturn has exceedingly negative influences on humans, has shown, William of Auvergne recognized, with the help of
hence exacerbating the production of cold black bile in the Aristotle, that the melancholic personality was the best possi-
body. Conversely, the Hellenistic astrological tradition, as ble receptor of illumination and divine radiation. Eike the
adopted by such sages as Macrobius and Boccaccio, holds that Man of Sorrows, or Geertgen tot Sint Jans's Saint John the
Saturn can imbue man with extraordinary faculties of reason Baptist in I he Wilderness (circa 1490), melancholiacs are iron-
and contemplative or metaphysical powers, hence facilitating ically blessed with a kind of sorrow that enables them to
the "hot" melancholiac's separation of mind and body. achieve an ecstatic union with God.
Whether black bile was ultimately maleficent or beneficent, When sorrow in a negative way, it was known
functioned
it was deemed necessary to offset the effects of the black bile as the "Devil's bath" and was believed ultimately to lead to
and of the melancholiac's cold and dry saturnine makeup. evil, as aptly demonstrated in Lucas Cranach's many depic-

Accordingly, the diet could be pressed into service. For exam- tions of melancholy witches. For some exegetes, sorrow even
ple, "hot" and "wet" foods like red wine and lamb could be led to white magic and, worse, to alchemy. This despite protes-
consumed in order to counteract the "cold" condition. One tations to the contrary by the spiritual alchemists,whose very
could also seek herbal remedies like Burton's borage and helle- art was begun under and whose end product
Saturn's sway,
bore and wear watery plants like watercress on one's head in was mystical union with God. According to the art historian
the manner of Diirer's melancholic woman, who wears lovage. Maurizio Calvesi, the Jovian talisman in Diirer's Melancolia I
Even astral magic was used, hence the Jovian talisman in actually promises the completion of the alchemical opus, and
Diirer's engraving that was said to counteract the maleficent hence revelation. Nevertheless, the solitude and lethargy inher-
influences of Saturn. Music, above all else, functioned as an ent in a deeply sorrowful or depressed state — common a
excellent antidote to the black bile affecting the melancholiac. occurrence for an alchemist —was more often than not viewed
This was understood by ancient pagans and Hebrews: in order as virtually synonymous with acedia, or sloth, one of the seven
to purge the demons from Saul, who was verging on insanity, deadly sins.

that is to say, melancholy, David played a harp (I Samuel Perhaps not surprisingly, sloth is represented through the
16:23). ages in conjunction with the antique characterization of both
When Christianity adopted the antique theory of the the melancholiac and the slow-moving planet Saturn. For an
humors, it traced the cause of humankind's physiological eleventh-century miniaturist whose work appears on a manu-
imbalance to Adam's indiscretion in Eden. The moment that script housed in the Vatican Library, the model of sloth is a
Adam followed Eve and took his fateful bite of the fruit recumbent, sleeping figure. For Hieronymus Bosch, in his
(Genesis 3:1-7), the harmony of humankind's constitution was Tabletop of the Seven Deadly Sins (circa 1480-1485), sloth is
forever upset. The lungs, liver, and circulatory system ceased to a seatedmonk, with his hand on his head and a dog at his feet.
function optimally, and men and women were subsequently In Bosch's Temptation of Saint Anthony Triptych (circa
afflicted with the effects of the malfunctions. Diirer's engraving 1505-1 5 10), sloth is the bird with a funnel-shaped crown,
Adam and Eve (1504) indicates this unfortunate state by means wearing a pair of ice skates, accompanied by the inscription
of the sanguine rabbit, choleric cat, phlegmatic ox, and melan- oisuif or ouisuy (idler). For the seventeenth-century artist Jan
cholic elk. Above all else, Adam became afflicted with the Vermeer, sloth is a woman with disheveled clothes and her
melancholiac's liver ailment, although he was by no means hand on her cheek, seemingly asleep at the table from too much
immune to the ill-effects of the remaining humors. As earthly pleasure, particularly of the alcoholic and amorous
Hildegard von Bingen explained: kinds.
As the apathetic, lovesick maidens of Vermeer's compatriot
For because Adam knew good yet did evil by eating
the
Jan Steen demonstrate, however, a sinful melancholiac need not
the fruit, melancholy welled up within him, and with it
be prone or adopt the typical head-on-hand pose; he or she
the vicissitudes of change, which would not have
could merely sit, staring into space, in a manner wholly conso-
occurred in man, either in his sleeping or in his waking
nant with the Master F. B.'s positive treatment of the theme in
hours, without the suggestion of the Devil.
his mid-sixteenth-century engraving Melancholy. Such delight
Consequently, Adam is often depicted after the fall in the stance in iconographic representations of sloth are not unrelated to
of the melancholiac, not at all unlike Joseph at the Nativity, or such literary depictions as those by Geoffrey Chaucer of Arcite,
the penitent Magdalen. William Shakespeare of Ophelia or Hamlet, and Charles
The kind of dejection experienced by Adam and by — Baudelaire of the malady of his century.
Joseph or Mary Magdalen, for that matter was readily con- — The Master F. B.'s and Steen's uses of similar poses, respec-
nected to the words of St. Paul by some Christian exegetes: tively in bonum (in good) and in malum (in bad), are not con-
"For godly sorrow worketh repentance to salvation not to be fined to the melancholiac who sits staring into space. Around
repented of: but the sorrow of the world worketh death" (II 1590, when Nicholas Hilliard depicted Henry Percy, ninth earl
Corinthians 7:10). Much as the melancholy of Theophrastus is of Northumberland, reclining on the grass with his head on
of two types, so the related tristitia (sorrow) could function hand, he was hardly denigrating his patron. Hilliard was cele-
either positively or negatively. When functioning in a good brating the earl's virtues by drawing on traditional depictions
sense, sorrow acts in a way not at all unlike music or talis- of the reclining planet-god Saturn and, one might add, Christ
mans, herbs or foodstuffs. That is to say, it is a cathartic that in proskynesis at Gethsemane. Joseph Wright of Derby used a
enables the believer to reach the Godhead. It is for this reason Brooke
similar pose for his late-eighteenth-century portrait Sir
that William of Auvergne could view sadness, and specifically Boothby (1781). Likewise, when Gilbert Stuart represented
 MELANC.IK >l 1 587

William Grant on skates in 1782, he was not comparing the would accordingly be transformed by the romantic into the
Scottish gentleman to an idler. Far from aids to slovenliness, anxious paradigm of modern humankind. During the twentieth
Grant's skates were the apparatus of the upper-class gentleman, century, the mad, melancholic pariah was given a status of cos-
while his folded arms actually identified him as an inspired mic proportions, whether in the person of van Gogh, whose life

melancholiac, in keeping with another typical pose represented has been commemorated in literature and on film and whose
on Burton's frontispiece. Similarly, the numerous nineteenth- art fetches the highest market prices, or in the person of Andy
century depictions of sitters with disheveled clothes staring into Warhol, the self-made guru of the pop artist. Indeed, had mod-
space celebrate the romantic genius, not the lazy and despon- ern society rebuked the nineteenth-century glorification of the
dent melancholiac. By the time Edouard Manet represents wholly mad, yet brilliant, artistic genius, Andy Warhol might
Baudelaire such an attitude (1867) accompanied by a bat
in not have been given a second thought. The traditional melan-
the progeny of Durer's Melancolia I and of Francisco Goya's cholic pose of head on hand can't be missed in his Self-Portrait

The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters (circa 1799) — he is (1966).

complimenting the author, not condemning him.
In order to understand Durer's Melancolia I, Hilliard's
See also Humors; Madness
Henry Percy, Stuart's Skater, and the grander notion of the
romantic genius, one must consider the fifteenth-century water-
shed figure of Marsilio Ficino. This Florentine humanist, who
syncretized antique and medieval notions, followed the lead of
Selected Works of Art
William of Auvergne and raised the melancholiac to the status
of a demigod. Ficino attributed the cherished melancholia arti- Classical
ficialis (the status of artistic genius) to those born under the Funerary Procession of Nefer-renpet, High Priest of Memphis,
influence of Saturn and consequently bequeathed the positive circa 13 13 B.C., Memphis, Egypt
virtues of those beset by black bile to later ages. Drawing on The Seer Lamos, 470-256 B.C., East Pediment, Olympia,
the duality originally provided by Theophrastus and filtered Greece, Temple of Zeus
through the medieval period, Ficino differentiated "cold" and Athena Relief, circa 470 B.C., Athens, Greece, Acropolis
"hot" saturnine melancholiacs. He did so by deferring to Medea and the Two Daughters of Pelias, neo-Attic copy of
astrology and to the placement of the planets in the heavens at first century B.C. relief, Vatican, Vatican Museums
the moment of one's birth. If Saturn were badly aspected, then Sleeping Ariadne, copy of Hellenistic Pergamene sculpture,
the child would be beset by cold black bile and consequently second century a.d., Vatican, Vatican Museums
live a life overshadowed by darkness and evil. If Saturn were Priam Begging the Body of Hector from Achilles, silver cup,
well aspected, then the child would be given the best possible early first century a.d., Copenhagen, Denmark, National
faculties: wisdom and an understanding of theology and divin- Museum
ity. The child, in short, would be able to separate body and soul Gemma Augustea, early first century a.d., Vienna, Austria,
(or mind). Kunsthistorisches Museum
Stated slightly differently by Henry Cornelius Agrippa of
Nettesheim, the source for Durer's Melancolia I, the bile affect- Medieval
ing the melancholiac is either black or white, evil or good. John the Evangelist, from Gospel Book at Stauronikita on
Whereas the black bile is "so depraved and horrible a thing that Mount Athos, tenth century, Princeton, New Jersey,
its violence is said ... to draw into it, in addition to mania, Princeton University, Museum of Art (Cod. 43, fol. 131:)

even wicked demons to lay siege to the human body," the white Gethsemane, from Dionysiu Lectionary at Mount Athos,
bile is a glorious substance, notwithstanding its side effects: "it Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University, Museum
stirs up madness which induces in us knowledge and
a kind of of Art (Cod. 587, fol. 66r)
divination, especially if it is aided by some celestial influx, Tournai Artist, Nativity; Annunciation to Shepherds; John the
above all Saturn. ." In this light, it is little wonder that six-
. . Baptist Meeting Christ; Baptism of Christ, ivory relief,

teenth-century Europe saw a veritable "melancholimania," in tenth century, London, British Museum
which the learned, whether born under Saturn or not, wished Illuminator fromLower Saxony, Nativity and Ecclesia with
to be affected by the unpleasant effects of black (or, for Solomon and the Queen of Sheha, late twelfth century,
Agrippa, white) bile. Nor is it surprising that later ages would Cleveland, Ohio, Museum of Art
not forget the association between melancholy and genius, or Cologne Artist, Nativity with Annunciation to the Shepherds,
melancholy and madness. ivory relief, twelfth century, London, Victoria and Albert
As art historian Frederick Cummings has argued, the model Museum
melancholiac for the modern age was Jean-Jacques Rousseau,
the "new Democritus," who was ultimately displaced from the Renaissance to Eighteenth Century
society he recognized as so laden with evil. Rousseau was Musee Jacquemart-Andre
Saturn, fifteenth century, Paris,
joined by poets like Alfred, Lord Tennyson, Charles Baudelaire, Masolino, Crucifixion, circa 1425, Vatican, Vatican
and Gustave Flaubert and artists like Odilon Redon, Edvard Museums
Munch, and Vincent van Gogh. Whereas the Ficinian artist had Botticelli, Sandro, Adoration of the Magi, circa —
1
4 5

been an active, "hot" melancholiac, the modern equivalent, Florence, Italy, Uffizi Gallery
although "hot," would be riddled with the kind of self-doubt Bosch, Hieronymus, Tahletop of the Seven Deadly Sins, circa
that verges on paranoia. Durer's productive winged genius 1480-1485, Madrid, Spain, Prado
S8S MI I ANC'HOl.Y

Geertgen tot Sint Jans, Saint l<>bn the Baptist in the Overbeck, Johann Friedrich, Vittoria Caldoni, 1820-1821,
Wilderness', circa 1490, Berlin, Germany, Gemaldegalerie, Wuppertal, Germany, Vand der Heydt Museum
Staatliche Museen Caspar David, Moonrise on the Sea, 1822, Berlin,
Friedrich,
Sansovino, Andrea, Sforza Monument, sculpture, 1 505-1 509, Germany, Nationalgalerie, Staatliche Museen, Preussischer
Rome, Santa Maria del Popolo Kulturbesitz
Raphael, School of Athens, 1508, Vatican, Stanza della Corot, Jean-Baptist-Camille, Woman Meditating, circa
Segnatura 1855-1865, Cleveland, Ohio, Cleveland Museum
Diirer, Albrecht, Melancolia I, engraving, 15 14 of Art

Michelangelo, Lorenzo de'Medici, 15 19-1534, Florence, Italy, Rodin, Auguste, The Thinker, The Gates of Hell, sculpture,
Medici Chapel, San Lorenzo 1880, Paris, Rodin Museum
Cranach, Lucas, the Elder, Melancholy, 1532, Copenhagen, Redon, Odilon, In My Dream I Saw a Mysterious Pace in the
Denmark, State Museum Sky (Homage to Goya), 1885
Cranach, Lucas, the Elder, Melancholy, 1532, Colmar, France, Serusier, Paul, Melancholia or Breton Eve, 1890, private
collection
Musee d'LInterlinden
Campagnola, Giulio, Saturn, mid-sixteenth century Gogh, Vincent van, Portrait of Doctor Gachet, June 1890,
Paris, Musee d'Orsay
Beham, Hans Sebald, Melencolia, engraving, 1539
Pencz, Georg, Melancholy, 1545, Pommersfelden, Germany,
Munch, Edvard, Melancholy, oil on canvas, 1893, Oslo,
Schloss Weissenstein
Norway, National Gallery
Chirico, Giorgio, Melancholy, 191 2, private collection
Vos, Maarten van, Melancholy, second half of sixteenth
Hopper, Edward, Automat, Des Moines, 1927, Des Moines,
century
Iowa, Des Moines Art Center
Gerung, Matthias, Melancholia, 1558, Karlsruhe, Germany,
Dix, Otto, Melancholy, 1930, Munich, Germany, Galerie
Staatliche Kunsthalle
Klihm
Giambologna, Allegory of Francesco I de' Medici, sculpture,
Magritte, Rene, Bather Between Light and Darkness, circa
circa 1560, Vienna, Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum
Master F. B., Melancholy, engraving, 1561 1935, private collection
Warhol, Andy, Self-Portrait, 1966, David Whitney Collection
Hilliard, Nicholas, Henry Percy, Nhith Earl of
Kraemer, Dieter, Melancholy, 1970, Hagen, Germany,
Northumberland, circa 1590, private collection
Fetti,Domenico, Melancholy, circa 1614, Paris, Louvre
Stedtisches Museum
Guercino, Night, 1621, Rome, Casino Ludovisi
Terbrugghen, Hendrik, Magdalen, circa 1627,
Pommersfelden, Germany, Schloss Weissenstein
Further Reading
Bernini, Gian Lorenzo, Tomb of Pope Urban VIII, sculpture,
1 628-1 647, Vatican, St. Peter Brann, Noel, "Alchemy and Melancholy in Medieval and
Dyck, Anthony van, Thomas Killegrew and Thomas Carew, Renaissance Thought: A Query into the Mystical Basis of
1638, London, Royal Collection their Relationship," Ambix 32:3 (1985)
Walker, Robert, Portrait of John Evelyn, 1648, London, Burton, Richard, The Anatomy of Melancholy, London, 1621
National Portrait Gallery Calvesi, Maurizio, "A noir (Melencolia I)," Storia dell' Arte
Rembrandt van Rijn, Man with the Golden Helmet, circa 1:2 (1969)
1650, Berlin-Dahlem, Germany, Staatliche Museen , "Arte e Alchimia," Art Dossier insert, 4 (July-August
Maes, Nicolaes, Idle Servant, 1655, London, National Gallery 1986)
Vermeer, Jan, Girl Asleep, circa 1657, New York, Del Canton, Giuseppina, "Redon e la melancolia," Artibus et
Metropolitan Museum of Art Historiae 14:7 (1986)
Rosa, Salvator, Democritus Deep in Thought, circa 1662, Chastel, Andre, "La Tentation de Saint Antoine ou le songe
Boston, Massachusetts, Museum of Fine Arts du melancolique," Gazette des Beaux-Arts 6:15 (April
Wright, Joseph of Derby, Democritus, 1770, Derby, 1936)
Derbyshire, England, Derby Art Gallery Cossa, Frank, "John Evelyn as Penitent Magdalen," Rutgers
Kauffmann, Angelica, Allegory of Composition, circa 1780, Art Review (January 1980)
London, Victoria and Albert Museum Couliano, loan, Eros and Magic in the Renaissance, Chicago
Wright, Joseph of Derby, Sir Brooke Boothby, 1781, London, and London: University of Chicago Press, 1984
Tate Gallery Cummings, Frederick, "Boothby, Rousseau, and the Romantic
Stuart, Gilbert, The Skater (Portrait of William Grant), 1782, Malady," Burlington Magazine CX:789 (December 1968)
Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art Fine, Amy M., "Portraits of Berthe Morisot: Manet's Modern
Goya, Francisco de, The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters, Images of Melancholy," Gazette des Beaux-Arts LX
Los Caprichos, etching, circa 1799 (July-August 1987)
Finlay, Karen, Terbrugghen: Melancholy, Toronto, Ontario:
Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries Art Gallery of Ontario, 1984
Charpentier, Constance, Melancholy, 1801, Amiens, France, Freud, Sigmund, "Mourning and Melancholy," in The
Musee de Picardie Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of
Gericault, Theodore, Raft of the Medusa, 18 19, Paris, Louvre Sigmund Freud, London: Hogarth Press, 1957
 MI.I.ANCHOLY 5'

Hauptman, William, "Manet's Portrait of Baudelaire," Art Reutersward, Patrik, "The Dog in the Humanist's Study,"
Quarterly 1:3 (1978) Konsthistorisk Tidskrift 50 (1981)
Heyd, Milly, "De Chirico: The Girl with the Hoop," Schiesari, Juliana, "The Gendering of Melancholia," in
Psychoanalytic Perspectives on Art 3 (1984) Refiguring Woman: Perspectives on Gender and the Italian
Hults, Linda C, "Baldung's Bewitched Groom Revisited: Renaissance, edited by Marilyn Migiel and Juliana
Artistic Temperament, Fantasy and the Dream of Reason," Schiesari, Ithaca, New York, and London: Cornell
Sixteenth Century Journal 14:3 (1984) University Press, 1991
Klibansky, Raymond, Erwin Panofsky, and Fritz Saxl, Saturn Schuster, Peter-Klaus, Melencolia I: Oliver's Denkhild, Berlin:
and Melancholy: Studies in the History of Natural Mann, 1991
Philosophy, Religion and Art, New York: Basic, 1964 Sohm, Philip L., "Diirer's Melencolia I: the Limits of
Meyenburg, Bettina von, "Lukas Cranach's Melankoli," Knowledge," Studies in the History of Art 9 (1980)
Kunstmuseets Arsskrift 69 (1991)
Spector, Jack, "An Interpretation of Delacroix's Michelangelo
Milantoni, Gabriello, "Quale Melanconia?," Artihus et
in his Study," Psychoanalytic Perspectives on Art I

Historiae 2. (1980)
(1985)
Moffitt,John F, "Observations on the Poet by Ribera,"
Strong, Roy, "The Elizabethan Malady: Melancholy in
Paragone XXIX:337 (March 1978)
Elizabethan and Jacobean Portraiture," Apollo 70
"Painters 'Born Under Saturn': The Psychological
,

(1964)
Explanation," Art History 11:2 (June 1988)
"Who is 'The Man in a Golden Helmet'?," Art
Tinkle, Theresa, "Saturn of the Several Faces: A Survey of the
,

Medieval Mythographic Traditions," Viator: Medieval and

Bulletin LXVL3 (September 1984)
Nordstriim, Folke, Goya, Saturn and Melancholy: Studies in
Renaissance Studies 18 (1987)

the Art ofGoya, Stockholm, Sweden: Almquist and Wittkower, Rudolph, and Margo Wittkower, Born Under
Wiksell,1962 Saturn: The Character and Conduct of Artists, New York:
Pearson, Andrea G., "Gilbert Stuart's The Skater, and Henry Random House, 1963; London: Widenfeld and Nicolson,
Raeburn's The Reverend Robert Walker skating on 1963
Duddington Loch: A Study of Sources," Rutgers Art Yates, Frances A., The Occult Philosophy in the Elizabethan
Review VIII (1987) Age, London: Routledge and K. Paul, 1985
 55
METAMORPHOSIS
Alicia Craig Faxon

The following iconographic narratives, cultures, and motifs are covered in the discussion of the theme
Metamorphosis:

ACTAEON NARCISSUS AFRICAN

APOLLO AND DAPHNE CORAL NATIVE AMERICAN
FLORA ALCHEMY ABSTRACTION
GALATEA AND PYGMALION THE TRANSFIGURATION SYMBOLIC

591
592 Ml I VMORPHOSIS

The Pan Painter, Artemis Shooting Actaeon, Attic red-figure krater, side A, circa 470 B.C. James Fund and
Special Contribution, Boston, Museum of Fine Arts. (Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston)
 METAMORl'HOMS 593

he primary definition of metamorphosis is a change of Diana and daughter of the river god Peneius, was pursued by
JL form, shape, structure, or substance or the form resulting Apollo. When her strength was failing, she called to her father

from such a change. Secondary meanings can be more general, to save her and was transformed into a laurel tree. The moment
referring to a marked or complete change of character, appear- of metamorphosis is depicted in Gian Lorenzo Bernini's virtu-

ance, or condition. In biology, metamorphosis is defined as a oso sculpture (1622-1625) in the Borghese Gallery in Rome in

change of form, structure, or function as a result of develop-
ment, especially as in the maturation of animal, insect, or plant
life; in medicine, a morbid change of form in tissue; and in
chemistry, a change causing decomposition. Transmutation is
an ascending metamorphosis, as toward a deity. In alchemy,
this transmutation goes through ascending stages, both physi-
callyand philosophically and both as an endeavor to make gold
and as a symbol of salvation.
According to mythologist Joseph Campbell, the most ancient
account of metamorphosis is the Sumerian myth of Inanna's
descent to the underworld, when she was forced to give up part
of her queenly regalia, jewels, and clothing at each of the seven
gates leading to the underworld, arriving there stark naked.
In classical times, although there are references to metamor-
phosis in Homer's Iliad and Odyssey (such as Circe's transfor-
mation of Odysseus's men into pigs), the real encyclopedia of
changes is Ovid's Metamorphoses, written by Publius Ovidius
Naso, who was born in Sulmone, Italy, in 43 B.C. and died in
exile in a.d. 17. It details three major types of transformations:
those of punishment or revenge; those occasioned by love, espe-
cially the love of agod for a mortal; and those that describe the
metamorphoses of mortals into flower forms.
The metamorphoses of punishment include those of
Arachne, Actaeon, and Tiresias, the most dramatic being that
of Actaeon. Actaeon was a hunter who came upon the goddess
of the hunt, Diana (Artemis in Greece), and her nymphs
bathing. In punishment, Diana turned Actaeon into a stag that
was eaten by his own hunting dogs (Ovid, Metamorphoses,
book III, 11. 141-250). The punishment of Actaeon was shown
as early as 460 B.C. on a red-figure Greek krater by the Pan
Painter in which the hounds are devouring the fallen hunter as
the standing goddess on the left aims an arrow at him. Here the
action is extremely vivid, the dying Actaeon's hand raised in
extremis or imploration. Diana is shown fully clothed and
armed in her character of huntress goddess. The moral is quite
clear: Not only do not look at nude goddesses, but especially
do not cause the wrath of an immortal (either a god or a god-
dess). This transformation scene was popular with later artists
such as Titian (whose painting of Actaeon's fate now resides in
the National Gallery in London), Joachim Antonisz Wtewael,
and Francesco Albani. This scene also inspired many portray-
als in Greek vase painting and relief sculpture.
The second type of metamorphosis, that resulting from love,
has one of its most dramatic portrayals in Ovid's story of
Apollo, the god of sunlight, and Daphne. Daphne, a nymph of
which the staticform of the Apollo Belvedere is transformed
into the eagerly pursuing god and the form of Daphne shown
visibly changing, her toes beginning to grow roots, bark enclos-
ing her body, and her hair and arms turning into leaves and
branches. This scene is also shown in paintings by Antonio del
Pollaiuolo in the National Gallery in London and by Paolo
Veronese in the Philadelphia Museum of Art in Pennsylvania
(among others). This could have been the one described by
John Keats in Ode on a Grecian Urn (11. 5-10):
What leaf-fringed legend haunts about the shape
Of deities or mortals, of both,
In Tempe or the dales of Arcady?
What men or gods are these? What maidens loth?
What mad pursuit? What struggles to escape?
What pipes and timbrels? What wild ecstasy?
The third type ofmetamorphosis detailed by Ovid is the change
of mortals into flowers. These transformation scenes were
summed up by Nicolas Poussin in his painting The Realm of
Flora (1630-163 1) in the Gemaldegalerie in Dresden,
Germany, in which he shows Clytie, who became a sunflower,
gazing at Apollo in the sky; the lovers Smilax and Crocus; Ajax
falling on his sword to become a larkspur; Hyacinth turned
into that flower; Adonis transformed into an anemone at his
death by a boar; and Narcissus gazing at his image in the water.
It is interesting to note that the first image of self-reflection was
a male, not a female, although a mirror in later iconography
became an image of female vanity.
Another type of metamorphosis in Ovid can be seen as a
result of love but may equally stand for the transformation
wrought by art. This is the myth of Pygmalion and Galatea, in
which the sculptor Pygmalion falls in love with the statue of a
perfect woman he has created, and Venus brings the statue to
life in answer to the sculptor's prayers. There are many versions
of this scene, including Pygmalion and Galatea (1890) by Jean-
Leon Gerome in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York
and the Pygmalion Cycle (1878) by Edward Coley Bume-Jones
in the Birmingham City Art Gallery in England. Perhaps most
amusing is that by Honore Daumier in his Histoirc Ancienne
lithographs in he Charivari (December 28, 1842), in which
Galatea leans over from her pedestal before the astonished
sculptor with the following verse appended:
Oh, triumph of the arts, what surprise.
Great sculptor, when you saw your marble come to life
59-4 Ml I WIOKI'I IOSIS

And with chaste, sweel air, slowly bend down From the Middle Ages through the nineteenth century,
lo ,isk you "for .1 pin< h ol sunt I alchemists attempted to transmute base metals into gold and
silver. Man) illustrations document then efforts to effect this
rhe most common
metamorphosis ol Galatea form oi the
transformation. I he alchemist is depicted as a scholar, priest,
shows hei .11 [lie momenl the marble statue comes to life, .is in
or philosopher delving into the world's secrets; as a magician or
Genome's work in New York. In Burne [ones's series on the
sorcerer, perhaps in league with the devil; or, especially in seA
Pygmalion and * ialatea story, four panels depic the sculptor in I

enteenth-century Netherlandish paintings, as a charlatan or

deep thought; the s( ulptoi 's pei fee mai ble reation in the stal
someone who, attempting to find gold, discovers some other
1 >.

ue ol Galatea on the right; Galatea turning to flesh embraced

element. A host oi illuminated alchemical manuscripts and
bj the goddess Venus, in green, who is granting the sculptor's hooks, such as that has Ashmolr, the founder
by 1 oi the
wish thai the statue be brought to and the clothed sculptor
life;
Ashmolean Museum ot Oxford University in England, reveal
kneeling on the right, holding the hands ol the now human the secrets oi the art. In addition, paintings, such as that by
Galatea, standing to the left.
Giovanni Stradano in the Studiolo ol Francesco I de' Medici in
rhe Pygmalion myth has also appeared in literature, most
the Palazzo Vecchio, document the alchemists' laboratory.
notabl) m
George Bernard Shaw's plaj Pygmalh \n (19 12), the
Pieter Bruegel the Elder and David leniers give a satirical view
storj ol cockney flowei seller's transformation into
.1 lady. .1
ol the alchemist, whereas [oseph Wright oi Derb) depicts an
I his can also be seen .is an allegoi y ol the power oi art to trans
alchemist's discovery ol phosphorus, .uul W'cnzel von bro/ik
form both matter and us viewers. depiets royal attendance at an alchemist's demonstration.
Myths and legends are often used to explain natural phe A major Christian example of metamorphosis is the
nomena, man) ol which, as in the case ol coral, involve magi Matthew i~:i-d ,\m.\ Mark
transfiguration, which occurs in
cal transformations. As Perseus returns from Ins triumph over
episode in the Gospels, Jesus
9:2.-4. In this hnst goes up on a I.

the Gorgons, bearing the decapitated but still dangerous head

mountain with his disciples "and was transfigured before them:
ol the Medusa, Ins attention is caught by the sight ot the naked
and his lace did shine as the sun, and his raiment was white as
\ihIioiih\I.i hound 10 rook. Swooping down to rescue her .1
the light" (Matthew [7:2). Paintings ot the Transfiguration
from the dragon that menaces her, he carefully places the
shown ol (.hnst standing
usually the figure in the center,
Medusa head onto .1 rock, rhe head's mysterious power meta
between the prophets Moses and Elijah, with the apostles Peter,
morphoses the seaweed surrounding it into coral. he story is
James, and John shown recumbent or kneeling on the ground
I

told h\Ox id:

before them, as in Giovanni Bellini's The Transfiguration of

. . . lest the snake girt head

Christ (late [480s) in Naples, ltalv. Sometimes, as in Raphael's

Be bruised on the hard shingle, [Perseus] made The Transfiguration of Christ (1517), the figure ot Christ
.1 bed
Ol leaves and spread the soti weed ol the sim between Moses and Elijah is shown centrally but raised up in
the air while the recumbent disciples shade their eves from the
Above, and on placed Medusa's head. it

brilliant vision.
I he fresh seaweed, with living spong) cells,
Absorbed the Gorgon's powei and .11 us touch Another biblical example ol metamorphosis can be round in

1 Corinthians (15:42—49), where Paul describes the change ol

Ilardened, us fronds and branches stitl and strange.
the mortal bodv into an immortal soul:
rhe sim nymphs tried the magic on more weed
Vnd found to their delight h worked the same, So also is the resurrection ot the dead. It is sown in cor-

And sowed the changeling seeds back on the waves. ruption; it is raised in incorruption: It is sown in dishon-
Coral still keeps th.tt nature; in the air or; it is raised in glory; it is sown in weakness; u is raised
It hardens what beneath the se.i h.is grown in power: It is sown a natural body; it is raised a spiritu-
\ swaying plant, above it, turns to stone al bodv. (I Corinthians [5:42—44)
(Ovid, \Aetamorphoses, 741-754)
In Japanese mythology, metamorphosis usuallv involves ani-
^ lioi gio Vasai i's Perseus Freeing Andromeda, painted 570 in 1
mals taking human form tor some purpose. The plots ot these
for the Studiolo oi Francesco 1 de' Medici in the Palazzo Vecchio Stories often revolve around marriage between humans and
m Florence, Italy, depicts the metamorphosis oi coral, The paint- animals m human form, such as the storv ot a man who saved
ing presents themain features oi the narrative, \s the no longei the lite ot a crane, whereupon the bird turned into a beautiful
threatening dragon expires in the background, the hero, Perseus, woman, whom he married.
with the reins ol Pegasus tied to his girdle .\n>.\ the magic minor Metamorphosis m traditional African cultures usually
at his ti-e(. lues the naked Andromeda. Sin.- looks with trepida- occurs in and dances during which the participants wear
rites

tion at the ugl) Gorgon's head at her feet as blood from it turns masks. These groups believe that the wearer ot the mask is
the seaweed into branches oi coral, I he sea nymphs sport with transformed into the character that the mask represents, be it
tins magical metamorphosis, showing the branches oi coral to an animal or a deity. or example, the masked lion dancer
1

each other, was legend that attracted other artists, including

It .1 becomes a lion in the ceremony, and the wearer ot the chiwara
(..mho Romano and later Nicolas Poussin .wd Claude orraine. 1 mask among the bapendc becomes an antelope in the fertility
Lorraine's View with Perseus .i/ui the Origin of
( oast oral ( dance. African an is especially rich in these personifications
(circa 1673) "' England in the Earl oi Leicester Collection in represented b) masks, from spirits ot the k.\c.\^\ to expressive
Holkham Mall shows Perseus washing his hands wink- the sea delineations ot animals and buds. A similar metamorphosis
nymphs dance near the Medusa head. also occurred among Native American tribes, especially those
 METAMORPHOSIS 595

of the northwest coast, where the shaman became the charac- Flora
ter represented by his mask. The Realm of Flora,
Poussin, Nicolas, oil, 1630-1631,
In twentieth-century metamorphoses are usually not
art, Dresden, Germany, Gemaldegalerie
religious or mythological. Some comment whimsically on the Wit, Jacob de, Apotheosis of Flora, ceiling painting,
mechanization of forms, as in Raymond Duchamp-Villon's 1743-1744, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art
bronze sculpture The Great Horse (19 14), in which the horse
has become an engine with only a hoof, reminding us of the ori- Galatea and Pygmalion
gin of "horsepower." Umberto Boccioni's sculpture Unique Bronzino, Agnolo, Pygmalion and Galatea, circa 1 529-1530,
Forms of Continuity in Space (1913) shows the striding figure Florence, Italy, Palazzo Vecchio
of a man whose head has been transformed into a mechanical Le Moyne, Francois, Pygmalion and Galatea, 1729, Tours,
helmet, reminiscent of a modern train engine, and whose legs France, Musee des Beaux-Arts
displace the air in winglike projections. Daumier, Honore, Pygmalion and Galatea, lithograph, Le
For Remedios Varo, the transformations are tongue-in- Charivari, December 28, 1842
cheek and surrealistic, as in her painting Mimesis (i960), in Burne-Jones, Edward Coley, Pygmalion Cycle, oil, 1878,
which the woman seated in a chair is beginning to assume the Birmingham, England, City Art Gallery
characteristics of the chair itself, with upholstered face, carved Gerome, Jean-Leon, Pygmalion and Galatea, 1890, New
clay hands, and wooden feet, or in Still Life Reviving (1963), in York, Metropolitan Museum of Art
which fruit that had been on plates on a table are now orbiting Delvaux, Paul, Pygmalion, oil on wood, 1939, Brussels,
in space around a central candle. For Varo, the context of meta- Belgium, Musees Royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique
morphosis seems to comment wryly on the unexpectedness of
life and to mock its established categories. Narcissus
Dali, Salvador, Metamorphosis of Narcissus, oil on canvas,
1938, London, Tate Gallery
See also Apotheosis/Deification; Humors; Masks/Personae;
Witchcraft/Sorcery
Coral
Vasari, Giorgio, Perseus Freeing Andromeda, 1570, Florence,
Italy, Palazzo Vecchio, Studiolo of Francesco I de' Medici
Lorraine, Claude, Coast View with Perseus and the Origin of
Selected Works of Art
Coral, circa 1673, Holkham Hall, England, Earl of
Actaeon Leicester Collection
The Pan Painter, Artemis Shooting Actaeon, Attic red-figure
krater, 470 B.C., Boston, Massachusetts, Museum of Fine Alchemy
Arts Ashmole, Elias, Four Astrological Schemes for the Alchemic
Veronese, Paolo, Metamorphosis of Actaeon, circa 1560, Operations, from Theatrium Chemicum Britannicum,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Museum of Art 1652, London
Titian, Death of Actaeon, oil, mid- 15 60s, London, National Stradano, Giovanni, The Alchemist's Laboratory, 1 570-1 575,
Gallery Florence, Italy, Palazzo Vecchio, Studiolo of Francesco I

Masson, Andre, Actaeon Eaten by His Dogs, 1945, de' Medici

Mannheim, Germany, Stadtische Kunsthalle Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, The Alchemist, drawing, sixteenth
Staley, Earl, Story of Actaeon I and II, pair of paintings, century, Berlin, Staatliche Museen
1977, New York, Chase Manhattan Bank Collection Teniers, David, The Pleasure of Fools, seventeenth century,
engraving after
Apollo and Daphne Teniers, David, The Chemist, His Assistants, and a Prayer,
Bernini, Gian Lorenzo, Apollo and Daphne, marble, seventeenth century, engraving after
1622-1625, Rome, Borghese Gallery Teniers, David, Chemist Blowing His Fire, seventeenth
Poussin, Nicolas, Apollo and Daphne, seventeenth century, century, engraving after
Munich, Germany, Alte Pinakothek Wright, Joseph, of Derby, The Alchymist, in Search of the
Neck, Jan van, Daphne Changed into a Laurel Tree, 1677, Successful Conclusion of his Operation, as was the
Montreal, Quebec, Art Gallery Custom of the Ancient Chymical Astrologers, oil on
Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista, Apollo Pursuing Daphne, oil on canvas, 1771, Derby, Derbyshire, Art Gallery
canvas, circa 1755-1760, Washington, D.C., National Brozik, Wenzel von, Rodolphe II Assisting in a
Gallery of Art Transmutation, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Fischer
Caresme, Philippe, Metamorphosis of Daphne, before 1796, Collection
Toulouse, France, Musee des Augustins
Chirico, Giorgio de, Apollo and Daphne, 1939, Milan, The Transfiguration
Romano Gazzera Collection Duccio, The Transfiguration, oil on panel, circa 1308-13 11,
Dali, Salvador, Daphne, painting in jeweled setting on London, National Gallery
petrified wood, 1966, New York, Owen Cheatham Bellini, Giovanni, The Transfiguration of Christ, oil, late

Foundation 1480s, Naples, Italy, Capidimonte Museum

596 Ml I WIOKI'MOSIS

Raphael, The Transfiguration of Christ, oil, [517, Vatican, Hind, Stephen, The Metamorphosis of Persephone: Ovid and
Vatican Museums the Self-Conscious Muse, Cambridge and New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1987
, \//7i .(// Jung, Carl Gustav, Man and His Symbols, Garden City, New
Bambara Tribe, Chiwara Antelope Mask, wood, Baltimore, York: Doubleday, r.964; London: Aldus, 1964
Maryland, Museum of Art Kaplan, Janet, Unexpected Journeys: The Art and Life of
Balumbo Tribe, Female Ghost, wood, Washington, D.C., Remedios Varo, New York: Abbeville Press, 1988
Museum of African Art King, Catherine, "The Liturgical and Commemorative
Allusions in Raphael's Transfiguration," Journal of the
Ncitwe American Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 45 (1982)
Tlingit Tribe, Chilkat, Octopus Mask, wood, nineteenth Klossowski de Rola, Stanislas, Alchemy:,The Secret Art,
century, Berlin, Museum fur Volkerkunde London and New York: Thames and Hudson, 1973
,The Golden Game: Alchemical Engravings of the
Abstraction Seventeenth Century, New York: Braziller, 1988
Duchamp, Marcel, The Bride, oil, 1912, Philadelphia, Lennep, Jan van, Art et Alchimie, Brussels, Belgium: Editions
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Museum of Art Meddens
Boccioni, Umberto, Unique Forms of Continuity in Space, Lichtenstern, Christa, Die Wirkungsgeschichte der
bronze, 191 3, New York, Museum of Modern Art Metamorphosenlehre Goethe: von Philipp Otto Runge bis
Duchamp-Villon, Raymond, The Great Horse, bronze, 1914, Joseph Bettys, Weiheim, Germany: VCH, 1990
New York, Museum of Modern Art The Metamorphosis of Baubo: Myths of
Lubell, Winifred,
Women's Sexual Energy, Nashville, Tennessee: Vanderbilt
Symbolic University Press, 1994
Varo, Remedios, Mimesis, oil, i960, private collection Malraux, Andre, The Metamorphosis of the Gods, translated
Varo, Remedios, Still Life Reviving, oil, 1963, Spain, private by Stuart Gilbert, Garden City, New York: Doubleday,
collection
i960; London: Seeker and Warburg, i960
Martindale, Charles, editor, Ovid Renewed: Ovidian
Influences on Literature and Art from the Middle Ages to
Further Reading the Twentieth Century, Cambridge and New York:
Barkan, Leonard K., The Gods Made
Metamorphosis Flesh: Cambridge University Press, 1988
and New
Haven, Connecticut,
the Pursuit of Paganism, Mitchell, Breon, editor, Metamorphosis and the Arts,
and London: Yale University Press, 1986 Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1979
Campbell, Joseph, The Hero with a Thousand Faces, Ovid, Metamorphoses, translated by Mary M. Innes,
Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1949; Baltimore, Maryland, and Harmondsworth, England:
London: Fontana, 1949 Penguin, 1981
Cohen, Kathleen, Metamorphosis of a Death Symbol, Seznec, Jean, The Survival of the Pagan Gods, Princeton, New
Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1990 Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1972
Forbes, Irving, Metamorphosis in Greek Myth, New York: Truax, Elizabeth, Metamorphosis in Shakespeare's Plays,
Oxford University Press, 1990 Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1992
 >1
mirror/reflection
Elaine Shefer

The following motifs and periods are covered in the discussion of the theme Mirror/Reflection:

MIRROR AS AID TO THE MIRROR AS DOCUMENT SEVENTEENTH AND

ARTIST EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES
MIRRORS AS DIVINATION
mirror as
RENAISSANCE
NINETEENTH CENTURY
illusion/reflection
TWENTIETH CENTURY
VANITY

597
598 MIRROR / Rl-H.l CTION

Parmigianino, Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror, 15 14, painting, Vienna, Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum.
(Courtesy of the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria, Archivphoto)
 MIRROR / REFLECTION 599

E very mirror
something it
is false because
has not witnessed.
it repeats mirror held up to nature. The vision of a true
complicated than mere reflection, however. Leonardo was well
aware of and worried about the artist who found himself
this
artist is more

The mirror has a great deal in common with art. Like art, it is
or herself of no choice, who was only concerned
in a situation
an artifice. When you hold a mirror up to reality, you do not
with the problem of total absorption. At another point in his
see reality but instead see the illusion of reality as it is reflected
writings, Leonardo warned the artist:
on a two-dimensional surface. In this sense, a mirror is much
like the two-dimensional surface of a painted canvas. And like The painter who draws merely by practice and by eye,
art, the mirror is full of contradictions. Although it purports to without any reason, is like a mirror which copies every-
reflect reality, it always reverses its image and cannot, at any thing placed in front of it, without being conscious of
given time, show all sides of physical existence. Despite all of their existence. (Leonardo da Vinci, Notebooks, 1:18,
its limitations, the mirror allows us to confront our physical par. 20)

and spiritual selves, and some might say this is the same basic,
Leonardo urged the artist to be selective, and in this sense he
underlying principle of art.
called attention to the basic difference between mirror and
artist: the mirror can only reflect the world, while the artist
Mirror as Aid to the Artist must always invent a new one.

Mirrors have a long history as studio props that assist artists in The painter should be solitary and consider what he sees,
their work. In addition to helping the artist to define dimen- discussing it with himself, selecting the most excellent
sion, space, and perspective (Albrecht Diirer did several works parts of the appearance of what he sees, acting as the
illustrating this point), the mirror has allowed artists to execute mirror which transmutes itself into as many colors as
self-portraits. According to Pliny the Younger, Lala of Kyzikos exist in the things placed before it. And if he does this he
painted a portrait of herself with the help of a mirror; and in a will be like a second nature. (Leonardo da Vinci,
French illuminated manuscript (1402) of Giovanni Boccaccio's Treatise, 2:49, par. 72)
De claris mulieribus (Concerning Famous Women), there is a
Artists like Parmigianino directly explored the properties of
miniature of the nun Marcia painting her own portrait with the
the mirror. According to Giorgio Vasari, Parmigianino's Self-
aid of a mirror. One copy of this manuscript was purchased for
Christine de Pisan, who noted that "Marcia created a realistic Portrait in a Convex Mirror (1524) was painted with the help
of a convex mirror "such as is used by barbers" (Hartt, p. 516).
portrait of herself by looking at herself in a mirror in order that
her memory survive her" (Christine de Pisan, The Book of the The painting, executed on a spherical or parabolic panel seg-

City of Ladies, p. 85: bk. 1.41.3).

ment, shows how people in the sixteenth century appeared to
themselves as they faced a mirror; most mirrors of this period
The scientific study of the mirror and its usefulness to the
were blown, convex, and spherical in shape. Parmigianino did
artist originated in sixteenth-century Italy. Leon Battista
not use the mirror as an aid to observation in creating his self-
Alberti, who believed that Narcissus was the real inventor of
portrait; he didn't filter out distortions. Instead, he seems to
painting, claimed that "things taken from nature are corrected
have substituted his painting for the mirror itself, even using a
with a mirror" (Alberti, p. 83). Leonardo da Vinci exclaimed
specially prepared convex panel. It's possible that Parmigianino
that "the mirror, above all, the mirror, should be your teacher"
(Leonardo, p. 160). Leonardo recommended the mirror as a
meant to prove that there is no single "correct" reality, that dis-
tortion is as natural as the normal appearance of a thing. In this
model for an art that strove to reach a total reflection:
sense, it is not always a simple matter to interpret mirrored
The painter's mind should be like a mirror, which trans- reflections: reflections are not objects themselves, only partial
forms itself into the color of the thing that it has as its and commonly reversed representations of objects.
object, and is filled with as many likenesses as there are Jan Vermeer's The Music lesson (circa [662—1665) is
things placed before it. Therefore, painter, knowing that another example of an artist exploring the very nature of the
you cannot be good, if you are not a versatile master in mirror itself. In this work, a man is attendant on a woman, his
reproducing through your art all the kinds of forms that pupil, who is standing at a virginal. On the wall behind her. a
nature produces —which you will not know how to do if mirror reflects part of the room and the woman's face, w hich is

you do not see and represent them in your mind. slightly turned. The mirror reminds the painting's viewers that
(Leonard da Vinci, Treatise, p. 48, par. 71) Vermeer, like any artist, is dealing only with partialities.

Leonardo believed that a successful artist should initially The "real" woman is visible only from the back; her face,

understand his or her sense of vision as a kind of unselective held 111 a different position, is reflected in the mirror; the
600 MIKKOK / KM I I ( I ION

picture on the wall is severely c ut b) the frame; the words ogy, may set' the glory of (iod only as 111 a mirror: dimly, never
inscribed or the virginal are hard to make oul . . . and directly.

are further interrupted In the figure of the worn. in. As Christianity spread throughout Western Europe, it made
(Alpers, p. t88) powerful figurative use of the mirror to disseminate its teach-
ings. Philosophers and theologians employed the mirror as a
Vermeer's The Musu I esson is an example <>l both the limit.
metaphor to strengthen the concept of God and ideality, puri-
nous and importance of art. 1 .ike the mirror, art can only reveal
ty,wisdom, morality, and self knowledge. Positive traits of the
partialities, yet both are powerful and constant reminders of
mirror began to be emphasized. Dante, in The Divine Comedy
our own existence.
(circa 1307-1321), wrote of an "inferior" mirror that obeyed

the natural law of reflection and a "superior" mirror that

Mirror os Illusion/Reflection
received the direct illumination of God (Torti, p. 27). The
"good" mirror was the speculum sine' macula, the "spotless"
Conjurers and magicians have long employed mirrors .is
mirror that came to symbolize the purity of the Virgin Mary.
devices ol illusion. With mirrors, n make objects is possible to This analogy was strengthened in the thirteenth century by
appear to be present when they are not and to make objects Jacobus de Voragine, who said the glass represented her virgin-
appear to be absent when they are not. l'rom the moment Alice ity because
Stepped through the looking glass and into Wonderland until
as the sun penetrates glass without violating it, so Mary
the moment she emerged, she found herself in a topsy-turvy
became mother without losing her virginity. Lead sym-
a
world of ambiguity, nonsense, and contradictions: a place
bolized her ductility, and the ashen color of the mirror
where one runs hard to stav in the same place, where one cries
signified hei humility, she is called a mirror because of
0U1 in pain .\nc\ bleeds before pricking a finger. And where one
her representation of things, for as all things are reflect-
remembers best the things that happen the week after next.
ed from a mirror, so in the blessed Virgin, as in the mir-
As artists, writers, .\\\t.\ theologians have made clear
ror of God, ought all to see their impurities and spots,
throughout the ages, the effects of the mirror can be either pos-
and purify them and correct them: for the proud, behold-
itive or negative. Negative stories abound from ancient history.
ing her humility see their blemishes, the avaricious see
Seneca, in describing the luxurious period of the Roman
theirs 111 her poverty, the lovers of pleasures, theirs in her
Empire, tells the tale of a rich man who surrounded himself
virginity. (Richardson, p. 66)
with full-length mirrors that were carved of gold and silver and
adorned w ith jewels: This mirror-as-metaphor theory, which prevailed in Europe
for more than 500 years, was reflected not only in religion,
1
had mirrors made of the type in which a finger
I le

exceeded the si/e and thickness of an arm. ... 1 will sur-

but also mand morality. Historically this concept con-
art —
tempt for the world of matter and belief in the liberation of the
round myself with mirrors, the type of which renders the
si/e of objects incredible. If it were possible, would I
soul through mystic revelation —
found its roots in the theories

make those si/es real; because not possible,

of the Neoplatonists, who revived Plato's theories in the fourth
it is 1 will
century a.d. Using the analogy of a chain of being, the
feast myself on the illusion. 1 et my lust see more than it
Neoplatonists explained the process of creation as one that
consumes and marvel at what it undergoes. (Strem,
emanated from God and worked its way down to the lowliest
Sena ./, p. ri i

creatures on earth. Figuratively speaking, God's image was

The mirror, m this sense, had the inherent properties of decep- reflected sequentially in a chain of mirrors: the first mirror was
tion and illusion — it could flatter, exaggerate, and distort -but — that of the creation of the human mind, the second the human
could never tell the truth. The mirror, the means by which a soul, and each subsequent reflection created life from its high-
person could see a reflection of the self, either materially or fig- est to lowest forms according to the degeneration of God's
uratively, remained mysterious, awesome, self-delusory, and reflection. Ibis analogy, because it conformed to Christian doc-
full of deceit. trine, was further disseminated through the writings of St.

In the time of Plato, the mirror's reflection was considered a Augustine, whose theoretical mirror analogies took the form of
poor mutation of a real thing. In The Republic, Plato sought to a mirror of the soul and a mirror of the mind. The mirror of the
distinguish between true forms and images, ultimate truth and soul held, according to St. Augustine, the image of the ideal or
illusion. I lis philosophy was based upon a belief in a pure idea archetypal idea. The mirror of the mind, on the other hand,
or high truth, an ideal that exists as a human being's ultimate was ambivalent: it reflected the shadow world of the senses and
goal, of which all physical existences are only imperfect copies led to additional mirrors that warned of the transience and illu-
(Guthrie, p. 95). The mirror, with its property of imperfect siveness of this world.
reflection, was the device with which he chose to convey this The dualism of the mirror was reinforced in the thirteenth-
concept. While the sun can't be seen directly by humans century theories of St. Bonaventura. w ho spoke of the mirror of
because it is blinding, Plato pointed out. it can be seen in the divinity, the mirror of creation, and the mirror of God, which
mirror, which reflects somewhat dimly and imperfectly. it were in opposition to the mirror of earthliness, which held
The Christian take on (his same concept was the Pauline material things that possessed no rational soul (Male, pp.
mirror, named alter Paul, who in \.i>. S4 addressed his disci- 23-27). By the end of the thirteenth century, a paradox had
ples: "For now we see through a glass, darkly" (I Corinthians developed in the figurative use of the mirror. The material
1 ;:i:L Paul reinterpreted this Platonic concept of reality as nature of the mirror (as a window into human frailties) con-
oulv pooi reflection of an ideal. Humankind, in Paul's theol-
.1 tradicted what came to be seen as its spiritual essence, or ideal
 MIRROR / REFLECTION 6oi

reality ithemirror looked at with the soul). A mirror's reflec- motifs appear in Hans Baldung Grien's Prudence
tion seemed to have a dual personality: the act of looking into Munich, Germany, as well as in a small Prudentia engraving in
the mirror and the physical object itself had gathered opposing the British Museum in London done by the Italian engraver
symbolic associations. Giovanni Battista Palumba known as Master I. B. with the
This was a very different mirror than was found in the Bird. The Latin inscription on weigh the pre-
this print reads: "I
Renaissance, when the artist was no longer anonymous. During sent and link the future with the past." The same motifs appear
the Renaissance, the perfect male form was considered the mir- in Piero Pollaiolo's Prudent 1.1 47c n which a woman holds
ror of the soul, a philosophy popular in Neoplatonist circles, a mirror in one hand and a serpent in her other. In the Tarocchi
especially in the ideas of Marsilio Ficino, who had translated engravings, as well as in the Prudence reliefs on the tombs of
Plato's writings. Neoplatonism sought to reconcile and com- Pope Sixtus IV and Pope Innocent Mil in St. Peter's in Rome,
bine the philosophy of the ancient Greeks (who also had con- the serpent takes the form of a little dragon.
sidered the perfect male nude as the ideal physical formi with Prudentia's most common symbols, the mirror, the bird, and
the beliefs of the Christian Church. Neoplatonists put great the serpent (sometimes in the form of a dragon survived until I,

emphasis on the subjective expression of the artist. Such per- the late nineteenth century. These symbols were known from
sonal expressions found their way into homoerotic male nude the Apocrypha and the Bible: "For she [Wisdom] is the . . .

artworks such as Donatello's David 14301 in the Museo

(circa unspotted mirror of the power of God, and the image of His
Nazionale in Florence, Italy; Leonardo da Vinci's St. John goodness" (Wisdom ~:z6), and "Behold, I send you forth as
the Baptist 1509-15161 in the Louvre in Paris;
(circa sheep in the midst of wolves: be ye therefore wise as serpents,
Michelangelo's circa 1530-1533) in the Palazzo
Victory, and harmless as doves" Matthew 10:16 .

Vecchio in Florence; Jacopo da Pontormo's Vertumnus and Given this established iconography, it is no wonder that
Pomona 1520-15 21) on the left side of the Poggio a Caiano
1 many penitents were portrayed with mirrors in their hands.
lunette in the Villa Medici; Agnolo Bronzino's Venus, Cupid, Famous examples include Mary Magdalen in paintings such as
Folly and Time 'circa 1 542-1 545) in the National Gallery in Georges de la Tour's La Madeleine au Miroir (before 16^1
London; and Caravaggio's Amore Vincitore 1 598-1 589) in the 1 the .Andre Fabius Collection and Charles Le Brun's Sainte
Staatliche Museum in Berlin. Madeleine before 1690) in the Louvre. The mirror of redemp-
I

While figurative use of the mirror in worship of the Virgin tion and purification was not the only one portrayed in the
was widespread during the twelfth century, it was not the only hands of women, however.
form the mirror took during the medieval period. Concepts of
gender roles remained substantially unchanged, but virginity
Vanitv
was now able to be exchanged for "truthfulness." This
exchange is apparent in Dante's description of Rachel and Leah When early humans viewed their reflections, they identified the
in his // purgatorio (XXVII from The Divine Comedy, in duplicate as their spiritual double, or soul. The soul was a sign
which Leah, symbol of the active life, looks into the mirror of immortality, but it was also a reminder of an impending bod-
while adorning herself with flowers, while Rachel, representing ily death (the soul leaving the bodyi. The folklore, superstition,
the contemplative life and recognizing truth, faces the mirror and custom that grew out of this idea greatly influenced the
continuously. It was this theme that Dante Gabriel Rossetti iconography of the mirror in literature and art.
depicted in the watercolor Vision of Rachel and Leah 1855) in ( Some tales told of covering mirrors or turning them to the
the Tate Gallery in London. In Rossetti's rendering, a fountain wall after a death in the family. There was a belief that a living
of water acts as the mirror into which Leah, working with ten- person's soul, in the form of a reflection in a mirror, could be
drils of honeysuckle, gazes, while Rachel, dressed in purple, a carried off by the ghost of the deceased, who was said to hover
color Rossetti associated with inactivity and death, stares con- around the house until burial. Some believed that persons who
tinuously into the water. Dante's verses read: are ill should have their mirrors covered. In times of illness,

when the soul is especially apt to take flight, there was thought
That I am Leah: for my brow to weave
to be a particular danger of its being ejected from the body by
A garland for these fair hands unwearied ply.
reflection.Other superstitions warned of looking into a mirror
To please me at the crustal mirror, here
in other people's homes. The consequence of breaking a mirror
I deck me. But my sister Rachel, she
was said to be a broken soul, or seven years bad luck. Such a
Before her glass abides the livelong day.
superstition may have derived from ancient times, when mir-
Her radiant eyes beholding, charm'd no less,
rors were so expensive that it often took seven years for an
Than I with this delightful task. Her joy
ordinary person to buy another.
In contemplation, as in labour mine.
The Greek myth of overgazing encapsulated many of these
purgatorio, Canto XXVII, lines 97-109)
//
superstitions —
individuals were advised that such an indul-
During the and
fifteenth century, in addition to virginity gence could cause death. In particular, the myth of Narcissus
truth, the mirror became linked to prudence and wisdom. In has become the primary source for the theme of vanitas I
vani-
the Tarocchi engravings (circa 1465) there are two faces: the ty in art. Narcissus, a beautiful Greek youth, was said to have
face of a bearded man looking back, symbolizing retrospection perceived his image as a real person, with whom he eventually
and experience, and the face of a young woman looking into a fell in love. He was devastated when he finally recognized the
mirror, symbolizing self-knowledge. In Lucca Delia Robbia's image as his own, yet he couldn't escape from the love it had
Prudentia, a woman holds a mirror in her right hand, while her aroused. He died and changed into a flower. The death of
left hand grasps a serpent, a symbol of wildness. These same Narcissus, it might be said, was caused by the frustration of an
602 MIKKOK / KI I II CI ION

inordinate love tor one's own mirror image. His death might "world." Furthermore, because it reflects the transitory and
also have been a punishment for an activity more typically delusive treasures that surround the husband, who is a gold-
associated with women: mirror gazing. Hundreds of Greek smith, the mirror may
be a symbol of vanity. A similar iconog-
caryatid mirrors from 600-430 B.C. have been studied and clas- raphy appears Quentin Massys's painting The Money
in

sified, and almost all of them have female figures for a handle Changer and His Wife (1514). Here Massys clearly contrasts
almost no male Greek supports are known (Congdon, plates the earthly activities of the money changer with the spiritual
1-97)- activities of his wife, who is preoccupied with the Virgin Mary
Works of art from the sixteenth century through the first and Christ Child, who appear in miniature on her open Livre
decade of the twentieth century especially those in which — d'Heures (Book of Hours). The wife also appears in a mirror as
women are portrayed gazing into mirrors represented women — an older woman who turns her face away from a church, paint-
almost exclusively as the object of the male spectator's pleasure. ed behind a closed window.
The Virgin was replaced by Venus. Nowhere can this be seen The ambiguity of the mirror's connotations remained a com-
better than in the paintings of Tintoretto and Titian, works that pelling attraction for artists. In Laux Furtenagel's double por-
ultimately became known under the general name of Venus at trait Hans Burgkmair and His Wife (1527), the mirror repre-

Her Toilette. sents not only Veritas (truth) and vanitas, but also prudentia
Susannah and the Elders (1550), viewers of
In Tintoretto's (prudence). Instead of reflecting the couple's faces, it reflects

group of elders as they spy on

the painting are asked to join a two skulls. The inscription what we looked
reads "This is

Susannah taking her bath. In another version of the same sub- like — in the mirror, however, nothing appeared but that." The
ject, in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, Austria, the mirror's frame reads "Know thyself," a mantra of self-knowl-
artist added a mirror, thus invoking the ancient Etruscan and edge, which, together with retrospection and foresight, are the
Greek associations between the mirror and Venus. By looking connotations of the mirror when in the hands of Prudence. It is

Susannah joins the spectators in admira-

at herself in a mirror, not surprising that, to this day, Furtenagel's double portrait has
tion of her own beauty. This painting was not unlike those of survived most popularly as a picture puzzle.
Titian, who depicted similar women under the guise of a Mirror imagery in the artwork of nineteenth-century
mythological context. These "toilette" paintings, with their England and France has proven equally as puzzling. Although
images of self-preoccupation, moralized about the vanity of mirror imagery continued to be gender-related in both England

women. The hypocrisy of this symbolism, however, has been and France, the significance of the mirror differed in the two
widely acknowledged only recently. A male artist likely painted countries. French associations with the mirror were more often
a naked woman because he enjoyed looking at her. Yet, when those of vanity, whereas English paintings, in their more reli-
he placed a mirror in her hand and called the painting Vanity, gious-moralistic leanings, were more concerned with the mirror
he would morally condemn the woman for regarding the very as a document.
form he had depicted for his own pleasure. French associations with the mirror may in part be
In another sense, mirrors in these paintings helped to explained by the role the mirror had played prior to the nine-
uphold the status quo, as they assured viewers that women teenth century. Although mirrors were still imported from
conceived of themselves, first and foremost, as a "sight." Venice, Italy, in the seventeenth century, Venetian workers
(Berger, p. 51). Although this type of painting was very popu- brought their secrets to France, where Jean-Baptiste Colbert
lar in the eighteenth century, during which time the subjects started a mirror-making establishment in Paris in 1665. In
were often mistresses of French kings, they had been con- keeping with the luxurious tastes of the late seventeenth and
demned in the sixteenth century for signifying two of the dead- early eighteenth centuries, the huge mirror galleries of the
ly sins: superbia (pride), and luxuria (lust). An example is palace at Versailles, for example, made walls seem to dissolve.
Pieter Bruegel the Elder's engraving Superbia (before 1569) in The mirror was a reflection, both materially and figuratively, of
the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, which por- the wealth and passions of this period. These eighteenth-centu-
trays an elaborately dressed woman looking conceitedly into a ry mirrors call to mind Seneca's tale of the Roman who
mirror while accompanied by a peacock, an emblem of the exclaimed, "I will feast myself on the illusion."
deadly sin of pride. Hieronymus Bosch's Superbia (before Although the general French joie de vivre was periodically
1 5 16) in the Prado in Madrid, Spain, makes an even stronger interrupted by events such as the Franco-Prussian War and the
implication: the mirror that reflects the face of the woman is Commune, such had little bearing on nineteenth-cen-
realities
held by a devilish creature, who mockingly wears the same tury art. Artists continued to produce paintings of how they
headdress as she. thought the middle-class wished to see itself. Edouard Manet's
The mirror as a symbol of vanity did extend beyond por- paintings are both an example and a critique of this phenom-
trayals of women, particularly in some fifteenth-century enon. A case in point in Nana (1876), from Emile Zola's novel
Flemish paintings. In a figurative sense, the convex glass used of the same name. Nana stands in Manet's painting before the
by Petrus Christus in his St. Eligius and the Lovers (1440) gave perennial mirror while a gentleman caller, barely perceptible at
the artist an opportunity to exhibit his scientific virtuosity: the the periphery of the painting, waits for her. However, the
mirror simulates, on a small curved surface, a greater space image of Nana, based on Titian's Venus at Her Toilette, is
than that in which the couple actually sit. Beyond a mere called into question here. Nana does not stare into the mirror
painterly exercise, the mirror exists here as a metaphysical but looks confidently out at the audience. Standing in her
statement. It reflects the couple in the outside world, alludes to undergarments, in a recognizable Parisian ambiance, she
the bride's virginity (she appears to be holding a bird, a classic makes no pretense to disguise who she is or, as the waiting
symbol of virginity), and alludes to the evanescent image of the gentleman signifies, what she does for a living. As an object of
 MIRROR / REFLECTION 603

beauty, a sight to be enjoyed, she is identified by her profes- dance for the mirror rather than the audience. Or a dancer may
sion: the selling of services. Her services begin and end with become too critical of him or herself. In either case, narcissism

her exterior, her appearance. In this way Manet reminds us of might destroy the dance. Yet, for the dancer, as for the painter,
the dangers of the vanity theme, not only as it connects to a the mirror is an aid. It is the only "real-time" reflection a
historical significance, but also as it relates to a middle-class dancer has to improve his or her technical line.
audience: while they might enjoy this painting, they are at the Although narcissism is as inherent in women's imagery as it
same time held responsible for its subject. As vanity, it does is Degas does not emphasize the point. Mirrors are
in ballet,

not criticize Zola's lower-class heroine, who has become such present in his paintings primarily because they're typically pre-
a popular type in middle-class Parisian life, but the middle- sent in ballet classrooms, a favorite subject of his. One such
which allowed this lower-class
class itself, girl to become the example is Ballet Class (1 878-1 890), in which three dancers
courtesan of the Second Empire. are absorbed in working out their poses. Not only have they
In keeping with Manet's propensity to base his paintings on positioned themselves against the mirror, to which they have
—
well-known masterpieces such as his Dejeuner sur I'berbe turned their backs, they don't even look at the ballet master,
(1863) and the Olympia (1863) Nana could be linked to— who is opposite them. In Degas's two versions of Monsieur
vanity paintings of the past such as Jan van Eyck's Woman at Perrot's Dance Class (1 875-1 876), the mirror, seen behind the
Her Toilette (fifteenth century) in the Fogg Art Museum of dancers again, reflects the Parisian landscape outside. Even
Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Like when there is no mirror present, as in The Rehearsal (1879), it

Manet's Nana, the sight of the woman in van Eyck's painting is still apparent that the dancers Degas portrayed are looking
seems to be present expressly for the enjoyment of the male. In into one. In this painting, three dancers, plus the leg of a fourth,
Nana the man sits to the extreme left of the painting, while in are working out an adagio, their legs held in the difficult a la
Woman at Her Toilette his presence is symbolized by his shoes, seconde position in the air. The emphasis here
is on hard work,

which are also positioned to the left of the painting, within unified performance, and musicality, symbolized by the violin-
view of the spectator. ist in the foreground and the repetitive rhythms of the three

Consistent with this reading would be Manet's Bar at the windows behind them. Although these girls were subjected to
Folies-Bergere (1881-1882), which again brings together a the attention of the abonnees, the gentlemen who had yearly
young girl —probably from the lower class, according to her subscriptions to the ballet, and although ballet is a spectacle to
profession — and mirror, which occupies
a the entire back- be "looked at" just as women have been "looked at" in

ground of the painting. This unusually large mirror reflects a Western art, Degas downplays the point in these classroom
world of sociability and diversion in which the girl does not scenes. In these paintings, the mirror functions as a witness,
partake. The role she does play is oddly reflected in part of the and one senses Degas's sympathy and fascination with this
mirror to her left. A
gentleman can be seen talking or flirting group of hardworking, lower-class girls.
with her, a reflection of what one might expect to see facing a
woman of her occupation (service). While it is apparent that
Mirror as Document
her job is to assist in providing a "good time" for the middle
class, it is also apparent, as reflected in the mirror, that she also In English painting, mirror imagery functioned both as docu-
has to be ready to satisfy the peculiar whims of her male clients. mentary and prophecy. In the former sense, the English were
Interestingly, the reflection of the woman and the gentleman in inspired by paintings such as Jan van Eyck's Arnolfim Wedding
the mirror has nothing to do with the young girl herself, who (Portrait of Giovanni Arnolfini and Giovanna Cenami) (1434).
is rigidly and symmetrically posed in the center of the painting, Van Eyck's portrait is well known for its careful portrayal of
gazing at the spectator with extreme ennui. Manet seems to the interior, nuptial chamber of a Flemish home, in which every
destroy the expected formula of Venus —the woman looking detail can be read as having symbolic implications: the chande-
into a mirror as the sexual object of man's enjoyment — by hav- lier symbol of the Virgin; its one burning candle, the "mar-
as
ing her turn her back to the mirror. Is that reflection, for riage candle," as a symbol of the presence of the deity and the
Manet, a critique of the historical male-spectator/female-sub- all-seeing wisdom of God; the little carved sculpture of St.
ject in Western art? Is it a criticism of the way we expect this Margaret triumphing over the dragon that crowns one post of
woman to function, both in relation to her profession and to the armchair as the image of the patron saint of women in
the mirror? Or is Manet, by including the mirror and what we expectation of a child; the dog at the feet of the couple as a
see in it, still treating women as a "sight"? The artist, like the symbol of fidelity; and the unusual inscription on the wall,
mirror itself, is ambivalent. He seems to be reinforcing Plato's Johannes de Eyck fuit hie (Johannes de Eyck was here), as not
contention that the mirror is, after all, an inferior copy, a poor just an ordinary signature, but the testimonial of a witness to a
reflection of reality. marriage (Baldass, p. 75).
Manet, in this sense, appropriates the function of the mirror. The painting includes a convex mirror in which a miniatur-
The mirror does not merely absorb reality, but reflects it. The ized reversal of the couple and the room is painted. This paint-
image in the mirror in Manet's painting is not a reflection of the ing-within-a-painting is enclosed by a notched frame that bears
couple in front of our eyes (that is, before the mirror) but a small circular scenes of a gospel narrative, a simulation of
image of that couple.
reflection of the artist's painting on tiny glass discs. In this portrait of the Arnolfinis,
Edgar Degas made ample use of the mirror in his portrayals the mirror's function is to provide information. "The miniatur-
of women and dancers, both of whom have a strong relation- ized chandelier and looking glass . . . can ... be seen as full

ship to the mirror. In the world of ballet, the mirror poses two scale features of a scribal practice —the notarial sign and the
dangers. A dancer who looks into it for too long may begin to seal, marks regularly employed by notaries and witnesses to
604 MIRROR / REFLECTION

authenticate their works" (Seidel, p. i

30). The mirror here does much more. In the hands of van Eyck, the mirror is trans-
not function .is some hidden symbol, but
an overt sign, based as formed.
on a manipulation of familiar signs that van Eyck's viewers
The mirror presents the viewer with an assertive appro-
would have understood. In this traditional form of marriage
priation by a painter of a fellow worker's production; the
documentation, the mirror functions as an authenticating
transformation of the mirror's frame and the juxtaposi-
mark: "the sign, the signature, and the mirror as seal all par-
tion of Jan's signature with the looking glass subsumes
ticipate in this material discourse" (Seidel, p. 143). In addition
that craft production and subordinates it into the
to the mirror's function as surrogate seal, viewers were likely
painter's art. Whereas the mirror as seal provides authen-
fascinated by the ambiguities of vision that this familiar item
tication for the signature, from this perspective, it is the
provided. (Mirrors were so popular in the fifteenth century that
signature that validates the mirror. By means of his
they were enumerated as part of the household furnishings that
expert "manufacture" of the reflecting glass, Jan com-
were included in the dowry.)
ments on and ennobles his own art. (Seidel, p. 147)
The mirror in the Arnolfini portrait was not without its reli-
gious quality, however. Seidel notes that documents contempo- The discs around the mirror again affirm that what we see in
rary with the painting show that mirrors were given to pilgrims the mirror is more important than "reality." In other words,
journeying to religious shrines, used to capture in the glass van Eyck has reversed the mirror-reflection roles. As Seidel
reflections of "venerated relics or reliquaries." As "signs" of states:

holiness, these mirrors would then be presented to local church-

The miniatures that appear in the roundels share other
es where their "remembered reflections would bestow testimo-
properties with the mirror and these further intensify the
nial power on a new location." The mirror in the Arnolfini
latter's claims to special powers in the painting. Like the
panel brings to the painting a sense of this "remembered sight."
mirror's own reflection, the discs purport to reverse the
This meaning is extended to the roundels.
images painted on their undersurfaces in a display of
The tiny roundels with scenes of Christ's Passion that artistic virtuosity. Acknowledgment of the discs' creative
ornament the mirror's frame further secure an associa- origin in a technique of reverse image making links the
tion of the depicted object with sacred souvenirs. Painted roundels to seals, which similarly reverse the image of the
medallions of a similar kind, in which images are applied matrix in the wax of the impression. Thus, as viewers, we
to the undersurfaces of discs, enjoyed a revival in late fif- are challenged to realize that what we are shown in the
teenth-century Italy for the ornamentation of reliquaries. frame as well as in the mirror is the reverse of something
that we cannot otherwise see either fully or directly. The
Seidel concludes that
miniature discs, by mimicking the larger glass, emphasize
the glass discs thus extend the association of sacred relics the "problematic" nature of such production. By show-
of a particular Italian or Mediterranean kind with Jan's ing us more in reflection than we can see in reality, the
looking glass. And such marking of the mirror as sacred mirror constructs itself as the more authentic image.
container reinforces its evidentiary status as personal (Seidel, p. 144)
emblem; both relic and seal as tokens of testimony con-
An English work greatly indebted to the Arnolfini portrait is
fer the authority of a deep past on what appears in the
FordMadox Brown's Take Your Son, Sir (1857). Here a young
painting to be present time. (Seidel, p. 144)
woman holds a baby who is surrounded by a circular piece of
Van Eyck again illustrates how the artist, in fact, becomes the drapery, the formation of which strongly resembles a uterus
mirror. and even an umbilical cord. Behind the woman's head is a con-
vex mirror, similar to the one used in the Arnolfini portrait and
Jan, very probably through the handling of such an
serving a similar function: to legitimize or sanctify the nuptial
instrument [the mirror] in his studio, has constructed
chamber of the woman and man reflected in the mirror. It
what we see; the spatial effects of the chamber may have
appears that the woman is Emma Hill, who became Brown's
been first visualized by Jan with the aid of such a glass.
second wife, which would make the baby their son, Arthur,
But without Jan's consummate draftsmanship, this paint-
born on September 16, 1856. The man in the mirror, with his
ed mirror would not have such potency. Jan flaunts the
side-whiskers and his hair parted in the middle, looks like
fact that the power of this glass is of his making by plac-
Brown, who provides the connecting link between the name of
ing his name immediately above it, proclaiming thereby
the painting and the actual subject (as well as a link to the van
that he is the creator and manipulator of the object, not
Eyck portrait, in which the artist also appears in the mirror).
merely, if indeed at all, the object of its reflections.
Hill became pregnant at the age of 15, which was the artist's
(Seidel, p. 145)
compelling reason to marry her. Given their history, it is not
The complex iconography of van Eyck's mirror a picture — surprising that Brown has employed the mirror as the speculum
within a picture —
took on as much importance for the artist as sine macula to equate Emma's condition with that of the Virgin
did the painting up front. By painting the mirror as he did, van Mary. Brown, as is apparent in the mirror, is the cause of this
Eyck the painter and mirror maker crossed the line from maker illegitimate birth; the purity of Emma, however, rather than her
of mere illusion to maker of reality itself. In the Arnolfini por- downfall, emphasized by having the mirror raised so high
is

trait, the mirror is not just an aid or an item manufactured by that it becomes a halo for her head. The "eyes" of this mirror
a guild (in fifteenth-century Bruges, Belgium, painters and arti- (the reflection we see in the mirror), explain the condition of
sans belonged to the same Guild of St. Luke), it is something the woman standing before it.
 MIRROR / REFLECTION 605

Mirror as Divination had been weaving. Hunt has the woman looking neither into
the mirror nor out the window. Instead, he depicts the after-
Personal histories were not the only reason for the mirror's role
math, her punishment for leaving the loom and the mirror.
as a sort of guardian of women's virginity. In a society, such as
Instead of portraying Alfred, Lord Tennyson's lines from his
Victorian England, that defined itself in terms of gender differ-
poem, "she left the web, she left the loom," Hunt shows the
entiation, the mirror played a significant role in signifying
consequences of her act: "out flew the web the mirror . . .

woman's place within that scheme, often by looking into the

crack'd from side to side; 'the curse is upon me,' cried the Lady
future.
of Shalott." The untamed, wild way in which the threads spin
The use of mirrors in divination has an ancient history. The
around her is a metaphor for the loss of control over her life.
Greeks painted totemic animals on mirrors, and the Etruscans
By contrast, weaving, an activity in which every thread has its
painted entrails. The engraved back of a bronze mirror in the
place and which involves hours of mindless repetitive work,
Museum in Rome (circa 400 B.C.) illustrates an exam-
Vatican
latter. A winged old man, Chalchas, examines a
would give the woman the illusion — not unlike looking into
ple of the
strange object, apparently looking at the liver of a sacrificial
the mirror — that her life is in order. Here, the narcotic act of
weaving has ended, its magical spell has been broken. The mir-
animal. He represents a practice that loomed large in the lives
ror is no longer unblemished. Its crack conjures up the ancient
of the Etruscans, the search for omens or portents.
superstitions of seven years' bad luck and a loss of virginity.
Divination —the Etruscan belief that the will of the gods mani- (Both of these connotations had been treated earlier in paint-
fested itself through signs in the natural world —can be traced
ings such as Jean-Baptiste Greuze's The Broken Mirror, late
back to ancient Mesopotamia as well as Greece, but the prac- eighteenth century). The curse has befallen the lady for having
tice was most developed in Etruria, located in what is now cen- left work and looked out the window rather than into a
her
tral Italy. The secrets of this language of signs, especially as they
mirror that reflects the outside world. All of this and more are
believed to manifest themselves in the liver of sacrificial ani- encapsulated in the eight roundels encircling the central mir-
mals, were not known to all. It was a privilege enjoyed by the ror, an idea that Hunt, like Brown, took from the van Eyck
priests alone, who wielded enormous power and enjoyed great Arnolfini portrait.
prestige. These scryers, or diviners, saw images of distant or The same motifs —the mirror, the undone tapestry, and the
future events. shawl knotted around the lady's hips (the knot is an ancient

On the positive side, divination had a practical function, Greek symbol of the "false" virgin, who tried to copy the knot-
allowing for the comforts of prediction and revelation. It also ted headdress of the bride) — all appear in Hunt's painting The
allowed people to live out their illusions. Merlin, magician to Awakening Conscience (1852.). Consistent in his interpretation
the court of King Arthur, was said to have once produced a of his Tennysonian source, Hunt is also concerned in this work
mirror that would show, to those permitted to look into it, any- with the dereliction of duty. Here Hunt plays with the mirror
thing that pertained to them. Arthur's daughter, Britomart, sup- in order to demonstrate, formally and metaphorically, its end-
posedly saw in it her lover, Sir Artegal. On the down side, how- less possibilities. Not unlike Augustus Egg's triptych Past and
ever, very few people could have such divining mirrors of their Present (1858) in the Tate Gallery in London, which also centers
own, and so the power of the specularii, or diviners, was on mirror imagery, the mirror in The Awakening Conscience
restricted to a select group of men on whom the future of the reveals, in a variety of ways, the woman's adulterous past, her
world was believed to depend. These men, associated in ancient present desperate condition, and her bleak future.
times with the gods, were all-powerful. In the medieval period, Hunt's painting goes even further than Egg's by using more
a battle raged between these "crystal readers" and the Roman than one mirror. The mirror into mirror imagery is confusing,
Catholic Church. Considered disciples of the devil who saw both visually and conceptually. In a densely cluttered room,
and heard demons when they looked into the mirror, they were which again includes undone tapestry and a knotted shawl, a
in conflict with established religious doctrine and posed a young girl tentatively rises from her lover's lap. Behind them is

threat to the authority of the established order. Eventually they a mirror that, before reflecting the outside world (marked in

were associated with witchcraft. this instance by a sunlit landscape), first reflects the claustro-
In art, the Pre-Raphaelites, fascinated as they were with the phobic room, which contains at least two other mirrors. The
Medieval period in general and the tale of King Arthur in par- ambiguity of all these reflections is further enhanced by the
ticular, painted the heroines of this tale in highly suggestive open French windows, which, in their pristine clearness, con-
ways. The special magical or witchlike qualities of these hero- tain their own reflection of the outside landscape. This "house
ines can be seen in paintings such as William Morris's Queen of mirrors," reminiscent of the Neoplatonic concept of a chain
Guenevere (1857) and Edward Coley Burne-Jones's The of mirrors, makes the woman's "journey" toward redemp-
Beguiling of Merlin (1 873-1 877). tion —which Hunt wishes to convince us is his concern here
In nineteenth-century England the depiction of the mirror all the more Although the final window offers purity
difficult.

as divination appears several times in the work of William for the woman, there is a series of impure reflections she has yet
Holman Hunt. In drawing Lady ofShalott (1850) and
both his to encounter, such as the reflection in the mirror behind her.
his later painting of the same theme (1889), Hunt goes to great Ultimately she may reach a "state of nature," her childhood
lengths to show what happens to a woman when she leaves her innocence as represented by the sunlit landscape, but even then
preordained role, that of the mirror-gazer. In Hunt's represen- it will not be in a condition of purity. Like the "false" virgin,
tations, the mirror is cracked. The reflected image of Sir with her falsely knotted headdress, this woman, with the same
Lancelot, the agent of the woman's fall, is seen in the mirror, knot around her hips, can only attempt to be pure again. She
and the woman is entangled in the threads of the material she cannot actuallv redeem her lost youth.
606 MIRKOK / REFLECTION

limit's Lady <>/ Shalott must have appealed to Elizabeth In this earlier work, a woman looks into a mirror as she paints
Siddal, who identified with the theme both as a woman and as her I. ice. On the leg of her chair is a strange little dragon, the
an artist. Her drawing Lady shows Hunt's
of Shalott (1853) symbol of cleverness. Siddal's drawing, in the final analysis,
influence, but there are striking differences. Although Siddal might be said to speak of her purity of heart, in spite of the mir-
chose to portray the moment the mirror is broken and the ror's crack, symbolized by Jesus Christ on the cross; of her fear-

—
weaving comes apart some threads appear to be coming out lessness, symbolized in the woman's gaze out of the window; of
of the loom like electrified wires —
the lady is not entangled in her cleverness and commitment to her work, in spite of the ten-
them at all. They move in a direction away from her, and she sion in her life, perhaps symbolized by her nervous drawing
continues to sit at her loom, her head tilted toward the outside style; and of her ambiguous position as an artist and a woman

window, as if to check what the commotion could be. in Victorian society.

There is no hint of her downfall and ultimate death. The In contrast to Siddal's more personal iconography, Hunt
confusion and tumult in Hunt's rendering are replaced here by seems to have paid lip service to Victorian society by manufac-
calm, order, and even quiet. Hunt's majestic medieval setting is turing just the type of painting that it had come to expect:
now a simple interior. The mirror, no longer a central motif, is the consequences that face a woman who has disobeyed the
—
pushed to the side barely discernible are its crack and the rules. The difference in construction may perhaps be related to
—
image of Sir Lancelot and separated from the lady by the the art market at the time. Siddal's drawing would have had
loom. Siddal appears to break the formula of woman-as-mir- very little opportunity of being seen. Hers was a private, auto-
ror-gazer because her woman looks away from the mirror biographical "endeavor," in Rossetti's description. Hunt's
toward the "real" outside world. As opposed to Hunt's render- paintingwas assured of being hung on the walls of the Royal
ing, in which we never see the woman look toward the outside Academy.
world, only the consequences of having looked, Siddal shows Although the Hunt and Siddal works are examples of the
us exactly that courageous moment. moralistic, religious tone that characterized so much of
Although little is known of Siddal and her work, this draw- Victorian narrative paintings, the lighter side of the woman and
ing demonstrates that she was dependent neither on Tennyson's her mirror seems to have dominated the end of the nineteenth
poem nor on Hunt's work for her inspiration. A closer look at century in England. Painters such as Edward John Poynter and
the various motifs employed in the drawing suggests that she Thomas Armstrong continued with the Rossetti-Charles
may have been familiar with van Eyck's Arnolfini portrait. On Swineburne aesthetic of the 1860s: "fleshy," narcissistic
the right leg of a chair, she has placed a strange creature resem- women looking into mirrors, such as in Rossetti's Fazio's
bling, perhaps, a little dragon. Likewise in the van Eyck por- Mistress (1863) in the Tate Gallery, or in his Morning Music
trait, there is a little figure of St. Margaret triumphing over a (1864) Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge. Painters such
in the

dragon on the post of an armchair. It is known that in the fif- as Poynter and Armstrong replaced the mirror with its six-
teenth century, the serpent sometimes appeared in the form of teenth-century companion, the peacock, the emblem of the
a small dragon as a symbol of cleverness and wisdom. The bird deadly sin of pride, the ultimate symbol of vanity. This is not to
on the top of the woman's loom may be a direct reference to say, however, that mirror iconography disappeared. After
Siddal herself, whom Dante Gabriel Rossetti called his "dove," Manet's Nana and Bar at the Folies-Bergere, however, it never
or it may be related to medieval iconography, in which women, had quite the same meaning.
mirrors, and birds do appear together (Palumba's Master I. B. Twentieth-century works such as Henri Matisse's Carmelina
With the Bird and Christus's St. Eligius and the Lovers). The (1903) illustrate this shift in meaning. Here the mirror, placed
Crucifixion shown in the Siddal drawing may also be a link to behind the seated female model, functions to reveal the ubiqui-
the Arnolfini portrait, the frame of which dealt with the life of tous male presence; in this case Matisse as he paints his model.
Christ. This combination of motifs demonstrates how Siddal's Joan Miro's Nude with Mirror (1919) seems to have been lift-
drawing falls outside the expected formulas of Victorian repre- ed out of the traditional iconography of nudes as an excuse to
sentations of women and mirrors. present the incongruous and even the ludicrous. The humor
When the loom is seen as a kind of canvas, then Siddal's and fantasy Mho presents in a deadpan manner is reinforced
drawing can symbolize the personal story of her at work as an by the way he put this nude together. Holding a mirror at arm's
artist. Her refusal to leave this work, to become entangled in length, she closes her eyes so as not to confront her image,
the threads of her loom, would be in keeping with her pride, which is indeed strange. None of the parts of her body match.
her sense of self as an independent person. (This quality in her She wears the long braid of a peasant girl. Her body is divided
character was confirmed by her refusal to accept an allowance into cubist faceting, flat-color areas, and geometric patterns
from the art critic and connoisseur John Ruskin for producing with sculptural legs.

a set number of works of art per year.) Lady of Shallot appears Given Pablo Picasso's fascination with the problems of
to be a sort of self-portrait of the artist in her studio. The tapes- "reality" and art —
his work in the 1930s, in particular, shows
try hanging on the wall behind her is not unlike paintings a preoccupation with reexamining the nature of reality rather
accompanying artists at work. This is particularly evident when —
than being its mere mimic it comes as no surprise that his
this drawing is set next to a painting that appeared in Woman in Front of a Mirror (1937) goes against all tradition-
Boccaccio's De clans mulieribus, to which it bears an eerie al representations of woman and mirror, model and painter. By

resemblance. In describing the painting that illustrates breaking conventional patterns, Picasso introduces a note of
Boccaccio's work, Pliny the Younger said that it is a "strange fantasy. Reality and illusion are totally reversed and the painter
coincidence that the first literary and pictorial documents that and the model become surrealist ciphers. The woman, rapt in
refer to mirror self-portraiture |also] refer to women painters." contemplation of her mirror image, sees not merely a reversed
 MIRROR / REFLECTION 607

reflection, but a mystery and a prophecy. In this painting, Selected Works of Art
Picasso seems to have closed the symbolic cycle of mirror
meanings. Renaissance
What had been suggested by Joan Miro and stated by Marcia, Painting Her Portrait, French illuminated manuscript,
Picasso — the incongruity and lack of communication between 1402, De claris mulieribus, by Boccaccio, Paris,
girl and mirror — even more seriously confronted
is in George Bibliotheque Nationale (MS. Fr. 12420)
Segal's Girl Putting on Scarab Necklace (1975). Segal's free-, Eyck, Jan van, Arnolfini Wedding (Portrait of Giovanni
standing nude sculpture is totally modern. The female figure Arnolfini and Giovanna Cenami), 1434, London, National
fails to connect with the old world, symbolized here by her Gallery
scarab necklace and the elegant, outdated floor-length mirror. Master of Flemalle, Left Wing of Von Werl Altarpiece, 1438,
With her head down, she is removed from the mirror and her Madrid, Spain, Prado
reflection in it. Melancholy and apartness have replaced sensu- Christus, Petrus, St. Eligius and the Lovers, 1440, New York,
ousness and vanity. Metropolitan Museum of Art, Lehman Collection
If the vanity theme became diluted by the late twentieth Pollaiolo, Piero, Prudentia, 1470, Florence, Italy, Palazzo del
century, the meaning Plato had given the mirror in The Tribunal de Mercanzia, Council Hall
Republic was not. Paintings such as Rene Magritte's The Massys, Quentin, The Money Changer and His Wife, 15 14,
Treachery (or Perfidy) of Images (1 928-1 929) and The False Paris,Louvre
Mirror (1928) show how preoccupied the surrealists were Bosch, Hieronymus, Superbia, before 15 16, Madrid, Spain,
with mirrors and images. Magritte confounds pictorial reali- Prado
ty by portraying a meticulously rendered pipe with the Parmigianino, Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror, 1
524,
attached logo, Ceci n'est pas une pipe (This is not a pipe). Vienna, Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum
This sense of misdirection and playfulness is embodied fur- Furtenagel, Laux, Hans Burgkmair and His Wife, 1527,
ther in The False Mirror (1928), which reduces the entire Vienna, Austria, Gemaldegalerie
painting to an eye: the eye as a false mirror as it views the Grien, Hans Baldung, Prudence, 1529, Munich, Germany,
white clouds and blue sky of nature. The False Mirror intro- Alte Pinakothek
duces the illusionistic device of the landscape that calls atten- Tintoretto, Susannah and the Elders, 1550, Vienna, Austria,
tion to itself as a painting, rather than as an imitation of Kunsthistoriches Museum
nature. Here Magritte was concerned with an age-old prob- Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, Superbia, engraving, before 1569,
lem in art: real space versus illusionistic space. Reminiscent of New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art
such German romantics Caspar David Friedrich and Jacob
as
Alt, Magritte takes the implications of a view through a win- Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries
dow even further in The Promenades of Euclid (1955). He La Tour, Georges De, The Penitent Magdalen, circa
depicts a cityscape with a great avenue in abrupt perspective: 1638-1652, New York, Metropolitan Museum
the avenue becomes a triangle that reiterates the conical shape of Art
of an adjacent tower. Playing with illusion and reality, mirrors Vermeer, Jan, The Music Lesson, circa 1662-1665, London,
and reflections, the promenade through the window (which Buckingham Palace
has now replaced the mirror) becomes Euclidean: an illusion Mieris, Frans van, the Elder, Young Woman in Front of
and an illusion of semblance, the painted picture as part of a Her Mirror, before 1681, Berlin, Staatliche Museen,
painted picture. Gemaldegalerie
In the second half of the twentieth century the Platonic mir- Le Brun, Charles, Sainte Madeleine, before 1690, Paris,
ror idea continued in many guises. In works such as Richard Louvre
Lindner's 119th Division (1965) and Larry Rivers' Double Vouet, Simon, Toilet of Venus, eighteenth century, Berlin,
Portrait of Birdie (1955), two images are diametrically Staatliche Museen, Gemaldegalerie
opposed, one next to the other on the same picture plane. In his Greuze, Jean-Baptiste, The Broken Mirror, late eighteenth
own way, Robert Rauschenberg questions the phenomenon in century, London, Wallace Collection
his Bed (1955), as do Jasper Johns and Andy Warhol in their

respective works of the 1960s. Nineteenth Century

Illusion and reality, reflection versus absolute truth, are con- Hunt, William Holman, Lady of Shalott, drawing, 1850,
flicts as old as art itself, those that have as many outcomes as Melbourne, Australia, National Gallery of Victoria
mirrors do reflections. The photo-realistic paintings of artists Hunt, William Holman, The Awakening Conscience, 1852,
like Richard Estes, Ralph Goings, Alex Katz, and Alfred Leslie Property of the Trustees of Sir Colin and Lady
are evidence of the continued struggle: is the absolute truth Anderson
attainable or is illusion interesting enough? Siddal, Elizabeth,Lady of Shallot, drawing, 1853, London,
Jeremy Maas Collection
Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, Vision of Rachel and Leah, 855, 1

London, Tate Gallery

Morris, William, Queen Guenevere, 1857, London, Tate
See also Dreams/Visions; Female Beauty and Adornment; Gallery
Masks/Personae; Toilet Scenes; Upside Down; Vanity/Vanitas; Brown, Ford Madox, Take Your Son, Sir, 1857, London, Tate
Voyeurism Gallery
608 MIRROR / REFLECTION

Burne-Jones, Edward Coley, The Beguiling of Merlin, Alpers, Svetlana,The Art of Describing: Dutch Art in the
1 873- 877, Port Sunlight, England, Lady Lever Art
1 Seventeenth Century, Chicago and London: University of
Gallery Chicago Press, 1983
Degas, Edgar, Monsieur Perrot's Dance Class, 875-1 876,
1 Baldass, I udwig, Van
/./// I yck, New York: Phaidon Press,
Paris, Musee d'Orsay; New York, Metropolitan Museum 1983
of Art Berger, John, Ways of Seeing, Baltimore and Harmondsworth,
Manet, Edouard, Nana, 1876, Hamburg, Germany, England: Penguin, 1977
Kunsthalle Oxford and New York:
Blankert, Albert, Vermeer of Delft,
Degas, Edgar, The Rehearsal, 1879, New York, Frick Oxford University Press, 1978
Collection Congdon, Leonore O. Keene, Caryatid: Mirrors of Ancient
Manet, Edouard, Bar at the Folies-Bergere, 1 881-1882, Greece, Mainz-Am-Rhein, Germany: Verlag Philipp Von
London, Courtauld Institute Galleries Zabern, 1981
Hunt, William Holman, Lady of Shalott, oil, 1889, Goldberg, Benjamin, The Mirror of Man, Charlottesville:
Manchester, England, City Art Galleries University Press of Virginia, 1985
Grummond, Nancy T. de, "Reflections on the Etruscan
Twentieth Century Mirror," Archaeology (September-October 1981)
Matisse, Henri, Carmelina, T903, Boston, Museum of Fine Gunn, Alan Murray Finlay, The Mirror of Love, Lubbock:
Arts Texas Tech University Press, 1952
Miro, Joan, Nude with Mirror, 1919, New York, collection of Guthrie, William Keith Champers, The Greek Philosophers,
Mr. and Mrs. Matisse London and New York: Routledge, 1950
Magritte, Rene, The Treachery (or Perfidy) of Images, Hall, Edwin,The Arnolfini Betrothal: Medieval Marriage and
1928-1929, private collection the Enigma of Van Eyck's Double Portrait, Berkeley and
Magritte, Rene, The False Mirror, 1928, New York, Museum London: University of California Press, 1994
of Modern Art Hartt, Frederick, Histoiy of Italian Renaissance Art, New
Leger, Fernand, Woman with Mirror, oil on canvas, 1929, York: Abrams, 1969; London: Thames and Hudson, 1970
Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art Leonardo da Vinci, Treatise on Painting, London and New
Picasso, Pablo, Woman in Front of a Mirror, 1937, private York: G. Bell, 1892
collection Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci, edited by Jean Paul
,

Magritte, Rene, The Promenades of Euclid, 1955, Richter, London: Constable, 1883; New York: Dover,
Minneapolis, Minnesota, Minneapolis Institute of Art
1970
Rivers, Larry, Double Portrait of Birdie, 1955, New York, Male, Emile, The Gothic Image, New York: Harper, 1958
Whitney Museum of American Art Minazzoli, Agnes, La Premiere Ombre, Paris: Les Editions de
Rauschenberg, Robert, Bed, 1955, New York, collection of Minuit, 1990
Mr. and Mrs. Leo Castelli Richardson, Ernest Crushing, Materials for a Life of Jacopo
Johns, Jasper, Painted Bronze (Beer Cans), i960, New York,
da Voragine, New York: Wilson, 1935
Robert C. Scull
Richter, Gisella, Greek Etruscan and Roman Bronzes, New
Lindner, Richard, 119th Division, 1965, Minneapolis,
York: Gilliss Press, 191
Minnesota, Walker Art Gallery
Schwartz, Henrich, "The Mirror in Art," The Art Quarterly
Warhol, Andy, Electric Chair, 1965, New York, Leo Castelli
15 (I95 2-)
Gallery
Jan Van Eyck's Arnolfini Portrait, Cambridge:
Seidel, Linda,
Goings, Ralph, Airstream, 1970, Aachen, Germany, Neve
Cambridge University Press, 1993
Galerie-Sammlung Ludwig
Seymour, Charles, "Dark Chamber and Light-Filled Rooms:
Leslie, Alfred, Self-Portrait, 1973, New York, Allan Frunkin
Vermeer and the Camera Obscura," The Art Bulletin XLVI
Gallery
(1964)
Katz, Alex, Good Morning, 1974, New York, Marlborough
Slive, Seymour, and Englebert Hendrik Terkuile, Dutch
Gallery
Art and Architecture, Baltimore, Maryland, and
Estes, Richard, Stationery, 1976, New York, Allan Stone
Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1966
Gallery
Strem, George, The Life and Teaching of Lucius Annaeus
Segal, George, Girl Putting on Scarab Necklace, 1975, New Seneca, New York: Vantage Press, 1981
York, Sidney Janis Gallery
The Mirror, The Lamp, London: Institute of
,

Contemporary Arts, 1986

Torti, Anna, The Glass of Form, London and Rochester, New
Further Reading
York: Brewer, 1991
Abrams, M. H., The Mirror and the Lamp, Oxford and New Wilenski, Reginald Howard, Dutch Art, New York: Stokes,
York: Oxford University Press, 1953 1929; London: Faber and Gwyer, 1929
Alberti, Leon Battista, On Painting, New Haven, Connecticut, Wimsatt, James, Allegory and Mirror, New York: Pegasus,
and London: Yale University Press, 1966 1970
 MISFORTUNE
Fritz Laupichler

The following iconographic narratives and motifs are covered in the discussion of the theme Misfortune:

ALLEGORICAL THE DELUGE SHIPWRECK

PROMETHEUS DESTRUCTION OF CITIES AIRPLANE CRASHES
TANTALUS PLAGUES

609
6lO MISFORTUNE
 MIM-ORTUNE 6ll

Anthonisz., Cornelisz (Cornells Teunissen),

Misfortune, drawing, second quarter of the
sixteenth century, London, British Museum.
(Copyright The British Museum)

Misfortune may be defined as the state of bad luck lead- ing a man (Gilles Corrozet, Hecaton-graphie, Paris, 1540) and
ing to a condition of suffering. The affliction of mis- as a ship in distress (Julius Wilhelm Zincgreff, Fjnblematum,
fortune often implies previous prosperity or well-being. The Heidelberg, Germany, 1619). Misfortune through one's own
spectrum of representations of misfortune in the visual arts fault is shown as a sheep whose wool has been torn out by a
includes personification, the sufferings sent by the classical brier (Jacob Cats, Proteus, Rotterdam, the Netherlands, i6zj).
gods and goddesses, adversity as punishment sent by the Increasing adversity is depicted by the Hydra of Lerna,
Christian God the Father, and the profane representation of attacked in vain by the mythological hero Hercules (Joannes
misfortune in the depictions of catastrophes and accidents. Sambucus, Emblemata, Antwerpen, Belgium, 1564). The trans-
Misfortune as an allegorical figure has been seldom repre- valuation of fortune and misfortune as abstract ideas during
sented because Fortuna, as a capriciously and arbitrarily act- the Renaissance becomes especially evident in such representa-
ing being distributing good luck and bad luck purely at ran- tions as that of overcoming misfortune by reflection. A man
dom, frequently causes misfortunes by her actions. Thus, for a holding a broken wheel in one hand and a wing and a laurel in
long time it seemed that a separate personification for misfor- the other appears, for example, in Sebastian de Orozco
tune was not necessary. Cesare Ripa, who defined Fortuna as Covarrubias's Emblemas morales, published in Madrid, Spain,
well, described Infortunio in Iconologia (1603) as a barefoot- in 1610.
ed man in a tan-colored dress with a raven, an empty horn of In a broader sense, the misfortunes of the heroes of classical
plenty turned upside down, and the ruins of a house as attrib- mythology, often brought on by the vengeance of the gods,
utes. In Hans Sebald Beham's copper engraving Infortunium belong to the subject, too. The most famous examples —the suf-

(1541), misfortune is represented as a walking woman with ferings of Prometheus, Tantalus, and Sisyphus — should be men-
wings who is accompanied by a little devil with a crawfish as tioned. Prometheus was punished by Zeus, king of the gods, for
an attribute. This print is a pendant to the representation helping mankind, especially for his gift of fire. Zeus ordered

Fortuna. German painter Martin Pfinzing von Henfenfeld pro- Prometheus bound to and then sent an eagle or vulture
a rock
duced a drawing in 1544 after this engraving for his sketch- every day to eat his have frequently depicted the
liver. Artists
book, now in the Germanisches Nationalmuseum in binding of Prometheus, usually by Hephaestus (Vulcan), the
Nurnberg, Germany, that contains studies and sketches from god of fire and metalworking; Prometheus alone and chained
the period (1537-1559). A drawing by Cornelis Teunissen to this rock; and, less frequently, the eagle's gory daily visit.

shows the personification of misfortune as a seated woman Tantalus tattled about the actions of the gods, served up his
with one bare breast, holding an eel by the tip of the tail and son to them for dinner, and lied about a golden dog. For these
surrounded by signs of adversity: a broken pot, a perforated sins he was condemned to stand up to his chin in water that he
cask, a crushed wheel, the ruins of a city, a ship in distress, and could not reach to drink. He was also tantalized (the word
dying cattle. comes from his name) by gorgeous ripe fruit hanging just out
The print Fortune with Her Sons "Bonheur" and of his reach. He is usually depicted with his head just above the
"Malheur" from Gilles Corrozet's emblem book Hecaton-gra- water, reaching for the forever-elusive water around him and
phie (1540) shows the personification "Malheur" tied to a tree. fruit above him.
The commentary to the print explains the scene: "Malheur" Sisyphus's long life was filled with incidents of cunning,
(i.e., Misfortune) shall remain fettered and can be freed only duplicity, and lying. When he finally died, the punishment for
from time to time by the free will of man. this misspent life was to roll a giant stone up to the top of a hill,

Italian engraver Enea Vico, active between 1540 and 1560, but on reaching the summit the stone inevitably rolled back
published one in a series of emblematic figures, the copper down, forcing Sisyphus to begin all over again. He is usually
engraving Infortunium, which was probably designed by depicted engaged in this fruitless task. Sisyphus and Tantalus
Francesco Salviati. It shows a dressed woman falling down are often paired with two other mythological wrongdoers,
from a balustrade because of a breaking beam. P. van Boons Ixion and Tityus, and painted in a series as the Four
depicts Misfortune as a half-naked woman with a sail in her left Blasphemers, Deceivers, or Condemned Men. Titian and
hand, sawing through the beam on which she is kneeling (circa Cornelis Cornelisz van Haarlem both painted such series, bur
1627). On this beam we also find Abundance, standing on a they are now lost and are known only through engravings.
footstool. The design for this painting was probably copied The most prominent example for the theme of adversity in
after a print from Dirck Volckertsz Coornhert, When Fortune Christian iconography is Job, the great sufferer of the Book of
Is Abundant, the Fall Will Be Deeper. Job in the Old Testament. Job, a rich man from Uz, sitting on
The emblem books of the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- a dunghill, humble and God-fearing, resists all the buffets of
turies also show the concept of misfortune as a scorpion prick- fate that Satan imposes on him as temptations. Moreover, he
 Ml M OKI UN]

undergoes the derision of his wife and his friends. Beginning in Gericault, in which, although the moment of salvation is

the twelfth century, and especially in late Gothic sculpture, the depicted, the horrors of a shipwreck and its consequences are
suffering, bearded Job is shown covered with sores or boils and shown in all their intensity for the first time in art. Based on
sitting on a dunghill. As a sign of misfortune and lost prosper- actual accounts of the shipwreck and rescue, the painting
ity, a crown is often placed at the foot of Job as an attribute. shows the 15 survivors, a bare remnant of the r 50 who left the
Especially in the first half of the sixteenth century, the repre- doomed ship Medusa 1 5 days earlier. In various states of dis-
sentation of Job on the dunghill becomes the typological pat- tress, only the black man at the summit of the painting seems
agony waiting to be crucified.
tern for Jesus Christ in to have the strength to hail the ship in the distance.
The Old Testament provides further examples of misfortune The greatest sea disaster in the history of seafaring was the
sent by God the Father as trial or punishment. As God saw that sinking of the Titanic in 191 2. In this year, Max Beckmann pro-
mankind was bad, He decided to exterminate it —except for duced a monumental painting The Sinking of the Titanic.
titled t

Noah and his family and sent — and sul-

a flood. A rain of fire It background while in the fore-
depicts the sinking ship in the
fur destroyed the sinful cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, and ground dozens of people in lifeboats and passengers swimming
God sent the seven plagues because the pharaoh did not allow in the water desperately fight against drowning.

the Israelites to leave Egypt. These representations of events German painter Franz Radziwil witnessed a test pilot crash
from the Bible are the beginning of the iconography of cata- his airplane while still a child. The artist assimilated the expe-
strophes and sudden and destructive events. rience in his painting Death Fall of Karl Buchstdtter (1928).
Representations of the burning cities of Sodom and The night piece shows the fall as unstoppable catastrophe and
Gomorrah influenced depictions of the burning cities of Troy, brings to mind Pieter Bruegel the Elder's Fall of Icarus in the
such as Adam Elsheimer's painting Troy Burning (circa Folkwang Museum in Essen, Germany.
1 600-1601) in Munich, Germany, and of Rome. Most of the Whereas Radziwil shows the moment of the fall itself,
representations of conflagrations —a very frequently represent- American artist Andy Warhol presents the aftermath of a plane
ed form of misfortune and catastrophe — derive from the nine- crash. As pattern for his painting 129 Die in Jet {Plane Crash)
teenth century. One of the most remarkable of these is the (1963), now in the Museum Ludwig in Cologne, Germany, the
painting by J. M. W. Turner, Burning of the Houses of Lords artist used the front page of a newspaper. With the large format

and Commons (1835), in the Cleveland Museum of Art in he forcefully transforms the death of 129 unknown air passen-
Ohio. gers from mere news into a shocking event.
The motif of epidemics and their consequences also devel- Whether divine retributions, natural disasters, catastrophic
ops from religious into profane art. The earliest examples of accidents, or quirks of fate are to blame, misfortune is a threat
this motif are the representations of the Egyptian plagues. The known to everyone, something lurking in everyone's future. No
plague-epidemics in Milan and Venice in 1 576 and in Marseilles, one can feel immune to the graphically depicted scenes of mis-
France, in 1720-1 721 give rise to the production of contempo- fortune that make up a dramatic part of the world's art.
rary profane representations of the subject. Remarkable exam-
ples of representations of plagues in modern times are The
See also Apocalypse; Betrayal; Destruction of City; Fortune
Plague in Siena (before 1905) by Pietro Vanni, The Plague in
Rome (1869) by Jules Elie Delaunay, and The Plague in Venice
(1666) by Antonio Zanchi.
The biblical patterns for representations of earthquakes and
Selected Works of Art
volcanic eruptions are rare, except in illustrating the
Apocalypse, and the iconography of these subjects mainly Allegorical
developed autonomously during the eighteenth and nineteenth Vico, Enea, Infortunium, copper engraving, 1 540-1 560,
centuries. After the excavation of Pompeii 1748, the archae-
in New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art
ological finds allowed artists, such as the French painter Joseph Beham, Hans Sebald, Infortunium, copper engraving,
Franque, to depict its destruction in a.d. 79 with thrilling accu- 1 541

racy.The earthquake of Messina, Sicily, in 1908 provides a twen- Henfenfeld, Martin Pfinzing von, Infortuna, drawing,
tieth-century example. German expressionist Max Beckmann 1544, Niirnberg, Germany, Germanisches
painted this catastrophe the same year it occurred. Nationalmuseum
The motif of the deluge as punishment, with Noah's Ark as Anthonisz., Cornelisz (Teunissen, Cornells), Misfortune,
symbol of the Church, has been changed in the course of time drawing, second quarter of sixteenth century, London,
to the representation of a pure seascape in the nineteenth cen- British Museum
tury without the Ark. Most on the narrative of
paintings focus Boons, P. van, Allegory of Misfortune, oil painting, circa
Noah, especially the building of the Ark and the gathering of 1627, Pommersfelden, Germany, Schloss Weissenstein
animals. A few painters, however, such as Jan Nagel and
Francis Danby, show the destruction of sinful mankind as the Prometheus
waters rise. Garofalo, Benvenuto Tisi da, The Torture of Prometheus,
Representations of dramatic scenes with ships in distress fresco, 1540, Ferrara, Italy, Seminario Arcivescovile
have appeared, especially Dutch painting, since the sixteenth
in Rubens, Peter Paul, and Frans Synders, Prometheus Bound,
century. Without doubt, one of the most impressive of these painting, 1610-1611, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
paintings is The Raft of the Medusa (1819) by Theodore Philadelphia Museum of Art
 MISIORTUNE 6 I
3

Baburen, Dirck van, Prometheus Being Chained by Vulcan, Plagues

Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum
painting, 1623, Zanchi, Antonio, The Plague in Venice, oil painting, 1666,
Daumier, Honore, Promethean France and the Eagle-Vulture, Vienna, Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum
lithograph, 1871 Delaunay, Jules Elie, The Plague in Rome, oil painting, 1 869,
Kokoschka, Oskar, Prometheus Bound, from Prometheus Paris, Louvre
Sage, triptych, 1950, London, private collection Vanni, Pietro, The Plague in Siena, oil painting, before 1905,
Rome, Galleria d'Arte Moderna
Tantalus
Bloemaert, Abraham, The Punishment of Tantalus, Shipwreck
drawing, early seventeenth century, London, Courtauld Gericault, Theodore, The Raft of the Medusa, oil painting,

Institute 1 8 19, Paris, Louvre

Goya, Francisco de, Tantalus, etching, from Los Caprichos, Beckmann, Max, The Sinking of the Titanic, oil painting,
1797-1798 19 1 2, St. Louis, Missouri, The St. Louis Art Museum
Burne-Jones, Edward Coley, Tantalus, drawing, late
nineteenth century, London, Tate Gallery Airplane Crashes
Klinger, Max, The Story of Tantalus, bas-relief, from Radziwil, Franz, Death Fall of Karl Buchstatter, oil painting,

Beethoven Throne, 1902, Leipzig, Germany, Museum 1928, Essen, Germany, Museum Folkwang
der Bildenden Kiinste Warhol, Andy, 129 Die in Jet {Plane Crash), acrylic painting,
1963, Cologne, Germany, Museum Ludwig
The Deluge
Danby, Francis, The Deluge, 1840, London, Tate Gallery
Nagel, Jan, The Deluge with the Last Survivors of the Further Reading
Human Race in the Foreground, early seventeenth Henkel, Arthur, and Albrecht Schone, Emblemata, Stuttgart,
century, London, Christie, Manson and Wood Germany: Metzler, 1967
Hans A., "Zur Ikonographie der Katastrophe
Liithy, in der
Destruction of Cities Malerei," Kulturelle Monatsschrift 33 (1972)
Elsheimer, Adam, Troy Burning, oil painting, circa Osten, Glert von der, "Job and Christ," journal of the
1 600-1 601, Munich, Germany, Alte Pinakothek Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 16 (1953)
Franque, Joseph, Volcanic Eruption of the Vesuv, oil painting, Ripa, Cesare, Iconologia, London: Motte, 1709; New York:
1827, London, Heim Gallery Garland, 1976
J. M. W., Burning of the Houses of Lords and
Turner, Tervarent, Guy de, Attributs et Symboles dans Part profane,
Commons, oil painting, 1835, Cleveland, Ohio, Cleveland Geneva, Switzerland: Droz, 1958
E.
Museum of Art Wescher, Paul, "Beitrage zu Cornelis Teunissen von
Beckmann, Max, The Earthquake of Messina, oil Amsterdam," Oud Holland XLV (1928)
painting, 1908, St. Louis, Missouri, The St. Louis Art Westerhoff, Ingrid, "Hiob in der Franzosischen
Museum Kathedralskulptur," Wallraf-Richartz Jahrbuck 50 (1989)
 I
BE"
M| IMS
| -vL-i*

MONEY
Edward J. Nygren

The following periods are covered in the discussion of the theme Money:

FIFTEENTH CENTURY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

SIXTEENTH CENTURY NINETEENTH CENTURY
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY TWENTIETH CENTURY

615
6l6 MONI-Y
 MONEY 617

Victor Dubreuil, Safe Money, 1898, oil on

canvas, Washington, D.C., Corcoran
Gallery of Art, George E. Lemon Fund.
(Courtesy of the Corcoran Gallery of Art)

Money societies
is a theme unique to
have used items of value
Western art.

in
While most
exchange for
addressed in Ars Moriendi (Art of Dying Well,
century), a treatise illustrated by the Master E.
late fifteenth

S. that offers
goods and services, only the West has so fully explored the sub- guidance on how
overcome temptation and prepare for
to
ject of money in art and literature, expressing at times an death. Hieronymus Bosch took up similar ideas, as did Guyot
ambivalence toward, if not a loathing something so funda-
of, Marchant in his Dance Macabre (1485). Related themes of
mental to its political systems, economies, and cultures. Minted mortality and the insignificance of worldly wealth were
gold and silver coins were, at one time, the primary form of explored by artists such as Hans Holbein the Younger, notably
exchange, valued according to their weight. Money today is in the Death and the Rich Man woodcut he did for The Dance
primarily symbolic. Its physical form in base metal or paper has of Death series (1538). Later, Bosch, Frans Franken, and other
little or no intrinsic worth, and its value in commerce now members of their circle painted still lifes of coins and precious
wholly depends upon the backing of governments. goods juxtaposed with scenes of misers on their deathbeds.
In artistic representations, money has signified a range of Vanitas paintings from the early seventeenth century and later
ideas and concepts from sinfulness to industry and mortality to frequently included evidence of material wealth, such as coins,
good fortune. Money is, in and of itself, neither good nor evil, golden goblets, jewels, and crowns.
yet in Western thought, from antiquity to the present, there has Although specie and avarice were only implied in scenes of
been an underlying suspicion of wealth and those who pursue it. alchemy, the subject of humans attempting to turn base metal
"For the love of money is the root of all evil" (I Timothy 6:10) into gold was popular. In compositions by Pieter Bruegel the
is a view persistent in European and American literature from Elder, Adriaen van Ostade, and others, alchemists were often
William Langland's Piers Plowman (circa 1361-1395) and depicted in cluttered and impoverished interiors as the epitome
Geoffrey Chaucer's "Pardoner's Tale" from The Canterbury of a futile search for earthly riches.
Tales (1478, written 1385-1400), to Honore de Balzac's All representations of money were not, however, associated
Eugenie Grandet (1833) and Frank Norris's McTeague (1899). with sinfulness or mortality. Quentin Massys and Marinus van
Money as a metaphor for venality and decadence has visual Reymerswaele were among those sixteenth-century artists who
counterparts in both fine and popular art. As a discrete element painted bankers, moneylenders, and tax collectors recurrent —
in pictorial compositions, money made its initial appearance in business types in an emerging capitalistic world as personifi- —
the Middle Ages. One of the first painted representations of cations of venality. There were also portraits of merchants and
gold occurs in a Flemish illuminated manuscript from the early businessmen in which gold was used simply as an attribute of
fourteenth century held in the Bodleian Library in Oxford, their profession or occupation (Yamey, pp. 19-43). m The
England (Shell, fig. 10). A grotesque head, placed at the tail end Adoration of the Magi (circa 450-1460) by the Master E. S.,
1

of a dragon's body that has transformed into trailing vines, the gold coins in the cup offered to the Christ Child by one of
spews gold coins into a bowl held by one of several tendrils. the Eastern kings serve as an acknowledgment of a superior
The suggestion here seems to be that money is obscene and being, as did contemporary depictions of tax money, or a trib-
originates with the devil. Subsequent artistic renderings of the ute to a ruler.
subject can, in part, be attributed to a response to the growth The corruptive nature of money, however, has attracted
in capitalism and the secularization of society (Yunck, p. 310). and avarice, generally con-
greater artistic attention. Venality
The pursuit of money was first satirized in the early Middle sidered universal human failings, have been repeatedly treated
Ages when Roman Catholic Church reforms addressed clergy by succeeding generations of and writers since the
artists

venality and indulgence peddling (Yunck, pp. 47, 82). During Middle Ages, and remain major motivating forces in the fiction
the first millennium of the Christian period, usury also emerged and films of the modern era. In any given year, several movies
as a social ill subject to church discipline and secular restric- and television programs explore the power of money in con-
tions. Although criticism of lending money at exorbitant inter- temporary life, and the love of money leading to social devia-
est rates often took on anti-Semitic overtones, sculptures of tion, moral corruption, or crime. Contemporary fiction, such
men with moneybags on Romanesque churches appear as as Martin Amis's comic novel Money (1984), have also dealt
damned, and therefore Christian, souls (Le Goff, p. 33). with these or related ideas.
Like usury or avarice, miserliness and profligacy were sins Attitudes toward the materialism of a burgeoning capitalis-
said to lead to damnation. In "The Inferno" in The Divine tic Western society are evident 111 numerous history paintings of
Comedy (1472, written 1307-13 21), Dante Alighieri relegates the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Biblical compositions,
those who are intemperate in their handling of funds to the such as the scene of Christ driving the money changers from the
Fourth Circle of Hell. Miserliness is also one of the subjects temple by artists such as Valentin de Boulogne or Bartolomeo
6l8 MONEY
Manfredi, or the calling of Sr. Matthew by artists such as
Caravaggio, Hc-ndrick ter Brugghen, and Tobias Stomer suggest
that spiritual concerns should be placed above earthly matters.
Subjects like Moses and the golden calf caution against the mis-
guided worship of wealth, while paintings of Judas with his
pieces of silverwarn of an obsessive love of lucre.
Profane stories drawn from mythology served similar mor-
alizing purposes. Such was the case with the tale of the seduc-
tion of Danae by Jupiter, king of the Roman gods, in the form
of a shower of gold. In the Middle Ages, Danae, whose con-
ception was considered immaculate, was viewed as a prefigu-
ration of Mary. However, later artists, including Titian,
Correggio, Orazio Gentileschi, Hendrick Goltzius, and
Joachim Wteweal, used the image of gold or coins falling on a
voluptuous Danae to comment on the corruptive power of
money and mercenary love. Mercenary love is a subject fre-
quently found in the imagery of the time. For example, in Urs
Graff's Vanitas (circa 1525), with one hand a woman takes
money from a bag of gold in front of an old man who is
fondling her. With the other hand the woman gives the money
to a young man, presumably her lover. On the table before
—
them lie an array of objects musical instruments, gambling
equipment, cards, food — that speak of worldly pleasures. In the
late eighteenth century, Anne-Louis Girodet-Trioson also used
the Danae myth in his portrait Mademoiselle Lange as Danae
(1799) to satirize the actress's immoral life.
Among other classical tales of disastrous greed popular dur-
ing the Baroque period were those of Midas, mythological king
of Phrygia, and Croesus, the last king of Lydia who reigned in
the sixth century B.C. There were allegories of fortune that
included cornucopias overflowing with gold and silver that
warned against a reliance on chance. Allegory of Fortune (circa
1658-1659) by Salvatore Rosa, in which a female figure pours
wealth and power from a horn onto the backs of base, and
therefore undeserving, animals, is a painting on this theme that
also alludes to a specific case of papal nepotism during the
reign of Pope Alexander VII.
Money and moral depravity, gold and corruption, earthly
treasures and mortality are repeatedly paired in seventeenth-
century art. The blind and imprudent pursuit of pleasure, as
represented, leads to victimization and brings on financial loss.
Lecherous old men and gullible young gentlemen pay a price
for their sexual transgressions —procuresses or prostitutes in
compositions by Graff, Jan Steen, Johannes Vermeer, and
Georges de la Tour easily separate a fool from his money, which
they then pass to their accomplices. The unsuspecting, naive
youths in works by Caravaggio, Valentin, and Manfredi are
robbed or cheated as they have their fortunes told or play
cards, and gambling is the cause of degradation and conflict in
compositions by Steen and Jacob Matham. Money is frequent-
ly shown as the object of desireand the motivation for deceit.
Paintings such as Erysichthon Selling His Daughter (circa
1677) by Steen present people as commodities that can be
bought and sold, as do the ubiquitous images of prostitution
and mercenary love. Vanitas compositions filled with luxurious
items and piles of gold or silver coins express the dreams of the
merchant class (Bryson, pp. 126-127) even as they moralize.
Such is the case in still lifes by Franken, Jacques de Gheyn, and
Jean de Valdes Leal that address the insignificance of worldly
goods when compared with eternity. The mythical Golden Age,
a popular subject of the time in which humankind is placed in
a pastoral paradise, was pointedly an age without competition
30 for its namesake precious metal.
The growth of the middle classes during the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries, the expansion of trade and commerce, and
the onslaught of industrialization brought money to the fore in
an increasingly bourgeois Western society shaped by laissez-
faire economic policies. Currency continued to appear in images
of prostitution and reckless gambling, as in works by William
Hogarth and Thomas Rowlandson. As a metaphor for social
decadence and moral depravity leading to financial ruin and
even death, the accumulation of money could also symbolize the
fruit of industry and economy, as genre scenes by
it does in
George Morland. Gaming was entertainment and a way of life
for many levels of society. Cards and coins frequently appear in
social satires of the period and were even embroidered on the
cloths of gaming tables, emphasizing their illusionary qualities.
Money clearly was considered a major objective in society,
something everyone from beggar to ruler wanted and tried to
acquire. It was a central theme in Daniel Defoe's novel Moll
Flanders (1722), in which a fallen woman travels life's bumpy
road from moral ruin to financial success. Artists in several
countries caricatured its corrupting impact on the leaders of
governments. Political money was even transmuted into excre-
ment to emphasize its unseemly character. Caricatures in the
twentieth century have continued to highlight the corruptive
role money plays in the political realm.
In the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries, howev-
er, society's view of money remained ambivalent. Pursuit of it
could be sordid, but ownership ensured independence. Time was
equated with money as a measure of labor and productivity dur-
ing the Industrial Revolution, and this concept was both
embraced and parodied in literature and the visual arts. People
were encouraged by some, such as Benjamin Franklin, to acquire
and save money by whatever means possible. Yet, they were also
cautioned against its dehumanizing effects. In an age that pro-
duced Karl Marx's view of class struggle and Thorstein Vebelen's
The Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study in the
Evolution of Institutions (1899), money became "the most com-
mon theme in nineteenth-century fiction" (Vernon, p. 7). In the
novels of Honore de Balzac, money was equated with power and
often associated with the newly rich. The rags-to-riches story
became a cliche. In the United States, writers such as Horatio
Alger transformed money into an American myth. Money's psy-
cho-sexual significance, evident in paintings of the mythological
Danae as well as in novels such as Norris's McTeague, gave rise
to the Freudian concept of the "gold complex."
The nineteenth century saw an expansion in industrializa-
tion, particularly in the second half of the century. In the United
States, monopolies led to the concentration of enormous
wealth and power hands of a few. In the closing decades,
in the
a number of still-life painters began to paint canvases exclu-
sively devoted to the subject of money. Displayed on tabletops,
illusionistically tacked on boards, hung together with watches,
piled high in vaults and barrels as a sign of wealth and con-
spicuous consumption, money became a unique subtheme in
 MOM V 6iy

American painting. Paper money had been depicted occasion- United States and the "star" quality of
its currency. Artists such

ally in the trompe l'oeil compositions of British and continen- as Barton Benes and Arch Connelly shredded and collaged
tal art of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, but money and constructed sculptures from bills and coins to
only in the United States was it exploited as a subject unto exploit money's decorative qualities, illustrate a devalued cur-
itself. This undoubtedly had to do with the United States lead rency, and comment on its relationship with art. Chris Burden's
in the use of paper money as a viable currency, and with the Tower of Power (1985), an installation at the Wadsworrh
resultant, rampant counterfeiting. By depicting money, painters Atheneum in Hartford, Connecticut, is composed of 100 bars of
in effect artistically counterfeited it. Some were even harassed pure gold bullion and examines feelings about money during a
by the Department of the Treasury for their representations. period noted for its self-centered materialism. Not coincidental-
American artists also played with the conceit of illusion ver- ly, Burden tapped into money's visual potential at a time of esca-
sus reality. At a time when the idea of wealth was an illusion or lating prices in the art market. In his conceptual piece called
dream for most of the population, the reality of how a few Money (1969), Robert Morris documented, through correspon-
made their money and what they did with it became a social dence and an interest-bearing certificate of deposit, how money
concern. During a period marked by labor unrest and deep eco- works and assumes, as does art, a life of its own. Among con-
nomic depressions, Franklin's preindustrial, eighteenth-century temporary artists, J. S. G. Boggs has perhaps been the artist

dictum "time is money" became, in the hands of Ferdinand most dedicated to the theme in his explorations of the meaning
Danton Jr. and others, the focus of artistic jokes in composi- and value of art versus money in modern society. Boggs has cre-
tions depicting a bundle of money balancing a pocket watch. ated currency, often with his own likeness on the front, and used
The proliferation of money images in American art also coin- it in business transactions, documenting from original drawing

cided with a political debate over whether silver could be used through receipts and change the entire process that is the work
along with gold as a monetary standard to ensure the value of of art. His practices have led to his arrest and prosecution in sev-
paper currency. eral countries.
William Harnett is recognized as the first American to iso- Although the subject of money was addressed in classical lit-

late a single piece of paper currency and make it the sole sub- erature and its morally corrupting nature was discussed in the
ject of a painting. Many of his contemporaries, including John Bible, it was not until the Middle Ages that it emerged as a
Peto and John Haberle, as well as Danton, followed suit and theme in the visual arts. Since the Middle Ages, compositions
frequently introduced deceptive, life-size images of money in that exploited the symbolic meanings of money proliferated
their was an obscure New York painter, Victor
works. It during periods of cultural and economic change and during
Dubreuil, however, who became obsessed with the subject, periods in which secularism, mercantilism, capitalism, or mate-
almost to the exclusion of everything else. He painted many rialism dominated and introduced inherent social problems.
compositions of barrels overflowing with money, barrels pre- Whether it is a painting by Hieronymus Bosch of a miser on his
sumably sitting unused in the vault of a millionaire or in a deathbed being claimed by devils; a political cartoon by James
bank. Occasionally, as in Safe Money (1898), which depicts a Gillray that satirizes a corrupt politician in Georgian England;
large office safe stuffed with the dividends of a fictional Victor Dubreuil's barrels of paper money representing the
transcontinental railroad monopoly (North South East &c excessive wealth of America's robber barons; a film by Preston
West), Dubreuil changed the denominations of the bills to sug- Sturges about a penniless movie director on a voyage of dis-
gest the inflated values placed on the services rendered as well covery in the United States during the Great Depression; or dol-
as the excessive profits realized through those inflated prices. lar bills glued to palm trees in Venice, California, by Chris
Dubreuil's work alluded to criminal activity, perhaps as an Burden to parody the fantasy of easy money in contemporary
acknowledgment of the so-called robber barons, who con- America, images of money in art reveal the concerns and values
trolled so much of the nineteenth-century industrial United of the societies that produced them. Given the increasing com-
States. Occasionally his works exhibitec paranoid, even anti- mitment throughout the world to capitalism and the profit
Semitic reactions at a time when the belief in an international motive, a few artists, while dependent themselves on the finan-
Jewish financial conspiracy was being aired in the press. A sim- cial support of patrons and collectors, presumably will contin-

ilar fixation with money persisted in the art of Otis Kaye from ue to be appalled by, as well as fascinated with, the materialism
the early to mid-twentieth century. However, his works, while of modern life as they explore further the meaning of money, its

frequently acknowledging a debt to his nineteenth-century pre- effects on society, and its relationship to the arts.
decessors, had few overt social or political overtones.
In the second half of the twentieth century, several artists,

particularly in the United States, introduced money — real, con- See also Avarice; Damned Souls; Vices/Deadly Sins
ceptual, or representational — into their compositions (Coller,
pp. 19-31). Their works raised issues about the nature and
value of money and its connection with society and art. A pop
Selected Works of Art
image of one- and two-dollar bills was mechanically reproduced
in prints by Andy Warhol in the 1960s and then again in the Fifteenth Century
1980s. Branda Miller gave major billing to The Almighty Dollar Christus, Petrus, Saint Eligitis and the Lovers, 1449, New
in monumental lightboard on Times Square in New York
a York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Robert Lehman
(1987), perhaps an allusion to the economic dominance of the Collection
6ZO MONHY

Master E. S., The Adoration of the Magi, circa 1 490-1460, Rowlandson, Thomas, The Gaming Table at Devonshire
engraving, Chicago, Art Institute of Chicago House, pen and watercolor, 1791, New York,
Bosch, Hicronymns, Death of the Miser, circa 1490-1500, oil Metropolitan Museum of Art
on panel, Washington, D.C., National Callery of Art Gillray, James, Midas, Transmuting All into Paper, etching,
March 9, 1797, London, British Museum
Sixteenth Century Girodet-Trioson, Anne-Louis, Mademoiselle Lange as Danae,
Massys, Quentin, Moneylender and His Wife, 1514, oil on oil on canvas, 1799, Minneapolis, Minnesota, Minneapolis
panel, Paris, Louvre Institute of Arts
Lucas van Leyden, Card Player, circa 1515, oil on panel,
Wiltshire, England, Earl of Pembroke, Wilton House Nineteenth Century
Massys, Quentin, Ill-Matched Lovers, circa 1 5 1 5 , oil on Harnett, William, Still Life: Five Dollar Bill, oil on canvas,
panel, Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art 1877, Philadelphia, Philadelphia Museum of Art
Reymerswaele, Marinus van, Two Tax Gatherers, 1526, oil Nast, Thomas, Ideal Money, from Harper's Weekly, January
on panel, London, National Gallery 19, 1878
Gossaert, Jan, Portrait of a Banker, oil on panel, circa 1530, Haberle, John, Can You Break a Five?, circa 1888, Fort
Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art Worth, Texas, Amon Carter Museum
Holbein, Hans, the Younger, Death and the Rich Man, 1538, on canvas, after 1889,
Peto, John, Five Dollar Bill, oil
woodcut, Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale Brandywine River Museum, Pennsylvania
Reymerswaele, Marinus van, The Banker and His Wife, oil on
Danton, Ferdinand, Jr., Time Is Money, oil on canvas, 1894,
panel, 1539, Madrid, Spain, Prado
Hartford, Connecticut, Wadsworth Atheneum
Titian, Danae, on canvas, 1554, Madrid, Spain, Prado
oil
Dubreuil, Victor, Safe Money, 1898, oil on canvas,
El Greco, Christ Cleansing the Temple, oil on panel, circa
Washington, D.C., Corcoran Gallery of Art
1570, Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art
Money, oil on canvas,
Dubreuil, Victor, Barrels of circa 1898,
Caravaggio, Calling of St. Matthew, 1 599-1600, oil on
Brandywine River Museum, Pennsylvania
canvas, Rome, San Luigi dei Francesi

Twentieth Century
Seventeenth Century
Kaye, Otis, Breakout, oil on board, 1930, private
Goltzius, Hendrick, Jupiter and Danae, 1603, oil on canvas,
collection
Los Angeles, Los Angeles County Museum of Art
Heartfield, John, Adolf, the Superman: Swallows Gold and
Franken, Hieronymus, the Younger, Allegory of Worldly
Spouts Junk, from Workers Illustrated Neivspaper, July
Riches, oil on panel, circa 1625, Hartford, Connecticut,
17, I93 2
-

Wadsworth Atheneum
Warhol, Andy, Two-Dollar Bills, silk screen on linen, 1962,
Gentileschi, Orazio, Danae, circa 1621-1622, oil on canvas,
Cologne, Germany, Wallraf-Richatz-Museum
Cleveland, Ohio, Cleveland Museum of Art
Morris, Robert, Money, correspondence and stock certificate,
Manfredi, Bartolomeo, Christ Driving Money Changers from
1969, collection of the artist
the Temple, oil on canvas, before 1620, Libourne, France,
Burden, Chris, Tower of Power, bars of gold bullion, 1985,
Musee des Beaux-Arts
Hartford, Connecticut, Wadsworth Atheneum
Rembrandt van Rijn, Christ Driving Money Changers from
Boggs, J. S. G., Dialogue with Otis, 13 pieces (including
the Temple, 1626, Moscow, Russia, Pushkin Museum
of Art
drawings, invoice, receipt, change), 1988-1989, private
collection
Rosa, Salvatore, Allegory of Fortune, circa 165 8-1 659, oil
on canvas, Los Angeles, California, J. Paul Getty Museum
Steen, Jan, Erysichthon Selling His Daughter, oilon canvas,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Rijksmuseum
circa 1667,
Further Reading
Brugghen, Hendrick ter, Calling of St. Matthew, oil on
canvas, 1621, Utrecht, The Netherlands, Centraal Bryson, Norman, Looking at the Overlooked, Cambridge,
Museum Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1990; London:
La Tour, Georges de, The Cheat with the Ace of Diamonds, Reaktion, 1990
oil on canvas, circa 1 630-1640, Paris, Louvre Chambers, Bruce, Old Money: American Trompe I'oeil
Vermeer, Jan, The Procuress, 1656, oil on canvas, Dresden, Images of Currency, New York: Berry-Hill Galleries,
Germany, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen 1988
Clark, James, The Dance of Death in the Middle Ages and the
Eighteenth Century Renaissance, Glasgow, Scotland: Jackson, 1950
Hogarth, William, Scene in a Gaming House, 1733, oil on The Realm of the Coin: Money in
Coller, Barbara,
canvas, London, Sir John Soane's Museum Contemporary Art, Hampstead, New York: Hofstra
Morland, George, The Fruits of Early Industry and Economy, University Press, 1991
oil on canvas, 1789, Philadelphia, Philadelphia Museum Cust, Lionel, The Master E. S. and the "Ars Moriendi,"
of Art Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1898
 MONEY 621

Foucault, Michel, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of Shell, Marc, Money, Language, and Thought: Literary and
the Human Sciences, New York: Pantheon, 1970; London: Philosophic Economies from the Medieval to the Modern
Tavistock, 1970 Era, Berkeley and London: University of California Press,
La Borie, Henri, Otis Kaye: The Trompe I'oeil Vision of 1982
Reality, Oak Lawn, Illinois: Soutines, 1987 , Art and Money, Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
Le Goff, Jacques, Your Money or Your Life: Economy and 1994
Religion in the Middle Ages, translated by Patricia Ranum, Sill, Gertrude Grace, John Haberle: Master of Illusion,

New York: Zone, 1988

Springfield, Massachusetts: Museum of Fine Arts, 1985
Tampa Museum of Art, /. S. Money (Hard
G. Boggs Smart
Lipman, Jean, "Money for Money's Sake," Art in America
Currency), Tampa, Florida: Tampa Museum of Art
58:1 (January-February 1970)
Vernon, Money and Fiction: Literary Realism in the
Male, Roy, editor, Money Talks: Language and Lucre in
Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries, Ithaca, New
American Fiction, Norman: University of Oklahoma
York, and London: Cornell University Press, 1984
Press, 1980 Weschler, Lawrence, "Boggs's Bills" in Shapinsky's Karma,
Michaels, Walter Benn, "The Gold Standard and the Logic
Boggs'sBills, and Other True-Life Tales, San Francisco:
of Naturalism," Representations IX (1985) North Point Press, 1988
Nygren, Edward J., "The Almighty Dollar: Money as a Yamey, Basil S., Art and Accounting, New Haven,
Theme in American Painting," Winterthur Portfolio Connecticut, and London: Yale University Press, 1989
23:2-3 (Summer-Autumn 1988) Yunck, John, The Lineage of Lady Mead: The Development
Ratcliff, Carter, "The Marriage of Art and Money," Art in of Medieval Venality Satire, Notre Dame, Indiana:
America 76:7 (July 1988) University of Notre Dame Press, 1963
 MONTHS
Shane Adler

The following periods, motifs, and regions are covered in the discussion of the theme Months:

ANTIQUITY LOW COUNTRIES, SIXTEENTH FRENCH CYCLES,

ARCHITECTURAL CYCLES AND SEVENTEENTH SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
CENTURIES
ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS ALMANACS AND CALENDARS

623
624 MONTHS

L sluhwine
Octobrt ..
etale icy sty p/as richer tn&rors,
JZt pour noiur e/irichir fait: de ntrusi^&aucc e/fortr
/

/Ion amlenj- Js do finer de<f /ruUv en aboivcLcun. •

Par diuerje,r lt<juetirj' noiur rnontre d<; '

uj^^ance
 MONTHS 625

Nicolas Bonnart, after Robert Bonnart,

"October," from Series of the Months, sev-
enteenth century, print, Paris, Bibliotheque
Nationale. (Courtesy of the Bibliotheque
Nationale, Paris)

he calendar system of measuring developed through the cessively recopied Chronograph of 354 linked an early pictori-
JL observation of the passage of time in its natural rhythms. al calendar with inscriptions of verse by Filocalus that express
By this means, food supplies could be organized using nature's delight in the quotidian pleasures of the pastoral and join
schedule for planting and for preparing for the annual period images to attributes that can be used for recognition: May, col-
of dormancy. Most ancient civilizations followed the phases of lecting blossoms in an elongated basket as "all the wealth of
the moon to regulate the year by counting the days of the ris- spring," met the reformed March, who became a rusticated
ing and setting sun between full moons. The Babylonians and shepherd with staff or a man of the soil at a time of renewal,
the Sumerians of Mesopotamia, as well as the Chinese, recog- pruning vines or digging into the earth with his tools.
nized the span of 12 lunar months. Aware of the conflicting The separate and boxed figures prevalent in mosaic floors or
number of days distinguishing the lunar and solar
cycles, the carved wall calendars were readily adapted to manuscript illu-

Mayans of Mexico and Central America developed a complex mination. Medieval Books of Hours, intended for the laity in

method of calculating over a prolonged period, superimposing the daily recitation of prayer, preceded scriptures and opened
a shorter sacred year on the civil year of 18 months; various with pages that listed each of the feast days of the saints by
symbols aided the calculation. The Greeks looked to the star month. Even when illustrated, the months played a minor role
patterns in the night sky for symbols to denote lunar time and in the labors of humans during their allotted terms in the earth-
named the constellations that dominated the celestial sphere ly realm. Derived from Roman
imagery, these labors were not
according to the Earth's rotation. These constellations were With the corresponding zodiacal sign,
physical but allegorical.
called "little animals," or the zodiac. This circle of animals, a they were incorporated into the overall design of a page as mere
constant in the physical world, is still used to represent that decorative embellishments. Confined within medallions in the
particular span of time, but these images are temporary, as they Peterborough Psalter (circa 1320) or traveling around the text
change according to cultural values and record the passage of in historiated borders, as the bas-de-page of the Luttrell Psalter
historic, or manmade, time. (circa 1340) or the heading in the Belleville Breviary (circa
Although the Greeks used the zodiacal creatures to mark 1320), these agricultural occupations were an ensemble per-
time, the human dimension related the meaning of the months. formed within the religious context. Initially, neither landscape
The earliest extant calendar is the continuous narrative frieze nor nature was indicated except symbolically, and work was
now installed on the facade of the church of Hagios Eleutherios not physical but rather a moral obligation. Man himself was a
in Athens, Greece. This calendar displays the year as a figural passive allegorical figure representing the virtue of work, God's
sequence of man and zodiac animal. Each month that is per- and man's proscribed place. The frozen figures working
will,
sonified wears distinctive clothing that is shed as the heat inten- communally in Queen Mary's Psalter (early fourteenth century)
sifies and then covers itself as protection from the cold. are rhythmically organized against a glittering ornamental
Following the initial, passive personification is another person- background enclosed in a Gothic framework. The daily feasts
ification (man or god) who presides over a sacred event or meant that one labored to serve God and celebrate with food
feast. Prayers and offerings that the Greeks made to their gods provided by the ritual acts of sowing and reaping. Over the
pertained symbolically and actually to the provision of food; course of centuries, the months' representatives became more
this ritual was performed in the belief that a good harvest prominent and gained a sense of movement through active
depended on the humor of the ruling deities. involvement in their labors, just as the briefest suggestion of
The Romans counted 10 lunar months because their agri- land flourished and grew into a more realistic rendering of the
cultural calendar ignored the dormant stage of winter. Mars, natural world.
god of Rome, took his place at the beginning: March. The sec- Moreover, these more animated and robust figures appeared
ond king of Rome, Numa Pompilius, added the remaining when people began to exercise their own will and questioned
months and assigned dates to religious festivals. Astronomer- God's. Striving individualism was first expressed by the inclu-
priests maintained this calendar. With a single figure personify- sion of portraits of those for whom the books were made
ing each month, the Roman calendar implied activity through so that they might be admired for devotion to prayer.
posturing, and objects symbolically referring to characteristic Determinism was shown in the actions taken by both laborers
work involved in gathering and producing food indicated the and the lords to whom they were bound. Liturgical tracts, w ah
time of year. Allusions to war and peace are evident in calen- their richly painted pages, were owned by the literate, land-
dars that trace the spread of the Roman Empire. The warrior holding nobility and urban merchants, for whom agricultural
Mars, in helmet and armor, appeared into the ninth century as labor was the remote rural idyll of Roman poetry. The twelfth
far afield as Palestine. Simultaneously, the spirit of tranquillity, century concurrently saw the widespread use of the Labors ol
associated with rural life in contemporary poetic description, the Peasants motif sculpted on church portals or around holy
was embodied in the flower-gatherer of early spring. The suc- fountains and greater rigidity in the structure and separation of
626 MONTHS

classes. Dissensionand resistance destabilized the feudal sys- artist's love of the land and respect for all who inhabit that land
tem, culminating open revolts by the common people; peas-
fn prevail. Bruegel recognized that life was not idyllic for those
ants in the country and artisans in the towns vigorously who lived by physical labor in the outdoor extremes of heat
announced their grievances throughout the fourteenth century. and and he portrayed men of diligence alongside men
cold,
The manuscript tradition, with its images of peasants bent to who were indolent; some women were slothful, and others he
their tasks, reflected the reaction of the nobility. Tres Riches conferred with beauty as a reward for hard work. The land
Heures, begun before 141 5 and made for Jean, due de Berry, itself was expansive and full of natural grandeur throughout

depicted the peasants who populated the months as rough and the year; even harsh winter offered graceful abundance, as
slovenly beings carelessly clad in shoddy garments. These con- scenes are picturesque rather than spiritually desolate. Villages
trast sharply with the richly figured fabric of the clothing of the were nestled in rolling hills, and an entire community of all

courtly nobles with its dense patterns of gold, similar to the types of people was involved in their creation and maintenance.
elaborate backdrops that were a foil to the peasants' activity in There was also pleasure. Visible in the distance of the January
more traditional books. Neither idealized nor always industri- painting The Hunters in the Snow (1565) is a frozen pond
ous, the image of the peasants has been altered, and their where the townsfolk have gathered to exhibit their varying
human dignity is in question. Furthermore, for the first time, skills at ice-skating. In harsh contrast are the villagers and peas-
the representation of a month fills an entire page, just as the ants of Cornelis Dusart's engraved cycle of months. With his
calendar material does, and is placed before it. And the proud sardonic, moralistic approach, Dusart depicts not labor but
aristocrats themselves command pictorial prominence, replac- constant and consistent raucous misbehavior and drunken rev-
ing the peasants in the foreground of a significant number of elry. A cautionary note is added as his loutish skaters speed
pages with their and purely secular pursuits,
pleasurable recklessly toward cracked ice.

including courtship, hunting, and hawking. The landscape set- The series of prints by Jacques Callot takes, as did that of
tings are vivid evocations of actual locations, yet this is not Bruegel, a high vantage point, or a look downward on the vil-

God's but the duke's own domain. In the distance, on the hori- lage setting, as from a benevolent god. The months of Callot,
zon between heaven and Earth, are magnificent castles, a dif- however, share that perspective with an onlooker: a standing
ferent one for each month, with turrets and crenellated towers man on the crest of the hill, a single, parenthetical figure who,
gracing the skies instead of the spires of cathedral or church. like the artist, might be commentator to this particular view of
During the time that elapsed between the commencement of countryman Jean Mariette saw
the lives of his fellows. Callot's
work on Tres Riches Heures and its completion in 1482-1489, rural life and charmingly pastoral. Gentle rejoicing
as pure
a hall of months, "Sala dei Mesi," was executed in Ferrara, marked the village year. Resting gratefully from hard work,
Italy, for Duke Borso d'Este at his Palazzo Schifanoia. Inserting comely, nicely dressed peasants enjoy the fruit they have picked
oneself in the miniatures of a devotional book was a grandiose or find divertissements in rowing on the lake where clothes are
gesture of self-tribute that was extraordinary in its time. Yet, washed or dancing in the fields.
this public room, enlivened with 12 large, vibrant fresco paint- Time and timelessness were explored by Pierre-Antoine Patel
ings in which the year revolves around the duke, clearly dis- II in landscape months painted for the headquarters of the Jesuit

played his pretensions. Moreover, although peasants continued order in Paris in 1699. As the year passed in eternal motion and
to perform their labors in unison —
preparing food for their per- continual change, he revealed ancient monuments fallen into
sonal feasts —
sacred content was absent from these months. ruin and the creations of nature and man counterpoised and
Pagan deities of Olympus, the gods of the ancient world, frozen in time like icy winter. Although many artist-engravers
reasserted themselves as rulers of the heavens, bestowing still months as rural labors, their pictorial repre-
depicted the
homage on the duke in a world apparently made for his plea- sentation had become a subject for personal exegesis that was
sure. Another large-scale decorative scheme transforming four completely dissociated from a calendar function.
walls into the year-round indicates the northward movement of About a century later, in 1792, the structure of the human
the calendar cycle during the Renaissance. The workshop of environment was dismantled in revolution and a new calendar
Bernaert van Orley produced several series borrowing the given to the French nation. Time began again with the year 1,
motifs of traditional laborers. For Emperor Charles V, the artist which was divided into 12 months of 3 decades, each of which
designed Hunts of Maximilien (circa 1525) with the theme of a was named according to natural phenomena of climate and
single month extended to an entire cycle. The variety of settings season: for spring, Germinal (germination), Floreal (flowering),
was provided by the different hunting sites preferred by the and Prairial (meadows). Female figures dressed like Roman
emperor's uncle in the forest of Soignes outside Brussels, goddesses returned the idiom to simple allegory in prints by
Belgium. The set, reproduced in tapestries at least three times Louis Lafitte. Ventose, in a sleeveless chemise and holding a
in the following century by the Gobelins manufactory in fishing rod and a basket with her catch (the sign of Pisces),
France, defined a realm outside time, a realm mandated not by clutches the scarf that has been blown from her shoulder by the
changes months but by a man's quest for diversion.
in nature's late winter wind.
The smiling countenance in Simon Bening's calendar pages The first almanacs were published in China, where the
provided a foundation for the development of Netherlandish months were represented by deities bearing baskets of flowers
landscape art, with its deeply felt sentiment for nature. Bening's appropriately blooming. Widely disseminated in the West after
picture-book scenes of harmonious contentment and bright 1500, almanacs were printed on an annual basis, and the
color seem to lead directly to the panoramic view of Pieter calendar was specific to the days and months of real time. The
Bruegel the Elder. Although Bruegel's series of monthly activi- calendar portion, conjoining aspects religious and scientific,
ties was privately commissioned by a well-to-do patron, the maintained its Christian function as a reminder of feast and
 MONTHS 627

holy days and a reinforcer of spiritual authority through prayers sacred celebrations, are marked by greeting cards marketed in
and moral instruction in the text. Astronomical and agricultur- turn year-round. Such cards best illustrate the maxim: If they
al information required the pictured labors ofhumans marking didn't already exist, holidays would have to be invented.
the months to be seen in a secular setting. As the forerunners of Originating in the mid-nineteenth century with Christmas and
journals and magazines, the material in these volumes varied soon after with sentiments for sweethearts on St. Valentine's
according to readership. The volumes intended for peasants usu- Day, greeting cards were developed by printers of advertising
ally provided their only source of written information. calendars.
By the seventeenth century, innovation appeared in the sub- The year has been visualized as a circle, ceaselessly revolv-
ject matter of almanac illustrations, which began to reflect ing in recurring cycles. Familiar themes from Bruegel's village
the contemporary interests of the wealthy and literate. appear in Atmo's Counting Book for preschoolers, in which
Concurrently issued were a Parisian calendar, with etched por- each two-page spread is a wordless month bustling with activ-

traits of the French royal family framed as the literal headpiece ity. The building of the town progresses from one picture to the
to each month, and a peasant calendar, such as Almanach des next. As the months and the weather change, the town and its
Bergers with its rough woodcuts inherited from the medieval population grow. By the year's end, the story, like the town, is

tradition and reused unchanged through the eighteenth centu- completed, a concept not present in the separate occupations
ry. Almanac illustration for the learned public was concerned conventionalized as the months in art. Only in this book for

with immediacy. Daniel Chodoweicki, working in the young children is work a sign of progress that is seen to a log-
mid-eighteenth century, created a vast quantity of engravings ical and satisfying conclusion.

for German almanacs and calendars by using current events

and contemporary literary narratives as well as the latest fash-
See also Harvesting; Labor/Trades/Occupations; Peasantry;
ion news. In France, the earlier print cycles of the brothers
Zodiac
Bonnart or Pierre Valleran had featured modishly attired aris-

tocratic women as the icons of the months, posed with the sym-
bolic objects indicative of the labors. The association of women
with changing fashions according to a monthly schedule was
Selected Works of Art
more pronounced and even encouraged in the many almanacs
prepared for ladies. Antiquity
One of these ladies almanacs, Le Petit Modiste Francais, Hagios Eleutherios (Panagia Gorgopiko), frieze, first century
dedie aux Dames (Paris, Le Fuel, i8zz), had iz colored plates, B.C., Athens, Greece, Little Metropolitan Church
each of a woman well dressed in clothes suited to the weather, Floor Mosaic, early sixth century, Argos, Israel, Villa of the
with the only lettering the name of the month. Like other com- Falconer
mercial books since the Livre Commode, later titled Almanac Mosaic Pavement, sixth century, Beisan, Israel, El Hamman
du Commerce de Paris, and the almanacs published by individ- Circular Calendar, ninth century, Vatican, Vatican Library
ual merchants as advertisements, it listed addresses for those
who and products.
sold specialized services In the nineteenth Architectural Cycles
century, the profusion of women's monthly periodicals, aided
Sculptured Slabs "Porta dei Mesi," twelfth century, Ferrara,
by this association of fashionable women and the cachet of
Italy, Museo del Duomo
Paris, used fashion plates to correlate the timely image and the Museo
Sculpted Capitals, twelfth century, Brescia, Italy,
purchase of yet more finery. The months no longer represented
Civico, Eta Cristiana
male agricultural work but female embellishment.
Reliefs on Architrave of Porch, twelfth century, Verona, Italy,
In the United States, the Brown &c Bigelow Company, print-
San Zeno
ers of calendars since1897, introduced the "calendar girl" as
Reliefs on Archivolt of Portal, twelfth century, Argenton-le-
an independent subject in 1904. Thereafter, the appealing
Chateau, France, St. Grilles
image of an attractive young woman was used to promote
Giraldus, Relief on Tympanum of Portal, twelfth century,
products through calendar advertising, as did Coca-Cola in
Bourges, France, St. Ursin
19ZZ. Unlike fashion plates, however, references to time or
Baptismal Font, twelfth-thirteenth century, St. Evroult-de-
temperature were gradually eliminated, the most conspicuous
Montfort, France, Church of St. Evroult-de-Montfort
example being the bathing suit worn through the course of the
year. More significantly, whereas the models initially suggested
Illuminated Manuscripts
enjoyment for all who used the advertised merchandise, the cal-
endar girls, by emphasizing attractiveness and thereby attract- Mss. Acq. e doni 181, eleventh century, Florence, Italy,

ing attention, themselves became the product. Furthermore, Laurentian Library

their predecessors' purpose was to provide fashion information Ms. 614, twelfth century, Oxford, Bodleian Library
to women about their appearance; the pinup is a promotional Queen Mary's Psalter, early fourteenth century, London,
form intended to entice male viewers to buy in order to look, British Museum (Ms. Royal zB VII)
and what is sold is an attitude. Peterborough Psalter, circa 13ZO, Cambridge, England,
At present, only those calendars with pictures of landscapes, Corpus Christi College (Ms. 53)
nature photography, or fine art reproductions show concor- Belleville Breviary, circa 13Z5, Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale
dance with a time of year or a vision of nature unaltered like a Luttrell Psalter, circa 1340, London, British Museum
lost paradise. Holidays, the descendants of feast days and (MS. lat. 10483)
628 MONTHS

Limbourg Brothers, and Jean Colombe, Tres Riches Heures Gravelot, Hubert, Almanachs iconologiqucs, 1 765-1 781,
du Due de Berry, before 141 5, Chantilly, France, Musee Paris
Conde (Ms. 65) Almanach de la Cour de la Vdle et des Departments

Bedford Master, follower of, circa 1430, Baltimore, 1806-1848, Paris, Chez Janet
Maryland, Walters Art Gallery (MS. 285) Grevin, A., and Adrien Huart, Almanach de Parisiennes,
Bening, Simon,Da Costa Hours, circa 1 5 1 5, New York, 1870-1 899, Paris, Depot Central des Almanachs Publies a
Pierpont Morgan Library
399)(M Paris
Bening, Simon, Heures de Hennessy, circa 1 520-1 530, Pelletan, Edouard, Almanach du Bibliophile, 1 898-1903,
Brussels, Belgium, Bibliotheque Royale de Belgique Paris
Meynial, Jules, La Guirlande des Mois, 1917-1922, Paris
Low Countries, Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries Boy Scout Calendar, 1925-1975, St. Paul, Minnesota, Brown
Orley, Bernaert van, The Hunts of Maximilien, drawings, & Bigelow
circa 1525; tapestries, circa 1531, Paris, Louvre
Orley, Bernaert van, School of , The Months of Lucas,
tapestries, circa 1535, New York, Metropolitan Museum Further Reading
of Art
Akerstrom-Hougen, Gunilla, The Calendar and Hunting
Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, The Hunters in the Snow, 1565,
Mosaics of the Villa of the Falconer in Argos, Stockholm,
Vienna, Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum
Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, The Gloomy Day, 1565, Vienna, Sweden: Svenska Institute, 1974
Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum Alexander, Jonathan, "Labeur and Paresse," Art Bulletin

Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, The Return of the Herd, 1565,
Vienna, Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum
Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, Haymaking, 1565, Prague, Czech
Republic, National Gallery
Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, The Harvesters, 1565, New York,
LXXIL3 (September 1990)
Andries, Lise, "Almanacs: Revolutionizing a Traditional
Genre," Revolution in Print, edited by Robert Darnton
and Daniel Roche, Berkeley and London: University of
California Press, 1989

Metropolitan Museum of Art Gordon, Olga Koseleff, "Two Unusual Calendar Cycles of
Engraved Cycles: Cornelis Dusart, Hans Bol, Frederick the Fourteenth Century," Art Bulletin XLV3 (September
Bloemaert, Jan van de Velde, Jacob Matham, Jost Amman, 1963)
Crispijn de Passe, Julius Goltzius, Adriaen Collaert, Lehmann, Karl, "The Dome of Hell," Art Bulletin XXVII: 1

Jeremias Falck, Peter van der Borcht IV (March 1945)

Levi, Doro, "The Allegories of the Months in Classical Art,"

French Cycles, Seventeenth Century Art Bulletin XXIIL4 (December 1941)

Jacques Callot, Abraham Bosse, Jean Mariette, Jean Bonnart, Parker, Richard Anthony, The Calendars of Ancient Egypt,
Nicolas Bonnart, Pierre Valleran, Antoine Trouvain, Pierre- Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1950
Antoine Patel II Pearsall, Derek, and Elizabeth Salter, Landscapes and Seasons

of the Medieval World, London: Paul Elek, 1973

Almanacs and Calendars Webster, James Carson, The Labors of the Months in Antique
Kalendanum, 1499-15 12, Augsburg, Germany and Medieval Art, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton
Almanach des Bergers, fourteenth-twentieth century, Paris, University Press, 1938
Liege Wieck, Roger S., Time Sanctified: The Book of Hours in

Oxford Almanack, 1634-present, Oxford, England Medieval Art and Life, New York: Braziller, 1988
Almanach de la Toilette et la co'effure des dames francaises, Willard, James F., "Occupations of the Months in Medieval
ijjj-zjjy, Paris, Chez Desnos Calendars," The Bodleian Quarterly Record 7:74 (1932)
 •4

MUSIC
Yona Pinson

The following iconographic narratives and motifs are covered in the discussion of the theme Music:

APOLLO PRAISE OF GOD: SACRED MUSIC AND LOVE: LUST AND

ORPHEUS
AND CELESTIAL MUSIC CORRUPTION

IMMORTALITY
MUSIC: TRANSIENCE AND PERSONIFICATIONS OF
FUTILITY MUSIC
DAVID
MUSIC AND LOVE: HARMONY

629
630 MUSK
 music 631

Achilles Painter, A Muse with a Lyre Seated

on the Mount Helicon with a Nightingale
on the Ground, circa 440 B.C., red-figured,
white-ground lekythos from Attica,
Lugano, Switzerland, Von Schoen
Collection. (Courtesy Max Hirmer)

M usic oft hath such a charm

To make bad good, and good provoke
(William Shakespeare, Measure for Measure)
to harm.
of the aulos (flute), an instrument that Athena/Minerva reject-
ed and upon which she laid a curse. Marsyas, innocent victim
of the curse, was challenged by Apollo, who was
the harsh sounds of the flute, to a musical contest of pipe ver-
irritated by

Music has been assigned conflicting attributes from the very

sus lyre. This competition between the noble music of the
beginning of Western culture. Symbolically, this conflict has
stringed instrument (lyre) and the low music of the wind
often split the concept of music into the mythical realm of
instrument (aulos) ended, naturally, in the victory of the lyre.
Orpheus and Apollo's stringed instruments versus the wind
As punishment Apollo had Marsyas flayed alive. The contest
instruments of Dionysus/Bacchus, Eros, and Venus. Music in
and Marsyas's punishment are usually depicted as separate
the former sense was thought to represent the sublime, the
scenes. Marsyas typically plays a traditional double-flute,
divine, and Pythagorean measure, reason, and harmo-
relate to
occasionally replaced in Renaissance representations by a
ny. The latter, contrasting concept of music thought of it as an
syrinx (panpipe). In classical antiquity and the Renaissance,
orgiastic, sensual, low form of expression that evoked bestial
the contest took on a symbolic meaning. The pure, elevated
passions and stimulated sinfulness. This dichotomous legacy,
tone of strings was thought to have spiritual, ethical, and intel-
invested with moral significance, has been emphasized through-
lectual qualities, while the coarse, sensual sound of a wind
out Christian and humanistic thinking.
instrument was related to blind passion and corruption. Thus,
Middle Ages, music was considered part of the
In the
Athena's rejection of the aulos became an allegorical act of
quadrivium (the arts of science and measure), a Pythagorean
reason.
concept championed by the Roman philosopher Boethius and
Apollo Musagetes (Apollo as represented in the act of play-
adopted by the fathers of the Roman Catholic Church, as evi-
ing the lyre while accompanied by the Muses) is a classical
dent in their theological, poetical, and mystical texts. St.
source of artistic inspiration, as in Dante's // paradiso in The
Augustine's treatise De Musica (fourth century) is related to the
Divine Comedy (1472, written 1307-1321), in which the poet
quadrivium concept: music signifies measure and symbolizes
addresses Apollo Musagetes and asks him for help. In
the harmonious movement of the celestial spheres. St.
Raphael's Parnassus 508-1 511) in the Stanza della Segnatura
Augustine also stressed that music without measure that is, — (

in the Vatican, Apollo plays a lira de braccio (lyre) while

—
without science signified corruption. This concept is
accompanied by the Muses and an assembly of ancient and
expressed in church decorations and illuminated manuscripts
modern poets.
from the twelfth century on, in which depictions of music relate
The lira de braccio became an emblem of Musicae and
it to measure and harmony through its personification as one
Poesia, personifications of music and poetry respectively, two
of the liberal arts, as well as its association with the heavenly
of the seven liberal arts. Its seven strings became associated
spheres. Music was, at that time, regarded as the perfect vehi-
with the cosmological symbolism of music, representative of
cle through which to praise God: the Gloria in Excelsis said to
the seven spheres (Zarlino, Le istitutioni harmoniche, Venice,
be sung by the angels was a symbol of eternity. Musical activi-
Italy, 1558). Raphael's rendering of Apollo's lira da braccio has
ty is often on the side of vice rather than virtue, however, as
nine strings, a possible reference to the nine Muses but perhaps
reflected mainly through marginal decorations referring to lust
also to the nine Greek modes. In playing the nine strings,
as human folly.
Apollo was thought to move the Muses: "residing among them
he embraces the Universe" (Natalis Comes, Mithologiae libri

Apollo decern, Padua, Italy, 161 6).

Nicolas Poussin also used Apollo's sublime music as the
Apollo, the Greek and Roman god of music, was said to dwell source of poetic his Apollo and the Muses
inspiration in
on Mount Parnassus. He was envisioned as playing a lyre and (Parnassus) (circa 1632), and his two versions of the Inspiration
acted as the personification of music, poetry, learning, and sci- of the Poet (circa 1677) in Hannover, Germany, and the Louvre
ence. In the drawing Apollo in the Garden of Arts and Science in Paris. In the Louvre version, Apollo's lyre has no strings one —
(before 1605) by Jan van der Straet, Apollo holds a lyre and can only imagine an inner music made by plucking.
plectrum and sits in front of Mount Helicon with the Muses The theme of the inspired musician is rather rare in paint-
around him. ing. There is an allegorical portrait by Andrea Sacchi (circa
The story of Apollo and Marsyas is told by Ovid 1648) that shows the famous musician and singer Marcantonio
(Metamorphoses, 6:38z-40o; Fasti, 6:703-708) and Pasqualini crowned by Apollo. The pendant to this is a paint-
Philostratus the Younger (Imagines, 2). Marsyas, a satyr who ing of Marsyas lasciviously playing his bagpipes (in the
was one of Bacchus's companions, was charmed by the sounds Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York).
632 MUSIC

Orpheus esting mix of Greco-Roman and Christian connotations is thus

like Apollo, Orplu-us, the legendary Thracian musician and
poet, was said to be endowed with magical and divine powers.
Through his music he calmed the ferocious forces on Earth and
in Hades by defeating the agents of evil, such as the sirens and
produced as Orpheus's deliverance of Eurydice is infused with
allegorical meanings, as it was in Dante's // purgatorio from
The Divine Comedy and later by Ficino.

the dragon of Colchis, who guarded the Golden Fleece. Immortality

The subject of Orpheus charming and calming nature with
his music (Ovid, Metamorphoses, 10:84-105) became a popu- Music and immortality have a long association. When played by
lar one in Greco-Roman culture: it decorates many floor theMuses as conducted by Apollo Musagetes, music was sym-
mosaics, mural paintings (Pompeii, Italy), and art objects. bolic of the divine harmony of the spheres. In Greco-Roman
Orpheus is almost always portrayed with a young, beardless, theology, this motif was fused with the image of Phoebus
and dreamy face; seated on a rock under a tree; and holding a (Apollo as the sun-god, center of the universe and source of life).

lyre or a kithara (like a lyre, but larger) and a plectrum. Since The image of Apollo (or Orpheus) playing his lyre while accom-
the Greco-Roman period, this scene of Orpheus beneath a tree panied by the Muses' music was one of redeeming promise.
has been imbued with allegorical meanings and used as a sym- Sepulchral monuments in late antiquity are often decorated with
bol of a peaceful, paradisiacal era when wild and tame animals this motif as a promise of immortality, as on the Roman
would live side by side (Macrobius, Commentarii in Somnium Sarcophagus of the Muses in the Vatican Museum. Sometimes a
Scipionis, II, 3, 7). This messianic motif was adopted by Jewish representation of the purifying music of Apollo's lyre is con-
and early Christian artists to illustrate Isaiah's prophecy that trasted with one of Marsyas's lascivious playing, a symbol of the
"the wolf also shall dwell with the lamb, and the leopard shall souls that will not rise from Hades, as on the Roman
lie down with the kid" (Isaiah 11:6-9). The symbolic figure of Sarcophagus of Sidon in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek in
Orpheus can be compared to another messianic musician, King Copenhagen, Denmark. Sometimes the Apollonian motif is
David, as in the Gaza synagogue mosaic and the Dura-Europos combined with the image of Orpheus, a human who survived
wall painting in Syria. Early representations of Jesus Christ as a journey into Hades. The idea that immortality is granted
a shepherd sitting among his flock, holding a lyre, derive from to those who dedicate themselves to the arts of music and
the Orphic image, such as the Good Shepherd lunette of the poetry was expressed in many funerary monuments of late
Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, Italy. antiquity.
This concept of peaceful and purifying Orphic music was The ardent Renaissance interest in classical heritage and the
one set against that of orgiastic, Dionysiac music. In a concurrent discovery of Roman sarcophagi influenced quattro-
Jerusalem floor mosaic now in the Archeological Museum in cento memorial monuments. The tendency to achieve a recon-
Istanbul, Turkey, the viewer can seeOrpheus among wild ani- pagan and Christian doctrines of immortality and
ciliation of
mals, a centaur, and Pan holding his syrinx. The moralizing redemption can be seen in Ficino's influential work Theologica
legacy of the Orphic myth can be traced first to the writings of Platonica de lmmortalite Animarium (1480). The allegorical
Cassiodorus, and later to Ovid's Moralisee. It was eventually association of the Muses' music with salvation and immortali-
adopted by Renaissance humanists (Dante, // convivio, II, 1, 3; ty was also adopted by Filippino Lippi in decorating the Strozzi
Marsilio Ficino, Opera, 318; Poliziano, Orpheus, 1480). The burial chapel (1497-1502) in Santa Maria Novella in Florence,
moralistic quality of Orphic music was expressed in many in which pagan musical symbolism is combined with Christian
Renaissance works, especially in Neoplatonic circles and at the salvational symbolism. Images of the Muses making music are
court of Lorenzo de' Medici. Bertoldo di Giovanni, Lorenzo's accompanied by biblical inscriptions that promise eternal life,
court sculptor, made a series of bronze plaques devoted to the such as "The gift of God is the water of Life" (John 4:10). The
Orphic myth (circa 1480) as well as a lyric statuette, now in the metaphorical figure of Parthenice, related to Mantovano's
Bargello in Florence, Italy, of Orpheus playing a lira da braccio, poem of 1480 celebrating Mary playing a lyre, is modeled on a
eyes uplifted toward divine inspiration. Muse, who is a pagan promise of immortality. A palm tree
When Orpheus descended into Hades to deliver his beloved stands behind her, as a Christian emblem of triumph over
Eurydice, his music was said to overcome and
infernal forces death. With great virtuosity, Filippino combines the ancient
momentarily change the course of time (Ovid, Metamorphoses, doctrine of immortality with a Christian theological concept.
10:11-16). Pluto, god of the underworld, and his queen The juxtaposition of virtue with the celestial music of the
Persephone were charmed by Orpheus's playing. This scene has Muses confirms the Christian promise of salvation.
been portrayed on a cassone (a marriage chest for dowry) by The Renaissance notion of music as a means of overcoming
Jacopo del Sellaio (fifteenth century), on a plaque (fifteenth death is therefore inherited from classical theology, although it

century) by Giovanni, and in a drawing (before 161 1) by is sometimes completely transformed into a Christian idiom,
Bartholomaeus Spranger at the Germanisches Nationalmuseum such as when angels playing musical instruments accompany
in Niirnberg, Germany. the dying or ascending Virgin. This subject is represented in
During the Renaissance, the scene of Orpheus in the under- Vittore Carpaccio's Death of the Virgin (early sixteenth centu-
world became part of a larger humanist-religious iconographic ry) in the Accademia in Venice, Italy; his The Assumption of the
program. Luca Signorelli's decoration in Orvieto Cathedral in Virgin (early sixteenth century) in the National Gallery in
Italy (1500) is dedicated to the Five Last Things, an expression London; and the Master of St. Lucy's Mary Queen of Heaven
of a reformist tendency and Neoplatonic attitudes. A very inter- (Assumption) (late fifteenth century) in the National Gallery of
 MUSIC 633

Art in Washington, D.C. Images of music-making angels sym- Musical healing has also been assigned moral meaning. John
bolic of immortality and specifically related to Christ are sel- Calvin saw the healing of the tormented soul of King Saul as a
dom found. In the Missal of Henry of Chichester (circa 1200), victory over diabolical domination. In Rembrandt's David
an English illuminated manuscript in the John Rylands Library Before Saul (1656) in the Mauritshuis, in The Hague, The
in Manchester, England (Ms. lat. 24 fol. 12), Christ steps out of Netherlands, the delivered king grasps a curtain to wipe away
a tomb holding the cross pennant of victory over death. He is his tears, showing that the music has indeed softened his dis-

flanked by angel-musicians, emblems of his immortality, an turbed spirit.

image that is unique to this iconographic program. When the triumphant David returned from his battle with
Goliath, the Israelite women came out singing, dancing, and
playing music to praise him (I Samuel 18:6-7). This scene is

David depicted Hendrick Terbrugghen's Triumphant David With

in

Singers in the Raleigh, North Carolina, Museum of Art, and in

King David's music is similarly related to a messianic promise. Poussin's The Triumph of David in the Dulwich Picture
David the psalmist, first composer of liturgical hymns and Gallery in London. In Poussin's Victorious David (circa 1627)
sacred music, personified the praise of God. His music was also in the Prado in Madrid, Spain, David is crowned by Victory as

said to have possessed therapeutic qualities. In the art of late the triumphant warrior returns from battle with Goliath's
antiquity and the early Middle Ages, scenes of David the shep- head.
herd playing his harp in a pastoral setting (I Samuel 16) are

reminiscent of those of Orpheus charming the animals. In these

scenes, David, the anointed and chosen son, incarnates a mes- Praise of God: Sacred and Celestial Music
sianic promise and typifies Christ God's son as the Good —
Shepherd. David sometimes plays a psaltery, which refers to The image of celestial music from heavenly choirs derives from
Christ's body, while his kithara is related to Christ's Passion was symbolic of the
the ancient notion that the Muses' music
(Jacques-Paul Migne, Patrologia Latina, XXL872; Ovid, harmonious motion of the seven celestial spheres. An early
Moralisee, X, 2925-2928). In late antique Judaism, David's Christian Apocrypha, Ascension of Isaiah (first century),
harp was endowed with mystic meanings. According to some describes the seven celestial circles as populated by angelic
Talmudic legends, the strings were made out of the gut of the choirs singing in praise of God. This image later inspired Dante
ram sacrificed by Abraham on Mount Moriah; at midnight (// purgatorio, XXX, 93). Beginning in the thirteenth century,
they vibrated to call the royal psalmist to praise God. the motif became associated with Mariological topics. It
David was the founder of the cult of music and liturgical became widespread and was originally connected to September
hymns in the Tabernacle (I Chronicles i5:i6ff; 16:7-24; II 6, the birth of the Virgin. At that time, laudes were flourishing

Chronicles 5:12-13) and devoted himself to God's service: all over Europe, sung in churches and processions in honor of

"Seven times a day do I praise thee, because of thy righteous Mary. Musical angels singing Gloria became a popular motif in
judgments" (Psalm, 119:164). David in praise of God is repre- Italy and the Netherlands in the fifteenth century. Examples of

sented in works such as Jodocus van Winghe's David Singing such representations include Les Tres Riches Heures du Due de
God's Praise (before 1603) in the Episcopal Museum in Berry (before 141 5) in the Musee Conde in Chantilly, France;
Haarlem, The Netherlands, and Rembrandt van Rijn's King Fra Angelico's Coronation of the Virgin (1445) in the Uffizi
David in the Kaplan Collection in New York. In Pieter de Gallery in Florence; and Robert Campin's Nativity (circa 1427)
Witte's David Singing God's Praise (before 1628) in the Frans in the Musee des Beaux-Arts in Dijon, France. Sometimes heav-
Hals Museum in Haarlem, David the psalmist orders a congre- enly music played by the angels is opposed by bad music
gation of saints to "sing unto the Lord a new song" (Psalm inspiredby the devil. This dichotomy is expressed in the
149:1) and conducts a heavenly choir of angels and saints. In Annunciation (fol. 16) in Jean Pucelle's Hours of Jeanne
this composition, earthly and heavenly music are metaphori- d'Evreux (circa 1325) in the Cloisters at the Metropolitan
cally joined. St. Ambrose compared the psalmist's singing to the Museum of Art in New York, in which a choir of angels singing
harmony of the spheres (Migne, Patrologia Latina, XIV, 926) laudes is opposed by corrupt, music-making "pseudo-angels,"
and according to Cassiodorus, celestial melodies were con- who turn into demons in the marginal decorations.
tained in David's music {Institutiones divinarum et humanarnm In 1495), an apocalyptic image
Virgin in Glory (before
litterarum, III). An early twelfth-century Psalter in the (Revelation 12:1-13) attributed to the artist Geergten tot Sint
Bibliotheque Municipale in Metz, France (Ms. 14, fol. 1, now Jans, the Virgin holds the Christ Child in the middle of an enor-
destroyed) depicted David playing heavenly melodies on his mous, luminous glory of angels. This shining assembly is com-
kithara, enthroned with personifications of the seasons and posed of a large number of angel-musicians who carry the
humors, seated within the concentric circles of the cosmos. instruments of the Passion and pennants inscribed sanctus
David playing his harp before Saul has also been frequent- (holy). This marvelous visualization of a heavenly angel choir
ly represented in works of art. Through his music, David was arranged in concentric rings refers to the classical concept of
said to have delivered the tormented soul of Saul, the rejected it was interpreted in Christian theology.
the celestial spheres as
king, from the spell of melancholia (I Samuel 16:23). The Christ Child animatedly shaking a pair of bells may be seen
Therapeutic functions have traditionally been ascribed to as conducting, or even originating, the heavenly music.
music, especially in the treatment of melancholy, such as in According to Gregory of Nyssa, God is the prime mover who
Johannes de Muris, Summa Musica (thirteenth century). generated the music of the universe by creating the harmonious
634 MUSIC

motion of the spheres. Angels playing music in the Virgin's emblems in northern Furope combined music-making, musical
mandorla also "suggest her immortality. instruments, and music books with fading flowers, skulls,
The Gloria (ihristi is also one of the great themes of reli- hourglasses, wine, bubbles, and other symbols of Vanitas
gious music and painting. Apocalyptic liturgy refers to 24 Vanitatum as allegories of vanity.
enthroned elders in the vision of the mystic lamb (Revelation The Allegory of Transitoriness, attributed to a pupil of
5:6), and to a celestial choir of angels (Revelation 15). The Frans van Mieris and held in the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam,
elders praising the Lord "fell down before the Lamb, having The Netherlands, is composed of a woman pointing to a skull
every one of them harps, and they sung a new song"
. . . that holds a musical score in mouth, accompanied by the
its

(Revelation 5:8-10). This messianic melody was accompanied
by "the voice of many angels round about the throne ."
(Revelation 5:1 1) singing the Lord's glory, as in the
of St. Pierre (1136-1153) in Moissac, France, and Hans
Memling's Saint John's Vision; The Mystic Marriage of St.
Catherine (1479) in St. John's Hospital in Bruges, Belgium. In
another apocalyptic vision, the Dutch illuminated manuscript
The Choir of Seven Angels on the Crystal Sea, angels stand on
a sea of glassand hold the harps of God to celebrate victory
over the Beast (Revelation 1 5:2-4).
Jan van Eyck's The Ghent Altarpiece (completed 1432), a
In
choir of angels sings in a motet while accompanied by organ,
homo bulla and faded flowers motifs. In northern European
. . humanist culture, the idea of vanity was so closely associated
tympanum with music that it is not surprising to find musical instruments
and scores inscribed with pessimistic citations from
Ecclesiastes. Dutch seventeenth-century composer Jan Pietersz
Swillinck signed a canon with the words Vanitas vanitatum et
omnia vanitas (Vanity, vanity all is vanity). Other musical
scores are decorated with additional emblems of vanity such as
skulls and flowers.
Musical instruments and books are often integrated into
Dutch seventeenth-century vanitas portraits or vanitas self-por-
traits. Examples include Gerard Dou's The Artist in His Studio

harp, and violin. This image of celestial music refers to apoca- in the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen in Dresden, Germany, and
lyptic liturgy but may also be related to the Gloria Dei motif. Edwaert Colyer's emblematic self-portrait (before 1702) in a
On the floor, one can distinguish Christ's monogram IHS, the private collection in Munich, Germany, in which the painter
alpha and omega, and the abbreviation of Isaiah's messianic presents his late wife's portrait to the onlooker. An open score
prophecy, AGALA, in glorification of the Lord. This Gloria Dei of funerary music is entitled Memento Mori, and a piece of
theme is also the subject of Memling's two Christ in Glory paper emerging from a book bears the legend Vita brevis ars
paintings —one at the Musee des Beaux-Arts in Strasbourg, longa (life is short, art long). The still life on the table combines
Museum voor Schone Kunst
France, the other at the Koninklijk different vanitas emblems, such as a skull, musical instruments,
in —
Antwerp, Belgium in which the King of Kings is surround- a watch, a pipe, and the artist's palette. Music in vanitas alle-
ed by singing and playing angels. gories is sometimes found in conjunction with emblems that
belong to the Vita Voluptuosa (life is full of pleasure). On the
table before Colyer, a flute lies on a musical score showing a
Music: Transience and Futility melody by Jacob van Eyck entitled The Flute of the Garden of
Pleasure.
Transience and futility are two themes associated with music
that are amply illustrated in Western paintings. Music, the tran-
sient art of sounds, is and
often associated with time, death, Music and Love: Harmony
vanity. In Poussin's The Dance of Human Life
allegory
(1638-1639) in the Wallace Collection in London, a "ballet" is "Love is always in the company of music" according to Giorgio
danced to the sound of Father Time's lyre. Two putti, one hold- Vasari. Music in visual representations can have one of two
ing an hourglass and the other blowing bubbles {homo bulla), meanings when love is also concerned. It can signify sublime
connote transience and futility. In an earlier work, Phaethon love, harmony, and concord. But most often visual references to
Before Helios in Berlin-Dahlem, Germany, Poussin expresses music are related to the earthly Venus, the Roman goddess of
vanity and the destructive powers of Time, who blows a wind love, or to the personifications Lust and Voluptia (Sensual
instrument (Ovid, Metamorphoses II, i9ff). Pleasure) in both religious and profane themes.
Music-making is symbolically related to death as the tri- "Music unites — it creates harmony, agreement and love"
umph of Father Time. This idea is expressed in late medieval was inscribed on a seventeenth-century clavichord. In
and Renaissance allegories, especially north of the Alps, and Renaissance and Baroque painting, a musical duet in the form
later in seventeenth-century emblematic still lifes. A drawing of portraits of couples became a metaphor of love and harmo-
in the form of a diptych attributed to Albrecht Diirer in the ny. In family portraits, music symbolized concordia (harmony),
British Museum in London and a similar later work by especially in Baroque painting, as in The Van
northern
Baldung Grien in the Prado show three seductive women play- Bercheman Family Portrait by Frans Floris in the Wuyts-Van
ing and singing from a polyphonic score, signifying transience, Campen en Baron Cavoly en Timmermans Museum in Lier,
as they are pursued by a macabre image of Death. Hans Belgium, which has an inscription on the frame that calls atten-
Holbein's Dance of Death Alphabet in Basel, Switzerland, tion to the concordia symbolism. Sometimes the music played
opens with a musical parade. The Orchestra of Death figures in family concert scenes is religious. In Abraham van den
in many German and French prints of the Dance Macabre; a Tempel's Portrait of the Family of David Leeuve (before 1672)
music-making skeleton dragging its victims is another com- in the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, the family is about to per-
mon motif. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, form a religious song.
 i
I
[I 635

Music and Love: Lust and Corruption In Caravaggio's The Concert (1594) in the Metropolitan
Museum of Art in New York, three seminude youths are
In descriptions of voluptuousness, musical instruments were engaged making music. The musical party has been inspired
in

often used as symbols of love. Sexual significance had been by Eros, who holds a bunch of grapes in a Bacchic gesture, and
attributed to wind instruments since antiquity, and later to it has an allegorical appearance to it. ("Music and wine are
some string instruments as well. Late medieval and Renaissance associated with the company of Bacchus" [Cesare Ripa,
astrologers believed that musicians of all kinds, together with Iconologia, 1603].) In his Lute Player, Caravaggio combines
lovers,were among the "children of Venus." hints of homoerotic seduction with vanitas references such as
During the "psychomachia" of the early Middle Ages, fading flowers and overripe fruits. The lute here becomes an

Luxuria (the personification of Luxury) began to inherit erotic messenger. In a Dutch seventeenth-century emblem book
Venus's attributes. In a twelfth-century rendering on a capital Neuwe Nederduytsche Gedichten (1624) in Leiden, The
in Saint Nicholas Church in La Chaize-le-Vicomte, Vendee, Netherlands, a lute played by a woman symbolizes feminine
France, she armed with a mirror and flowers, especially
is sexuality. In many Netherlandish compositions of the seven-
roses, and accompanied by Venus's children —
musicians incit- teenth century this image is related to erotic seduction, as in
ing lascivious passions. In Renaissance "psychomachia" repre- Dirck van Barburen's The Procuress (1622) in the Museum of
sentations, a naked Venus making music, or accompanied by Fine Arts in Boston; Philippe van Dirck's Woman Playing the
musicians, personifies Voluptia, in opposition to Minerva, who Lute, a personification of Luxuria in the Mauritshuis in The
personifies Prudentia (Prudence). This can be seen in Baldung Hague; and in a large number of "Duet," "Merry Company,"
Grien'sMusic and Prudence in the Alte Pinakothek in Munich, and brothel scenes, among others.
and Peter Vischer the Younger's Virtue and Voluptia in the In Gabriel Rollenghagen's Nucleus Emblematatum (1611)

Kupferstichkabinett in Berlin. in Cologne, Germany, Cupid holds a lute and points at music-

In the Tabletop of Seven Deadly Sins (circa 1490), making lovers in the background. Temptation through music,
Hieronymus Bosch inserted his Luxuria in reversal of the Utopi- the invitation to a "love duet," was a subject formulated in

an Garden of Love, where music had originally been related to moralist emblematic literature, a subject that became a com-
harmony. In Luxuria, musical instruments are emblems of lust mon theme in seventeenth-century northern European art
and diabolical temptation. They become instruments of torture (Dirck van Barburen, Jan Molenaer, Jan Steen, Vermeer, and
in his Musical Hell from The Garden of Earthly Delights (early many others). In Jacob Cat's Quid non sentit Amor emblem
sixteenth century), in which the lustful are tormented and an Sinne en Minne beelden (161 5), a man playing a lute invites a
infernal choir is condemned to sing eternally from the notes woman to pick up the second lute and join him in a "love
inscribed on the posterior of a damned soul half buried under duet."
a giant lute-gallows. Bosch adopted a diabolical music-making Wind instruments had a phallic significance. Pipes,
motif from medieval marginal decorations and made it a dom- recorders, shawms, and were related to dis-
especially bagpipes
inant element in a world haunted by evil, filled with demons solute life. "When the bagpipe is pumping up one sings better,"
playing musical instruments and inciting lust and blowing says a sixteenth-century Flemish proverb. Since antiquity, wind
shawms to accompany a lovers' duet (The Haywain Triptych in instruments had also been considered Bacchic attributes. In sev-
the Prado). enteenth-century iconography, pipe instruments were related to
In northern European humanistic writings, music was relat- bucolic erotic imagery (Rembrandt's Uylenspiegel [before
ed to sensual love and folly (Sebastian Brant, Ship of Fools, 1699], for example), which inspired Antoine Watteau's
1497). Erasmus attacked secular music, especially amorous and LTndiscret in the Boymans-van Beuningen Museum in
"lascivious melodies" (Opera omnia, VI, Bosch was
col. 731). Rotterdam.
also the forerunner of secular moralist genre painting, which Musical divertimenti in secular or semisecular representa-
flourished in the Netherlands for two centuries. In his various tions are infused with erotic symbolism, denoting corruption
versions of Merry Makers, music-making has a principal role in and vanity and Examples of this
illustrating a state of sin.
stimulating lascivious behavior (Ship of Fools [circa 1500], A include many and seventeenth-century scenes of the
sixteenth-
Concert in an Egg [before 15 16], Merry Makers in a Carnival Prodigal Son in taverns and brothels, Gardens of Love, Fetes
Celebration, Carnival, etc.). Galants, Mankind Before the Last Judgment, and Mankind
In Italian Renaissance and Baroque painting, the corruptive Before the Flood. In seventeenth-century Calvinist Dutch soci-
power of music is veiled in more sophisticated mythological ety, music was so closely associated with lascivious behavior
references. Musical themes were especially favored in Venice. that brothels were surnamed musicus.
Titian painted several versions of Venus in the company of a Music's corrupting power is often associated with Eros and

musician. In his Venus and a Lute Player in the Metropolitan Bacchus. In Maerten van Heemskerck's didactic allegory
Museum of Art in New York, an admirer plays a serenade Triumph of Bad Music (mid-sixteenth century) in the
before a naked reclining Venus. She holds a suggestive recorder Prentenkabinet in Leiden, a triumphal procession opens with a
(a "low" instrument), while a viola da gamba stands waiting to group of male figures singing from a large choir book bound to
be played, a motif later adopted by Caravaggio, Jan Vermeer, a satyr's back, followed by Vices such as Desire (Erosi and
and many others. In Paolo Veronese's Concert, now in the Pleasure. Musicae's caris followed by personifications of Waste

Palazzo Ducale in Venice, an erotic concert is played by three of Time, Waste of Money, Sloth, and Foolish Liberality.
beautiful young women inspired by Amor thus "Amor is — Drunkenness is drawing Bacchus's car, while his goblet is being
born from music" and is always "in the company of music." filled by Immoderatio (Appetite), who is followed by Poverty.
636 MUSIC

Music under the spell of Pros ,uul Bacchus is thus thought to be Moreau, Gustave, Hesiodus and the Muse, before 1898, Paris,
intended for ''ignorant ears," its results said to be adulter), Musee d'Orsay
drunkenness, and misery. Such "had" music is contrasted in the ! lugo, Jean, The Poet and the Muse, 1923, private collection
inscriptions with "good" (harmonious) music in the form of
the celestial liturgy. Orpheus
Orpheus Charming the Animals, Roman floor mosaic,
Palermo, Italy

Personifications of Music Giovani, Bertoldo di, Orpheus Playing a Lira de Braccio, late
fifteenth century, Florence, Italy, Bargello
During the Renaissance and Counter-Reformation, St. Cecilia Spranger, Bartholomaeus, Orpheus Before Pluto, drawing,
became the patroness of sacred music. She is usually portrayed before 1611, Nurnberg, Germany, Germanisches
playing an instrument, most often the organ. The belief that St. Nationalmuseum
Cecilia rejected earthly instruments for heavenly music is pre-
sented in some works. In Raphael's Santa Cecilia (1513-1514) Immortality
in the Pinacoteca Nazionale in Bologna, the figure of St. Sarcophagus of the Muses, Vatican, Vatican Museums
Cecilia, inspired by a heavenly angelic choir, is set against the Lippi, Filippino, Strozzi Chapel, 1497-1502, Florence, Italy,

broken musical instruments that she has repudiated, some of Santa Maria Novella
which refer to Bacchic motifs. Master of St. Lucy Legend, Mary Queen of Heaven
Musicae, one of the Seven Liberal Arts, is typically por- (Assumption), late fifteenth century, Washington, D.C.,

trayed as a woman playing an instrument. According to Cesare National Gallery of Art

Ripa's Iconologia, this should be a woman who holds Apollo's Carpaccio, Vittore, The Assumption of the Virgin, early
lyre with both hands and has various musical instruments at sixteenth century, London, National Gallery
her feet. Ripa elsewhere describes Musicae tuning an angelica
while accompanied by a nightingale, another symbol of music, David
"for the marvelous effects of his voice." This image, based on Winghe, Jodocus van, David Singing God's Praise, before
ancient representations of Musicae, influenced Laurent de la 1603, Haarlem, The Netherlands, Episcopal Museum
Hyre's Music (before 1656). But the words of the song on the Witte, Pieter de, David Singing God's Praise, before 1628,
music score in this painting also associate music with love and Haarlem, The Netherlands, Episcopal Museum;
wine, Eros and Bacchus, and therefore stress the old dichotomy Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Rijksmuseum
between the sublime and corrupting characters of music. In Rembrandt van Rijn, David Before Saul, 1656, The Hague,
Theodor van Thulden's Allegory of Music (before 1669) in the The Netherlands, Mauritshuis
Musees Royaux des Beaux-Arts in Brussels, Belgium, an Eros Poussin, Nicolas, The Victorious David, circa 1627, Madrid,
holding the torch of love crowns Musicae with Venus's roses. Spain, Prado
Historically, this sends us back to a Martianus Capella poem,
one of the first medieval formulations of Musicae, in which he Praise of God: Sacred and Celestial Music
describes Musicae leading a procession of gods, poets, and Gloria Christi, The Twenty-Four Elders, tympanum sculpture,
musicians, among them Orpheus, Amor, and Voluptas. 1
1
36-1 1 53, Moissac, France, St. Pierre
The Choir of the Seven Angels on the Crystal Sea, Dutch
Apocalypse, Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale (Ms. Neer 3)
See also Death; Luxury; Margins/Outsiders; Melancholy; Campin, Robert, Nativity, circa 1427, Dijon, France, Musee
Vanity/Vanitas des Beaux-Arts
Angelico, Fra, Coronation of the Virgin, 1445, Florence, Italy,

Uffizi Gallery
Memling, Hans, Saint John's Vision; The Mystic Marriage of
Selected Works of Art
Saint Catherine, triptych, 1479, Bruges, Belgium, St. John's
Apollo Hospital
Raphael, Apollo and Marsyas, ceiling fresco, 1508, Vatican, Geertgen tot Sint Jan, Virgin in Glory, before 1495,
Stanza della Segnatura Rotterdam, The Netherlands, Boymans-van-Beuningen
Raphael, Parnassus, fresco, 1 508-1 51 r, Vatican, Stanza della Museum
Segnatura,
Straet, Jan van der, Apollo in the Garden of Arts and Music: Transience and Futility
Sciences, drawing, before 1605, Haarlem, The Rouge, Nicolas le, Dance Orchestra of Death, from La Grant
Netherlands, Teylers Museum Danse Macabre, Troves, France
Poussin, Nicolas, Apollo and the Muses (Parnassus), circa Holbein, Hans, Dance of the Death Alphabet, Basel,
1632, Madrid, Spain, Prado Switzerland
Ribera, Jusepe de, Apollo and Marsyas, 1637, Naples, Italy, Poussin, Nicolas, The Dance of Human Life, 1638-1639,
Museo Nazionale de Martino London, Wallace Collection
Poussin, Nicolas, Inspiration of the Poet, circa 1677, Paris, Colyer, Edwaert, Self-Portrait, before 1702, Munich,
Louvre; Hannover, Germany Germany, private collection
 MUSIC 637

Music and Love: Harmony Caravaggio, Allegory of Music, circa 1595, New York,
Tempel, Abraham van den, Portrait of the Family of David Metropolitan Museum of Art
Leeuve, before 1672, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Hyre, Laurent de la, Music, before J 656, New York,
Rijksmuseum Metropolitan Museum of Art; Dijon, France, Musee
Burne-Jones, Edward Coley, he Chant d 'Amour, 1 868-1 877, Magnin
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art Thulden, Theodor van, Allegory of Music, before 1669,
Brussels, Belgium, Musees Royaux des Beaux-Arts
Music and Love: Lust and Corruption
Luxuria, capital, circa twelfth century, La Chaize-le-Vicomte,
Church Further Reading
Bosch, Hieronymus, Luxuria, from Tabletop of Seven Deadly
Barasch, Moishe, "The David Mosaic of Gaza," Assaph:
Sins, circa1490, Madrid, Spain, Prado
Studies in Art History I (1980)
Bosch, Hieronymus, Musical Hell, from The Garden of
Christiansen, Keith, A Caravaggio Rediscovered: The Lute
Earthly Delights, early sixteenth century, Madrid, Spain,
Player, exhibition catalog, New York: Metropolitan
Prado Museum of Art, 1990
Bosch, Hieronymus, Ship of Fools, circa 1500, Paris, Louvre
Cumont, Franz Valery-Marie, Recherches sur le symbolism
Bosch, Hieronymus, A Concert in an Egg, before 15 16, Lille,
funeraire des Romains, Paris: Picard, 1949
France, Musee des Beaux-Arts Etthnger, Leopold David, "Muses and Liberal Arts," in Essays
Heemskerck, Maerten van, Triumph of Bad Music, mid- History of Art Presented to Rudolph Wittkower,
in the
sixteenth century, Leiden, The Netherlands, Prentenkabinet London: Phaidon, 1967
Caravaggio, The Concert, 1594, New York, Metropolitan Music in Paintings of the Low Countries in the
Fischer, Pieter,
Museum of Art Sixteenthand Seventeenth Centuries, Amsterdam, The
Vermeer, Jan, The Concert, circa 1600, Boston, Isabella Netherlands: Swets and Zeitlinger, 1975
Stewart Gardner Museum, now missing Fumaroli, Marc, L'Inspiration du Poete de Poussin: Essai sur
Vermeer, Jan, The Music Lesson, circa 1600, London, VAllegorie de Parnasse, exhibition catalog, Paris: Louvre,
Buckingham Palace 1989
Barburen, Dirck van, The Procuress, 1622, Boston, Museum Leppert, Richard, The Sight of Sound: Music, Representation
of Fine Arts and the History of the Body, Berkeley and London:
Ochtervelt, Jacob, Violinist and Two Serving Women, circa University of California Press, 1994
1 663-1 665, Manchester, England, City Art Gallery Meyer-Baer, Kathi, "Musical Iconography in Raphael's
Ochtervelt, Jacob, The Music Lesson, 1671, Chicago, Art Parnassus," The journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism
Institute VIII (1989)
Rembrandt van Rijn, Uylenspiegel, before 1669, engraving Pomme de Mirmonde, Albert, L'Iconographie musicale sous
Picasso, Pablo, The Pipes of Pan, 1923, Paris, Musee Picasso les Rois Bourbons: La Musique dans les Arts Plastiques,
Picasso, Pablo, Pan Pipe Players and Erotic Figures, 1923, Paris: Picard, 1975
private collection Ovadiah, Asher, and Sonia Mucznik, "Orpheus Mosaics in
Picasso, Pablo, L'Aubade, 1942, Paris, Centre Pompidou Roman and Early Byzantine Periods," Assaph: Studies in
Picasso, Pablo, Bacchanal, 1955, Paris, Musee Picasso Art History I (1980)
Picasso, Pablo, Reclining Nude with a Man Playing Guitar, Scillia, Charles E., "Meaning of the Cluny Capitals: Music

1970, Paris, Musee Picasso and Metaphor," Gesta XXVIII (1988)

Picasso, Pablo, Flute Player and a Female Nude, 1970, Paris, Walker, Daniel, "Orpheus the Theologian and Renaissance
Galerie Leiris Platonists," journal of the Warburg and Courtauld
Institutes XVI (1953)
Music
Personifications of Winternitz, Emanuel, Musical Instruments and Their
Musicae with Pythagoras, Portal of the Seven Liberal Arts, Symbolism in Western Art: Studies in Musical Iconology,
twelfth century, Chartres, France, Cathedral New Haven, Connecticut, and London: Yale University
Raphael, Santa Cecilia, 1 513-15 14, Bologna, Italy, Pinacoteca Press, 1979
 LI

naked/nude
Kathryn Moore Heleniak

The following periods are covered in the discussion of the theme Naked/Nude:

ANCIENT RENAISSANCE NINETEENTH CENTURY

CLASSICAL SEVENTEENTH CENTURY TWENTIETH CENTURY
MEDIEVAL EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

639
64O NAKED / NUDE
 NAKED / NUDE 64 I

Rembrandt van Rijn, Bathsheba at Her

Bath, 1654, oil on canvas, Paris, Louvre.
(Courtesy of Girauclon/Art Resource,
New York)

he two English words naked and nude describe the same patrons. The resultant images inevitably embodied or reflected
M. human condition yet are often imbued with remarkably patriarchal values: The active dominant men in society
role of
different meanings in Western art. British art historian Kenneth was contrasted with the passive role of women, who were
Clark observed book The Nude: A Study in
in his influential depicted as objects of male desire. In his influential essay in
the Ideal Form (1956), "To be naked is to be deprived of our Ways of Seeing (1972), and writer John Berger
British critic
clothes, the word implies some of the embarrassment most of stated his belief that women
were often depicted as colluding
us feel in that condition." Whereas the term nude calls up not with this role. As Berger observed, "Men act and women
an unclothed real body but an idealized, "balanced, prosper- appear. Men look at women. Women watch themselves being
ous, and confident body: the body re-formed" (Kenneth Clark, looked at .thus she turns herself into an object and most
. . —
p. 23). In other words, naked suggests the real, faulty, imper- particularly an object of vision: a sight" (Berger, p. 47). This
fect form of a specific individual ordinarily clothed and nude voyeuristic sight is inevitably eroticized. Indeed, much of the
the idealized, perfected form of a human body that was never ambiguity and uneasiness associated with the nude in its vari-

intended to be covered. Nakedness suggests vulnerability, nudi- ous manifestations — its attraction and repulsion for viewers
ty an easy, proud confidence in the human fleshly form. Despite hovers around its erotic appeal. In a society that associates
these permutations of meaning, there is no firm demarcation nudity with the divine, or the spiritual —one thinks of ancient
between the terms, and they are often used interchangeably. But Greece or India, as, for example, the Yakshi figure Girl Playing
whether naked or nude, the unclothed human figure is not, with Balls of the first century B.C. in the National Museum in

properly speaking, an iconographic category. Rather, male and New Delhi, India —the nude is frank, triumphant, untroubled.
female nudes appear in numerous iconographic settings — his- In a society that associates nudity with sin, shame, and guilt, or
torical, mythological, biblical, allegorical, and pornographic the decadent fleshly world, as it has been historically in the

and in life. Given the enormous scope

genre scenes of everyday Judeo-Christian context, the nude is fraught with unease,
of the nude and in light of the vast and constantly
in art, moral reprobation, or suffering. In the modern era, it is seen as
increasing literature on the subject, this essay simply directs a manifestation of social defiance.
readers to some of the key developments in the appearance of The female nude, which has been almost synonymous with
the nude and to the meanings and values attached to its appear- "the nude" in modern times, is a late arrival. One finds simpli-
ance in art. fied, unclothed female forms in prehistoric art. These early sculp-
Many books, exhibitions, and articles have taken up the sub- tures are presumably mother-goddesses. Some have a rounded,
ject of the nude. Traditional art historical studies have tended to overblown shape, like the so-called Venus of Willendorf (circa

view the nude as an aesthetic object —

marker of "high art."a 25,000-20,000 B.C.) in the Naturhistoriches Museum in Vienna,
The fact that ancient Greek artists focused on the nude and that Austria; others exhibit the simple, stark geometry of Cycladic
Greek civilization was in turn considered the font of Western female idols (circa 2500-1400 B.C.).

culture only enhanced the association of the nude with high art With Greek art, one encounters the first real flowering of
in Western eyes. With the Renaissance and the rise of academic the nude, and here the male nude predominates as god, hero, or
art theory in the fifteenth century, not only was the nude of athlete. The Greeks envisioned their male gods as beautiful
antiquity revived and revalued but the nude male body became human figures with strong, muscular, youthful forms, as in
the centerpiece of professional training in the art academies. Apollo Belvedere of the fourth century B.C., known by its

Thus, serious "Art with a capital A" became intrinsically asso- Roman copy of the first century B.C. in the Vatican Museums.
ciated with the study of the nude body and with its appearance Nude men in Greek art were tied to the appearance of nude
in large ambitious works of art (Pevsner, Academies). Because men in Greek life. Public nudity for Greek men was the norm
until modern times women were excluded from these art acade- in athletic competitions and in thegymnasium. But even Greek
mies (except as models in a later period), they were not (with depictions of human suffering were expressed by powerful
However, they were
rare exceptions) the creators of these nudes. nude forms with well-developed muscles writhing to express
often,and increasingly so from the seventeenth century onward, both physical and emotional pain, as in the statue Marsyas, a
the nude subject favored by male artists. Roman copy of a Pergamene original (third century B.C.) in the
Recent scholarship has focused on these gender issues. Uffizi Gallery in Florence, Italy, and the Laocoon (circa first or
Feminist studies have deconstructed the idea of the neutral second century a.d.) in the Vatican Museums.
"aesthetic" nude, seeing it instead as a field of power politics, Greek women, whose lives were restricted to the domestic
of domination and submission, where (until the twentieth cen- sphere, were clothed in public. Their goddesses conformed to
tury) male artists depicted male and female nudes for male these clothed norms until the fourth century B.C., when
642 NAKED / NUDK

Praxiteles sculpted his famous nude Aphrodite. rh< itatui oi ions Orgy Si, -nc on an early fifth-century B.C. Attic cup in
111

the goddess ol lov< was displayed in an open shrine on the the I ouvre as well as the mythical Amazons, the ferocious
island o! Knulos. A Roman copy can now be seen in the ii malt enemies of the Greeks whose public nakedness identi-
Vatican Museums, ["his earliest (and thereafter extraordinarily fied them as barbarians (i.e., uncivilized non-Greeks).

influential) example shows the modest Venus (normally The Romans had little taste for the nude. Occasionally their

clothed) reaching tor her drapery at her hath. I [er nuditj is c ii emperoi ;, onci dead, could assume the idealized nude form of
cumstantial and momentary unlike the permanent mule state a god, as in the / mpetbr Trebonianus G alius (251-153) in the
ot male gods. The viewer/voyeur must glimpse her before she Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. Of course, they
restores her covering. The erotic appeal of this statue for male engaged in wholesale copying of Greek nude originals, whether
viewers is confirmed by early writings thai describe men kiss in sculpture or painting. The Roman copies played an extreme-
ing the statue or leaving more telling stains behind after their l\ important role in the Renaissance revival of the antique nude
visits to the shrine. This first nude Aphrodite/Venus, model to in the fifteenth century by providing material examples of the
so many variations in ancient and post-Renaissance periods, ideal nude for Renaissance artists to emulate after centuries of
established one of the most potent images of the female nude: its repression in the Middle Ages under the influence of
the bather caught unaware, revealing and partially concealing Christian asceticism.
her nude form. In later classical variations, the nude continued With the rise of Christianity, the nude was initially rejected
to reflect this so-calledVenus Pudica pose, seen, for example, because of its association with pagan idols. But more important,
in the Venus de Medici (circa 150-100 B.C.) in the Louvre, Christians associated the naked human body with shame, cor-
where the figure's arms arc used to shield while bringing atten- Old Testament.
ruption, and sin, as indicated by a reading of the
tion to the breasts and pudendum. This modest pose had a very Genesis described Adam and Eve as innocent, unembarrassed
long afterlife in Western art, having its most famous resurrec- nudes in Paradise until Eve yielded to temptation and persuad-
tion in Botticelli's Birth of Venus (circa 1480), in the Uffizi ed Adam to eat the forbidden fruit. Then "the eyes of them both
Gallery. It migrated into other subjects as well, as can be seen were opened, and they knew that they were naked; and they
in Giovanni Pisano's modest cardinal virtue, Temperance (or sewed fig leaves together, and made themselves aprons"
Chastity, 1300-13 10), on the pulpit of the Cathedral of Pisa, (Genesis 3:7). Ejection from Paradise, mortality, pain in child-
or Masaccio's anguished Eve (1427) in the Brancacci Chapel in birth, and suffering accompanied Adam and Eve's recognition of

Sta. Maria del Carmine in Florence. their nakedness. A bronze relief, Adam and Eve Reproached by
Although Aphrodite/Venus was the principal occasion for the Lord (1015), on the doors of the Hildesheim Cathedral, cap-
the female nude in Greek art, other themes also called for the tures the mortification the naked Adam and Eve feel as they
female nude. Her companions, The Three Graces, appeared in cringe and shield their bodies from God's sight (and ours). With
the second century B.C. A Roman copy is in the Louvre in Paris. their slender, awkward bodies so far removed from the classical
This composition features the elegant intertwining of three ideal, these self-conscious figures exhibit an appropriately
female nudes so as to reveal both the front and back views in medieval abhorrence of human flesh.

one "sight." Raphael revived it in the Renaissance period in Whereas the biblical story of Adam and Eve was one of the
The Three Graces (1 504-1505), now in the Musee Conde in few subjects that required nudity in the medieval period (and it

Chantilly, France; not surprisingly, it remained a popular motif would continue to be an important subject for the display of
with male artists and patrons thereafter. In the seventeenth the nude male and female form until modern times), for sheer
century, Peter Paul Rubens painted a memorable full-bodied numbers of nudes in medieval art one turns to the Last
example, now in the Prado in Madrid, Spain, with his typical Judgment, which remained an important Christian theme
abundant pink flesh. One can even see echoes of the subject through the Baroque period, fading thereafter. Taking up
without the obvious mythological tag (although surely prominent positions on the facades of Romanesque cathedrals
with an intentional bow to the traditional theme) in the work to warn Christians of their final reckoning, these scenes fea-
of the impressionist and postimpressionist generation, as in tured lumpy men and women, naked and vulnerable, plucked
Pierre-Auguste Renoir's Large Bathers (1 884-1887) in the from their graves to be raised into heaven or, more dramatical-
Philadelphia Museum of Art in Pennsylvania, Paul Cezanne's ly, to be thrown by monstrous devils into the gaping jaws of

Three Bathers (1879-1882) in the Musee du Petit-Palais in hell, as in the Last Judgment on the west tympanum of Autun

and Georges Seurat's Models (1886-1888) in the Barnes

Paris, Cathedral in France (circa 1130-1135). The subject appeared
Foundation in Menon, Pennsylvania. in paintings as well with equally gruesome effect, as in Hubert
in Greek mythology
Less important female characters and Jan van Eyck's Last Judgment (1425-1430), now in the
maenads (companions ot Dionysus), dryads (wood nymphs), Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, with its writhing
and Nereids (sea nymphs), who embodied "the irrational ele- men and women who, naked before God, are the pawns of
ments of human nature, the remnants of animal impulse that frightening creatures. This is one of a pair of panels, the other
the Olympian religion had attempted to sublimate or to sub- of which depicts the Crucifixion.
—
due" (Clark, p. 358) could also appear nude or near-nude The Crucifixion is another important Christian theme that
with streaming drapery falling away and displaying their bod- calls for the nude or nearly nude suffering human form, in this
ies to full effect, as in the fourth-century B.C. Maenad, after case the male form. Like Adam and Eve and the Last Judgment,
Skopas, in Dresden, Germany. Nudity also characterized the it is established as an iconographic theme in the early Christian

women (prostitutes?) cavorting with lusty nude male compan- period, as in The Crucifixion and the Death of Judas (circa
 NAKED / NUDR 643

420-500) in the British Museum in London. The Crucifixion Goliath (like Florence's own strength against its enemies) all the
hegins to flourish only in the medieval period, however, and it more miraculous. The nude state of Ghiberti's adolescent Isaac
remains a central Christian image up to the modern period. in his relief The Sacrifice of Isaac, also in the Bargello, under-
Thomas Eakins's The Crucifixion (1880) in the Philadelphia lines Isaac's vulnerability and makes Abraham's threatened exe-

Museum of Art is an outstanding nineteenth-century example. cution of him all the more terrifying.
In van Eyck's painting, the crucified Jesus Christ wears a very In the late fifteenth century, Italian artists revived mythologi-
slight,transparent loincloth (revealing pubic hair and conceal-, cal subjects and nude forms with gusto. This
idealized/classicized
ing very little of his human anatomy); his nakedness is made was a more direct way for them to demonstrate their knowledge
more emphatic in contrast to the neighboring two thieves, who and admiration of the now-revered antiquity. One thinks of
sport significant drapery. Christ's nakedness underlines his vul- Botticelli's Birth of Venus (circa 1480) in the Uffizi Gallery with

Leo Steinberg, in his

nerability, his self-sacrifice. Art historian its central female nude adopting the pose of a classical Venus

controversial study The Sexuality of Christ in Renaissance Art Pudica (albeit a very decorative, ornamental example). But this

and in Modern Oblivion (1983), takes up this theme of the pre- was no simple revival of the pagan goddess. Neoplatonic philos-
viously ignored nakedness (or more commonly near-nakedness) ophy clothed her in a mystical new Christian meaning as a sym-
of Christ not only in scenes of his Passion (the Crucifixion, the bol of the birth of beauty in the mind of humankind. This was
Flagellation, the Pieta, and the Entombment) but also in scenes quite different from the tense, muscular male nudes in Antonio
of his Baptism and childhood. Steinberg emphasizes that these Pollaiuolo's Hercules canvases for the Medici Palace in Florence
unclothed images of Christ were consciously introduced to (1460). These canvases are now destroyed, but a smaller exam-
manifest the human side of Christ's nature (the divine being ple, Hercules and the Hydra, is now in the Uffizi. Hercules' clas-
taken for granted), which was made insistent by the depiction sical form and mien survived in the Middle Ages as the virtue
of the genital area. His genitalia (revealed or suggested) were a on
Fortitude, as in Nicola Pisano's sculpted figure (circa 1260)
sign of his "manliness," his human nature. the pulpit of the (much like Temperance
Baptistery of Pisa
One of the most beautiful examples of the naked Christ assumed the pose of the Venus Pudica on Giovanni Pisano's pul-
appears in the Renaissance in Michelangelo's sculpted Risen pit of the Cathedral of Pisa noted earlier). In Pollaiuolo's canvas-
Christ (1 514-1520) in Sta. Maria Sopra Minerva in Rome. es, Hercules returns in his own heroic guise to symbolize the
Unlike the common, unclothed images of the suffering Christ of strength of Florence in the face of its enemies. In these and other
the Passion or the depictions of vulnerable, wounded, nearly works, Pollaiuolo displayed his profound understanding of male
naked male saints (e.g., innumerable St. Sebastians, beginning anatomy. His powerful figures look back to the sculpted figures
in the fifteenth century) whose states of anguished martyrdom of Greek warriors and athletes, but they also depended on the
reflect Christ's own suffering, this risen Christ is triumphant, careful anatomical study of the human form that was undertak-
muscular, and idealized; he adopts the heroic quality of the en by Renaissance artists.

Greek gods of antiquity. Michelangelo's Christianized Mythological scenes featuring the nude continued to inspire
Neoplatonism allowed for his resurrection of the ancient ideal artists during the High Renaissance. Examples include
of the beautiful body as an appropriate embodiment of the Raphael's The Judgment of Paris (before 1520), known through
divine. Moreover, in theological terms, Christ had no need to Marcantonio Raimondi's engraving, and his previously men-
feel the shame of Adam and Eve's guilt; he was sinless. Indeed, tioned The Three Graces; Leonardo da Vinci's now lost Leda
his Crucifixion and Resurrection reopened the gates of Paradise and the Swan (before 15 19); Michelangelo's sculpted adolescent
for humanity. His nudity could be seen as a sign of human sal- Bacchus (circa 1496-1498) in the Bargello; and Correggio's
vation (although Michelangelo's contemporaries were not com- Jupiter and lo (circa 1532) in the Kunsthistorisches Museum
fortable with this nude imagery, as Steinberg argues). in Vienna.
Michelangelo was devoted to the male nude in sculptural and Northern European artists, under the influence of Italy, pro-
painted form. (He is the only artist to warrant his own chapter duced some especially striking examples of mythological scenes
in Margaret Walters's excellent survey The Nude Male, 1978.) featuring the nude as well. Lucas Cranach the Elder painted
The Sistine Chapel in the Vatican is filled with innumerable charming, even fashionable Venuses displaying not only their
painted examples: the ceiling (1508-15 12) with the mysterious small doll-like bodies through delicate transparent drapen Inn
ignudi and the stunning images of Adam (and unusually for also stylish jewelry. An example of this is his Venus ( 1 532) in the

him, the beautiful female nude Eve) and the Last Judgment Stadelsches Kunstinstitut in Frankfurt, Germany. No sense of
(
1 534-1 541) above the altar with its anguished tumbling, hov- higher philosophical meaning is evident here, nor is any latent
ering nude forms. Renaissance artists such as Michelangelo Christian puritanism. Albrecht Diirer's depictions of Venus were
looked back to ancient sculpture for models of what they might less successful in adopting a classical ideal; somehow they con-
imitate or even surpass. tinued to look like his study of an unclothed hausfrau, like his
Donatello and Lorenzo Ghiberti had already revived the Nude (before 1528) in Bayonne, France. But Diirer's mosl
beautiful nude of antiquity in the fifteenth century, adapting it important contribution to the iconography ot the female nude
to biblical subject matter (although the subjects themselves did was woodcut Draftsman Drawing a Nude (1525) in
his the
not call for the nude). Donatello's David (circa 1425-1430) in BritishMuseum, which depicts the passive female model and the
the Bargello in Florence, with his slender, lithe proportions and active male artist: The naked female model reclines while the
easy contrapposto stance, recalls the delicacy of Praxitelean clothed male artist actively creates art. The female nude is his

sculptural norms, a nude delicacy that makes his conquest of raw "natural" material. This image recurs with great frequency
644 NAKI " '
Nl '"'

in Western art up to tin- iwt-nt it-th century (Pablo Picasso did revival oftheclassic.il nude, main lofty subjects seemed to call for

many interpretations of the theme). In a sense, the theme of the nude, including not only virtues but also vices (lust), seasons,
Pygmalion, so popular in tin- eighteenth and nineteenth cen times of day, rivers, and continents (especially Africa and
tunes, is another manifestation of this male fantasy or power. America). "Truth," which should conceal nothing, was perhaps
Examples include Etienne-Maurice Falconet's Pygmalion and the most obvious candidate (Warner, chap. 13, "Nuda Veritas").
Galatea (1763) in the Walters Art Gallery in Baltimore, One finds countless examples in Western art: Botticelli's depiction

Maryland, and Edward Coley Burne-Jones's Pygmalion series of "truth" as a severe female nude in The Calumny of Apelles
1
879) in the Birmingham Art Gallery in England, in which the
1 (circa 1497) in the Uffizi Gallery; Gian Lorenzo Bernini's joyous

male artist m< >lds h male statue thai

1 >mes to life nuclei his 1 1 Baroque expression Truth with an Engaging Smile (before 1652)
hands (and desire). inthe Borghese Gallery; or, more recently, Gustav Klimt's startling
Venetian artists are credited with creating the image of the and intentionally shocking version (pubic hair and all) Nuda
reclining female nude both in nature and in a domestic setting. Veritas (1899) in the Theatersammlung der Oesterreichischen

In the early sixteenth century, Giorgione painted a reclining Nationalbibliothek in Vienna.

nude in nature, the Sleeping Venus, now in the Gemaldegalerie Male and female nudes could serve allegorical ends (e.g.,
in Dresden. With a rural Italian landscape backdrop, his Venus Michelangelo's Day, Night, Dawn, and Evening, 1521-1534,
sleeps peacefully on a bed of soft, glistening fabric. She is both in the Medici Chapel in Florence), but female nudes were more

innocent (unaware of any viewers) and sensuous, as her relaxed prevalent and their numbers increased following the
supine pose allows for a cunning display of her form. This is the Renaissance. Evidently, one of the most satisfying subjects for
perfect view for the voyeur — assumed to be a male viewer. One male artists and patrons, given its popularity, was the allegory
should not be too quick to deny the appeal of such images to of Vanity, in which a female nude (often identified as Venus) is
women, however, who were encouraged to identify with Venus, depicted looking at herself in a mirror. As Berger pointed out,
goddess of love and beauty (or with other nude mythological this allowed male artists to associate the sin of vanity with a
females such as Diana). Isabella d'Este purchased a sculpture of woman, "thus morally condemning the woman whose naked-
Venus by Antico (Pier Jacopo Alari Bonacolsi), the Venus Felix ness [the artist] had depicted for [his] own pleasure" (p. 51).
(circa 1519), now in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, One memorable examples in seventeenth-century
of the most
and Madame de Pompadour ordered Francois Boucher's paint- art Diego Velazquez's Rokeby Venus in the National Gallery
is

ing of The Toilet of Venus (1751), now in the Metropolitan in London. He portrays his subject from behind as she reclines

Museum of Art in New York. in a languorous fashion, gazing at the mirror as we in turn gaze

Giorgione's Sleeping Venus also suggests the harmonious at her. Rubens also opts for this back view, although the female
confluence of female nude and nature, of woman as sign of fer- nude is now seated, in his interpretation of the same theme,
tility and fecundity. In this traditional equation, which is reit- Venus Before the Mirror (circa 1616), in the collection of the
erated by many artists into the modern period, women are Prince of Liechtenstein atVaduz Castle.
associated with nature while men are equated with culture —an Remarkable here are the wildly different proportions given
equation emphatically denied by a contemporary American these two idealized figures —
Velazquez's Venus is graceful and
artist, Barbara Kruger, in a collage that declares, "We won't svelte, Rubens's broad and fleshy, yet they both represent ideal-

play nature to your culture" (Warner, p. 325). ized depictions of the female form. The ideal of beauty simply
Titian moved the reclining Venus into a contemporary inte- and for each country. Most studies of the
differed for each artist
rior and opened her eyes in his Venus of Urbi?io (1538) in the nude have observed this phenomenon. Certainly, Clark discuss-
Uffizi Gallery. She looks out at the viewer with a steady gaze es it in depth in his book, as art historian Anne Hollander does
while her attendants gather in the background. This is the sen- with great perception in Seeing through Clothes (1978).
suous goddess of love for which the Venetians became famous. Tracking one subject through several centuries (e.g., Eve) reveals
These two nudes by Giorgione and Titian became the ultimate the shifting ideals of beauty in different periods and places,
models for the many reclining Venuses thereafter. These two something that is more apparent in the female nude than in the
artists also left behind the two most mysterious images of the male. Even within the relatively narrow geographic area of
female nude in their "problem paintings," Giorgione's (and/or Northern Europe, the norm for beauty encompasses a wide
Titian's?) Cbampetre (circa 1508) in the Louvre and
Pete range, as can be seen in Jan van Eyck's swaying Eve on the
Titian's Sacred and Profane Love (circa 1515) in the Borghese Ghent Altarpiece (1432) with her smooth, protruding stomach
Gallery in Rome. In both, the presence of female nudes being (an erotic zone in the fifteenth century), Albrecht Diirer's sturdy
accompanied by contemporary clothed companions has led to Eve in his engraving of 1504, and Rembrandt van Rijn's soft-
problems in interpretation. Gertainly, the nudes inhabit lofty fleshed, heavy figure with her furrowed brow offering fruit to a
allegorical territory. Although theories abound as to their dubious Adam in his etching of 1638. Compare the different
meaning, the nudity of the female figures alerts us to their oth- proportional norms of Agnolo Bronzino's mannerist Venus in
erworldly, ideal allegorical associations. Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time (circa 1546) in the National
By the sixteenth century, there had already been a long tradi- Gallery in London,whose every limb and finger are extended to
tion of allegorical nude forms. Nicola Pisano's thirteenth-century an impossible degree, with Antoine Watteau's delicate, petite
sculpted pulpit figure Fortitude and Giovanni Pisano's early four- nudes with their short legs and small hands and feet. If one
teenth-century figure Temperance (or Chastity), cited earlier, extends the comparison into the twentieth century, "beautiful"
come to mind. But with the coming of the Renaissance and its female bodies would continue to change over the centuries, dis-
 NAKKD / NUDE 645

playing hips wide or narrow, stomachs flat or round, breasts talchild victim as the product of sexual union. Death and sex
small or full, legs short or long, and flesh firm or soft. Although and attraction and repulsion are united in these themes and are
much noted of the nude, these norms for beauty
in discussions emphasized in late nineteenth-century examples of the nude
have little do with iconography per se, and modern viewers
to femme fatale.

are in danger of missing the deeper meaning of an image if they In the nineteenth century, we see the blossoming of the nude
miss the sensual appeal of a different norm of beauty. without an obvious historical subject attached. It began in the
Along with the heavier standard for beauty of the late six<- eighteenth century with Watteaifs paintings of female nudes
teenth and early seventeenth centuries came new subject mat- containing only the slightest reference to mythology in the back-
ter. The Old Testament themes of Susannah at her bath and of ground furnishings and continued with Francois Le Moyne's
Bathsheba became very popular in the Baroque period. Bather (1724), now in the Hermitage in St. Petersburg, Russia,
Tintoretto provides an early example from the mid-sixteenth and Boucher's Mile. O'Murphy (mid-eighteenth century) in the
century with his Susannah and the Elders (155 5—1 556) in the Alte Pinakothek in Munich, Germany, with its frank display of
Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna. Susannah crouches fleshy buttocks on silk and satin. This in turn was multiplied
before her mirror, gazing at her nude form while two old bald- and given an outdoor setting in Jean-Honore Fragonard's scene
ing men sneak a look at her. As Gil Saunders observes in The of tumbling bathers (circa 1765) in the Louvre. All these were
Nude: A New Perspective (1989), "The woman is clearly painted at a time when many artists continued to draw on more
blamed for her predicament and presented as an exhibitionist: traditional mythological scenes that called for the nude.
vain, worldly, narcissistic. ... If she finds her own beauty so At the same time that the female nude was breaking free of
spellbinding, how can the elders be blamed for succumbing to mythology, history, and narrative in the eighteenth century, the
its temptations?" (p. 34). Of course, viewers are also involved heroic male nude —staple of the academy —was losing its cen-
in the voyeurism of the old men. Although one could still find representative exam-
tral position.

The theme of Bathsheba offered similar possibilities for pre-
sentations of the female nude. Both subjects provided a rare
opportunity in the Baroque period for a woman
female nude. Artemisia Gentileschi painted
Bathsheba one early seventeenth-century version is in the
(e.g.,
Columbus Gallery of Art in Ohio) as well as Susannah at her
bath. Indeed, she seemed to specialize in subjects that required
the female nude and complained in letters to a patron of the
great expense incurred in obtaining models for her paintings
(Ann Sutherland Harris and Linda Nochlin, Women Artists
1550-1950, 1978, p. 119). As with other women artists in the
premodern period, Artemisia Gentileschi had to depend on
male family members for instruction and encouragement. Her
father, Orazio Gentileschi, taught her the "male art" of history
painting. Certainly, it was overwhelmingly male artists who
turned to acceptable biblical subjects that required them to
focus on the female nude.
Rubens and Rembrandt also painted scenes of Bathsheba
Rembrandt's Bathsheba (1654) in the Louvre being especially
ples of the strong male nude in the late eighteenth and early
nineteenth centuries (e.g., in neoclassical sculpted portraits, as
to paint the in Antonio Canova's depiction of Napoleon as a nude Greek
many versions of god, 1806, at the Apsley House in London), a "feminized"
male nude was replacing the muscular ideal of antiquity and
the Renaissance. The baby cupids that proliferated in Boucher's
paintings and Falconet's sculptures grew into slender, androgy-
nous adolescents in Marie-Louise-Elisabeth Vigee-Lebrun's late
eighteenth-century Portrait of Prince Henry Lubomirski in the
Gemaldegalerie in Berlin and in Antonio Canova's sculpture
(1787-1793) and Francois Gerard's painting Cupid and Psyche
(1798), both in the Louvre. Indeed, a crop of passive, feminized
male nudes appeared in French paintings in the last years of the
eighteenth century — for example, Jacques-Louis David's Death
of Joseph Bara (1793) in the Musee Calvet Avignon, France, or
Anne-Louis Girodet-Trioson's Sleep of Endymion (1791) in the
—
Louvre representing what Abigail Solomon-Godeau has
labeled "male trouble," a postrevolutionary crisis of masculin-
ity (1993, pp. 286-312). This development coincides with the

memorable for the tender, melancholy expression of its subject. rise of the genre of the independent female "nude."

Through no fault of her own, she attracted the attention of Given its long Counter-Reformation sensibility, Spain seems
King David, who surreptitiously observed her naked body, pre- an unlikely place for an appearance of this new genre, but
cipitating her eventual seduction and the murder of her hus- Francisco de Goya's life-size Naked Maja (circa 1800) in the
band by King David. Bathsheba embodies just one strand of the Prado is an emphatic example. One sees an ordinary, contem-
fatal woman motif, whereby the erotic attractions of the porary woman with an individualized face reclining on a non-
woman prove fatal to others. descript sofa and looking out boldly at the viewer. Examined in
Often, as with Bathsheba, the fatal woman is depicted as a the context of its companion, Goya's Clothed Maja, also in the
nude woman displaying her unclothed body as a temptation to Prado, the naked woman looks even more defiant more —
a male companion. Of course, the ultimate fatal woman in this —
naked than nude stripped of her clothing. Arms behind her
context is Eve, who is seen as enticing Adam into sin and there- head allowing for the frank display of her full breasts silhouet-
by bringing death on all humankind. Other fatal women ted against pillows, pubic hair indicated by a dark shadow, eye-
Judith (with the head of Holofernes), Salome (with the head of lids slightly lowered, and a hint of a smile on her face all con-

John the Baptist), sirens (and their "cousins," mermaids) tribute to the sensual charge of this inviting nude. Nothing
were often shown nearly nude to underline the role of their hints at a higher meaning; she appears to be simply an alluring
erotic appeal in overcoming their male victims. Or, in the case and available object of male desire.
of Edvard Munch's lithograph Madonna (1895), r le "new ' In France, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres contributed to this

Eve" was turned into a languorous nude who produced a skele- genre with his many odalisques, such as the Grande )dalisque (
(._)" N \ki I) / NUDE

1 1 s i
4 1 in the Louvre, with their exotic turbans that nevertheless of then own rooms. They were observed by a male
fail to displace the sophisticated French air ol the models. Yet the \ iewer/artist, however, and we are reminded even here of the

perfectl) smooth flesh of these models removes them from the persistent voyeuristic male gaze —something noted and mocked
here and now, placing them on a plane with Ingres's mythologi- by Watteau as early as 1721 in Gersaint's Shopsign in the

cal figures, such as Venus Anadyomene (1848) in the Musee Schloss Charlottenburg in Berlin, where a fashionable man is

C oiule in Chantilly. In the romantic generation, Eugene depicted ogling the nude female bathers in a painting displayed
Delacroix produced the earthiest female nudes, but he generally companion, unaware of his
for sale in the store while his female

confined them to grand historical contexts, frequently featuring
a bondage theme, as m The Massacre at Chios (1824) and The
Death of Sardanapalus (1827), both in the Louvre. In these
paintings, Delacroix provided a more direct pictorial statement
interest, in the work.
admires the landscape elements
The women, probably prostitutes, who served as models for
I >egas\ pastels of bathers present anothei realistic aspeel of Ins
work. Generally speaking, artists' models were recruited from

of the powerful male/passive female scenario than the most com- the working class. Men might be laborers or even boxers;
mon bondage subjects, which entailed an armored knight rescu- women were reduced to modeling for want of employment in
ing a nude damsel in distress, as in the many scenes of Perseus respectable working-class occupations, the same condition that
rescuing Andromeda or John Everett Millais's The Errant Knight drove them to prostitution. Certainly, female models and pros-
(1870) in the Tare Gallery in London. Gustave Courbet, the pro- titutes were often one and the same. In 1894 Henri de

fessed realist, adopted Delacroix's voluptuous figures for a con- Toulouse-Lautrec actually took up residence in a house of pros-
temporary environment, as in The Bathers (circa 1853) in the titution; his images of prostitutes, clothed and nude, sometimes

Musee Faber in Montpellier, France, and Studio of a Painter boldly engaged in a lesbian embrace, are matter-of-fact records
(1854-1855) in the Musee d'Orsay in Paris. He moved into of their mundane existence.
pornography for select male patrons, as in The Origin of the Pablo Picasso returned to the theme of prostitutes in his

World ( [866), in a private collection, which depicts the cut-off famous depiction of five female nudes, Les Demoiselles
headless torso of a woman and focuses on a view looking up at d' Avignon (1907), in the Museum of Modern Art in New York,
the pudendum: the ultimate voyeur's view. in which, leaving realism far behind, he violently shattered the
The development of photography in the mid-nineteenth cen- women into early cubist fragments. Picasso arrived at this orig-
tury allowed artists (e.g., Delacroix and Courbet and many oth- inal expression after absorbing the lessons of Cezanne, for
ers thereafter) to consult photographs of nude figures in place of whom male and female bathers had been a principal preoccu-
or to supplement live models in the preparation of their work. pation. But the expressive, unnaturalistic distortion of Picasso's
This was cheaper and more convenient than employing live mod- figures came from his study of African art, which served as a
els. The professional photographers, usually anonymous, who guide and inspiration for the abstracted forms in modern
created these "artist's figures" borrowed conventional poses Western art.

from painting and sculpture for their photographic nudes, as in African art was by no means monolithic. Whereas the art of
the albumin print Nude Study (circa 1856-1858), perhaps by a the Ife and Benin cultures of Nigeria was relatively naturalistic,
photographer called "Watson" in the Victoria and Albert other African peoples commonly and exaggerated
simplified
Museum in London. It was left to
Eadweard Muybridge scientist certain anatomical features and often depicted men and women
to ignore such conventions in his remarkable series Animal in naked or near-naked states. Like the statues of ancient Greek
Locomotion (1887), which presents nude men and women athletes, this reflected customary undress in their societies. In
(among other living beings) captured in lively actions, as in plate Africa (and in other non-Western communities), such condi-
367, Woman, Kicking, a collotype in the Museum of Modern Art tions shocked European colonialists and led to another catego-
in New York. ry of the nude: the "naked Savage" as depicted by European
Impressionist painters also took up the nude, usually as gen- artists, a category that goes back to the seventeenth century, the
eralized female "bathers"; with Pierre-Auguste Renoir the sub- great age of European exploration. Not surprisingly, the
ject became almost obsessional in his later career. But it was English provided many examples in the nineteenth century, one
Ldouard Manet and Edgar Degas who created the modern of the most demeaning being Thomas Rowlandson's watercol-
—
nude Maner's defiant prostitute with her pert individual fea- or Broad Grins (circa 1800) in the Courtauld Institute in
tures and bold gaze reclining in her boudoir in Olympia 863), ( 1 London, which depicts a toothy crocodile face to face with a
now in the Musee d'Orsay
which in turn looked back in Paris, —
toothy naked African in a frank equation a reflection of con-
to Titian's Venus and Goya's Maja, and Degas's generally face- temporary European pseudoscientific racism that then empha-
less prostitutes exposing unidealized bodies (perhaps embody- sized the close kinship of Africans with brutes or the animal
ing a misogynistic attitude?), who are observed bathing in their world. This stance persisted throughout the nineteenth century
domestic interiors, as in Woman Bathing (1886) in the Musee and is reflected in the derogatory "primitive" label attached to
d'Orsay. Although poet and art critic Charles Baudelaire had African art by a European colonialist culture.
called for such themes as early as 1 S4 s and Degas had seen Much of African art is still shrouded in mystery, as dates and
such scenes in earlier Japanese prints, including Torii artists are unknown, but we do know that African sculpted
Kiyonaga's Women's Bath (circa 1-80), which he owned, only nude figures were not simply aesthetic objects but were general-
with Degas's many pastels do we get a sense of real, ordinary ly endowed with spiritual powers, for example, for healing or
women engaged in real, ordinary behavior — not displayed for fertility. In addition, they might have multiple identities as gods
an intentional viewer but inadvertently observed in the privacy and/or ancestors. The large wooden figure of a mother and child
 NAKI I) / NUDE 647

of the Bamana people of Mali, created in the nineteenth-twen- billboard advertisement in Tom Wessclman's Great American
tieth century, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York Nude series from the pop era; the cool, clinical male and female
is a good example. Such sculptures were used in fertility rites. models in Philip Pearlstein's studio sessions, as in Male and
Their exaggerated forms (here enlarged breasts, in others Female on Red and Purple Drapes (1968) in the Hirshhorn
swelling stomachs) related to a woman's role as childbearer. Museum and Sculpture Garden in Washington. D.C.; the
Such so-called primitive art of Africa, Polynesia, and the entwined gay couples engaged in frank sexual acts in Robert
Americas (made available to European artists as a by-product of, Mapplethorpe's stunning photographs; the great unclothed
the imperialist mission of colonizers) had a profound impact on "middle class," who, while naked, are nevertheless mysterious-
modern Western art. Paul Gauguin's painted South Sea ly clothed in ambiguity and unease in Eric ischl's mundane 1

islanders, as in Aha oe Feiif (What! Are You Jealous?) (1892) in suburban scenes of the 1980s, such as Noon Watch 1983) in (

the Pushkin Museum in Moscow; Henri Matisse's simplified the Mathias Brunner Collection in Zurich, Switzerland; and the
nudes cavorting in an imagined paradise, as in Bonheur de Vivre strippedbody of the artist Karen Finley in her politicized per-
(1906) in the Barnes Foundation in Merion, Pennsylvania; the formance pieces of the 1990s.
German expressionists' brilliantly colored bathers striding into
the north German sea, as in Max Pechstein's Under the Trees
See also Bath/Bathing; Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale;
(191 3) in the Detroit Institute of Arts in Michigan; or Ernst
Voyeurism
Eudwig Kirchner's depiction A Girl Under a Japanese Umbrella
(1909) in the Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen in Diisseldorf,
Germany, with its backdrop of coarsely drawn, wildly dancing
Selected Works of Art
figures —
all these were created under the impact of a new appre-

ciation for the so-called primitive, a Western myth that often Ancient
suggested an idyllic innocence free of moral constraints or mid- Venus of Willendorf, Paleolithic sculpture, circa
dle-class concerns. 25,000-20,000 B.C., Vienna, Austria, Naturhistoriches
The twentieth century brought a deluge of nudes despite the Museum
arrival of complete abstraction. Photographers began to use the Girl Playing with Balls, Indian Yakshi figure, sculpture,
nude figure as a nearly abstract form in some of the most stun- eleventh century, New Delhi, India, National Museum
ning photographs of the early modern period, such as Imogen
Cunningham's Nude (1932), a practice that continued to flour- Classical
ish in the hands of many artist/photographers throughout the Orgy Scene, Attic cup, early fifth century B.C., Paris, Louvre
twentieth century. John Colans produced some of the most star- Skopas, Maenad, sculpture, fourth century B.C., Dresden,
tling examples, using his own hairy body to create strong formal
Germany
patters in his photographs, as in Self-Portrait (1895). Nude self-
Apollo Belvedere, sculpture, fourth (Greek original) and first
portraits by Munch and Egon Schiele, such as Schiele's water-
(Roman copy), Vatican, Vatican Museum
century B.C.
color Self Portrait Crouching (191 2) in the Dr. Eugene A. Solow
Lysippus, Apoxyomenos, sculpture, fourth century B.C.,
and Family Collection in Chicago, brought self-revelation (self-
Vatican, Vatican Museums
flagellation?) to a deeper level and seemed to embody the
Praxiteles, Aphrodite of Knidos, sculpture, fourth century
tremendous anxiety associated with the modern era. Paula
B.C., Vatican, Vatican Museums
Modersohn-Becker's wishful self-portrait in a state of pregnan-
Marsyas, sculpture, third century B.C., Florence, Italy, Uffizi
cy (1906) in the Modersohn-Becker Haus, Bottcherstrasse in
Gallery
Bremen, Germany, and Alice Neel's cool, clear nude portraits of
The Three Graces, sculpture, Roman copy of Greek original,
pregnant women, as in Maria (1964) in the collection of the
second century B.C., Paris, Louvre
family, gave attention to a distinctly female condition that had
been all but ignored by male artists in earlier periods. The twen- Venus de Medici, marble sculpture, circa 1 50-100 b.< .. Paris,

tieth century also found women artists, now participating in the

Louvre
public production of art in numbers unheard of before, turning Laocoon, Hellenistic sculpture, circa first-second century

the table on male artists by directing their "gaze" on male nudes a.d., Vatican, Vatican Museums
with ironic results, as Turkish Bath (1973).
in Sylvia Sleigh's Emperor Trebonianus Gallus, sculpture, 251-253, New York,
The Freudian concerns of the mostly male surrealists made Metropolitan Museum of Art

the nude, with its inherent sexual associations, an especially apt

subject for them. Whether displaced to the street in Paul Medieval
Delvaux's paintings, as in The Hands (1941) in the Claude The Crucifixion and the Death of Judas, sculpture, circa

Spaak Collection in Paris, or transformed into facial features, 420-500, London, British Museum
as in Rene Magritte's The Rape (1934) in the Menil Collection Adam and Eve Reproached by the Lord, sculpture, 1015,
in Houston, Texas, the female nude in surrealist art was inten- Hildesheim, Germany, Cathedral
tionally startling and unsettling. / asi judgment, west tympanum sculpture, circa 1 1 ;o-i 1
3 s,

In the late twentieth century, the unclothed figure, male and Autun, France, Cathedral
female, continued to play a central role in artistic expression. Pisano, Nicola, Fortitude, sculpture, circa 1 260, Pisa, Italy,

Examples include a faceless pinup with the artificial air of a Cathedral

648 NAKED / Nl in

Pisano, ( no\ anni, Temperance, sculpture, 1 300-13 10, Pisa, Tintoretto, Susannah ami the I Iders, painting, 1 555-1 556,
Italy, Cathedral Vienna, Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum

Renaissance Seventeenth Century

Ghiberti, Lorenzo, The Sacrifice of Isaac, sculpture, fifteenth Rubens, Peter Paul, Three Graces, painting, early seventeenth
century, Florence, Inly, Bargello century, Madrid, Spain, Prado
Donatello, David, sculpture, circa [425-1430, Florence, Italy, Gentileschi, Artemesia, Bathsheha, painting, early seventeenth
Bargello century, Columbus, Ohio, Columbus Gallery of Art
Eyck, Jan and Hubert van. Last Judgment, painting, Rubens, Peter Paul, Venus Before the Mirror, painting, circa
1 425-1430, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art 1 616, Liechtenstein, Vaduz Castle, collection of the Prince
Masaccio, Adam and I re, I xpulsion from Paradise, painting, of Liechtenstein

1427, Florence, Italy, Sta. Maria del Carmine, Brancacci Rembrandt van Rijn, Adam and Eve, etching, 1638

Chapel Bernini, Gian Lorenzo, Truth with an Engaging Smile,

I \ Jv, Jan van, Eve, painting, Ghent Altai-piece, 1432, Ghent, sculpture, before 1652, Rome, Borghese Gallery
Belgium, Church of St. Bavo Velazquez, Diego, Rokeby Venus, painting, seventeenth
Pollaiuolo, Antonio, Hercules and the Hydra, painting, circa century, London, National Gallery
1460, Florence, Italy, Uffizi Gallery Rembrandt van Rijn, Bathsheha, painting, 1654, Paris,
Botticelli, Birth of Venus, painting, circa 1480, Florence, Italy, Louvre
Uffizi Gallery
Michelangelo, Bacchus, sculpture, circa 1496-1498, Florence, Eighteenth Century
Italy, Bargello Watteau, Antoine, Gersaint's Shopsign, painting, 1721, Berlin,
Botticelli, The Calumny of Apelles, oil on panel, circa 1497, Schloss Charlottenburg
Florence, Italy, Uffizi Gallery Le Moyne, Franqois, Bather, painting, 1724, St. Petersburg,
Giorgione, Sleeping Venus, painting, early sixteenth century, Russia, Hermitage
Dresden, Germany, Gemaldegalerie Boucher, Francois, The Toilet of Venus, painting, 1751, New
Diirer, Albrecht, Apollo, drawing, circa 1501-] 503, London, York, Metropolitan Museum of Art
British Museum Boucher, Francois, Mile. O 'Murphy, painting, mid-eighteenth
Diirer, Albrecht, Eve, engraving, 1504 century, Munich, Germany, Alte Pinakothek
Raphael, The Three Graces, painting, 1 504-1505, Chantilly, Falconet, Etienne-Maurice, Pygmalion and Galatea, sculpture,
France, Musee Conde 1763, Baltimore, Maryland, Walters Art Gallery
Giorgione (and/or Titian), Fete Champetre, painting, circa Fragonard, Jean-Honore, Bathers, painting, circa 1765, Paris,
1 508, Paris, Louvre Louvre
Michelangelo, ceiling frescoes, 1508-15 12, Vatican, Sistine Vigee-Lebrun, Marie-Louise-Elisabeth, Portrait of Prince
( hapel Henry Lubomirski, painting, late eighteenth century,
Michelangelo, Risen Christ, sculpture, 15 14-1520, Rome, Berlin, Germany, Gemaldegalerie
Sta. Maria Sopra Minerva Kiyonaga, Torii, Women's Bath, woodcut, circa 1780
Titian, Sacred and Profane Love, painting, circa 15 15, Rome, Canova, Antonio, Cupid and Psyche, sculpture, 1787-1793,
Borghese Gallery Paris, Louvre
Leonardo da Vinci, Leda and the Swan, before 1519, lost Girodet-Trioson, Anne-Louis, Sleep of Endymion, painting,
Antico, Venus Felix, sculpture, circa 1519, Vienna, Austria, 1 79 1, Paris, Louvre

Kunsthistorisches Museum David, Jacques-Louis, Death of Joseph Bara, painting, 1793,

Raphael, The Judgment of Paris, before 1 520, lost Avignon, France, Musee Calvet
Diirer, Albrecht, Draftsman Drawing a Nude, woodcut, 1525, Gerard, Francois, Cupid and Psyche, painting, 1798, Paris,
London, British Museum Louvre
Diirer, Albrecht, Nude (Hausfrau), drawing, before 1528,
Bayonne, France Nineteenth Century
Correggio, Jupiter and lo, painting, circa 1532, Vienna, Rowlandson, Thomas, Broad Grins, watercolor, circa 1800,
Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum London, Courtauld Institute
Cranach, Lucas the Elder, Venus, painting, 1532, Frankfurt, Goya, Francisco de, Naked Maja, painting, circa 1800,
Germany, Stadelsches Kunstinstitut Madrid, Spain, Prado
Michelangelo, Day, Night, Dawn and Evening, sculptures, Canova, Antonio, Napoleon, sculpture, 1806, London, Apsley
521-] s ;4. Florence, Italy, San Lorenzo, Medici Chapel
1
House
Michelangelo, Last Judgment, fresco, [534-1541, Vatican, Ingres, Jean-Auguste-Dominique, Grande Odalisque, painting,
Sistine Chapel 1814, Paris, Louvre
Titian, Venus ofUrbino, painting, [538, Florence, Italy, Uffizi Delacroix, Eugene, The Massacre at Chios, painting, 1824,
Gallery Paris, Louvre
Bronzino, Agnolo, Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time, painting, Delacroix, Eugene, The Death of Sardanapalus, painting,
circa [546, London, National Gallery 1827, Paris, Louvre
 NAKED / NUDE 649

Ingres, Jean-Auguste-Dominique, Venus Anadyomene, Cunningham, Imogen, Nude, photograph, 1932, Berkeley,
painting, 1848, Chantilly, France, Musee Conde California, Imogen Cunningham Trust
Courbet, Gustave, The Bathers, circa 1853, Montpellier, Magritte, Rene, The Rape, painting, 1934, Houston, Texas,
France, Musee Faber Menil Collection
Courbet, Gustave, Studio of a Painter, painting, 18 54-1 8 5 5, Spencer, Stanley, Self-Portrait with Patricia Preece, painting,
Paris, Musee d'Orsay 1936, Cambridge, England, Cambridge University,
Watson (presumed photographer). Nude Study, albumin Fitzwilliam Museum
print, circa 1856-1858, London, Victoria and Albert The Leg of Mutton Nude, painting, 1937,
Spencer, Stanley,
Museum London, Tate Gallery
Manet, Edouard, Olympia, painting, 1863, Paris, Musee Delvaux, Paul, The Hands, painting, 1941, Paris, Claude
d'Orsay Spaak Collection
Courbet, Gustave, The Origin of the World, painting, 1866, Wesselman, Tom, Great American Nude #5-7, collage, 1964,
private collection
private collection
John Everett, The Knight Errant, painting, 1870,
Millais,
Neel, Alice, Maria, painting, 1964, collection of the family
London, Tate Gallery
Pearlstein, Philip, Male and Female on Red and Purple
Burne-Jones, Edward Coley, Pygmalion, painting series, 1879,
Drapes, 1968, Washington, D.C., Hirshhorn Museum and
Birmingham, England, Birmingham Art Gallery
Sculpture Gardens
Cezanne, Paul, Three Bathers, painting, 1879-18 8 2, Paris,
Sleigh, Silvia, Turkish Bath, painting, 1973
Musee de Petit-Palais
De Andrea, John, Woman on Bed, 1975, New York, O. K.
Eakins, Thomas, The Crucifixion, painting, r88o,
Harris Gallery
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Museum of Art
Freud, Lucian, Naked Portrait with Reflection, painting,
Renoir, Auguste, Large Bathers, painting, 1884-1887,
1980, London, Odette Gilbert Gallery
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Museum of Art
Mapplethorpe, Robert, photographs, circa 1980s
Degas, Edgar, Women Bathing, pastel, 1886, Paris, Musee
d'Orsay
Fischl, Eric, Noon Watch, painting, 1983, Zurich,
Switzerland, Mathias Brunner Collection
Muy bridge,Eadweard, Woman Kicking, collotype, plate 367,
from Animal Locomotion, 1887, New York, Museum of Coplans, John, Self-Portrait, photograph, 1985, property of

Modern Art the artist

Seurat, Georges, Models, painting, r 886-1 888, Merion, Finley, Karen, performance pieces, 1990s
Pennsylvania, Barnes Foundation
Gauguin, Paul, Aha oe Feii? (What! Are You Jealous?),
painting, 1892, Moscow, Russia, Pushkin Museum Further Reading
Munch, Edvard, Madonna, lithograph, 1895
Berger, John, Ways of Seeing, Baltimore, Maryland, and
Klimt, Gustav, Nuda Veritas, painting, 1899, Vienna, Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1972
Austria, Theatersammlung der Oesterreichischen
Carr, J. L., "Pygmalion and the Philosophes," Journal of the
Nationalbibliothek
Warburg and Courtauld Institutes XXIII (i960)
Mother and Child, Bamana sculpture, circa nineteenth-
Clark, Kenneth, The Nude: A Study in the Ideal Form, New
twentieth century, Mali, Africa, New York, Metropolitan
York: Pantheon, 1956
Museum of Art
Clark, Timothy, "Olympiad Choice," in The Painting of
Modern Art of Manet and His Followers,
Life: Paris in the
Twentieth Century
Princeton, New Jersey, and London: Princeton University
Matisse, Henri, Bonheur de Vivre, painting, 1906, Merion,
Pennsylvania, Barnes Foundation
1984
Press,
Cormack, Malcolm, The Nude in Western Art, Oxford:
Modersohn-Becker, Paula, Self-Portrait in a State of
Pregnancy, painting, 1906, Bremen, Germany,
Phaidon, 1976; New York: Dutton, 1976

Bottcherstrasse, Modersohn-Becker Haus

Ewing, William, The Body: Photographs of the Human Form,

Picasso, Pablo, Les Demoiselles d Avignon, painting, 1907,

San Francisco: Chronicle, 1994
Farwell, Beatrice, Manet and the Nude: A Study of
New York, Museum of Modern Art
Sickert, Walter Richard, Morninton Crescent Nude, painting, Iconography in the Second Empire, New York: Garland,
1907, private collection 1981
Pechstein, Max, Under the Trees, painting, 191 3, Detroit, Gerdts, William, The Great American Nude: A History m
Michigan, Institute of Arts Art, New York: Praeger, 1974; London: Studio Vista,
Kirchner, Ernst Ludwig, A Girl Under a Japanese Umbrella, 1977
painting, 1909, Diisseldorf, Germany, Kunstsammlung Grewenig, Meinrad Maria, Der Akt in der Deutschen
Nordrhein-Westfalen Renaissance die Einheit von Nackthcit und I eib m der
Schiele, Egon, Self-Portrait Crouching, watercolor, 191 2, bildenden Kunst, Freren, Germany: Luca, 198-
Chicago, Illinois, Dr. Eugene A. Solow and Family Harris, Ann Sutherland, and Linda Nochlin, Women Artists

Collection rjj 0-1950, New York: Knopf, 1978

650 NAKED / NUDE

1 lavclock, ( The Aphrodite ofKnidos and

hristine Mitchell, Nead, Lynda, The Female Nude: Art, Obscenity and
Her Successors: A Historical Review of the Female Nude Sexuality, London and New York, 1992
in Greek Art, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, Nead, Lynda, "Representation, Sexuality, and the Female
[995 Nude," Art History (June 1983)
I In ward Gallery, London, Image of Man: The Indian
In the Pevsner, Nikolaus,Academies of Art: Past and Present,
Perception of the Universe Through zooo Years of Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1940
Fainting and Sculpture, ondon: Weidenfeld and Nicolson,
I Pointon, Marcia, Naked Authority: The Body in Western
[982 Painting, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge
1 lobhouse. Inner, The Brule Stripped Hare: The Artist and University Press, 1990
the Nude 111 London: Cape, [988
the Twentieth Century, Saunders, Gil, The Nude: A New Perspective, London:
Ilollander, Anne, Seeing Through Clothes, Berkeley and Herbert Press, 1989
ondon: University of California Press, 1978
1 Smith, Alison, The Victorian Nude: Sexuality, Morality and
Hudson, Liam, Bodies of Knowledge: The Psychological Art, Manchester, England: Manchester University Press,
Signifit dine of the Nude in \rt, ondon: Weidenfeld and
I 1996
Nicolson,982 1
Solomon-Godeau, Abigail, "Going Native," Art in America
Kestner, Joseph, Mythology and Misogyny: The Social (July 1989)
Discourse of Nineteenth-Century British Classical Subject , "Male Trouble: A Crisis in Representation," Art
Painting, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989 History (June 1993)
Laguna, I.anssa, "Nudity as a Costume in Classical Art," Source XXIL2 (Winter 1993), ssue devoted to essays on
>

American Journal of Archaeology 93 (1989) nudity in antiquity

Leighton, Patricia, "The White Peril and L'art negre: Picasso, Steinberg, Leo, The Sexuality of Christ in Renaissance Art
Primitivism and Anticolonialism," Art Bulletin LXXII and in Modern Oblivion, New York: Pantheon, 1983
(1990) Stokes, Adrian, Reflections on the Nude, London and New
Lesser, Wendy, His Other Half: Men Looking at Women York: Tavistock, 1967
Through Art, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Suleiman, Susan, The Female Body in Western Culture:
University Press, 1991 Contemporary Perspectives, Cambridge, Massachusetts:
Lewinski, Jorge, The Naked and the Nude: A History of the Harvard University Press, 1986
Nude in Photographs, 1 83 9 to the Present, New York: Thomson, Richard, Degas, the Nudes, London and New
Harmony, 1987 York: Thames and Hudson, 1988
Lipton, Eunice, Looking Into Degas: Uneasy Images of Walters, Margaret, The Nude Male: A New Perspective,
Women and Modern Life, Berkeley and London: New York and London: Penguin, 1978
University of California Press, 1986 Warner, Marina, Monuments and Maidens: The Allegory of
Lucie-Smith, Edward, The Body: Images of the Nude, London the Female Form, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1985
and New York: Thames and Hudson, 198 Webb, Peter, The Erotic Arts, London: Seeker and Warburg,
Miles, Margaret, Carnal Knowing: Female Nakedness and 1975
Religious Meaning in the Christian West, Boston: Beacon Willett, Frank, African Art: An Introduction, New York:
Press, 1989 Praeger, 1971
 NIGHT
Stephen Lamia

The following periods are covered in the discussion of the theme Night:

ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL

RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE
ROMANTICISM THROUGH
POSTIMPRESSIONISM
TWENTIETH CENTURY

651
652 M < . 1
 Ml, III 653

Richard Bosnian, Night Web, 1993,

Minneapolis, Minnesota, Thimmesh
Gallery. (Courtesy of the artist)

TA
he appearance or night in art is frequently,

on an observation of sequential noctur-

exclusively, based
although not Runge executed in the early nineteenth century, Four Phases of
Day, includes one very detailed pen and ink drawing titled
nal phenomena such as the setting of the sun or the waxing and Night (1803). The composition of slumbering children, winged
waning of the moon. Concerned literally with the passage of genies, stars, flowers, and the moon is arranged in strict bilat-
time, the theme of night may also appear in imaginative rever- eral symmetry around the central figure of Night, a unique and
ie and symbolic manifestation. mystical interpretation of the closing hours of day.
This essay covers two broad categories: figurative and In the late Gothic period artists began to take an interest in
nonfigurative works of art. In the first group one finds person- setting certain religious episodes, especially those from the life

ifications of night from the ancient era through the twentieth of Jesus Christ, in the appropriate time of day according to bib-
century. Figurative art also includes biblical narratives, secular lical texts. Thus, an abundance of nocturnal Nativities
scenes, and allegorical representations whose chronologies (Lorenzo Monaco, Gentile da Fabriano, Jean Fouquet,
span the late Gothic to modern periods. Nonfigurative noc- Geertgen tot Sint Jans, Albrecht Altdorfer, Georges de La
turnes have been dominated chiefly by the landscape, from its Tour), Annunciations to and Adorations of Shepherds (Taddeo
earliest sporadic appearance in Baroque Europe through the Gaddi, Correggio, Rembrandt van Rijn), and Adorations of
end of the twentieth century. Magi (Boucicaut Master) lent a new dimension of realism and
Most ancient and medieval works are atemporal in designa- a heightened sense of sacred awe to Infancy cycles. Last
tion. For instance, the plowing of a field carved in an ancient Suppers (Pietro Lorenzetti), Arrests of Christ (Jan Joest von
Egyptian relief, a mythological scene painted on a Greek vase, Kalkar), and Lamentations (Nicolas Poussin), all set at night,
or any number of religious narratives unfolding in fresco on the augmented the dramatic tension of scenes of the Passion. On
nave walls of a Romanesque church seldom indicate day the other hand, Matthias Griinewald's star-studded nocturnal
or night. Resurrection panel from the Isenheim Altarpiece (1510-1515)
The origin of the iconographic theme night may be attrib- presents a luminous and visionary exaltation of death. In a sec-
uted to classical representations of Selene, Greek goddess of the ular, but still reverential, manner twentieth-century artist

moon. In a second-century a.d. sarcophagus depicting the Georges Rouault retained the nighttime atmosphere in his
myth of Endymion, Selene steps out of her chariot and Christ in the Suburbs (1920).
approaches a sleeping nude youth. The crescent moon appears Other biblical narratives employ nocturnal settings of night
as a crown atop her head, and a billowing cloak — a conven- without Christocentric iconography. These include Ludovico
tional symbol of the heavens —arcs and enframes her upper Carracci's Old Testament painting Jacob's Dream (1605-1608),
body. Strikingly similar in disposition is a hauntingly beautiful, Hieronymus Bosch's apocalyptic Last judgment (the 15 10 frag-
standing female figure labeled nyx ("night" in Greek) in the ment), and the Detroit, Michigan, version of Artemisia
miniature of the Prayer of Isaiah from The Paris Psalter (circa Gentileschi's Judith and Her Maidservant with the Head of
900), a tenth-century masterpiece of manuscript illumination Holofernes (circa 1625). Gentileschi herself, an artist of inter-
from the Macedonian Renaissance. Here the Byzantine artist national reputation, helped to promote the powerfully dramat-
represents night as a personification whose costume, face, ic, tenebrist style made famous by the great Baroque master
exposed arms, and shoulders are conceived in monochromes of Caravaggio. Georges de La Tour, mentioned above in conjunc-
blue. As with her Roman predecessor, this figure also holds tion with the Nativity of Christ, wasmost accomplished
the
aloft the veil of the night sky, this time replete with a pattern of French adherent of this seventeenth-century tradition. In works
white dots that suggest stars. of hagiography such as Piero delta Francesca's Vision of
The most celebrated instance of the personification of night Constantine from The Legend of the True Cross (1452-1457)
came from the chisel of Michelangelo and adorns the tomb of fresco program and Raphael's The Liberation of St. Peter from
Giuliano de'Medici in the Medici Chapel in Florence, Italy. Prison ( 1 5 1 3 ) nocturnal elements such as a dusky tent or a dark
Although this Night (1524-1534) lacks the grace of the earlier cell with flashes of divine or natural light are craftily employed
examples, she possesses a pathos brought on by a time-worn to befit the story.
existence, and her fitful posture underscores the sorrow and Artists have often used night settings in secular narratives
loss of death. A late eighteenth-century drawing by Asmus for the sake of heightening dramatic or emotional content.
Jakob Carstens, a devotee of Michelangelo's art, carries the Both versions of Francisco de Goya's Witches' Sabbath, as well
personified representation of night into the romantic period. as his Executions of the Third of May,1808 (1814), plunge fig-
Carstens's Night with Her Children, Sleep and Death (before ures into gloomy, sinister darkness to increase a macabre
1795), based on Hesiod's Theogonia (circa 700 B.C.), includes atmosphere. John Quidor's The Money Diggers (1832), a

Nemesis, Fate, and Parcae in addition to the three main figures. painting that illustrates one of Washington Irving's Tales of a
An ambitious, although unrealized, project by Philipp Otto Traveller, shrouds the excavators of a buried treasure with the
654 N I G HI

pitch blackness of night. As a result, the ghostly apparition of Panning Cocq (1642), known by its more popular title, The
the owner, barelj discernible in the upper right portion of the Night Watch,is a misnomer.

canvas, surprises the trio of figures as well as the viewer. The second category of night themes dispenses with the

On charm and enigma simultaneously suf-

the other hand, human figure altogether or, if it is included at all, diminishes its

fuse the nocturnal imagery of Henri Rousseau's The Sleeping role to a minor level. Instead, nature becomes resplendent in
Gypsy (1897), Vasily Kandinsky's Night (1906-1907), Grant the form of landscape, seascape, and skyscape —the visual vehi-

Wood's The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere (1931), and even cle through which artists render nocturnal imagery.
Pablo Picasso's Night Fishing at Antibes (1939). Other twenti- The earliest examples of independent landscape painting
eth century works utilize night settings to fuel a psychological yield very little in the way of the iconography of night. El

charge. Hdward Hopper's Night Windows (1928) and Greco's View of Toledo (circa 16 10) at the Metropolitan
Highthawks (1942) and Alex Katz's Self-Portrait, Portrait of Museum of Art in New
York and Jacob van Ruisdael's
Prank and Sheila lama, and Hiroshi and Marsha present dis- Dresden, Germany, version of The Jewish Cemetery (1655) are
comforting arrangements of figures in isolated thought set premonitions of the grand, nineteenth-century nocturne —the
against dark, urban backdrops. trueheyday for this theme.
Night as a in allegorical works provides
temporal setting Caspar David Friedrich, the chief exponent of German
visual imagery with a range of moods. Night creates a sense of romantic painting, used the theme of night to express his deeply
indefinite mystery in Marcantonio Raimondi's engraving The rooted religious sentiments. The moon, one motif that appears
Dream of Raphael (circa 506), while a more intense Romantic
1 in almost all of Friedrich's night paintings, was forhim a
terror results in Goya's The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters symbol of divine light, specifically of Jesus Christ. The small
(1799) and The Colossus 1808-18 12). Night perpetuates a
(
companion pieces Moonlit Night on the Shore of the Baltic Sea
fantastic fin-de-siecle malaise in Ferdinand Hodler's The Night and Moonlit Night with Ships on the Baltic Sea both contain his
(1890), while post-World War I cruelty emanates from the favorite pictorial references to the transition from life to death
dark of Max Beckmann's The Night (1918-1919) and Otto land, sea, ships, moonlight. Identical imagery recurs in the later
Dix's Meeting a Madman at Night (1924), an etching with Sea Piece by Moonlight and Sea Shore with the Rising Moon
aquatint and drypoint from his series Der Krieg. (183 5-1 837). In other night works, however, Friedrich's forms
The combined figurative and nocturnal elements in roman- are more idiosyncratic: in The Cross at Riigen, a memorial
tic and symbolist works of art lend an expressive dimension of painting for a deceased friend, an anchor emphasizes the hope
eroticism to works such as Henry Fuseli's two versions of The of resurrection; in Picture in Remembrance of Johann
Nightmare (1781); quasi-religious tranquillity to works such as Emmanuel Bremer, between life
a gate symbolizes the transition
Caspar David Friedrich's Two Men Contemplating the Moon and death; Moonlight (1816-1817), the artist
in Greifsivald in

( 819) and Moonnse over the Sea (1822); shadowy ambiguity

1 transforms his hometown into an earthly paradise; and in The
to works such as Odilon Redon's L'homme fitt solitaire dans nn Temple of Juno at Agngentwn, the ruins of the Greek temple
paysage de unit, from a portfolio of lithographs entitled The symbolize death and decay. The moon illuminates objects in the
Night; and personal, psychological uneasiness in public places darkness of night in all of these works. Yet the moon does not
to works such as Vincent van Gogh's The Night Cafe (1888) simply define forms in Friedrich's canvases, it also symbolizes
and Edvard Munch's Evening on Karl Johannstrasse (1892). Christ and the resurrection of the spirit after death. Carl Gustav
Surrealist artists who set figures in nocturnal environments Carus [Gothic Church and Treetops in the Moonlight) and
include Max Ernst in Pieta or Revolution by Night and One Ernst Ferdinand Oehme (Moonlit Night on the Gulf of Salerno),
Night of Love (1927); Paul Delvaux in Phases of the Moon younger artists who worked in Friedrich's circle, employ noc-
(1939) and Sleeping Venus (1944); and Australian artist Max turnal imagery to present a similar spiritual content.
Dupain in Night with Her Train of Stars and Her Gift of Sleep English painter Samuel Palmer also imbued nocturnal land-
(circa 1936). No checklist of surrealist nocturnes, however, scapes (Moonlit Landscape, 1829-1830; Coming from Evening
would be complete without the inclusion of works by Joan Church; Harvest Moon) with deep religious significance.
Miro, because themes of the night constitute a major portion of Figures, although clearly visible, do not dominate the painted
his oeuvre.From the early Dog Barking at the Moon (1926), to surface but merge, like a dense patchwork, with trees, Gothic
the works of his peinture sauvage (savage painter) period such spires, and the moon. Another English painter, Atkinson
as Nocturne (1938), to the works of his Constellation series Grimshaw, a contemporary of James Abbott McNeill Whistler,
such as The Nightingale's Song at Midnight and Morning Rain takes an emphatically more realistic approach to nighttime
( 940) and People in the Night Guided by the Phosphorescent
1 landscapes. His Scarborough Lights (1877) is an inviting view
Tracks of Snails 940), to those belonging to the latter part of
( 1 of a sparkling harbor, twinkling lamps dispersed among such
his career such as People in the Night (1950), Miro had a fond- forms as a bridge, ships, and various buildings.
ness for nocturnal iconography and, at one point, even stated French artist Jean-Francois Millet literally lifts the spectator
that one of the most emotional moments of his life was a night off the ground to witness a comet-streaked, star-studded sky-
flight. His paintings of the night are not dark obliterations pop- scape in The Starry Night (1 850-1851), a work that may have
ulated with shadowy forms but dense, colorful, even bright inspired the lesser-known of van Gogh's two versions of the
compositions teeming with life culled from fact, fantasy, and same theme.
the astral realm. Nocturnal imagery from the early career of Piet Mondrian
This survey of figurative night imagery concludes with a shows a distinct persistence of had filtered
romanticism, as if it
work that must be mentioned if only to exclude it. — down through the century directly from Friedrich. However, as
Rembrandt's group portrait The Company of Captain Trans has been pointed out, Mondrian's Ships in the Moonlight
 NIGHT 655

(1890), Mill by the Moonlight, Summer Night (circa 1907), sky above. The slightly later second version galvanizes the stars
and Trees on the Gein by Moonlight owe as much to the native, and moon into the heightened crescendo of a quasi-apocalyptic
seventeenth-century Dutch tradition of topographical land- vision — the human figures are dispensed with altogether.
scape painting as they do to the more au courant, nineteenth- On the other hand, Munch initially took an impressionist
century romantic interpretations of night. tact on nocturnal landscape imagery in works such as Banks of
American artists of the early romantic era, such as the Seine at Night. Later he replaced it with broader, flatter

Washington Allston (Moonlit Landscape, 1819) and later brushwork and a psychological content that can only be
Ralph Blakelock {Diana's Mirror, circa 1 880-1 890), Albert described as desolate and bleak. Examples of this approach
Pinkham Ryder {Moonlight Marine, circa 1 870-1 890), and the include his Starry Night (
1 893 ), White Night ( 1 901 ), and ( 1 >asl

tonalist George Inness (Moonlight, Tarpon Springs, 1892), at Aasgaard.

exhibited a strong interest in nocturnal motifs. They trans-
formed their moody, dark landscapes into mysterious, ethereal,
elusive, and contemplative expanses.
Although the artists of the impressionist generation were
mostly concerned with daylight effects on material form, a
few, such as Camille Pissarro (Evening on the Boulevard
Montmartre, 1897) ar>d the Americans John Singer Sargent
(Luxembourg Gardens at Night, 1879), Childe Hassam (Fifth
Avenue Nocturne), Winslow Homer (Kissbig the Moon), and
Ernest Lawson {Spring Night, Harlem River) ventured into the
darker territory of night.
The most persuasive and experimental of all the impres-
sionists who mined this seductive theme, however, was
American expatriate James Abbott McNeill Whistler.
The early twentieth century witnessed the continuity of
night themes under a variety of visual identities and stylistic
manifestations, typical of the era's widening pluralistic modes.
These include the frankly realistic urban landscapes of the Ash
Can School artists, such as George Luks's Armistice Night
(191 8) and John Sloan's The City from Greenwich Village
(1922), as well as the initial forays into abstraction executed by
their contemporaries in the United States and abroad.
Examples of these works include Georgia O'Keeffe's New York
Night (1928-1929), Arthur Dove's Moon (1935), and Paul
Klee's The Departure of the Boats (1927) and Fire at Full Mooti
(*933)-
Surrealist artists, as already noted in the figurative subcate-
gory, displayed a strong affinity for nocturnal imagery. Even in

—
Throughout the 1870s Whistler actually only marginally the realm of pure landscape Max Ernst continued to favor the
affiliated with the impressionist movement pursued tonal — haunting moodiness of the night. In several of his "forest"
rather than formal equivalents in painting and even titled the works (1925-1927), such as The Great Forest and Vision
group of canvases he produced in this decade after the musical Induced by the Nocturnal Aspect of Porte Saint-Denis, the
term nocturne. All of these landscapes unfold during the night- combined techniques of frottage (rubbing) and grattage (scrap-
time hours and many, such as Nocturne in Black and Gold: The ing) yield forms that strongly suggest dense, vertically aligned
Falling Rocket (1874), are so loosely painted as to anticipate tree trunks set against dark "skies," with a hovering white cir-

the abstract innovations of many twentieth-century artists. cle to indicate the moon. Roberto Matta presents even more
Indeed it was this very work that critic John Ruskin vituper- abstract intangibles in his Invasion of the Night (1941), while
ously attacked as "a pot of paint flung in the public's face," Rene Magritte's often reproduced The Empire of Light II

inciting Whistler's Other paintings included in the

lawsuit. depicts a disquieting, quixotic streetscape that exists in both
series, such as Nocturne in Blue and Silver: Bognor, Nocturne day and night.
in Blue and Gold: Old Battersea Bridge (1872-1875), and Although less imagistically oriented, a number of abstract
Nocturne in Gray and Gold: Chelsea Snow (1878), retain the expressionist artists explored nocturnal evocations within their
vestiges of discernible, identifiable imagery, although it is the personal, established aesthetic. Arshile Gorky (study for
sensation of color tones that dominates the viewer's visual Nighttime, Enigma, and Nostalgia) and William Baziotes
experience. (Night Figure, No. 1), for example, painted biomorphic shapes
Nocturnal themes attracted two very important artists of on dark grounds. Bradley Walker Tomlin (Tensio>i by
the post-impressionist period, each of whom utilized it for dif- Moonlight, 1948) and Mark Tobey (Awakening Night, 1949)
ferent ends. Van Gogh translated the iconography of night into employed their hallmark calligraphic symbols on black back-
both a curiously sensory and a uniquely spiritual expression. drops, and Adolph Gottlieb displayed the power of simplified
His The Cafe Terrace on the Place du Forum, Aries, at Night forms defined through bold, gestural strokes in his Blue at
(1888) shows his interest in combining the artificial light of a Night (1957).
gas lamp with the natural illumination of glimmering stars.
jet Roy Lichtenstein's Moonlight (1967) carries the iconogra-
In other canvases, however, such as the two versions of The phy of night into the generation of the pop artists, although the
Starry Night (1889) and Road with Cypresses and Stars, ani- theme is less common during this period than in previous eras.
mated landscapes and intensely glowing celestial bodies that However, more recent movements, especially photo-realism, or
pulsate in writhing, undulating skies communicate a powerful- new realism, reinvested nocturnal imagery with vigorous, indi-
ly expressive, otherworldly message. In a missive written to his vidualized interpretations. For instance, Paul Rickert's Fog at
brother Theo (letter #543, September 1888) van Gogh stated, the Station is redolent of melancholy and loneliness in its sepia-

"That does not prevent me from having a terrible need of shall toned depiction of a fog-shrouded parking lot at a commuter
I say the word? —
of religion. Then I go out at night to paint the railway stop late at night. April Gornik's Pulling Moon, on the
stars." Van Gogh was referring to the earlier of the two The other hand, shows the splendid life of nature that exists w hol-

Starry Night paintings, the one that may have been inspired by ly and majestically independent of any person whatsoever.
Millet in which two minuscule figures in the right foreground Alex Katz, already encountered in the section on figurative
are seemingly less lifelike than the energetic astral bodies in the nocturnes, excludes the human figure in several of his paintings
656 NIGH 1

with amazingly strong results. Luna Park, an early work, Renaissance and Baroque
shows a view out a body ol water, a Munch-
window onto a Piero della Francesca, Vision of Constantino, from The
like path ol moonlight shining vertically on its surface. By con- Legend of the True Cross, circa 1452-1457, Arezzo, Italy,

trast. Ins later urban nocturnes oi the 1980s, referred to as his St. Francesco
"pure" night paintings, verge on the abstract. They are almost Geertgen tot Sint Jans, Night Nativity, circa 1480, London,
black save for the scattered rectangular specks of white
totally National Gallery
that imply the florescent "night lights" left burning in Kalkar, Jan Joest von, Arrest of Christ, 1 505, Kalkar,
Manhattan office towers. Some of these "pure" nocturnes, Nikolaikirche
such as Quarter Moon ( 1987) and Night I, retain vestigial ref- Raimondi, Marcantonio, The Dream of Raphael, engraving,
erences to nature, it only in title. Others, however, such as circa 1506, London, British Museum

Varick (1988) and Hudson (1988), more emphatically relate Raphael, The Liberation of St. Peter from Prison, 151 3,

the midnight hours to the urban environment by citing specific Vatican, Stanza de Heliodoro
street names. Michelangelo, Night, statue on the tomb of Giuliano
Discussion of the night theme closes with the early 990s
1 de'Medici, 524-1 534, Florence,
1 Italy, San Lorenzo,
new realist paintings by Richard Bosnian and his "Nocturne" Medici Chapel
series (1993). These huge works, which include Study for Correggio, Adoration of the Shepherds (Holy Night), 1522,
Meteor, Cams Major/Canis Minor, Moonlight, Navigator, and Dresden, Germany, Gemaldegalerie
\ight W'eh, present the visual wondei oi a star-studded, blue- Carracci, Ludovico, Jacob's Dream, 1605-1608, Bologna,
black field complete with identifiable constellations and the Italy, Pinacoteca
moon. By works invite the viewer to enter
their very scale, these Gentileschi, Artemisia, Judith and Her Maidservant with the
a limitless spaceand to participate with the artist as he discov- Head of Holofernes, circa 1625, Detroit, Michigan,
ers and experiences harmony, mystery, beauty, and awe. Detroit Institute of Arts
The iconography of night is rich in its variances and unpre- La Tour, Georges de, The Newborn, circa 1630, Rennes,
dictable in its manifestations. The subcategory of figurative France, Musee des Beaux-Arts
scenes unfolds with imposing personifications of night during Ruisdael, Jacob van, The Jewish Cemetery, circa 1655,
the ancient, Byzantine, and Renaissance periods. These arche- Dresden, Germany, Gemaldegalerie
types —
waned although never totally disappeared in favor of —
more temporally conceived settings. However, no expected pat- Romanticism through Postimpressionism
tern prevailed as that temporality was, at first, based upon Fuseli, Henry, The Nightmare, 178 1, Detroit, Michigan,
written biblical description. Later, nocturnal imagery became Detroit Institute of Arts
informed by the conditions characteristic of the modern world: Carstens, Asmus Jakob, Night with Her Children, Sleep and
mystery, terror, eroticism, malaise, isolation, and all psycholog- Death, black and white chalk on beige, 1795, Weimar,
ical states of mind. Finally, in the second subcategory, unpopu- Germany, Schlossmuseum
lated scenes, the range of formal possibilities extended from Goya, Francisco de, The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters,
dark brooding landscapes or interiors to sparkling vistas of etching, 1799
night skies th.it may or ma\ not have contained terrestrial Runge, Philipp Otto, Night, 1803, Hamburg, Germany,
objects as visual reference points. In paintings that lack such Kunsthalle
detail, the celestial expanse offers the miraculous possibility of Goya, Francisco de, The Colossus, 1808-1812, Paris,
contemplating and exploring infinity. Bibliotheque Nationale
Goya, Francisco de, Executions of the Third of May, 1808,
1814, Madrid, Spain, Prado
See also Dawn/Dawning; Nightmare; Sleep/Sleeping Friedrich, Caspar David, Greifswald in Moonlight,
1816-1817, C'slo, Norway, Nasjonalgalerie
Allston, Washington, Moonlit Landscape, 1819, Boston,

Selected Works of Art

Museum of Fine Arts
Friedrich, Caspar David, Two Men Contemplating the Moon,
Ancient and Medieval 1 8 19, Dresden, Germany, Gemaldegalerie

Sarcophagus with the Myth of Endymion, second century Friedrich, Caspar David, Moonrise over the Sea, 1822, Berlin,
a.d., New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art Staatliche Museen
Prayer of Isaiah in The Paris Psalter, circa A.D. 900, Paris Palmer, Samuel, Moonlit Landscape, 1 829-1 830, Princeton,
(B.N., cod. gr.139, 435V) fol. New Jersey, Princeton University Art Museum
Gaddi, Taddeo, Annunciation to the Shepherds, after 1328, Quidor, John, The Money Diggers, 1832, Brooklyn, New
Florence, Italy, Sta. Croce, Baroncelli Chapel York, The Brooklyn Museum
Limbourg Brothers, Christ in Gethsemane, from Tres Riches Friedrich, Caspar David, Sea Shore with the Rising
Hemes du Due de Berry, before 141 5, Chantilly, Musee Moon, 1835-1837, Dresden, Germany, Staatliche
Conde (fol. 142V) Kunstsammlung
Lorenzo Monaco, Nativity, predella of The Coronation of the The Starry Night, 1850-1851, New
Millet, Jean-Francois,
Virgin, 14 14, Florence, Italy, Uffizi Gallery Haven, Connecticut, Yale University Art Gallery
Gentile da Fabriano, Nativity, predella of the Strozzi Ryder, Albert Pinkham, Moonlight Marine, circa 1 870-1 890,
Altarpiece, 1423, Florence. Irak, Uffizi Gallery New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art
 NIGHT 657

Whistler, James Abbot McNeill, Nocturne in Blue and Gold: Ernst, Max, Vision Induced by the Nocturnal Aspect of Porte
Old 1 872-1 875, London, Tate Gallery
Battersea Bridge, Saint-Denis, 1927, private collection
Whistler, James Abbot McNeill, Nocturne in Black and Gold: Klee, Paul, The Departure of the Boats, 1927, Berlin,
The Falling Rocket, 1874, Detroit, Michigan, Detroit Nationalgalerie
Institute of Arts Hopper, Edward, Night Windows, 1928, New York, Museum
Grimshaw, Atkinson, Scarborough Lights, circa 1877, of Modern Art
Scarborough, England, Art Gallery New York Night, 1928-1929, Lincoln,
O'Keeffe, Georgia,
Whistler, James Abbot McNeill, Nocturne in Gray and Gold: Nebraska Art Association, Sheldon Gallery
Chelsea Snow, 1878, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard Wood, Grant, The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere, 1931, New
University, Fogg Art Museum York, Metropolitan Museum of Art
Sargent, John Singer, Luxembourg Gardens at Night, 1879, Klee, Paul, Fire at Full Moon, 1933, Essen, Germany,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Museum of Art, Folkwang Museum
Johnson Collection Dove, Arthur, Moon, 1935, Beverly Hills, California, Max
Blakelock, Ralph, Diana's Mirror, circa 18 80-1 890, Akron, Zurier Collection
Ohio, Akron Museum of Art Dupain, Max, Night with Her Train of Stars and Her Gift
Gogh, Vincent van, The Cafe Terrace on the Place du Forum,
of Sleep, circa 1936, Canberra, Australia, National Gallery
The Netherlands,
Aries at Night, 1888, Otterloo, Dove, Arthur, Rise of the Full Moon, 1937, Washington,
Rijksmuseum Kroller-Miiller D.C., The Phillips Collection
Gogh, Vincent van, The Night Cafe, 1888, New Haven, Miro, Joan, Nocturne, 1938, New York, private collection
Connecticut, Yale University Art Gallery
Picasso, Pablo, Night Fishing at Antibes, 1939, New York,
Gogh, Vincent van, The Starry Night, 1889, New York,
Museum of Modern Art
Museum of Modern Art Delvaux, Paul, Phases of the Moon, 1939, New York,
Hodler, Ferdinand, The Night, 1890, Bern, Switzerland,
Museum of Modern Art
Kunstmuseum
Miro, Joan, The Nightingale's Song at Midnight and Morning
Mondrian, Piet, Ships in the Moonlight, 1890, The Hague,
Rain, 1940, Osterville, Massachusetts, Collection H.
The Netherlands, J. C. Tenkink Collection
Cameron Morris Jr.
Inness, George, Moonlight, Tarpon Springs, 1892,
Miro, Joan, People in the Night Guided by the
Washington, D.C., Phillips Collection
Phosphorescent Tracks of Snails, 1940, New York,
Munch, Edvard, Evening on Karl Johannstrasse, 1892,
Collection Leonard B. Stern
Bergen, Norway, Collection Rasmus Meyer
Matta, Roberto, Invasion of the Night, 1941, San Francisco,
Munch, Edvard, Starry Night, 1893, Los Angeles, California,
California, Museum of Modern Art
J. Paul Getty Museum
Hopper, Edward, Nighthawks, 1942, Chicago, Art Institute
Fantin-Latour, Henri, L'Aurore et la Nuit, 1894, Birmingham,
Delvaux, Paul, Sleeping Venus, 1944, London, Tate Gallery
England, Museum and Art Gallery
Rousseau, Henri, The Sleeping Gypsy, 1897, New York,
Tomlin, Bradley Walker, Tension by Moonlight, 1948, New
York, Betty Parsons Gallery
Museum of Modern Art
Pissarro, Camille, Evening on the Boulevard Montmartre,
Tobey, Mark, Awakening Night, 1 949, Utica, New York,

1897, London, National Gallery

Munson-Williams-Proctor Institute, Museum of Art
Miro, Joan, People in the Night, 1950, New York, collection

Twentieth Century of Mrs. Genia Zadok

Munch, Edvard, White Night, 1901, Oslo, Norway, Gottlieb, Adolph, Blue at Night, 1957, Richmond, Virginia
Nasjonalgalerie Museum of Fine Arts

Kandinsky, Vasily, Night, 906-1 907, Munich, Germany, Lichtenstein, Roy, Moonlight, 1967, Sheffield, England,
1

Stadtische Galerie Sheffield City Art Galleries

Mondrian, Piet, Summer Night, circa 1907, The Hague, The Gornick, April, Pulling Moon, 1983, Cleveland, Ohio, Phyllis
Netherlands, Gemeentemuseum Seltzer Collections

Luks, George, Armistice Night, 191 8, New York, Whitney Katz, Alex, Quarter Moon, 1987, New York, Marlborough
Museum of American Art Gallery
Beckmann, Max, The Night, 191 8-19 19, Diisseldorf, Katz, Alex, Hudson, 1988, New York, Marlborough Gallery
Germany, Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen Katz, Alex, Varick, 1988, New York, Marlborough Gallery
Rouault, Georges, Christ in the Suburbs, 1920, Tokyo, Bosman, Richard, Moonlight, 1993, Minneapolis, Minnesota,
Bridgestone Museum of Art Thimmesh Gallery
Sloan, John, The City from Greenwich Village, 1922, Bosman, Richard, Night Web, 1993, Minneapolis, Minnesota,
Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art Thimmesh Gallery
Dix, Otto, Meeting a Madman at Night, etching with aquatint
and drypoint, 1924, New York, Museum of Modern Art
Miro, Joan, Dog Barking at the Moon, 1926, Philadelphia,
Further Reading
Pennsylvania, Museum of Art
Ernst, Max, One Night of Love, 1927, Paris, private Arts Council of Great Britain, Under the Cover of Darkness:
collection Night Prints, London: Arts Council, 1986
658 NIGH1

Boime, Albert, "Van C iogh's Starry Night: A History of Lippincott, Louise, Edvard Munch, Starry Night, Malibu,
Matter and a Matter <>! I listory," Arts Magazine IX
I California: J. Paul Getty Museum, 1988
1 1 Jecember 1
984 Payne, Sandra, Atkinson Grimshaw: Knight's Errand,
Buchthal, lingo, The Miniatures of the Paris Psalter: A Study Wokingham, England: Corporate Link, 1987
in Wddle Byzantine Painting, I ondon: Warburg Institute, London and New York: Thames and
Penrose, Roland, Miro,
[
93 8 I ludson, 1985
Canberra, National Gallery of Australia, Surrealism: Powell, Nicholas, Fuself: The Nightmare, New York: Viking
Revolution by Night, Canberra, National Gallery, 1993 Press, 1973; London: Allen Lane, 1973
Cincinatti Museum of Art, Night Lights: 19th and 20th Rosenblum, Robert, Modern Painting and the Northern
Century American Nocturne Paintings, Cincinatti, Ohio: Romantic Tradition, New York: larper, 1975
I

Taft Museum, 1985 Sutton, Denys, Nocturne: The Art of James McNeil Whistler,
Hijmans, Willem, Rembrandt's Nightwatch, Alphen aan den London: Country Life, 1963
Rijn, The Netherlands: Sijthoff, [978 Vaughan, William, et al., Caspar David Priedrich, 1774-1840:
Kuspit, Donald, Alex Katz: Night Paintings, New York: Romantic Landscape Painting in Dresden, London: Tate
Abrams, 99 1 1 Gallery, 1972.
Lanchner, Carolyn, Joan Miro, New York: The Museum of Whitney, C, "The Skies of Vincent van Gogh," Art History
Modem Art, 1993 IX (1986)
 NIGHTMARE
Petra ten-Doesschate Chu

The following periods are covered in the discussion of the theme Nightmare:

RENAISSANCE
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
NINETEENTH CENTURY
TWENTIETH CENTURY

659
66o NIC.il I M \K

Henry Fuseli, The Nightmare, i-«Si, oil on canvas, Detroit, Michigan, Detroit Institute of Arts,
gift of Mr. and Mrs. Bert L. Smokier and Mr. and Mrs. Lawrence A. Fleischman.
(Courtesy of the Detroit Institute of Arts, 1955)
 SIMM M \Kh 66 I

he word nightmare is derived from maere, an Old English ing (a condition modern researchers have found not to be REM
M. term referring to an erotic night visitor of a monstrous sleep, or a dream-conducive state). Paul Gauguin's The Loss of
nature whose visits are experienced by its victims as bad Virginity (1 890-1 891) is in the incubus tradition, as it shows a
dreams. A similar creature, called mara, appears in Teutonic young naked girl about to be kissed by a fox. The same artist's
folklore (cf. the German Nachtmar and the French caucbemar). The Spirit of the Dead Watches (1892) illustrates the close
Many from Old English and Teutonic folklore tell of
stories affinity between nightmares and pavor nocturnus, or night
infants fathered by maeres. Perhaps the most famous among anxiety. The painting shows a young girl lying on a bed, rigid
them is Merlin, the character from the Arthurian legend. The with fear, just as she has turned away from a dark witchhke
Conception of Merlin, represented in a French Gothic manu- creature behind her. In Ferdinand Hodler's Night (1890), which
script in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris, shows a diaboli- represents a landscape with sleeping couples and individuals,
cal monster seated on a sleeping woman's chest. the central male figure is haunted by a succubus, completely
The Old English and Teutonic maere or mara had their covered by a black cloth, who crouches down over the lower
counterparts in classical antiquity. An ephialtes (Greek) or part of his naked body. Eroticism and pavor nocturnus are
incubus (Latin) likewise brought bad dreams, usually of a sex- combined here in an image that powerfully expresses the close
ual nature. Their identities could range from a deity to a connection between eros and thanatos.
demon, from the reincarnated ghost of a dead person to a goat- More problematic than these images is Marcantonio
like animal or deformed human being. Raimondi's engraving The Dream of Raphael (circa
During the Renaissance, Swiss physician-alchemist 1 507-1 508). The title of the print, which is probably apoc-

Paracelsus (Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von ryphal, implies that this is Raphael's dream vision. However,
Hohenheim) turned folk belief into pseudoscience by integrat- recent research has shown that Marcantonio's print is probably
ing incubi and their female counterparts, succubi, into a classi- a copy of a lost work by Giorgione, which may have repre-
fication system of monstrous creatures. Thus, they found their sented the dream of Hecuba, who, also represented in other
place between nymphs, sylphs, pygmies, salamanders, and Renaissance works (e.g., in a fresco by Giulio Romano in the
other exotic and imaginary creatures. The male incubi caused Palazzo Ducale Mantua, Italy), was the mother of Paris.
in

women's nightmares, the female succubi those of men. Shortly before Paris was born, Hecuba dreamed that she gave
It is interesting to note that, from ancient times, bad dreams birth to a torch that set the city of Troy on fire (Ovid, Heroides,
were related to sexuality. This seems to anticipate Sigmund xvi, 44ff). Art historian G. F. Hartlaub, who first ventured this

Freud's theory that dreams have their origins in sexual fears, interpretation of Marcantonio's print, suggests that one of the
conflicts, and repression. two sleeping women in the print Hecuba, the other being the
is

Henry Fuseli's painting The Nightmare (1782), which is image of herself that she sees in her —
dream a nightmare that
known in numerous versions and copies, illustrates Paracelsus's includes a city catching fire in the background and several mon-
ideas, as it shows an incubus seated on the chest of a young strous creatures in the foreground.
sleeping girl, causing her to breathe with difficulty. In most ver- The list of works combining dreamers and their nightmares
sions of the painting its effect —
simultaneously terrorizing and may be expanded if we add to it the frightening visions of both
erotic —is enhanced by the presence, behind a parted curtain, of saints and sinners. Among the former are the temptation of St.

a white horse (a mare?) with flared nostrils and wide-open eyes.
Fuseli's painting operates on three different levels of reality (or,
if one prefers, unreality) in that it shows the dreamer, the myth-
ical creature causing the dream, and the dream vision combined
in a single image.
A small number of other images that similarly combine
dreamers and their nightmares readily come to mind, the best
known of which is probably Francisco de Goya's The Dream of
Reason Produces Monsters (1799). Here an artist (no doubt
Goya) has dozed off in his studio and is attacked by a swarm
of owls and bats. On the ground, a huge catlike creature may
represent the demon who has caused the dream. Odilon
Redon's lithograph Marguerite Haunted by Specters is another
example of a figure haunted by animalistic monsters, although
here the dreamer is not reclining but appears to be sleepwalk-
Anthony (depicted by artists like Martin Schongauer,
Hieronymus Bosch, Matthias Griinewald, and James Ensor)
and the apocalyptic vision of St. John (Hans Memling); among
the latter is the gruesome vision of Salome, who, dancing
before her father and his guests, sees the decapitated head of
John the Baptist hovering in the air (Gustave Moreau). It is
noteworthy that in these works the dreamers are rarely depict-
ed asleep. They seem wide awake, although possibly in a hal-
lucinatory state.
So far we have assumed that the monstrous visions of these
dreamers truly represent nightmare experiences. On initial con-
sideration, nothing would seem further from the truth. The
nightmare visions presented in these works are artfully com-
posed images inspired by a variety of literary descriptions and
visual imagery found in folklore, hagiography, botanical and
661 NK.MIMXKI

zoological prints, alchemical and other occult texts and images, word nightmare, however, is rarely encountered in symbolist

and so on. Dreani experts, starting with Sigmund Freud, have and surrealist titles.

demonstrated that, on waking, only a "dramatized" part of a In conclusion, we may perhaps posit that although night-

dream is remembered (Freud called it the "manifest" as marish imagery in art is not derived from nightmares per se, it

opposed io the forgotten, or "latent," content), and even that is possible that nightmares and fantastic imagery have some
part is generally long on generalities and short on detail. shared roots in the subconscious mind.

Moreover, dream researchers since Freud have shown that

dreams are generally gray and only rarely chromatic, whereas
dream and nightmare imagery in paintings often tends to be See also Dreams/Visions; Sleep/Sleeping; Witchcraft/Sorcery
brightly colored.
Much imagery (by Hieronymus Bosch, Pieter Bruegel
of the

the Elder, Hans Baldung Grien, David Teniers, Francisco de

Goya, and others) that has been called "nightmarish" appears
on close study to be highly complex regarding its derivation. Selected Works of Art
From a purely formalist point of view, however, much of it con-
Renaissance
sists of the mixture of parts of different creatures. Albrecht
The Conception of Merlin, manuscript, north French school,
Durer once remarked, "If a person wants to create the stuff that
fourteenth century, Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale (Ms Fr
dreams are made of, let him freely mix all sorts of creatures."
95, fol. 113V0)
Diirer's line has been related to a famous verse from Horace's
Memling, Hans, The Vision of Saint John on the Island of
Art of Poetry (Epistola II, 3) that reads (in the translation of
Patmos, painting, 1479, Bruges, Belgium, St. John's
John G. Hawthorne):
Hospital, Municipal Museum
Should a painter join a human head Schongauer, Martin, Temptation of Saint Anthony, engraving,
And horse's neck, add limbs from every beast circa 1480-1490
And cover them with multi-colored feathers Bosch, Hieronymus, Temptation of St. Anthony, engraving,
So that a lovely woman at the top
circa 1500, Lisbon, Portugal, National Museum
Ends in a black and ugly mermaid's tail
Raimondi, Marcantonio, The Dream of Raphael, engraving,
When you saw this, my friends, wouldn't you laugh?
circa 1 507-1508
Believe me, Pisos, such will a book
Grunewald, Matthias, Temptation of Saint Anthony, from
Where idle fancies, like a sick man's dreams
Isenheim Altarpiece, circa 15 10-15 15, Colmar, France,
Are fashioned without unity of head or foot.
Musee Unterlinden
To paraphrase Horace's words, imagery that is produced by Giulio Romano, Hecuba's Dream, 1538, Mantua, Italy,

"idle fancies," or by the free play of the imagination unrestrict- Palazzo Ducale
ed by aesthetic rules and reason, is monstrous and can be com-
pared with only one aspect of human experience: the nightmare Eighteenth Century
("a sick man's dreams"). In art bound by classical rules, unbri- Goya, Francisco de, The Dream of Reason Produces
dled imagination is not encouraged, nor, for that matter, is it
Monsters, etching and aquatint, plate 43 of Los Caprichos,
found in art that obeys the tenets of naturalism. But in periods
1799
when and "antinaturalism" predominate
"anticlassicism"
Fuseli, Henry, The Nightmare, painting, 1782, Detroit,
the Middle Ages or the romantic, symbolist, and surrealist
Michigan, Detroit Institute of Art
periods —
free imagination is seen as the highest faculty an artist
Fuseli, Henry, An Incubus Leaving Two Girls, 1793, Zurich,
can possess.
Switzerland, Muraltengut
If, with Sigmund Freud, we believe that dreams and free
association (one of the key elements of imagination) "dredge"
Nineteenth Century
up repressed thoughts and images from the subconscious, then
Grandville, The Dream of Grandville, drawing, circa 1829,
the connection between dreams and fantastic imagery becomes
Nancy, France, Musee Historique Lorrain
pertinent. That was certainly the way the surrealists saw it, as
stated by the movement's leader, Andre Breton: "Surrealism
Grandville, The Nightmare, drawing, circa 1830, Nancy,
rests in the belief in the superior reality of certain forms of asso-
Musee des Beaux-Arts
France,

omnipotence of the dream

ciation neglected heretofore; in the Johannot, Tony, The Nightmare, wood engraving, circa
and in the disinterested play of thought." Much surrealist 1830
imagery has a dreamlike, even nightmarish quality, and the Hoist, Theodor von, Bertalda Frightened by Apparitions,
same may be said for the work of many of their symbolist pre- circa 1 830-1 840, England, private collection

decessors, such as Arnold Bocklin, Jean Delville, James Ensor, Hoist, Theodor von, Bertalda Frightened by Apparitions,
Alfred Kubin, Max Odilon Redon, and Felicien Rops.
Klinger, circa 1 830-1 850, London, Anthony Mould Ltd.
Often these artists specify the importance of the dream for their Moreau, Gustave, The Apparition, watercolor, 1876, Paris,
work by including the words dream or night in their titles (e.g., Musee d'Orsay
Alfred Kubin's graphic albums Traumgroteske [1 908-1910, Redon, Odilon, Marguerite Haunted by Specters,
Grotesque Dream] and Traumwelt I1922, Dream World]). The lithograph
 NIGHTMARE 663

Ensor, James, Temptation of St. Anthony, painting, 1887, Further Reading

New York, Museum of Modern Art
Born, W., "Der Traum in der Graphik des Odilon Redon,"
Hodler, Ferdinand, Night, painting, 1890, Bern, Switzerland,
Die Graphischen Kiinste (1939)
Kunstmuseum
Breton, Andre, Manifeste du Surrealisme: Poisson soluble,
Gauguin, Paul, The Loss of Virginity, painting, 1890-1891,
Norfolk, Virginia, Chrysler Museum Paris:Simon Kra, 1924
Gauguin, Paul, The Spirit of the Dead Watches, painting, Daniel, Howard, Devils, Monsters and Nightmares: An
189Z, Buffalo, New York, Albright-Knox Gallery Introduction to the Grotesque and Fantastic in Art,
London and New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1964
Twentieth Century Getty, Clive, Grandville: Dessins originaux, Nancy, France:

Kubin, Alfred, Traumgroteske; Traumwelt, print albums, Musee des Beaux-Arts, 1986
1908-1910, 1922 Jones, Ernst, On the Nightmare, New York: Liveright, 195
Kahlo, Frida, The Dream, 1940, New York, Selma and Kiessling, Nicolas, The Incubus in English Literature,
Nesuhi Ertegun Collection Ellensburg: Washington State University Press, 1977
Fini, Leonor, Chthonian Divinity Watching over the Sleep of a Powell, Nicolas, Fuseli: The Nightmare, New York: Viking,
Young Man, 1947, private collection 1973; London: Allen Lane, 1973
 OFFERING
Erika Cruikshank-Dodd

The following motifs and cultures are covered in the discussion of the theme Offering:

DIONYSIAC SACRIFICE OF CAIN AND

ABEL
JEWISH
CHRISTIAN
MUSLIM
GENRE PAINTING

665
666 inn kinc
 < )l I I KING 667

The Fruit and the Knife, eighth century

A.D., mosaic, Khirbet el-Mafjar, Jordan.
(Courtesy of the author)

When Cain and Abel, sons of

their offerings to God, God was
Adam and Eve, brought
said to have pre-
the cultivation of the vine were associated with the expectation
of spring, renewal, and rebirth, and to the grape icon were
ferred Abel's sacrifice of an animal to the fruit of the field added other rewards of the harvest, such as wheat, poppy
offered by Cain. According to Genesis 4, Cain became jealous seeds, pomegranates, and other fruity delights. For Christians,
and killed his brother. However, the unhappy demise of Abel Jews, and Muslims, these fruits preserved their original pagan
and the inheritance of a terrible curse by the descendants of meaning and continued to symbolize hope for rebirth and the
Cain did not put an end to the offering of the fruit of the field. expectation of a life after death. Pictures of the harvest gather-
On the first day of Sukkoth, a Jewish harvest festival that com- ing — garlands of fruit, grapes, fruit-bearing trees, and other
memorates the temporary shelters used by the Jews during their rewards of the harvest season —were chosen to adorn the sar-
wandering in the wilderness, Leviticus commanded the Jews to cophagi of the later Hellenistic period, during which they con-
take "the boughs of goodly trees, branches of palm trees, and the veyed a symbolic message of renewal and rebirth connected
boughs of thick trees, and willows of the brook "(Leviticus
. . . with a future life in paradise.
23:40). Considered in mythological terms, the inherent conflict The development of this symbolic meaning for the offering
that lies between these two kinds of offerings suggests the was enormously influential and may be illustrated through a dis-
struggle between the herdsman, or wandering shepherd, and cussion of only one fruit, the ethrog (a type of citrus fruit), one
the settled farmer. According to fourteenth-century Arab histo- of the early Dionysiac symbols of renewal and rebirth. The
rian Ibn Khaldun, this struggle has been repeated throughout ethrog, along with other harvest fruits from this period, belonged
history and has been the source of the rise and decay of to a symbolic language that was eventually understood, inter-
civilizations. The difference between these two types of offer- preted intelligently, and assimilated by cultures that were differ-
ings illustrates a chapter in the developing consciousness of ent in many other respects. It was almost as common as the grape
humankind. vine and had an equally long and productive history.
The two different kinds of religious sacrifice, the "offering In the first centuries of the Christian era, there were several
made by fire," as the Bible calls and the "fruit of the land,"
it, varieties of this fruit with shapes that differed in their repre-
are distinguished in early Jewish history and ritual. The former sentations. The original ethrog was citrus medica, a citrus fruit

is considered separately in this encyclopedia in the essay with a thick, lumpy, yellow skin that resembles a lemon but is

Sacrifice. This essay is concerned with offerings such as Cain's, about four times larger, has a thicker skin, and is sweeter than
the sacrifice of the fruit of the land, but it is evident that the the garden variety of lemon. It seems to have preceded the
distinction between the two kinds of offerings was not always orange and the lemon and to have come into the Near East
so precise. from India as early as the third century B.C. As a symbol of
There was no distinction made between the two kinds of bounty and goodness, citrus medica became prominent among
offerings in the early civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia the offerings made
Dionysus and eventually assumed wider
to
where offerings of slaves, animals, fruits of the field, and pre- associations understood by Jews, Christians, and Muslims.
cious objects were presented to the pharaoh, or to God, or to Even in Jewish tradition today the ethrog is firmly embedded in

whomever was in authority. Later, in the classical world, offer- the religious festival of the Feast of the Tabernacles, or
ings to cajole or appease the gods were either private, such as Sukkoth, the feast of harvest and thanksgiving. It also survives
the conventional burning of incense or the sacrifice of an ani- in Muslim and Christian folk tradition.
mal, or were great public ceremonies that sought the assurance One of the earliest representations of a "paradise garden,"
of victory in war or games, or were in thanks thereof. It was or an idyllic pagan landscape, are the magnificent gardens
not until the cult of Dionysus, the god of wine, captivated the painted in the Villa of Livia in Prima Porta in Rome (first cen-
Mediterranean world with its promise of renewal and reward tury B.C.). The The
frescoes portray trees laden with ethrogs.
that a wider vocabulary of offerings with specific symbolic con- ethrog is also carved among
and bunches of
the grape vines
notations developed. fruit that adorn the cornices and the door jambs of temples in

Offerings to Dionysus were typically from the harvest gath- Palmyra, Syria, and Petra, Jordan (first and second centuries
ering, in particular the grape.By the first century a.d., the vine a.d.). A third-century painted pagan tomb, at one time in the
and grape had not only become a part of Dionysian har-
cluster National Museum of Beirut, Lebanon, is decorated with s\\ aths
vest celebrations, they also adorned all forms of art in the of fruited garlands, hung with ethrogs. Ethrogs also adorn gar-
Mediterranean world and became the single most ubiquitous lands surrounding the moon goddess Artemis on mosaics in a
motif in sculpture, painting, and minor decoration from villa (third century a.d.) in Chah Bahar, Iran, the home town of
England to India. The vine motif has survived, sometimes with the Roman emperor Philip the Arabian. These mosaics are
specific connotations, in Christian art and unconsciously in presently in the museum at Soueida, but in a mosaic still locat-
Islamic art and Indian textiles. The offering of the grape and ed in Chah Bahar, ethrogs are carried, along with pomegran-
668 in i i kim.

ates, by the bountiful Ge, or Earth. In the Liter Hellenistic pave- two knives. It appears that the symbol of the fruit and the knife
ment mosaics ol Apamea, Syria (third century a.d.), ethrogs are was also understood by early Christians and —consciously or
Frequent ornaments. not —carried with it the theme of the sacrifice by fire along with
In spite ol the warnings in the Old Testament, by the second the sacrifice of the fruit of the land.
century B.C. the Jews had adopted many pagan ideas. Visions of The sacrifice of Isaac was particularly significant in early
plenty, represented by the ethrog, became a precious symbol of Christian iconography as itwas regarded as a prefiguration of
the Jewish harvest. As early as 136 B.C., the ethrog was formal- the Crucifixion. The language used to describe the sacrifice of

K represented on coins during the reign of Simon Maccabaeus, Isaac acquired new, specifically Christian, meaning, just as the

and m the following centuries, contemporary with the followers New Testament reinterpreted the Old Testament. While Jews
of Dionysus, it was liberally represented on the walls and mosa- had once insisted that the sacrifice by fire was preferable to the
ic floors of synagogues, in ornamental carvings for the syna- pagan sacrifice of the fruit of the field, Christians began to
gogue, on tombs, and on coins. Ethrogs are among several insist that the sacrifice of Isaac signified not the chosen descen-

Dionysiac motifs decorating the walls of the third-century syna- dants of Jacob, but the risen Christ.
gogue of Dura-Europos, According to Jewish tradition,
Syria. The first Muslims decorated their buildings using an artistic

the ethrog was the forbidden fruit in the Garden of Eden. An vocabulary common to all three religions. The vine and the
ethrog in a dream was also regarded as an omen that one was grape, as well as other fruits of abundance, appear in Omayyad
"precious before his maker." If a pregnant woman bit into an mosaics to represent the rewards of the future life in paradise.
ethrog, it was said she would bear a male child. The ethrog appears in abundance in garlands and on trees in

Thus the ethrog acquired symbolic associations with a life the mosaics of the Dome of the Rock (seventh century a.d.) in
after death long before the rise of the formal Christian church. Jerusalem and on the trees heavily laden on the facade of the
What is more, in the Jewish synagogue, the ethrog also prayer hall in the Omayyad Mosque (eighth century a.d.) in
acquired associations with the other kind of sacrifice, the "sac- Damascus, Syria. Ethrogs in garlands and in baskets of fruit
rifice by fire." On the left side of the niche in the synagogue at lavishly decorate the arches of the courtyard, appear in the sof-
Dura-Europos, the ethrog is painted prominently beside the fits, and appear in the vaults of the Omayyad Mosque.
ancient symbols of the menorah and the lulab, whereas on the The only striking difference between these and other con-
right of the niche, balancing the Jewish symbols, Abraham temporary Jewish or Christian mosaics is that the landscapes
stands holding a knife beside the altar, his son Isaac upon it. were not filled with any breath of life nor with other symbolic
Below ram is portrayed caught in a thicket, and in
the altar, a imagery, such as the Christian fish or cross or the Jewish meno-
the upper corner Abraham's wife Sarah stands in a tent. This rah or lulab. The only specifically Muslim vocabulary in these

may be the earliest documented example of an ethrog depicted mosaics lies in their inscriptions and in their lack of figural rep-

in association with the sacrifice of Isaac. Art historian Erwin resentation. Iconoclasm as understood by early Islam firmly
Ramsdell Goodenough has shown that eventually the knife applied to the decoration of the mosque where the habitations
alone, or in a group of three, replaced the pictorial version of of the next world were indicated, but figural restrictions did
this scene. In this capacity the knife stood for circumcision or a not apply outside the precincts of the mosque — in Omayyad
symbolic child sacrifice, such as the sacrifice of Isaac. The asso- palaces, figural decoration was as prolific as it was in contem-
ciation of an ethrog with a knife then resolved the ancient quar- porary Byzantine art.

rel between Cain and Abel. On the floor of the main hall of the baths in the Omayyad
The vision of paradise and a future life after death was very palace at Khirbet el-Mafjar, near Jericho, Jordan (eighth century
real to early Christians, and paradise was the central theme in the a.d.), there is a large geometric mosaic with no obvious repre-
decoration of their churches. Like the vine, the pomegranate, and sentational designs, a floor pattern that conforms to the patterns
other symbols of earthly abundance, ethrogs in rinceaux (ethrog on contemporary Christian and Jewish iconoclast pavements.
trees) commonly adorn the mosaic pavements of fifth- and sixth- However, at the head of the room before the throne is a single
century churches in Israel; Lebanon; the ancient Syrian regions of panel that portrays an ethrog with a knife. Because there is no
Hauran and Jebel ed Druze; Aleppo, Syria; and Amman, Jordan, other representational mosaic in the room, this mosaic can be
among others. In the National Museum of Damascus in Syria, attributed special meaning. If, like other mosaics of the same
the beautiful paradise mosaic from Um Hartain (sixth century period, it is supposed to represent the sacrifice of Isaac, it

A.D.) is planted with ethrog trees. In several of these mosaics the assumes a Muslim context in its palace location.
specifically
trees are depicted beside scenes of animals and sacrificial altars, From the beginning of Islam, Muslims understood Abraham
as in the sixth-century mosaics of Khirbet el-Mukhayyat on to be the founder of the Ka'aba and the first Muslim.
Mount Nebo (Pisgah) in Jordan. Celebration of the Adha, the feast of the sacrifice, is the most
By the middle of the fifth century a.d., iconoclastic ideas significant feast and the most profound ritual occasion in
were spreading among Jews and Christians throughout Syria Islam. The Prophet Muhammad proclaimed Abraham to be the
and Palestine, and the replacement of the figural depiction of the "representative of the absolute primitive religion from which
sacrifice of Isaac with the symbol of the knife was a response to Judaism and Christianity have diverged and to which Islam has
this movement. This image is less common in early Christian returned." The fruit and the knife represented in the panel of
art, although it was used to decorate church pavements. It the Omayyad palace bath hall would presumably convey to
occurs among the fruit in the acanthus scrolls on a church pave- both Christians and Jews in Palestine the original authority
ment in Apamea, Syria; in the churches of Madeba in nearby of Islam.
Main, Jordan; and in churches on Mount Nebo (Pisgah). In the The meaning of the offering panel at Khirbet el-Mafjar is
latter example, the fruit is in a bowl, accompanied by one or complicated by another story that connects the ethrog with
 OFFERING 669

paradise: the story of Yusuf (Joseph) as told in the Koran and with general associations of paradise it carried other, strictly
in later traditions. The story of Yusuf in the Koran is virtually contemporary, connotations. The placement of the panel before
identical with the story of Joseph in the Bible except for the the throne indicated who owned the palace. The person identi-
addition of few incidents. The neighbors of Zuleika,
a fied by the fruit and the knife was in a position of authority, at
Potiphar's wife, were said to have gossiped about her and crit- the head of an earthly paradise that lay between this world of
icized her for her open love of the slave Yusuf. In order to exon- equals and the first Muslim. In the context of the sacrifice of
erate herself, she invited the local ladies to visit her and, at a Abraham and the story of Joseph, the mosaic of the fruit and
chosen moment, she summoned Yusuf, who appeared before the knife in the Khirbet el-Mafjar palace could be read by all

them to serve them. At the sight of his beauty, the ladies cut who entered the hall — by Christians, Muslims, and Jews— as a
their hands with the knives they were using to cut their fruit. proclamation of faith to the People of the Book, an announce-
Zuleika was promptly justified, an example of a lover of truth, ment of the glories of future generations attributed to the
beauty, and the divine. Yusuf was seen as an example of purity, person who sat on the throne, and an affirmation of the
resistance to temptation, and divine beauty. A story later arose all-embracing unity of Islam.
that, before the birth of Yusuf, a tree stood outside the house The ethrog is only one of several offerings from the fruit of
in the garden of Yakub (Jacob). This tree produced a twig on the field with a long and varied history. Although these fruits
the occasion of the birth of each of Jacob's sons. The tree preserved something of their original symbolic content over
already had 1 r twigs when, on the occasion of Yusuf's birth, it time, their interpretations became broadened, modified, or
did not produce a twelfth twig. Yakub prayed
God, where- to vague. Other motifs from the repertoire of Dionysus, such as
upon the angel Gabriel descended from paradise and brought a shafts of wheat, the ivy leaf, or the grape vine, have a similar
twig that surpassed all the others by blossoming and bearing history and have persisted through different cultures to this
fruit. The Surah of Yusuf became associated with purity, beau- day. While the sacrificial knife connected with ethrogs dropped
ty, justice, and with the heir to a new dynasty, the hope of out of our symbolic vocabulary altogether, the same fruit that
future generations. was once enjoyed by the nymphs of Dionysus still lives on in
The Surah of Yusuf and the traditions connected with it the Feast of the Tabernacles, on the pear tree at Christmas, and
would not be so attractive in the context of paradise imagery by the pool in the courtyard of an Arab house.
were it not for the associations already connecting the fruit of
paradise with the Garden of Eden in Jewish tradition. Jewish
See also Abundance; Honor/Honoring; Logos/Word; Sacrifice
tradition also carried the belief that the appearance of an
ethrog in a dream meant that one was precious before his or

her maker (as was Jacob, the father of the iz tribes of Israel)
and was associated with the birth of a male child (Joseph). For Selected Works of Art
Jews, the story of Joseph and Zuleika was embellished the — Dionysiac
fifth-century Midrash Tanhuna specifically states that Zuleika
Frescoes, first century B.C., Rome, Prima Porta, Villa of
gave her guests citrons and knives. Islamic tradition inherited
Livia
much of Jewish tradition, and this story is no exception.
Sculpture on temples, first and second centuries A.D.,
Whereas the main court of the Khirbet el-Mafjar palace is
Palmyra, Syria, and Petra, Jordan
properly decorated with spiritual symbols conveyed by nonc-
urative motifs, the entrance to the bath hall has representations
Pagan tomb, third century, Beirut, Lebanon, National
of voluptuous dancers displaying the physical delights of par-
Museum
adise. Separation of physical delights from spiritual pleasures is
Villa mosaics, third century, Chah Bahar, Iran, now in

difficult in Islam, for the divine is always one, both in this

Soueida, Iran, Museum
world and the next. For Islam, however, the pleasures of this Mosaics and acanthus scrolls, third century, Apamea, Syria

world are a taste, or a reflection, of the pleasures of the next,

so that in their placement at the doors of the hall the dancers Jewish
anticipate the pleasures of the bath. Coins of Simon Maccabaeus, second century B.C.

The bath is and symbolic cleansing agent, and

both a literal Mosaics, second century a.d., Capernaum, ancient Palestine,
water's attendant symbolism can be traced back to the first Synagogue
ancient bathing rituals. The position of an ethrog tree beside Wall decorations, second century a.d., Dura-Europos, Syria,
water in a garden stems from a long tradition that can be traced Synagogue
back at least to first-century B.C. Persia. A courtyard with a Stone relief, first-fourth century a.d., Ostia, Italy

pool and the fruit of paradise are thought to be an earthly Menorah stem on a bone plaque from Bet She'an, Israel,

reflection of paradise, "the gardens underneath which rivers Department of Antiquities and Museums
flow." This imagery still lives on in Arab folklore: in the gar- Jewish cenotaphs depicting the sacrifice of Abraham
—
dens of the Middle East in Damascus, Beirut, and Aleppo
the kibbad (ethrog) is traditionally planted beside the courtyard Christian
birket (pool) in everything from ordinary homes to great Mosaics, sixth century, Khirbet el-Mukhayyat, Mount Nebo
palaces. Six ethrog trees were planted around the swimming (Pisgah), Jordan, Church of Saints Lot and Procopius
pool of the United States Embassy in Damascus. Mosaics, sixth century, Khirbet el-Mukhayyat, Mount Nebo
Thus the image of the ethrog with the knife in the main bath (Pisgah), Jordan, Chapel of the Priest John
hall of the Khirbet el-Mafjar palace was traditional, but along Mosaics, sixth century, Madaba Baptistery
670 OFFERING

Paradise mosaics, sixth century, from Um Hartain, Damascus, The Fruit and the Knife, mosaic, eighth century a.d., Khirbet
Syria, National Museum of Damascus el-Mafjar, Jordan

Mary and Sergius, mosaics, early seventh century, Jerash,

Jordan, Church of Elijah Genre Painting
Mosaics, eighth century, Ma'm, Jordan, churches of Madeba Monticelli, Adolphe, The Offering, oil on panel, circa 1865,
Los Angeles, Los Angeles County Museum
Sacrifu e of Cain and \be\
Sacrifices of < ain and \l>el, bronze bas-relief, 1015,
Hildesheim, Germany, Cathedral Further Reading
Sacrifice of Cain and Abel, fresco, circa 12.00, Sigena
Encyclopedia Jiidaica, Jerusalem, Israel: Keter, 197
Monestary, Chapter House Baity, Janine, Mosaics Antiques de Syrie, Brussels, Belgium:
Eyck, Jan and Hubert van, Cain and Abel: Sacrifice and Centre Beige de Recherches Archeologiques, 1977
Winder, panels over Adam and Ghent
Eve in the Creswell, Keppel Archibald Cameron, Early Muslim
Altarpiece, 1432., Ghent, Belgium, St. Bavo Architecture, Oxford: Clarendon, 193Z
Albertinelli, Mariotto, The Sacrifice of Cain and Abel, circa Dodd, Erica Cruikshank, "The Mosaic of the Fruit and the
1 5 10, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University, Knife in Khirbet al-Mafjar," Studies in the History and
Fogg Art Museum Archaeology of Palestine, Aleppo, Syria: Aleppo University
Byzantine School, Story of Cain and Abel, fresco, sixteenth Press, 1984
century. Mount Athos, Greece, The Laura, Refectory Donin, Hayim Halevy, Sukkot, Jerusalem, Israel: Kter, 1974
Vernet, Claude-Joseph, Cain and Abel Bringing Their Ettinghausen, Richard, From Byzantine to Sassanian Iran and
Sacrifice, before 1789, Sacramento, California, Crocker the Islamic World, Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1972
Art Gallery Goodenough, Erwin Ramsdell, Jewish Symbols in the Greco-
Millais, John Everett, The Rejection of Cain's Sacrifice, before Roman Period, New York: Pantheon, 1954
1896, Birmingham, England, Art Gallery Grabar, Andre, "Recherches sur les sources juives de l'art

paleochretien," Cahiers Archeologiques XI (i960)

Muslim Kitzinger, Ernst, Israel Mosaics of the Byzantine Period,
Mosaics, seventh century a.d., Jerusalem, Dome of the Rock Milan, Italy: UNESCO, 1965
I acade ot the prayer hall, eighth century a.d., Damascus, Piccirillo, Michele, J Mosaici di Giordania, Rome: Quasar,
Syria, Omayyad Mosque 1986
 order/chaos
Paul Grimley Kuntz
Lee Braver

The following iconographic narratives and motifs are covered in the discussion of the theme Order/Chaos:

CREATION OUT OF CHAOS: ORDER OUT OF CHAOS:

IN THE BEGINNING . . . ARTIST AS CREATOR

THE LAST JUDGMENT MORAL ORDER

APOCALYPTIC FEAR AND
MILLENARIAN HOPE

671
672. ORDER / ( HAOS

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William 1 logarth, Tailpiece, or the Bathos^ April 1764, engraving, New Haven, Connecticut, Yale
University, Lewis Walpole Library. (Courtesy of the Print Collection, Lewis Walpole Library, Yale
University, New Haven, Connecticut)
 ORDER / CHAOS 673

he traditional view is that chaos was the primordial state ing horses going into the clouds. A century earlier, John Donne,
M. out of which God brought order to the cosmos. Creation dean of St. Paul's in London, had foreseen a new world view
was ordered into a hierarchy in which each element had its and lamented in An Anatomie of the World:
place, and human beings were at the summit. Chaos, still exist-
'Tis all in peeces, all cohaerence gone.
ing in this ordered hierarchy, would finally be rectified at the
All just supply, and all relation.
ordered division of the Last Judgment. Artists who use symbols
of chance, lack of constant regularity, monsters, calamities, cat- Hogarth presents profound symbols of disorder, as Michelangelo
astrophes, and irreversible decay call attention to what had elaborates a vision from the first ordering (separating light from
been overlooked or believed transcended in the traditional dark) to the last reordering in the hierarchical levels of the best,
view. Modernity revolts against this traditional understanding good, bad, and worst of us.

of the cosmos. Just how much of the Last Judgment have

portrayals
If and modern symbols
this outline contrasting traditional changed over the years can be seen even more forcefully when
seems too abstract and philosophical and seems to omit the turning to the twentieth century. Although few modern artists
vividly concrete works of art, compare Michelangelo's frescoes depict the Last Judgment literally, many use its icon in new con-
in the Sistine Chapel with the final etching and engraving of texts, usually that of war. Pablo Picasso's Guernica is one excel-
William Hogarth. In the frescoes, the all-encompassing scope is lent example, as is Otto Dix's triptych War. Dix's central panel
from Creation to the Last Judgment, from the beginning to the shows a "chaotic landscape of desecration" (McGreevy, p. 79),
end of time. In a most beautiful creation, God places Adam and littered with corpses and ruins, where the only living figure is
Eve only slightly lower than the angels and Himself. But they dehumanized by gas mask and helmet. Inspired by World War
disobey and are driven out of paradise. The rest of the biblical I, Dix's apocalyptic vision shows humanity destroying itself. If

story is of the righteous who were saved, as Noah from the Hogarth embodies Donne's image of "all cohaerence gone,"
flood, but again fell and disobeyed God. The prophets and Dix's painting renders the lines of Irish author William Butler
sibyls warn of temptations and try to save the people until the Yeats's description from The Second Coming: "Mere anarchy is

divine Son of God, Jesus Christ, gives his life to ransom all peo- loosed upon the world."
ples. The story has an ending, when, at the end of time, the Although Hogarth's depiction of entropy seems tame next to
righteous ascend and are lifted by titanic angels into heaven, Dix's cry of utter despair, both use images of chaos.
and the wicked descend and are pulled by devils into the abyss. Michelangelo's world had a perfect, divine order that allowed
Thus, there is an overall design, and evil is finally overcome. him to show a purposeful history of humanity. Hogarth, his
We can foresee the final reordering of the human actors in this faith perhaps undermined by new scientific advances, saw an
divine drama according to the cosmic judge. impersonal universe winding down without a final purpose.
Hogarth reflects ordinary life in London during the eigh- Dix, who lived through the horrors of World War I, was deeply
teenth century, as seen in the crowded streets, homes, shops, pessimistic. Where Hogarth was stripped of religion's ordering
and courts. Hogarth is famous for two sequences: the Rake's power, Dix's cynicism forces him to transform the Last
Progress and the Harlot's Progress. "Progress" is retrograde. Judgment into a vision of destruction that humanity inflicts on
As for the cosmic vision, it survives only in his print of a ser- Hogarth's world lacks
itself. a reassuring order, whereas Dix's
mon, in which the few persons in church fall asleep. world has gone mad.
People strive to satisfy their ordinary natural needs. People
get money and sexual satisfaction, and those who succeed are
Creation Out of Chaos: In the Beginning . . .

pompous and contemptuous of those who fail. Critics find the

results summed up in Hogarth's final etching, Tailpiece, or the The Western vision of order coming out of disorder is con-
Bathos (1764). Hogarth mocks the sublime in painting. The structed, in various proportions, from the Hebraic faith in a
scene is outside what was once a tavern, called The World's creator God and from Hellenic views. Some philosophers, such
End, and the signpost leans (its symbol is the world in flames). as Plato (in his Timaeus), require a Demiurge who shapes a
Winged Time is exhausted and leans against a crumbling tower. world out of elements or, as Aristotle put it (in his

Time's scythe is broken, and he has just written his last will. He Metaphysics), a being who thinks about thought. The biblical
bequeaths, "All and every Atom thereof to chaos whom I view anthropomorphic and thus more appropriate to visual
is

appoint my sole Executor." The witnesses who signed are the art. The story from Genesis began with an original nothing or

Three Fates. Everything is broken: the bow, the crown, the rifle,
and the palette. The bell is cracked and fallen from the tower,
and its clock is without hands. The tree is dead, and the grave-
stone has a skull and crossed bones. The source of light, the sun
god Apollo, is dead in his chariot, which is drawn by collaps-
utter waste, sometimes still called tohubohu, but chaos, from
the Greek poet Hesiod, is the common name. The famous line
from Hesiod was quoted by both Plato and Aristotle: "I irsl
was chaos and endless night, but then broad-breasted earth"
(Theogony). Chaos acquired the biblical meaning of "without
674 ORDER / i HAOS

form and void" Thus, one should not be surprised that when Creation (1798), this commandment, sung majestically, trans-
the creation from Ovid's Metamorphoses was pictured, "God forms the cacophony that precedes it into music.
or Kindlier Nature" appears less like Jupiter than like Christ By no means have all the solutions been exhausted in this tra-

(I [eninger, p. i
5).
dition of bringing cosmos out of chaos. In 1990, Egai
["here are deep paradoxes 111 trying to visualize the invisible, Fernandez, a Philippine artist, exhibited Creation in the Gallery
to represent and imagine the condition before there was space Genesis in Manila, Philippines. In a circular frame with gaseous

and form. We can respect one artist, Mykola Shramchenko, background is a baby whose right hand shows the outline of a
who knew Hebrew and who believed in the prohi-
Ins Bible in dove, which can be read as the spirit moving on the face of the
bition againslmaking an image of the divine because it tempts deep and as the hope for peace (Takenaka and O'Grady, pp.
people to worship what they have found in the material world .6-17).
or have themselves made. The artist inscribed the words "In the The biblical ordering of Creation is a sequence of six "days."

beginning God created the heavens and the earth" but left the During this period, there is a transition from the most general
utterly blank. Pictures begin with Adam and Eve. The conditions, light and dark, to the summit of earthly creations,
paradox of presenting an invisible creator with an unvisualiz- man and woman, who share characteristics with the animals but
able chaos has a second solution, namely, to use the unpro- are with "spirit" or "soul" in God's image. God "breathed into
nounceable four Hebrew letters, too sacred to be uttered, and to [Adam's] nostrils the breath of life" (Genesis 2:7).
inscribe YHWH on a cloud (in the English Bible, the name of
God is Jehovah). Similarly, we have examples where these four
"In the Beginning" (Genesis 1-2:4)
Greek letters are inscribed: XAOS (Henkel and Schone, fig. 1).

Rather than using the verbal to confess the inability to The tradition of picturing God bringing order out of chaos can
devise a visual symbol, one can take seriously the Hebrew con- be followed in when Bibles were print-
illuminated Bibles and,
notation of tohu va bohu, the trackless waste or boundless ed, inwoodblocks. One medieval convention, later appropriat-
ocean, and to picture turbulent water (although of course there ed by William Blake, is to show the Lord of Creation as a
was not yet any water or other matter). Chaos is, according to geometer with a compass and, when the central point is fixed
etymologists, "a yawning gap," or as one translator says, in the tohubohu of a world to be shaped, God as the cosmic

"chasm" in English. In the nineteenth century, John Martin architect.

used this meaning in The Bridge over Chaos. Two very different sequences of the days of Creation occur in
Medieval artists devised three common solutions to symbol- mosaic in theatrium of St. Mark's Basilica in Venice, Italy, and
ize chaos. The first takes the word form in a Euclidian sense. in one of the four marble pilasters on the facade of the
The perfect shape was a circle, a closed figure, with every point Cathedral of Orvieto, Italy, both from the high Middle Ages
of its circumference equidistant from a center. Therefore, a (thirteenth century). A cupola of St. Mark's shows the six days
cloud, with an indefinite, irregular wavy contour, was in this of creation in six segments of the inner of three rings. These con-
sense formless, a shapeless glob of whatever. This image does centric circles are divided by inscriptions from the biblical story.
well when coupled with the divine architect with a compass, In the first scene, the dove hovers over the swirling waters; in the
which is well known through William Blake's God Creating the second, Christ commands the yellow and white spherical sun
Universe, or Ancient of Days, although it was a medieval tra- and blue moon to shoot their rays into the darkness. The Earth
dition (Blunt, pp. 71-87). The modern word gas is derived also is a sphere, and angels celebrate the separation of dry land
from chaos. Gas cannot be cubical, spherical, or cylindrical. from water. With plants and animals, the mosaicist shows a love
Obviously, the question of form makes sense only of solids. of the variety of living forms. The climax is man formed from
Another solution is were
to think of the "elements," as they the dust and a court scene in which the Sabbath is hallowed. The
called, of the physical universe. from Greek physics,They are, Creation continues in the second circle. The Creator, breathing
earth, water, air, and fire, and they belong in this sequence from his breath into Adam, is pictured as a little man with butterfly
bottom to top. Naturally, a rock sinks, air rises above water, wings entering Adam. Adam is set in paradise; names the ani-
and flames go even higher. If this is the natural order, then the mals; and is given a helpmate, Eve. By stages, the viewer's eye
artist defies nature by mixing them symbolically. This is most moves into the outer circle of the Temptation, Fall, and
clearly done in a symbol of chaos devised by Robert Fludd in Expulsion. The embracing vision is that human history has cos-
1 617 in his Utriusque Cosmi Historia: "The chaos of elements mic significance (Demus, vol. 2, text and plates).
at thebeginning of the creation of the world." Presentation of the days of Creation is not uncommon in
This may seem naive because it is a concept of element (out- medieval mosaics and sculpture (Reau). A most remarkable
dated by our chemistry) that was defined by Antoine-Laurent and influential sequence is depicted on the first of four marble
Lavoisier in the French Enlightenment. However, even now pilasters of the Cathedral of Orvieto. The sculpture, attributed
some very sophisticated physicists, in their cosmology, refer to to Lorenzo Maitani, is, in its tree-and-branches organization,
a "primordial soup," for soup is simply neither liquid nor solid related to thelignum vitae (tree of life) tradition, as in the north
but both — a liquid of varying thickness with bits of various doors of the Hildesheim Cathedral in Germany. This is quite
sizes floating around in it. different from the Byzantine tradition of St. Mark's. Each of
A third solution Moses and Hesiod in thinking
is to follow four piers has the bottom row of scenes beginning the story,
of cosmos world in which there is light, which is, after all,
as a with five panels on either side of a vinelike tree. The branchlike
a necessity for our perceiving separate things. Thus, darkness is arms of leaves and fruit divide the levels. The Lord of Creation
the symbol of chaos, for we cannot distinguish one thing from is Christ presiding over a landscape with trees and birds
another, and God utters the words that begin cosmos, "Let perched ready to fly. The dove represents the Spirit, and the
there be light" (Genesis \-.\). In Joseph Haydn's oratorio The hand from on high represents God the Father. Thus, the three
 ORDER / CHAOS 675

persons of the Holy Trinity participate in the Creation. The artist, coupled the six days of Creation with this text. This is

sculptor pictures the animals as four-footed mammals and the fourteenth plate of his Book of Job (London, 825 In con- 1 ).

arranges them from the smallest to the tallest (a camel) in reg- trast to human misery is the glory of God's Creation.
ular sequence. The Christlike creator in a third panel, the sixth Throughout his book, Blake selects the texts that contrast the
day of Creation, bends over the sleeping Adam. The rest of the weakness of humanity to the beauty of the creator's work. Five
scenes, witnessed by heavenly messengers, as in the mosaics of human figures below are on their knees. In the middle with
St. Mark's, are of the Fall and Expulsion and the violence of arms outstretched, blessing them and all creation, is the creator,
Cain's murder of his brother. The second panel shows the and above four angels lift their arms and sing praises.
prophets foretelling the coming of a Savior, the third his The six days of Creation are three vignettes in the left- and
redeeming sacrifice, and the fourth the end of time the Last — right-hand margins. "Let there be light," with light written in
Judgment (Carli; Norton). the midst of a sunburst; "Let there be firmament," with a
The most famous sequence of days of Creation is from the sphere so designated; and finally, on the left-hand side, "Let the
ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican. The Renaissance waters be gathered together into one place" is symbolized by
tended to revert to the earlier representation of the Creator as the sea,and "Let the Dry Land appear" is the contoured series
a white-bearded patriarch, distinctly God the Father rather of mountains rising above. On the right-hand side, "And God
than God the Son. Michelangelo compresses five days into made Two Great Lights" has a large central earth with other
three panels, and, as in the whole tradition (except for some of spheres,"Sun" and "Moon." "Let the Waters bring forth abun-
the most recent), it is the sixth day of creation, the creation of dantly" shows a sea monster appearing from the ocean and
man and woman, that is the climax of the first week. God the birds flying in the air while "Let the Earth bring forth cattle
Creator, able with His mighty arms to separate light from dark- and creeping things and beasts" shows prominently a cow, a
ness, able by His word to bring worlds into being and to divide lion, and so on. But the main theme is human weakness in the
earth from water, shares His power with humanity. The stu- cosmos and in a world that humanity could not make and can-
pendous painting of the naked youthful Adam, his outstretched not control. The text is from Job: "Canst thou bind the sweet
hand almost touched by the finger of God, is the most familiar influences of Pleiades, or loose the bands of Orion?" (Job
visualization of human dignity. No need any longer for a little 38:31) (Bindman and Toomey, pi. 619).
winged soul, for Adam is almost as large as the Father, and no Exactly a century later (1926), one of the most original and
need of any story of Eve drawn from Adam's side. A most intel- popular of twentieth-century graphic artists, M. C. Escher, pre-
ligent and beautiful Eve is in the embrace of God. She glances sented an exhibit in Venice that included his Six Days of
admiringly, even amorously, at her male counterpart. He has Creation. A great bird flies over the surface of a sphere on the
been created for her, as well as she for him. first day. It is not a dove representing the and neither
Spirit,

Among other great visualizations of the Creator's acts are God the Father nor God the Son appears. With boldness the
those of Raphael, also in the Vatican. The sixteenth-century wild waters, massive land, and thunderclouds separate. Plants
painters bring out as never before the contrast between God flourish, and all kinds of animals appear, among them a duck-
visualized as above and outside of creation and pictured as billed platypus! Finally, instead of a bleak, hilly Earth comes
within nature. Lucas Cranach the Elder shows the Father, emit- the luxuriant garden. Adam and Eve, standing close together,
ting rays of light, above the outer spheres of stars and planets backs toward the viewer, enjoy a spectacular view of a sea with
in Creation of the Animals. His arms are outstretched in bless- islands under an overarching palm tree. They are black,
ing the Earth with humans at the center. However, Tintoretto, although Eve has flowing blonde hair. Perhaps Eden has
in his painting of the same title, shows the Creator soaring become a tropical island, a Tahiti, but it is home, with a cat and
above the fish and monsters of the deep; he is with the birds. mouse, a dog, a rabbit, and a cow (Booland Kist, pp.
The great event requires a god who is himself active 104-109). 1921, Escher had cut a paradise in wood
Earlier, in
(Valcanover and Pignatti, pi. 9). with a and lion. Between the couple holding hands
fierce tiger
The most frequently reproduced symbol of God creating the sits a grinning monkey. Escher adds to the tree of knowledge an

cosmos is Blake's print Ancient of Days. The long white hair owl with outstretched wings (Bool and Kist, p. 69).
and beard float in the high wind, and the kneeling figure is set Photographer Ernst Haas linked his reading of the text of
against a sunlike spherical source of light. The left arm of the Genesis 1-2. with photographs of the elements, the seasons, and
Creator stretches down, holding a wide compass. The paradox, the creatures. The first edition of The Creation (1971) was so
in Blake's case, is that the compass (used in medieval illustra- popular that when it sold out, the artist prepared a revised edi-
tions probably to ascribe to the cosmic mind the source of tion (1983). The change is that, because the book
significant
form, such as the circle) was also a symbol of a world laid out had circulated worldwide, Haas wanted to avoid the parochial-
mathematically. Blake preferred the biblical vision to that of ism of quoting only the Old Testament story:
Newton's mathematical physics, and it is curious that a symbol
For the text I considered choosing creation myths from
precious to the Enlightenment and used by Masonic lodges
each continent, but I soon decided against that and
should be best known in its depiction by this prophet of the
selected only these words and sentences that had inspired
romantic revolt (Bindman and Toomey, pi. 655). Blake also fol-
me even before the first edition. (Haas, p. 8)
lowed the text of the English Bible very closely to visualize each
of the six days of Creation. But in the marginal panels there is The photographer had spent many years in India and loved the
this expression of joy: "When the morning stars sang together powerful words of the Hindu text Rig-Veda. The other text is
and all the Sons of God shouted for joy." from the Tao-te Ching of Lao-tzu, which Haas carries with him
who probably knew the Bible available to him (the
Blake, on his travels. Hymn 129 of book X of the Rig-Veda is not
King James English version of 1611) better than any other anthropomorphic as is the Hebrew myth. The Taoist adoration
676 ORDER / < HAOS

oi the "Eternal is tocelebrate "The Mother of All Things"

l.w>" on each side. From underneath the throne is a rivulet of fire

(Haas, p. 211. The Creation may rightly be claimed for the that flows down to the lower right corner, shown as a hell of

female. I laas knew and might have quoted trom Babylonian or punishment. On the lower left is a heaven of rewards. The
I gyptian scriptures or trom stories of the Creation by peoples work of separating the "goats" from the "sheep" is adminis-
without scripture, such as Native Americans (Haas, pp. 13-14). tered by winged angels. We are reminded that this moral order-
The theme is universal, but strong distinctions are made. ing is in a context of cosmic order, for the angels blow their
I In photographer's interest is in the elements. In addition to trumpets, as on the days of the Creation. On one hand is dry
earth, water, air, and fire, the alchemists induced him to con- land with animals and on the other water with fish. The con-
sider sulfur the fifth element, and in Yellowstone Park he pho- trast between a good angel and bad angels (devils) is clearly

tographed the fantastic forms in the sulfur pits. When these and made in the next level down. The good holds the balances or
other photographs were assembled and viewed while listening scales, as mentioned by Daniel (weighing the souls was an

to Haydn's music, Haas came to recognize that he had "pho- ancient metaphor in the Egyptian Book of the Dead). The dev-
tographed the creation of the world" (Haas, pp. 145-146). ils try to tip the scales with rods. The order of justice must pre-

One point must be made in conclusion. Escher's woodcuts vail, for on the left hand (of the judge above) are the damned

of nature are without a visible God, but there was still in the being tortured. In contrast to these are the elect praising God.
Garden the conflict over God's commandment "Thou shalt not As we get to a lower level of hell, we go from whole naked bod-
ear" and Eve's taking the fruit, heeding to the tempter, a beau- ies in flames to dismembered hands, arms, and skulls. The gar-

tiful lizard in the tree. Adam sits, holding his head in distress. den is sharply separated by the main portal. In paradise, where
There is human struggle between obedience and disobedience grow the Tree of Life and the Tree of the Knowledge of Good
(Bool and Kist, The Fall of Man, fig. 114). By half a century and Evil, sits a kindly patriarch whose throne is surrounded by
later, Haas's Creation scene includes nature, only without a children. Is this not the Jesus who rebuked his disciples for not
t reator. God is missing, as are Adam and Eve. allowing the children to come unto him (Polacco, pp. 110-114;
Schulz, p. 33, pis. 26-27; Kirschbaum, vol. 4, "Weltgericht,"
cols. 513-523)?
The Last Judgment
Among other iconographic aspects of Byzantine Last
As the Hebrew Scriptures begin with order shaped out of Judgments that need to be noted is the presentation of three
chaos, so the Christian Gospels and the Apocalypse, the divine persons to represent the Trinity. A diagram of interlock-
Revelation of St. John the Divine, bring the sacred story to its ing circles is perhaps more appropriate to the unity aspect of a
conclusion. Out of the disorder of human history will come a triune God, but the judgment has to be personal rather than
new order. This moral chaos must be shaped by a Last abstract. There may be the Father seated on his throne, holding
Judgment, in which the suffering saints are exalted and the the crucified Son in his lap, with the dove representing the Holy
prospering wicked cast down. Spirit. Another threefold group is the succession of patriarchs

The hope of Israel, proclaimed by the propher Daniel, was of the Hebrews: Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. They are in par-
that God weigh the evils of earthly kingdoms in his bal-
will adise, and we are reminded of the Gospel reversal of the place
ances (Daniel 5:27) and send a Son of Man "with the clouds of of the rich and the poor: The beggar Lazarus finds ultimate
heaven" to establish "an everlasting dominion" over "all peo- comfort "in Abraham's bosom."
ple, nations, and languages" (Daniel 7:13-14). The judgment is A third peculiarity of the Byzantine tradition is the use of an
not only of the living but also of the dead."And many of them empty throne. The text is the ninth Psalm: "He hath prepared
that sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to ever- his throne for judgment" (Psalm 9:7). The psalm prophesies,
lasting life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt" "And he shall judge the world in righteousness" and also "will
(Daniel 12:2.). The Creation was light shining out of darkness, be a refuge for the oppressed, a refuge in times of trouble"
and the end of time is as the beginning: "And they that be wise (Psalm 9:8-9). There is also a note of mercy, with the Mother
shall shine as the brightness of the firmament; and they that of God and the forerunner of Christ, often on their knees,
turn many to righteousness as the stars forever and ever" pleading as intercessors that the Lord will pardon sinners. But
(Daniel 12:3). there is still the river of fire that flows from the throne and
The Christian Gospels identify the Son of Man as Jesus keeps hell burning (Reau, vol. 2:11, pp. 732-736).
Christ, the Messiah. His return can be known by troubles, as The most original uses of the Last Judgment in Western or
Daniel had predicted, and Matthew adds, "The sun [shall] be Latin Christendom are in sculptures of French Romanesque
darkened, and the moon shall not give her light, and the stars and Gothic churches. Whereas the Byzantine tradition called
shall fall from heaven. . . . And then shall appear the sign of the for the decoration of the western inside wall in mosaic (or fres-
Son of man in Heaven" (Matthew 24:29-30). co), the French carved the theme into the central portal of the
Out of the hundreds of visualized Last Judgments, a few western facade, as in the cathedrals of Autun, Beaulieu, Paris,
must suffice to provide the main features of these compositions. Bourges, and others. In the first there is an enormous Christ, as
The Byzantine principle of hierarchy demands clear horizontal tall as the tympanum
itself, a giant among dwarfs. The organi-
division between the levels. In Torcello, an island in the Lagoon zational pattern no longer the horizontal Byzantine hierarchy
is

of Venice, is whose eastern wall was once covered

a cathedral of sharply divided levels but a vertical focus showing the resur-
with mosaics. On the highest level
is the Christ risen from the rection of the dead. This becomes a familiar part of the scene,
dead, welcomed by Mother Mary and accompanied by John with bodies coming back to life and pushing the stones off their
the Baptist, who proclaimed the coming of the Messiah. tombs. Then the risen men and women present themselves to be
On the level of judgment, Christ sits on rainbows in a man- judged. The artists resisted the theologians, who claimed that in
dorla, with saints surrounding him. Six of the 12 apostles are the resurrection people will lose their distinct sexual differences
 ORDER /CHAOS 677

and will be as angels without marriage in heaven. The risen masterpieces to cast in the shadow a number perhaps equally
men and women are portrayed as naked as Adams and Eves worthy. A doctoral dissertation by art historian Craig Harbison
and 30 years old, the age considered perfect and that of Christ lists260 Last Judgments from the sixteenth century alone, and
at his Crucifixion (Reau, vol. 2:11, p. 729). they tell a vivid story of an age marked by Protestant reforms,

The sculptor who carved the Last Judgment on the west Catholic reforms, secularization, and millenarianism.
tympanum of the Cathedral of St. Lazarus at Autun inscribed Since it was completed at the end ot October 1541,
his name in the center of the composition: "Gislebertus hoc Michelangelo's Last Judgment has challenged critics to define

fecit" (Gislebertus made this). This is his signature, and it indi- its order. Why? One of the earliest rejections of it was that it

cates what we think of as a self-confidence more characteristic was only a "great stew of nudes" (Salvini, p. 245). In contrast
of a Michelangelo of the Renaissance; however, written records to a composition with strict divisions between five zones at
from the twelfth century have not revealed anything about the Torcello, Michelangelo presents "a unified dramatic event" (De
sculptor. We know only that he worked for 10 years (approxi- Tolnay, p. 19). There is still a central figure ol Christ, as in the
mately 1125-1135) on the sculptures for the church. He may Last Judgment of Autun's tympanum, but it is not a Christ in

have been trained at Cluny, France, and from Autun he went on glory, in a mandorla supported by four winged angels. He is
to the church at Vezelay, France, another celebrated sculptural rather an Apollo, a naked Greek sun god, originally nude, and
masterpiece. the angels are no longer winged spirits but Titans. Can this be
The arch above Autun tympanum, a half-moon, is a
the explained as a move from a more biblical concept of the strict
frieze depicting the zodiac, the months, and flowers. The hori- separation of heaven and hell to the conception of a single
zontal lintel over the divided doorway has the damned on the humanity in struggle, in a single dynamic world process?
viewer's right (Christ's left) and the saved on the viewer's left The mighty Christ raises his right arm as a conquering hero.
(Christ's right). The most noted aspects of the tortures of hell "The gesture draws up to him the Elect and at the same time
are two huge hands choking the head of one of them. The bod- catapults the Damned into the abyss" (De Tolnay, p. 24). A
ies are in angular poses, making the scene one of excitement. mass of figures ascend, and another mass of figures are thrust
Among the saints, many of whom look up (in contrast to the downward. There must still be cosmic movement an up
in this

damned, who tend to look down), is an angel to whom children and a down, for the apostles on the clouds above, and
are
are clinging. It is only in this bottom lintel that the just and the down below is the underworld with the bark of Charon, who
unjust are sharply divided. transported the departed over the Styx in the pagan under-
We may wish to ask the blessed why they are happy, and the world. With the divine power in the center and organization
sculptor puts several arguments in stone. Some are pilgrims around him as the sun, the pattern is circular. We can feel "cir-
who wear the cockleshells of Santiago de Compostela. Others cular streams of figures revolving" (De Tolnay, p. 30). The
are a husband and wife holding hands (their child is freeing "dynamic currents" are not seen from any specific point but
itself from its shroud). Only the religious are clothed (the oth- from beyond Earth; the drama is played in infinite space. It is
ers are as Adam and Eve before they knew they were naked). from within human experience that the cosmic rhythms are
And why are the damned in hell? One is a miser with a bag of grasped. The biblical story of the end of the world comes from
money hanging around his neck and a snake coiled around his prophets who warn that it will come as a surprise to those who
body. A woman has two snakes biting her breasts (she has com- are unprepared for the return of Christ. Michelangelo captures
mitted adultery). One is beating his barrel of wine (perhaps he the surprise and violence (De Tolnay, p. 44). The purpose of the
is a drunk). Are these unrepentant sinners who have not asked Last Judgment of Michelangelo was not different from many
forgiveness? others: to stir the conscience of the beholder, but to do this as

Christ dominates the full height of the tympanum, from the a "reawakening of man's cosmic awareness" (Salvini, pp.
lintel to the top. He is in glory in a mandorla supported by four 232-261; De Tolnay, pp. 19-50, 98-128).
angels.At the extreme ends of this register angels with trumpets
announce Judgment Day. Beneath Christ's feet an angel holds a
Apocalyptic Fear and Millenarian Hope
sword, dividing the elect from the rejected. A hand from the
heavens holds the scales in which a soul is judged. It is being Albrecht Diirer's Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse is a symbol
welcomed by an archangel while a devil tries to tilt the balance; expressing the worst fears of humanity: war, famine, plague,
another sits on the scales. and death. Edward Hicks's Peaceable Kingdom is a symbol of
The mother of Christ is prominent, and rather than a row of harmony and happiness. They demand our attention because
12 apostles, Gislebertus has only 10. Two play roles in the the Last Judgment is not the only version of the end ot history.
drama. St. Peter, with the keys of heaven, and St. Paul and The Last Judgment combines into one vast cosmic drama the
saints with angels help people get into a heaven, represented by fear of those whose sin and lack of atonement may plunge them
arcades. The heavenly powers are kind and gentle and have fit- into hell and the hope and trust of the righteous and repentant
ting beauty. The diabolical powers are horrible, monstrous, and that they will find their treasure in heaven. Edward Hicks
ugly. Gislebertus created, with endless message that
detail, the gained from the Bible a zeal to see peace on Earth and the
obedience to God's commandments is goodness and beauty, American faith that we are building the kingdom of God, plac-
whereas disobedience is evil and ugliness (Grivot and Zarnecki, ing himself in the same tradition in which Durer stood: the
chap. 2). prophetic Judaism that generated Christian faith (Rossi, cols.
After the Last Judgments in Torcello's mosaics and in 788-831, pis. 449-468).
Autun's sculptures, the third that must be considered is the Durer issued his Revelations of St. John (1498) in both
huge fresco at the altar end of the Sistine Chapel. To consider German and Latin. Fifteen scenes are full of the fantastic icono-
only three of thousands shows strong bias in allowing these graphic symbols of the Apocalypse: the seven candlesticks, the
678 ORDER / ( HAOS

breaking ol seven seals, sewn -headed dragon, the woman

.1 St. Paul, was in part malignant and a persecutor. "The voracious,
clothed m the sun, and the whore of Babylon. The print of the cruel Lion ruled in him," but there came a vision, turning him into
tour horsemen is the fourth in the Diirer series. The text is from the opposite, an ox.

the last hook of the Christian Bible, the Revelation of St. John What gives hope is the conversion or transformation of the
the Divine. sometimes called the Apocalypse, but it
It is is one human from the lower animal nature to the higher. Love con-
of main. he Book of Daniel in the Hebrew Bible is the Jewish
1 verts the fierce into the gentle. The sermon concludes with this

appeal to dod to avenge the pagan oppressors. Revelation is a iconographic message:

Christian burst ol anger against the Roman persecutors.
May the melancholy be encouraged and the sanguine
Hicks opens his Bible to the prophecies of Isaiah. The right-
quieted;
eous judge cares for the poor and the meek, and the messianic
may the phlegmatic be tendered and the choleric
age gathers the scattered Israelites under an ensign to which
humbled.
gentiles also flock. Then the peace and harmony of paradise are
May self be denied and the cross of Christ worn as a
restored:
daily garment.
The wolf also shall dwell with the lamb, and the leopard May his peaceable kingdom forever be established in

shall lie down with the kid; and the calf and the young the rational, immortal soul.
lion and the fatling together; and a little child shall lead Then will be fulfilled the prophetic declaration . . .

them. (Isaiah 1 t :6) (Ford, pp. 85-88)

That God's love can transform nature into an ideal state was
the message. Hicks, faithful to scripture, cares that each animal Order Out of Chaos: Artist as Creator
should be present in his words and images. Sometimes he ren-
One would expect Michelangelo, the preeminent artist-genius
dered scripture into verse and painted lines on the four sides of
of the Renaissance, to shun chaos. After all, he believed he was
the frame.
completing the divine task of creating the world. Unlike earlier
The point about Creation is that then "innocent nature
artists who were limited to mere making or imitating, the
reigned." Hicks painted a child with a ribbon inscribed "inno-
quasi-mystical figure of the Renaissance genius could actually
cence, meekness, liberty" (Ford, ill. 36). With the child is an
create (Janson, p. 436). The artist's task was to give form to
American eagle. Edward Hicks was as able an iconographer as
whatever chaos was left, and Michelangelo took this mission
he was a painter. A discourse given in Goose Creek Meeting at
London, Virginia, in February 1837 does more than elucidate
very seriously. Most of his work represents a height of order
not achieved before or since.
The Peaceable Kingdom. It serves also to tie together the whole
theme of bringing order out of chaos.
Several of Michelangelo's last sculptures, however, mark a
strange departure from the perfectly fashioned works that had
Hicks honored the Creator's glory. Adam was so created,
but in Eden the Fall signified that, through Adam, "the animal
gone before. Possibly influenced by recent discoveries of frag-
man became a slave to that cruel, selfish nature emblematical- ments of ancient Greek and Roman art, he left these late sculp-
tures incomplete: smooth, finished marble alternates with tracts
ly described by the wolf, the leopard, the bear and the lion."

Adam lost the "innocent, angelic covering of God's righteous- of rough, unpolished rock. Although there is historical evidence

ness." He could not hide his nakedness with a fig leaf and wore that some of these were left unwillingly because of external rea-

"skins of beasts." "The lamb, the kid, the cow, and the ox are sons, the artist considered several of them. It is hard to imagine
emblems of good men and women [who] would dwell har- . . .
how he could have improved even the ones he intended to work
moniously together." Abel was a lamb and Cain the wolf. The on further; Henry Moore has called the Rondanini Pieta "one
wolf would destroy the lamb, and the fierce animals would of the greatest works of Michelangelo" (Hodin, p. 35). In the

destroy each other. words of Marcel Duchamp, these works had reached their

Something has gone wrong with people who received "definitive stage of incompletion" (Tomkins, p. 80).

"dominion over the work" of the Creator. Humans were meant In these haunting sculptures (especially Awakening Slave, St.

to be superior to all other animals, to be "a little lower than the Matthew, and the Milan or Rondanini Pieta), Michelangelo
angels." But because they are composed of earth, air, water, and leaves large sections of stone unformed. Figures partially
fire (the tour elements), they are like a single, predominating ele- emerge from the rock and are partially swallowed back into it.
ment. If earth rules, the human is as a wolf, a money-mongering The master appears to be meditating on the role of the artist in
usurer and a would-be suicide. This human is melancholic and, an inchoate world. Without the perfect order of Eden for guid-
unlike a lamb, wants "education, fame, and speculation." If air ance, the artist is constantly engaged in a fight or dialogue with
predominates, the human is sanguine, a leopard, "the most sub- chaos. In the boundless confidence of the Renaissance genius,
tle, cruel, restless creature" although also "most beautiful of he portrays himself as victorious over the encroaching chaos;
all . . . the cat kind." The male, a "beautiful monster," robs "the he calls forth a form from the raw stone and keeps the entropy
poor negatively innocent females of their virtues." Sanguines are of the world at bay.
also overfond of "gaiety, music and dancing, taverns and places Auguste Rodin continued this same dialogue between chaos
of diversion." Even female leopards tear "their friends to pieces." and creativity in his Hand of God, in which a divine hand,
If water dominates a human, he or she is as phlegmatic as a bear: "emerging from rock, chaos, clouds" (de Caso and Sanders, p.
"cold, unfeeling, dull, inert and beastly." The bear becomes very 71), forms man and woman out of inchoate stone. Art critic
fat, retires to its den, curls up in bed, and lives by sleeping. If fire David Rosand examines this relationship in detail: "If the
predominates, the human is as choleric as the lion. Then he or she artist, mimic of God, creates like nature, it is not in his finished
is proud and intellectual — a would-be leader. One of the apostles, products that we recognize the analogy . . . but rather in the
 ORDER / CHAOS 679

very processes of creation" (Kritzman, p. 21). Thus, the weak position of simply labeling what exists without any cre-
unformed sections actually heighten our awareness of the ative powers. What restricted Adam in Eden was the perfection
artist's power to form. around him, but now it is the intractable chaos of the world
The background chaos serves to emphasize the artist's hero- that strips away artistic power. In four centuries, the artistic
ic act of imbuing the raw material with order. St. Matthew attitude has gone from the mastering of chaos to helplessness in
being called forth from the surrounding chaos reminds one of the face of it.

the opening of Ludwig van Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, when Unlike Duchamp's lack of faith in our ability to order the
the composer (who was Michelangelo's musical analog in many world, cubism challenges the very idea that we naturally try to
ways) summons an earthshaking theme from swirling mists of order the world. Cubism, which tries to capture the subjective
sound by sheer force of will. However, to take on this new role way we experience the world, portrays a jumbled cacophony of
of artist-genius, Michelangelo had to acknowledge chaos as no planes and shapes shown from various points of view at once.
previous artist did. Chaos plays such an important part in the The seem to be saying that Aristotle's static rules of unity
cubists
creator's quest that it remains an important element of his and stability have nothing to do with the world or with how we
completed work. experience it. The world actually appears as a chaos of shapes,
The notion of artist as tamer of the world's disorder became materials, and meanings, in William James's words, "a bloomin',
less feasible as time passed. Ironically, although in modern buzzin' confusion." The cubist lays bare the chaos that always
times understanding and power over the world has increased lies under the thin veneer of order that habit has painted onto it.
radically, confidence in ourselves as capable of controlling or Surrealism continues this effort to display the chaos of our
understanding it has greatly diminished, having reached its experience. The bizarre works of the surrealists anticipate
nadir in the twentieth century. As a race, human beings no Albert Camus's definition of the absurd as the human demand
longer consider themselves masters of the forces they have for rationality and order clashing with the lack thereof in the
unleashed; instead of omniscient God forming the world out of world (Camus, p. 16). Rene Magritte's The Unmasked
chaos, dominant myth of the twentieth century was
the Universe portrays a landscape where the sky has fractured into
Pandora, clumsily freeing evil spirits with little hope of ever sharply angled blocks and the grassy field is marred by bare
putting them back in their place. spots and a large ditch. The sole artificial element, a two-story
Marcel Duchamp is in many ways the clearest enemy of the house, lies rotten and partially fallen in. Once we unmask the
Renaissance artist-genius. In his famous 1919 L.H.O.O.Q., he universe, Magritte says, we find radical discontinuity, and our
drew a mustache on a reproduction of the Mona Lisa, attempts to construct order out of it are doomed to fail. Marc
Leonardo da Vinci's quintessential work of the High Chagall's / and the Village concentrates on the temporal disor-
Renaissance. Duchamp is rebelling against the heavy burden der of experience. There is no frozen, captured instant here as

left him by the Renaissance —

creating perfectly ordered, beau- Aristotledemands of art, exemplified by Jan Vermeer. Instead,
tiful paintings. To the modern artist, this kind of art no longer memories and anticipations crowd the canvas, blurring the line
seems honest. Although Duchamp bitterly ridicules what he between past, present, and future. The largest figures, the boy
sees as the overweening pride of these earlier artists, underlying and his horse, loom over and inform the rest of the painting,
this bitterness is a layer of nostalgia for a time when artists memory dominates one's thoughts.
just as a vivid
could see themselves as participating in divine creation. In the The form that deals most directly with chaos is abstract
art
secular twentieth century, the world is irreducibly chaotic, and expressionism. Pioneered by Wassily Kandinsky and taken up
art is powerless to order it. most famously by Jackson Pollock, these works dispense with
Duchamp also invented the "ready-made," a mundane object representation entirely. Going a step further than the cubists,
such as a bottle rack, snow shovel, or urinal that is transformed these painters do not even have distorted shapes at their com-
into art simply by an artist's signature. This approach, continued mand. Instead, they immerse themselves in the simplest elements
later by Andy Warhol and other pop artists, tries to break down of painting (lines and color) without the stabilizing influences of
the distinction between art and "mere things." This breakdown coherent forms. Elements of their paintings dynamically engage
can be seen as the elevation of everyday objects to art, reminis one another in flashes of energy in an attempt to capture the
cent of John Cage's definition of music as "all sounds." As Jean naked face of chaos itself. These painters represent the most
Arp, a prominent dadaist, says, "We declared that everything extreme examples of channeling chaos rather than using any
that comes into being or is made by man is art" (Tomkins, p. 58). obvious techniques to master it. They claim, along with
Another interpretation of this breakdown is the degradation of Friedrich Nietzsche, that "the total character of the world ... is
art. As Ecclesiastes and the postmodernists claim, there is noth- in all eternity chaos" (Nietzsche, p. 168).
ing new under the sun. Any creation of an artist is ultimately just A very different direction is taken by Piet Mondrian, whose
a reworking of already present things. If true originality is impos- works portray pure order, a harmony of lines and colors
sible, then art is name to something already
merely signing one's unmarred by any representation. Mondrian wants to seal ofl
existing. Duchamp's ready-mades, as much as his L.H.O.O.Q., his paintings from the chaotic influences of reality, to create a

confess his feeling of artistic impotence. clean, hermetic order. Like Kandinsky and Pollock, he feels that
Duchamp's ready-mades took a different turn in a new form the world is in a permanent state of chaos, triumphing over it
of art: the collage. In these works, which include Pablo only by abandoning it. Mark Rothko achieves a more human
Picasso'sand Georges Braque's early cubist paintings and many order in his color field paintings. Instead of Mondrian's neu-
of Kurt Schwitters's works, the artist puts bits and pieces of rotic sharp lines and inhuman blocks of color, Rothko creates
rubbish on a canvas in new relationships to each other. a soft, earthy peace with harmonious interplay between two
We have here the exact opposite of Michelangelo calling organic shapes of soft color. He rejects representation without
forth a new form from stone. We have regressed to Adam's losing his humanity.
68o okdi R/ CH VOS

An interesting late twentieth-century example oi this rebellion Traditional Christian art could rely on the East Judgment to
against the Renaissance masters is Mark Tansey's postmodernist sort out the sinners would get their just
from the saints; all

Triumph over Mastery II. A shadowy figure leans backward deserts in the end, even if injustice reigns on Earth. This idea of

from a ladder whitewashing Michelangelo's Last Judgment, per- retroactive justice at the end of time became more suspect as
haps preparing it for a Kazamir Malevitch or Mark Rothko time went on. To the modern conscience, particular evils are
treatment. At first, this seems an unimaginative imitation of more real and vivid than divine harmony, and the artist became
Duchamp's /..//.( ).O.Q. On closer inspection, however, it turns the conscience, protesting these evils.
out that the man is painting over his own shadow as well as the Although pioneered by William Hogarth, social protest art

ladder's shadow. Perhaps Tansey is warning of the dangers inher- reached maturity in Two important
the nineteenth century.
ent in attacking earlier styles. As a postmodernist but also a crit- nineteenth-century participants in this were Francisco de field

ic of postmodernism, he harbors as much suspicion of the artist Goya and Eugene Delacroix. Goya's The Third of May, 1808
as creator ex nihilo as anyone. However, his solution is not to presents a tremendously powerful scene of horror. As art histo-
reject completely other styles or artistic attitudes but to appro- rian H. W. Janson comments, "The picture has all the emo-
priate them tor his own purposes. Although Michelangelo's self- tional intensity of religious art, but these martyrs are dying for
conception is not literally accessible to a late twentieth-century Liberty, not the Kingdom of Heaven; and their executioners are
artist, Tansey can take it and use it in a new way. This is post- not the agents of Satan but of political tyranny" (Janson, p.
modernist creativity: reordering other artists' attempts at order. 602). The very title of the piece, a specific date, places the scene
Salvador Dalfs The Persistence of Memory, with its famous squarely in history; it has happened, and no higher harmony
limp watches and exaggerated distances, questions the funda- can ever erase it. An injustice has occurred, the artist is crying,
mental organizing forms of reality: time and space. Whether and it will always have happened. Goya's image held so much
Dali knew of Albert Einstein or not, this work has the same power Edouard Manet, in Execution of the Emperor
that both
effect on the intuitive understanding of the universe as relativi- Maximilien, and Picasso, in Massacre in Korea, appropriated
ty. It shatters many of the fundamental assumptions structuring it. Delacroix contributed The Massacre at Chios, protesting the

an understanding of the world, such as the Newtonian stabili- slaughter or enslavement of 20,000 innocent bystanders. His
ty of time and space and the universe's adherence to Euclidean use of "feverish convulsive drawing and . . . violent coloring,"
geometry. Duchamp expressed this new distrust of science with in the words of novelist and art critic Theophile Gautier
his Unhappy Readymade: "a geometry textbook . . . hung from (Fleming, p. 375), had great influence on expressionism.
the balcony of [his sister's] Paris apartment so that the prob- As powerful as these works are, the twentieth century added
lems and theorems, exposed to the test of wind, sun, and rain, anew dimension to this genre. The world wars surpassed any-
could get the 'facts of life'" (Tomkins, p. 78). human history for sheer destruction. World War I was
thing in
Artists were exploring and embracing chance at the same made absurd by the generally acknowledged lack of a true
time as scientists, but for different reasons. Jean Arp wrote, cause as well as by the massive slaughter suffered to gain
"Intuition led me to revere the law of chance as the highest and minuscule advances in trench warfare. World War II produced
deepest of laws" (Tomkins, p. 58). Marcel Duchamp created an the horrors of the Holocaust. The
war had so
atrocities of the
entire system of science called "playful physics," which destroyed the world's order that even language fell away. As
embraced the "adage of spontaneity" as one of its laws. He Marcel Janco, a dadaist, said of the time, "Who on earth, in
derived his standard unit of measurement by dropping pieces of those days of collapse, was still ready to believe in 'eternal val-
thread one meter long onto a canvas from a height of one ues,' in the 'canned goods' of the past" (Tomkins, p. 70)?
meter. He bonded them onto the canvas and had rulers made In the nineteenth century, protest artists could contain the
that matched the shapes of the dropped thread perfectly atrocities they witnessed within the confines of traditionally
(Tomkins, pp. 33-35). This incorporation of randomness into formed art. The events experienced were tragic but comprehensi-
art was taken up by many musicians, most famously by Karl ble. Twentieth-century protest art, on the other hand, was shaken
Stockhausen and by John Cage in his "aleatory" or chance to the core by what it saw. The scale of horror so far exceeded
music. Trying to explain his bewildering pieces, Cage claims anything known before that the artist was all but struck dumb.
that art should not be "an attempt to bring order out of chaos The vast scope of outrage felt by these artists forced them to
nor to suggest improvements in creation" (Meyer, p. 176). find radically new modes of communication. Two German
expressionists who protested their country's actions deserve
attention. The first is George Grosz, a man "enraged and furi-
Moral Order
ous at the narrow-mindedness, and deceiving impu-
injustice,
When Cod walked the Earth, God anchored human morality. dence of those he portrays" (Sabarsky, p. 8). Grosz combines
A virtue was good because it enjoyed divine approval, and a the savagery of expressionism with the disorientation of cubism
vice was through divine rejection. However, after expulsion
evil in his bitter caricatures of Berlin. Grosz was inspired by the car-
and secularization, God cannot serve as arbiter or authority, so toons of Honore Daumier, although Daumier's satires look pos-
humans must take up this role. As French literary critic Henri itively benign and generous compared to Grosz's work.
Pevre savs, "Man will set himself up as the creator of values, in Explosion uses cubist technique to exaggerate the force of the
the place of an absent or silent Cod" (Sartre, p. xv). Humans explosion in the painting. The entire world is blown out of its
can no longer appeal to Cod as witness and punisher of atroc- normal orbit. The form shows that the physical
distortion of
ities. assumed the role
Just as they of creator, so they must pass destruction of Berlin took on the artist's
its correlative toll
judgment on themselves, and just as artists took the lead in cre- mind. All means of ordering the world disintegrate along with
ating, so they have been humanity's greatest judges, creating a the city's buildings. In Germany, a Winter's Tale, a timid citizen
new genre of art: social protest. sits at the center of the painting while all around him swirls a
 ORDER / CHAOS 68 I

chaotic mess of figures and shapes that threaten to engulf him birth to a tiny skeleton. In this painting, Orozco uses biblical
at any moment. Unlike the natural stone that tried to swallow icons in an astonishing way. Adam and
Eve were expelled from
up Michelangelo's sculptures (a relatively benign entropy), the Garden of Eden's perfection but recompensed with the abil-
Grosz portrays civilization as the true threat, and it is winning. ity to create, symbolized most evocatively in Eve's ability to

Max Beckmann, who is closer to surrealism than to cubism give birth. Orozco depicts academics, the people who have fed
or expressionism, is perhaps the greatest artist to comment on most fully on the fruits of knowledge, as emaciated down to
the horrors of the two world wars. Art historian Stephan their bones, and woman's great act of creation, the creation of
Lackner has called Beckmann's early masterpiece The Night life, yields only skeletons.
"surely one of the most gruesome pictures ever painted." He
contrasts it with traditional religious depictions of suffering:
Conclusion
Torture and pain are often represented as the just deserts
For the traditionalist, order out of chaos is a formula that
of sinners tumbling into hell, and the roasting and
defines good coming out of bad, the direction in which the
beheading of saints are depicted to serve the greater glory
process ought to go. One way for the conservative to praise an
of God. But Beckmann sees no purpose in the suffering
artist is to characterize the artist as a friend once characterized
he shows; there is no glory for anybody, no compensa-
Lord Tennyson: "Alfred always carrying around a of
tion, no gloating over justice accomplished only sense- — chaos and turning it
is

The order of the traditional

into order."
bit

less pain, and cruelty for its own sake. (Lackner, p. 56)
world provides a unifying framework for artists to communi-
The victimsdo not deserve their torture, and the torturers will cate; icons have certain set meanings and can be used unequiv-
go unpunished. Such is one man's vision of a world with no ocally to express determinate ideas. This framework provides
moral order. the necessary order and stability for true art to take place. This
Beckmann's later Birds' Hell depicts Nazi Germany in a sur- view seems to be held by more conservative contemporary
realistic style reminiscent of Hieronymus Bosch's treatment of such as Norman Rockwell, Edward Hopper, or Andrew
artists

hell in The Garden of Earthly Delights. This Kafkaesque hallu- Wyeth, who tenaciously cling to representational styles.
cination (with an apparent allusion to Franz Kafka's story "In Robert Frost succinctly expresses this thought in his short
the Penal Colony"), however, is a human creation and thus a poem called "Pertinax." Frost uses an obsolete word for stub-
human problem. born and the root of pertinacious.
One of Beckmann's greatest works is the triptych Departure.
Let chaos storm!
The two side panels contain images like those of The Night. In
Let cloud shapes swarm!
the artist's own words, "life is what you see right and left. Life
I wait for form.
is torture, pain of every kind — physical and mental" (Lackner,
p. 88). The hideous depiction of life here is reminiscent of By portraying chaos as a storm, Frost claims that it is a passing
O'Brien's "picture of the future" in George Orwell's novel unpleasantness. One should neither fight nor support it but just
1984: "imagine a boot stamping on a human face — forever." wait it out; the world will eventually regain its order and
The center panel, however, represents a rare occurrence in its sanity.
Beckmann's oeuvre: peace. Heroic figures "have freed them- For the modernist, chaos out of order is a formula that
selves of the tortures of life" (Lackner, p. 88) and sail out onto defines the direction in which the process ought to go. Chaos is
a calm, clear sea. Like Mondrian's assessment, Beckmann has the truer characterization of modern life, and it allows for
judged the modern world hopeless and incorrigible; the only greater creativity.The modern artist views traditional iconog-
solution is escape. Still, he continues to protest, which betrays raphy as suffocating and exhausted; the icons handed down are
some small hope that we can change. like coins with their markings worn away by too much han-
Now we come to what is surely the twentieth century's dling. True artistic expression must be personal rather than
greatest work of social protest and what may be its greatest borrowed from a public language.
work in any genre: Picasso's Guernica. This enormous painting, The modernist revolution has been an iconographic Tower
called "a fervent prayer against violence, barbarism and cruel- of Babel: From a single accepted iconography dominant in the
ty" by the catalog written for its installation in the Prado at Middle Ages, a cornucopia of personal symbols has exploded.
Madrid, Spain (Boudaille, p. 108), decries the destruction of a This fracturing creates a chaotic din of ephemeral "isms," rad-
defenseless Basque town as a training mission in the first satu- ical styles dying out as soon as they stabilize. This mode con-
ration air raid of the century. Like Grosz, Picasso uses the dis- trasts with the glacial movements of the past. Many modernist
orientation of cubism with the distortion of expressionism to artistsfeel compelled to create their own languages to say

convey the reality-destroying shock this atrocity evoked in him. something new.
As Janson says, "The anatomical dislocations, fragmentations, Perhaps the most extreme examples of this position are the
and metamorphoses . . . express a stark reality, the reality of dadaists, who scorned and mocked traditions as completely
unbearable pain" (Janson, p. 686). irrelevant to the shock of twentieth-century life. Language must
Jose Clemente Orozco, a Mexican muralist, created some be reinvented to express what these artists saw. Twentieth-cen-
very powerful protest art, such as his Gods of the Modern tury icons exist, but they are individualistic icons tied to a sin-
World. The title, of course, shows its ties to the thesis that gle work or artist. We can speak of Picasso's Guernica, Paul
humans, in this case academics, have assumed the role of gods Cezanne's Mt. St.-Victoire, or Vincent van Gogh's sunflowers,
for the modern world. Orozco vividly portrays his belief that which have resonance as modern icons. Instead of a public,
humans have ruined what they had the audacity to rule. These shared iconography that requires and presupposes a meaning-
academics are skeletons witnessing a skeletal mother giving imbuing order, modernist artists express the chaos of their
682 ORDl R ( HAOS

times in their own ways, resulting in .1 bewildering Hurry of Fernandez, Egai, Creation, 1990, Manila, Philippines, Gallery
st) Irs. Many people today object to modern art as a product ol Genesis
madness, .111 effort to shock sanity and decency, or a bad joke.
The twentieth-century writer Tom Stoppard offers a more post- The Last Judgment
modern suggestion in his novel Lord Malquist and Mr. Moon: Gislebertus, Last Judgment, has relief on west tympanum,
"Siu^e we cannot hope for order, let us withdraw with style from circa 1 130, Autun, France, Cathedral
the chaos." ike Mark Tansey, Stoppard derives wry humor from
I Giotto, Last Judgment, fresco, after 1305, Padua, Italy, Arena
the chaos and from human efforts to contend with it. Chapel
We have painted with too broad a stroke, however. Cranach, Lucas, the Elder, The Last Judgment, oil on wood,
Although artists and critics inhabit the extremes, this picture of sixteenth century, Berlin, Staatliche Museen
two opposing camps under the respective banners of order and Michelangelo, Last Judgment, fresco, 1 534-1 541, Vatican,
chaos is much too As always, the majority lands
simplistic. Sistine Chapel
somewhere in the middle. Indeed, there can be no true instance Picasso, Pablo, Guernica, oil on canvas, 1937, New York,
of pure order or chaos in an artwork. To hold the viewer's Museum of Modern Art
interest, a work must have the tension that results from the seed Dix, Otto, War, triptych, before 1969, Dresden, Germany,
ol disorder; no matter how completely resolved, there must be Neue Galerie
some chaos. The mere act of artistic presentation gives some
order to the wildest, most chaotic work. Even the work of Apocalyptic Fear and Millenarian Hope
[ackson Pollock, whom we have represented as coming closer Die Heimliche Offenbarung lohanis or
Diirer, Albrecht,
to grasping pure chaos than anyone else, evinces dominant Apocalipsis cum Figuris, including The Four Riders of the
shapes or patterns that lend it some degree of stability (Rohn). Apocalypse, woodcut, 1498
Although a general shift of emphasis occurs in the twentieth Hogarth, William, Tailpiece, or the Bathos, etching, 1764,
century, every great piece of art represents the vital interplay
New Haven, Connecticut, Yale University, Lewis Walpole
between order and chaos.
Library
Hicks, Edward, Peaceable Kingdom, oil on canvas, circa
See also Apocalypse; Damned Souls; Fortune; Logos/Word; 1830-1 840, New York, Brooklyn Museum
Zodiac Hicks, Edward, Noah's Ark, oil on canvas, 1846,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Museum
of Art
Selected Works of Art
Order Out of Chaos: Artist as Creator
Creation Out of Chaos: In the Beginning
Michelangelo, St. Matthew, marble, 1 505-1 506, Florence,
Scenes from Genesis, atrium mosaic, circa 1200, Venice, Italy,
Italy, Academy of Fine Arts
St. Mark's Basilica
Michelangelo, Awakening Slave, marble, circa 1530-1534,
Maitani, Lorenzo, four marble facade pilasters, circa 1320,
Orvieto, Italy, Cathedral
Florence, Italy, Academy of Fine Arts
Michelangelo, Milan Pieta or Rondanini Pieta, marble,
Cranach, Lucas, the Elder, Creation of the Animals, woodcut,
sixteenth century 1554-1564, Milan, Italy, Sforza Castle Civic Museums
Tintoretto, Jacopo, Creation of the Animals, oil on canvas,
Rodin, Auguste, The Hand of God, marble, 1898, Paris,

Gallerie Dell'Academia
Rodin Museum
1 550-1553, Venice, Italy,

Fludd, Robert, "The Chaos of Elements at the Beginning of / and the

Chagall, Marc, Village, oil on canvas, 191 1, New
the Creation of the World," from Utriusque Cosmi Majoris York, Museum of Modern Art
Kandinsky, Wassily, Sketch I for "Composition VII,"
Scilicet ct Minoris Metaphysial, Physica Atque Technica

Historia, Oppenheim, Germany, 1617-1619 oil on canvas, 1913, Bern, Switzerland, Collection
Blake, William, God Creating the Universe or Ancient of Felix Klee

Days, color over relief-etched print, 1824-1827, Duchamp, Marcel, L.H.O.O.Q., rectified ready-made, pencil
Manchester, England, Whitworth Art Gallery on reproduction of Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa, 1919,
Martin, John, The Bridge over Chaos, mezzotint, nineteenth private collection
century, Cambridge, Massachusetts,
Harvard University, Schwitters, Kurt, The First Merzbau, altered house with
Houghton Library collages,
1923
Burne-Jones, Edward Coley, Days of Creation, six panels, Mondrian, Piet, Composition with Red, Blue, and Yellow, oil

before 877, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard

1 on canvas, 1930, New York, collection of Mr. and Mrs.
University, Fogg Art Museum Armand P. Bartos
Watts, Frederic, The Sower of Systems, 1902, Compton, Dali, Salvador, The Persistence of Memory, oil on canvas,
England, Watts Gallery 193 1, New York, Museum of Modern Art
Escher,M. C, Six Days of Creation, Adam and Eve, Pollock, Jackson, One (#31), oil on canvas, 1950, New York,
woodcuts, 1926 Museum of Modern Art
Shramchenko, Mykola, In the Beginning 1962, . . . , New Magritte, Rene, The Unmasked Universe, oil on canvas,
York, Ivan Obolesky 1961, Brussels, Belgium, Mme Crik Collection
Haas, Ernst, The Creation, revised edition, New York: Viking Tansey, Mark, Triumph over Mastery II, oil on canvas, 1987,
Press, i

New York, Collection Emily Fisher Landau

 ORDI.K / CHAOS 683

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McGreevy, Linda E, The Life and Works of Otto Dix, Ann Takenaka, Masao, and Ron O'Grady, The Bible Through
Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 198 Asian Eyes, Aukland, New Zealand: Pace, 1991
Mather, Eleanore Price, Edward Hicks: Primitive Quaker, Tomkins, Calvin, The World of Marcel Duchamp, New York:
His Religion in Relation to His Art, Wallingford, Time-Life, 1966
Pennsylvania: Pendle Hill, 1970 Tuzet, Helene I., "Cosmic Images," in The Dictionary of the
A Pot of Paint, Washington, D.C.:
Merrill, Linda, History of Ideas, edited by Philip P. Wiener, New York:
Smithsonian Institute Press, 199Z Scribner's, 1973
Meyer, Leonard, "The End of the Renaissance?" The Hudson Ungers, Oswald Mathias, "Ordo, Fondo Mensura," in
et
Review XVI (1963) Renaissance: From The
Brunileschi to Michelangelo:
Nahm, Milton, "Creativity in Art," in The Dictionary of the Representation of Architecture, Milan, Italy: Bompiani,
History of Ideas, New
York: Scribner's, 197} 1994
, The Artist as Creator, Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Valcanover, Francesco, and Terisio Pignatti, Tintoretto, New
Hopkins University Press, 1956 York: Abrams, 1984
Nietzsche, Friedrich, The Gay Science, translated by Walter West, M. L., editor, Hesiod's Theogony, Oxford: Clarendon
Kaufman, New York: Vintage, 1974 Press, 1966; New York: Liberal Arts Press, 1966
Nimrod, Hank, The last Judgment as Final Control of the Wiener, Philip P., Dictionary of the History of Ideas, New
I History, New York: Vintage, 1977 York: Scribner's, 1973
Norton, Charles Eliot, Notes of Travel and Study in Italy, Zaehner, Robert Charles, Concordant Discord: The
Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1859 Interdependence of Faith, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970
 path/road/crossroads
Christine M. Boeckl

The following iconographic narratives and motifs are covered in the discussion of the theme
Path/Road/Crossroads:

adoration of the magi ROAD TO EMMAUS SECULAR ROADS

« »
flight into egypt OTHER CHRISTIAN ROADS Y
Christ's entry into NON-CHRISTIAN ROADS HERCULES AT THE
jerusalem
SPIRITUAL PATH
CROSSROAD
agony in the garden PILGRIM'S WAY TRIUMPHAL PROCESSIONS
road to calvary

685
686 PATH / ROAD / c ROSSROADS

Gustave Courbet, The Meeting, or Bonjour M. Courbet, C854, oil on canvas, Montpellier, France, Musee Fabre.
(Courtesy of Giraudon/Art Resource, New York)
 PA Ml/ ROAD / CROSSROADS 687

Roads and thoroughfares indicate directions, a route to be the Holy Family on the flight into Egypt, Jesus Christ's entry into
traveled toward a goal: in space, in time, or even in spirit. Jerusalem, and the road to Calvary. Giotto included all these
However, the proverbial narrow path of virtue (or the yellow scenes in his Arena Chapel frescoes in Padua, Italy. He synthesized
brick road, for that matter) often does not lead directly to its des- earlier medieval iconographic trends with those of his own time
tination but forces the traveler to halt at crossroads and make and highlighted the stories' protagonists. Each event is framed
decisions. Since antiquity, the Littera Pytbagorae (Y) has been and takes on the reality of a staged performance.
regarded as the mystical symbol that indicated a fork in the road The Adoration of the Magi gave painters a chance for a bril-
requiring moral judgments. An illustrated woodcut by Geoffroy liant display of wealth within a landscape. Some of the most
Tory, Y with Symbols of Awards and Punishments (1529), with famous examples were created in the Florentine Renaissance by
its uneven branches, also refers to a biblical quotation: Gentile da Fabriano in his altarpiece and by Benozzo Gozzoli in
his frescoes in the Medici Chapel. In both works, the Holy Family
Enter ye in at the strait gate: for wide is the gate, and
appears in the foreground next to the foreign dignitaries, whose
broad is the way, that leadeth to destruction, and many
retinues fill the middle ground. Farther back, tiny riders on wind-
there be which go in thereat: Because strait is the gate,
ing roads show the great distance the Three Wise Men had trav-
and narrow is the way, which leadeth unto life, and few
eled. In Domenico Veneziano's Berlin tondo The Adoration of the
there be that find it" (Matthew 7:13-14).
Magi, the receding road reveals a shocking detail: Corpses are
In the print, the wider, left branch leads to a life of vice that will hanging on gallows along the roadside, a warning that law and
end with the gallows and fires of hell; however, the narrow, virtu- order are enforced in this part of the world.
ous part of the fork crowned with heavenly laurel wreaths and
is In proto-Renaissance scenes of the flight into Egypt, the
palm branches. Dutch artists of the seventeenth century (Jan Holy Family is often guided by angels. Giotto's oeuvre can pro-
Christiaensz Micker and others) created Symbolic Representation vide an example of this. Later works show greater emphasis on
of the Broad and the Narrow Way, which elaborated on the realism. Annibale Carracci devised an innovative classical land-
moralistic theme. Humankind's attempt to decide its own destiny scape genre in his serene Flight into Egypt. Mannerists exploit-
inspired a good number of artists, reviewed here in greater detail. ed distant scenes to indicate a disunity of time and place. For
Deities to protect roads and crossroads probably originated in example, Jacques Callot's Massacre of the Innocents simulta-
Asia Minor. A classical goddess with three heads and arms neously depicts cause and effect: The foreground is taken up by
extended in three directions was called Hecate Triodits in Greece the horrors of the massacre of the children of Bethlehem (the
and Hecate Trivia in Rome. She was also known as Hecate reason for the escape into Egypt), and in the background the
Enodia, the surname signifying that she protects roads. Although tiny figures of the Holy Family seem to vanish in the distance.
this figure is now lost, several versions are reported to have stood Egypt is identified as the safe haven by an obelisk (at times also
in the Greek cities of Argos, Athens, and Epidaurus. In non- indicated by "the fall of the pagan idols"), where the Virgin
Western art, crossroads were indicated in Aztec codices; for and her son will take refuge.
example, Yacatecuhtli Bearing Crossroads shows the god carry- One of the oldest Christological scenes is Christ's entry into
ing a large Andrew's cross signifying the four cosmic regions.
St. Jerusalem. The relief on the fourth-century Junius Bassus
In Christian art, the Byzantine Madonna type of the Hodegetria Sarcophagus leaves the road to the imagination of the viewer
(showing the way) points to her divine son as the spiritual guide but establishes once and for all the iconography of the event:
toward salvation ("I am the way, and truth, and the life," John Christ riding the donkey, people throwing coats under the ani-
14:6). The legendary gigantic ferryman Christophorus mal's hoofs, and children breaking tree branches will be repeat-
(Christopher), who had carried the Christ Child across the river ed for almost 2,000 years. Duccio di Buoninsegna's Maesta
on his shoulder, was the saint most commonly invoked by trav- Altarpiece includes the panel Christ's Entry into Jerusalem
elers for protection from danger until Vatican II demoted him. along with the customary scenes from Christ's life. The trecen-
Depictions of spiritual roads, as those in the life of Jesus Christ to artist describes realistically the cobblestoned road in the
and the lives of the saints and biblical narratives as well as foreground. The gate to Jerusalem is crowded, and behind the
metaphorical applications of roads, are addressed. Secular depic- walls the characteristic octagonal shape of the Florentine
tions of paths and crossroads are also reviewed. In the last cate- Baptistery can be seen. In the late nineteenth century, James
gory, the choice of Hercules is the most fertile field to investigate. Ensor painted a modern variation in Christ's Entry into
Brussels. surrounded by a masked crowd resem-
The Lord is

bling a carnival procession (which precedes Lent). Also, Emil

Christological Roads
Nolde created a colorful but equally disturbing image in
Christological cycles dominate the depictions of religious roads in Christ's Entry into Jerusalem.
Western art. Some examples of the most important biblical trav- Andrea Mantegna's Gethsemane (the subject was also paint-
elers are discussed: the Three Magi on their road to Bethlehem, ed by Giovanni Bellini, El Greco, and main others) included a
688 PATH / ROAD / ( ROSSROADS

second important event ol ( bust's life: his capture after the cel- especially in literature, an example being John Bunyan's Puritan
ebration of the Last Supper. In all three paintings, Jesus kneels allegory The Pilgrim's Progress. Augustinian concepts of the

in prayer and the three sleeping apostles occupy the foreground. City of God dominate some of Joachim Patinir's cosmic land-
I [owever, a distant road, where the betrayal takes place reveal- scapes. They are frequently populated with tiny personae who
ing Christ's future, becomes visible. cannot be characterized as mere accessory figures; on the con-
The road to Calvary is one of the most commonly depicted trary, identifying them is essential for interpreting his paintings.
scenes from C hrist's Passion. Most artists imbue this event in For example, St. Jerome in the Desert depicts the hermit seated
fesus' life with great religious fervor. Simone Martini places the in the wilderness. In the background, one road, via mortis
scene on a crowded road outside Jerusalem's walls (following (road of death), leads to civitas terrena (terrestrial city) and
Duccio's design). In later centuries, artists such as Raphael and another road, via vita (road of life), to solitude and eventually
1'ietcr Bruegel the Elder take advantage of the same theme to to the final goal, civitas dei (city of God). Art historian Reindert
show an open landscape closer to the final destination, Golgotha, Falkenburg argues further that these elements served as a guide
where the Crucifixion will take place. The difference in the two for the meditation on the lives of the different protagonists
artists' perceptions of the event lies in the assumed viewpoints. whose examples need to be followed.
Raphael brings the viewer close to the suffering figure of Christ, Albrecht Diirer's print Knight, Death, and the Devil implies
whereas Bruegel adopts the distant view of a bird in flight. a different road metaphor. The artist intended to show a
Comparatively rare is the depiction of Jesus on his walk to Christian knight in warfare against evil, a realization of
Emmaus expounding scripture to the
after the Resurrection, Desiderius Erasmus's Enchiridion militis Christiani. Its text,

apostle Cleopas and his unidentifiedcompanion on the way to and thus Diirer's print, warn of the danger of erring from a
the inn. Both Lelio Orsi and Caravaggio dress the three figures direction dictated by an inner voice. It suggests that a Christian
in the garb of pilgrims who appear close to the picture plane should march along "level ground" without paying attention to
and dominate the compositions. On the other hand, Lucas van threats either by death or by Satan.
Valckenborch places the three wanderers in a vast landscape Even nineteenth-century artists frequently paint landscapes
that represents the miracle of Christ's Resurrection. with quasi-religious meanings. A good example is Jules Breton's
Blessing of the Wheat in the Artois, which appears to be a nat-
uralistic painting of beautiful scenery. The photorealism of the
Other Spiritual or Metaphorical Roads
landscape and the equally naturalistically conceived rural con-
In hagiographies, the format of a continuous narrative is a fre- gregation walking on a narrow path in a eucharistic procession
quent choice. For example, Hans Mending's /oys of Mary links may hinder the modern viewer's understanding of the work as
several biblical events by roads: the Annunciation, the Nativity, a simile of a spiritual road. Moreover, the wheat field can serve
the Annunciation to the shepherds, the Three Magi, King as an allegory for the "daily bread" and the Host in the mon-
Herod, the massacre of the innocents, the flight into Egypt, the strance to the body of Christ. Equally symbolic is Thomas
temptation of Christ, the Resurrection, noli me tangere (touch Cole's series Voyage of Life. A river replaces the customary
me not, John 20:17), Emmaus, Peter at the sea, Christ appear- road the human about to embark on. Four canvases
traveler is

ing to his mother, the Ascension, Pentecost, and the death and represent the four stages of humankind: infancy, youth, matu-
Assumption of Mary. Similarly, Giovanni
Paolo, in St. John di rity, and old age —when the soul, again guided by an angel,
Entering the Wilderness, depicts the saint several times on his returns to God.
way to seclusion. John leaves Jerusalem's gate behind and In times past, traveling was not only arduous but also out-
appears again on a steep, rocky road that leads into the desert. right dangerous. Thus, for the benefit of the general public,
Saints also are often portrayed on their road to martyrdom. spiritual pilgrimages were offered to the faithful in lieu of phys-
Mantegna's fresco St. James Led to Martyrdom (Padua, Italy, ical journeys to do penance or gain indulgences from the
destroyed in World War II) uses an intriguing perspective: the church. For example, Gothic cathedrals, such as those at
vantage point of the kneeling jailer who asks forgiveness from Amiens and Chartres in France, had labyrinthine mazes that
St. James. A large mural by Guido Reni represents St. Andrew depicted mental pilgrimages to Jerusalem on the pavements.
on his way to his crucifixion. Emphasizing the arduous journey These mazes, deriving ultimately from classical mythology and
that prepares the apostle spiritually for his final hour, Reni ren- the legend of Daedalus, measured about 40 feet in diameter and
ders the saint, surrounded by his companions, on his knees in 1,000 feet in length. Recent scholarship indicates that such
adoration of the cross. The analogy with Christ emphasized
is spiritual routes were more common than previously assumed.
by visual quotes from Raphael's Way to Calvary, which differs The stations of the cross provide another spiritual path to
primarily in the shape of the cross. Jerusalem. Every Roman Catholic church displays 14 crosses
Medieval travelers, pilgrims, or wanderers are frequently that correspond to the events of Christ's Passion. This custom
depicted following the straight, narrow, and virtuous path dates to the times of the crusaders' "Way of the Cross," or "the
mentioned by Matthew. Hieronymus Bosch's enigmatic Tramp little Jerusalem." Although few examples are of high artistic
(at times interpreted as Poverty) graces the exterior of the Hay wain most famous is Henri Matisse's Via Crucis in the
quality, the
Triptych. Similar moral implications appear in Bosch's Landloper Dominican Chapel in Vence, France. Barnett Newman painted
panel, where a figure, representing Everyman, stumbles along 15 very esoteric panels in the 1960s. His Stations of the Cross
the road of life. Dante's famous journey through hell, purgato- do not relate to the orthodox practices of the Roman Catholic
ry, and paradise is frequently depicted in book illustrations of Church, but they do give the individual viewer the opportunity
his Divine Comedy. for a spiritual experience.
The concept of the Christian as a stranger in the world who To end the discussion of spiritual roads, a rare meaning of
longs for a home in heaven has been treated in various ways, St. Bonaventura's Itinerarinm Mentis in Denm (mind's road to
 I' \ III/ ROAD / CROSSROADS 689

God) deserves mention. Located in the St. Bonaventura chapel antica (in the antique style) that referred to lust but also hinted
in SS. Apostoli in Rome, life-size statues of Faith and Wisdom at yet another classical beauty contest. The famous Farnese
by the sculptor Paolo Cavaceppi (literal visualizations of marble represented a legendary peasant girl who had asked a
Cesare Ripa's allegories) appear with the painted altarpiece young man on the highway to pass judgment on her and her
Virgin and Child Adored by Saint Bonaventura and the Blessed sister's physical attributes. Apart from the different poses of the

Andrea Conti. The two theological virtues relate to this passage two women, the contrast in hairstyles also emphasizes the dif-
in the saint's writings: "Faith assists the soul's itinerary and ference between Virtus and Voluptas. Carracci's influence can
through Faith the contemplative is brought to the final step in be assumed in all future versions of the subjectif the symbols

his ascent and passes over to God by the light of Wisdom." of vanitas (vanity) appear in the shape of two masks and musi-
cal instruments.
The essential differences in the various interpretations of
Secular Roads
Hercules' choice lie in the indication of his crucial decision.
Art historian Erwin Panofsky treated the origin of the story of Sustris's and Carracci's heroes seem to have chosen the virtuous
the choice of Hercules as well as the iconography and iconology path. On the other hand, Pompeo Batoni, who treated the sub-
of the subject in depth in his erudite book Hercules am ject at least four tunes, seats Hercules closer to the woman who
Scbeidewege (1930). The sources for the images included the promises an easy life. Batoni's I lercules seems to be a captive of
classical authors Hesiod and Prodicius, among others. The love. However, a glance indicates the possibility that he will
theme, however, was not depicted in antiquity. A Greek fable tells "change his ways." In Batoni's first version of Hercules at the
of a fork in Hercules' path that requires the hero to make an eth- Crossroad (1742, Palazzo Pitti in Florence, Italy), the choice
ical decision: a choice between an easy road symbolic of vice or relates again to the judgment of Paris, and the women repre-
a steep incline up to virtue, where the winged horse Pegasus was sented are Venus/Love and Pallas Athena/Wisdom.
waiting for the weary traveler. The Pythagorean Y, used through- Endless variations on the theme of Hercules at the crossroad
out history as a metaphor for the two roads (one of vice, the occur in painting. For example, Angelica Kauffmann puts her-
other of virtue), in Geoffroy Tory's woodcut Y with Symbols of self in the hero's place, trying to decide between painting and
Awards and Punishments (152.9) has already been mentioned. music, and Joshua Reynolds creates a frivolous mood when he
Since the Renaissance, numerous illustrations of Hercules at the portrays David Garrick Between Tragedy and Comedy. The
crossroad have appeared in a variety of media, and the iconog- actor is physically accosted by two women who pull him in

raphy of the subject developed over several centuries. opposite directions. His sheepish grin indicates that he will suc-
In the graphic arts, a number of images depicting the choice cumb to the lures of pleasure.
of Hercules appeared in the 1500s and addressed a variety of Didactic symbolism was implied in a maze in Louis XIV's
audiences. Examples range from crude, didactic woodcuts for garden in Versailles, France, designed by Andre Le Notre in

Sebastian Brant's The Ship of Fools (Stultifera Navis, 1497), 1667 (destroyed in 774). The conceit of the famous Bosquet du
1

meant to educate the general public, to the sophisticated Labyrinthe was based on numerous quotes from Aesop's Fables,
engraving by Friedrich Sustris for Prince Maximilian of which supplied moral lessons for the visitors. Finding one's waj
Bavaria. The former work shows Hercules dressed in armor, and solving the puzzle depended on one critical turn in front of
reclining in the foreground next to a Pythagorean Y-shaped fountain 29, which required a decision between "good and
road. In his dream he sees two females, representing vice and evil." Recent scholarship indicates that the topographical fea-

virtue. Voluptas is depicted as a nude surrounded by lush roses, tures of such garden labyrinths became popular in — they first

and a skeleton hides behind her back. A chasm divides her from the sixteenth century —
served as clues for the "art ot memory."
a demurely dressed, virtuous lady who holds a spindle against Finally, a very different crossroad deserves mention. The
the background of thistles. The print's passive hero (the motif Ludwig Museum in Cologne, Germany, displays a modern, cru-
of a sleeping knight resurfaced in Raphael's Dream of Scipio) ciform installation of rocks entitled A Crossing Place, which
contrasts sharply with the mannerist design of Sustris's fills a large exhibition The boulders have such sharp
hall.

Hercules at the Crossroad, which displays a muscular figure points that only a fakir would be able to travel this road. It
standing with his club over his shoulder, ready for action. seems that for the artist, Richard Long, the road has not been
Hercules expresses the humanist idea of humankind's free will. made any easier than it was for the ancient hero.
emblematic Latin inscriptions explain the encyclopedic
Sustris's Landscapes depicting roads can be divided into two groups.
meaning. In a third print, Christoph Murer etched the same Some are merely geographical recordings that made their debut
pagan subject but also introduced some religious concepts: with the rise of Western landscape painting, whereas others
Above Virtue appear the words Via vita (road of life) and above impart some moral symbolism. Main work well on either level.

Vice Via mortis (road of death). Ambrogio Lorenzetti's Allegory of Good Government in Siena,

In painting, too, the Prodicius topos became a favorite of Italy, depicts a well-traveled thoroughfare taking nobles hawk-
many patrons. Carracci found a "canonical" solution for ing into the country and farmers with their produce to the city.

Hercules at the crossroad in his ceiling decoration for Cardinal The Limbourg brothers' February calendar page from the Ties
Ranuncio Farnese in his Roman palace. The program for the Riches Heures du Due de Berry includes a charming vignette ot
whole room was probably written by Fulvio Orsini. Carracci's a farmer on his wa) to .1 village. Peter Paul Rubens's Landscape
center Hercules panel differs from earlier prototypes of the with the Castle of Steen portrays a common hay wagon on a
hero's pose. He is seated, linking him to the judgment of Paris. country road. His influence on John Constable's I layivam is
Moreover, by using the dorsal view of the statue Callipygian undeniable; this painting in turn strongly influenced the devel-
Venus (Museo Nazionale in Naples, Italy) as a prototype for his opment of nineteenth-century landscapes. Meindert Hobbema's
figure of Vice, the Bolognese artist not only created a scene al Avenue Middleharnes finally transcends sheer topography. Deep
690 I'M M / ROAD / CROSSRI IADS

cart-wheel ruts serve .is a conspicuous device to lead the viewer mule that had actually served the future emperor on this jour-
into the picture and tell of industrious farmers, some of whom ney. However, his own troops, supposedly on the same road,

are seen as tiny specks in the distance. A steeple under a mag- must follow a more arduous path. Nicolas Antoine Taunay's
nificent sky appears on the horizon. All is well in the world. The French Army Crossing the St. Bernard Pass records realistical-
difficult question in interpreting Hobbema's works is to decide ly the hardships the soldiers had to endure. Wounded men drag

on the depth of the implied symbolism. For example, did the themselves through the wintry landscape.
artist merely follow convention in his "pilgrims" populating his Mundane dangers of country roads and ambushes by brig-
country roads, or does he mean to convey a deeper meaning? ands were fashionable subjects that were popularized in bam-
Early American artists, although inspired by Dutch land- bocciate (small pictures depicting low-life and peasant scenes),
scapes, generally avoided representing traces of humans. They yet this tradition lasted well into the nineteenth century. Pieter

depict no paths in the pristine wilderness, which they equated van Laer, Philips Wouwerman, and Francesco de Goya, among
to the earthly Eden. Later, western painters recorded some of others, repeated this genre, which generally displayed a melee
the hardships and dangers of the westward expansion. For of horses, riders, and coaches. However, Horace Vernet treated
example, Emanuel Leutze's Westward the Course of Empire the subject in the manner of a history painting. Italian Brigands
Takes Its Way is based on Bishop George Berkeley's poem On Surprised by Papal Troops appears to be a battle between good
the Prospect of Planting Arts and Learning in America (1730s): and evil. A makeshift cross and a small votive offering signify
God's order as some of the brigands seek refuge and mercy on
Westward the course of empire takes its way;
the chapel's steps. Whether the pagan sarcophagus is a mere
The four first acts already past,
prop or should indicate death is anyone's guess.
A fifth shall close the drama with the day:
There is a surprising absence of depictions of traffic acci-
Time's noblest offspring is the last.
dents in art if we consider the death toll on modern highways.
The sketch possibly was working model for a mural in the
a TO-D 593, an installation by U. Weingart and F. Meurer, pre-
House of Representatives Washington, D.C. It is organized as
in sents a fatality on a motorcycle. The body of the rider is
a large landscape filled with subplots of American frontier life, slumped over the front wheel, hiding the dead person's identity
looking from the Great Divide into the "Promised Land." Such (Jedermann/Everyman). The letters of the license plate allude to
expeditions, however, were not without losses, and the members the German word TOD (death). Skid marks on the road accen-
of the wagon train stop for a funeral. The main emphasis in the tuate the reality of the man's demise, yet death has little mean-
canvas is on the family gathered on a rocky ledge in the middle ing in this context, as the artist expresses the fatalism of an
ground. The realistic narrative is given additional allegorical existentialist.
meaning by including explorers, such as Christopher Columbus Gustave Courbet used roads twice in idiosyncratic works.
and Daniel Boone, and juxtaposing them with figures from the His Meeting, later dubbed Bonjour M. Courbet, records an
Old Testament, such as Moses and Elijah. important encounter in the artist's career. The painting
Other American painters avoided symbolic interpretations describes realistically the hot dusty road, receding into the
and simply wanted to record history. John Gutzon Borglum's distance, that Courbet had traveled to visit his most impor-
Staging in California shows the thrills of the Wild West. His tant patron, friend, and benefactor, Jacques-Louis-Alfred
wagon is pulled by wild horses, leaving their coachman just Bruyas. The wealthy art collector from Montpellier, France,
barely in command. The coach comes precariously close to the had invited Courbet to the south and had come to meet the
edge of an abyss. Thomas Ottern's On the Road makes a painter with extended arms. The host is followed by a ser-
statement on modernity in the New World —an old-fashioned vant, who might help the weary traveler with his backpack
wagon races a railroad train. loaded with painting utensils. Although contemporary
Roads often create depth in composition. Probably the first sources ridiculed Courbet's canvas as opportunistic and self-
attempt to show perspective is seen in the Assyrian relief Sack glorifying, the painter intended it as a personal allegory. Thus,
of the City of Hamanu by Ashurhanipal. The road leading to the composition of the three-figured group, resembling popu-
the city's gate narrows considerably toward the back. Perhaps lar prints of The Wandering jew Ahasverus Welcomed by
one of the most recent perspectival exercises also concerns a Two Burghers, must be interpreted in light of contemporary
road: Alan d'Arcangelo's Highway 1. The one-point perspec- treatment of the subject. In nineteenth-century French litera-
tive leads the viewer to a focal point in the rear. The artist ture and visual arts, the old legend served as a metaphor for
appeals to our experiences, evoking nostalgia. We all have trav- a feeling of human brotherhood. Courbet expressed the
eled this lonely road; where will it lead us? importance of the road in a short song: "I have no fatherland
The literary topos of Roman triumphs and the visual tradi- / The earth is my abode / I must end my life on a great road."
tion of the Petrarchan "triumphs" of Love, Virtue, Death, and Thus, Courbet expressed in the Wandering Jew the concept of
Time served as inspiration for Mantegna's masterpiece the artist as prophet seeking to bring truth to his disciples.
Triumph 0/ Julius Caesar at Hampton Court in England. Courbet wrote in a letter to Bruyas that realism is a "holy and
Albrecht Diirer's Triumphal Arch of Maximilian I, or arcus tri- sacred cause, which is the cause of liberty and independence."
umphalis (triumphal arch), is composed of 192 woodcuts of a The depiction of a road already had played a role in an earli-
procession and presents the emperor seated in profile, similar er work of Courbet's. One of his most controversial paintings
to Mantegna's Caesar. Heroic also is the road that Napoleon depicted two road menders. The canvas generally known as
rides triumphantly across on a rugged mountain pass in The Stone Breakers influenced nineteenth-century poets and
Jacques-Louis David's Napoleon at St. Bernard (Hannibal's caused a great stir about its socialist implications. The critics
and Charlemagne's names are engraved on the rocks). It por- found great fault in honoring common road laborers with a
trays Napoleon on a white charger rather than on the common life-size canvas.
 PATH / ROAD / CROSSROADS 69 I

Depictions of roads are not limited to Western art. The Raphael, Way to Calvary, 15 16, Madrid, Spain, Prado
Aztec example was already mentioned. Japanese woodcuts pre- Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, Way to Calvary, 1564, Vienna,
sent native topographical sites. The Famous Views of
the 53 Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum
Stations Along Tokaido Road, a road that led from the old cap-
ital Kyoto to the new city that is now Tokyo, were depicted by Road to Emmaus
Hiroshige, who also was the designer of Sudden Showers at Orsi, Lelio, Walk to Emmaus, circa 1565, London, National
Atake. This latter print became famous because Vincent van Gallery
Gogh copied it in his painting Bridge with Rain, taking advan- Caravaggio, Walk to Emmaus, circa 1590, lost
tage of the elegant arch of the Japanese bridge and the non- Valckenborch, Lucas van, Walk to Emmaus, before 1597,
Western tradition of showing rain as long diagonal lines. Hamburg, Germany, Kunsthalle
The theme of roads conjures up something universal, ethi- Carracci, Annibale, Domine quo vadis, 1601, London,
cal,and eternal. On the other hand, depictions of city streets National Gallery
evoke temporal ideas and the experience of isolation. Few
depictions of roads deny themselves the opportunity to incor- Other Christian Roads
porate some symbolic significance, whether they express reli- Virgin Hodegetria, circa 609, Rome, Pantheon
gious meanings or worldly sentiments. Virgin Hodegetria, twelfth century, Moscow, Russia,
Tretyakov Gallery
Giovanni di Paolo, St. John Entering the Wilderness, circa
See also Choice/Choosing; Expulsion; Journey/Flight;
1450, Chicago, Art Institute
Labyrinth/Maze
Mantegna, Andrea, St. James Led to Martyrdom, 1457,
destroyed
Memling, Hans, Joys of Mary, circa 1480, Munich, Germany,
Selected Works of Art
Alte Pinakothek
Adoration of the Magi Patinier, Joachim, St. Jerome in the Desert, 152.0, Paris, Louvre
Giotto, Adoration of the Magi, 1305, Padua, Italy, Arena Patinier, Joachim, St. Christopher, 1521, El Escorial, Spain,
Chapel Museos Nuevos
Gentile da Fabriano, Adoration of the Magi, altarpiece, 1423, Reni, Guido,St. Andrew Led to Martyrdom, 1608, Rome,
Florence, Italy, Uffizi Gallery San Gregorio al Celio
Veneziano, Domenico, The Adoration of the Magi, 1438,
Berlin, Staatliche Museen Non-Christian Roads
Gozzoli, Benozzo, Procession of the Magi, 1459, Florence, Yacatecuhtli Bearing Crossroads, circa 1400-1521, Codex
Italy, Palazzo Medici-Ricardi Fejervary-Mayer, 37 Liverpool, England, National
p.
Museums and Galleries on Merseyside, Liverpool
Flight into Egypt Museum (12014)
Giotto, Flight into Egypt, 1305, Padua, Italy, Arena Chapel
Carracci, Annibale, Flight into Egypt, 1604, Rome, Galleria Spiritual Path
Doria Pamphili Cavaceppi, Paolo, Faith and Wisdom, 1775, Rome, SS.
Callot, Jacques, The Massacre of the Innocents, 161 8, etching Apostoli, Capella di San Bonaventura
Matisse, Henri, Via Crucis, 1949-195 1, Vence, France,
Christ'sEntry into Jerusalem Chapelle du Rosaire des Dominicaines
Junius Bassus Sarcophagus: Entry into Jerusalem, a.d. 359,
Vatican, Grottoes of St. Peter's Basilica Pilgrim's Way
Giotto, Entry into Jerusalem, 1305, Padua, Arena Chapel
Italy, Bosch, Hieronymus, Tramp, from Haywain Triptych,
Duccio di Buoninsegna, Christ's Entry into Jerusalem, Maesta 1500-1 505, Madrid, Spain, Prado
Altarpiece, 1308-13 n, Siena, Italy, Museo dell'Opera del Bosch, Hieronymus, Landloper, 15 10, Rotterdam, The
Duomo Netherlands, Museum Boymanns van Beuningen
Ensor, James, Christ's Entry into Brussels, 1888, private Diirer, Albrecht, Knight, Death, and the Devil, 1513,
collection engraving
Nolde, Emil, Christ's Entry into Jerusalem, 1915, Munich, Joachim,
Patinier, St. Jerome in the Desert, 1 520, Pans.
Germany, Neue Staatsgalerie Louvre
Patinier, Joachim, St. Christopher, 1521, El Escorial, Spain,
Agony in the Garden Museos Nuevos
Mantegna, Andrea, Gethsemane, circa 1460, London,
National Gallery Secular Roads
Bellini, Giovanni, Gethsemane, circa 1460, London, National Sack of the City of Fiamanu by Ashurbanipal, sculpture, circa
Gallery 650 B.C., London, British Museum
El Greco, Gethsemane, 1585, London, National Gallery Lorenzetti, Ambrogio, Allegory of Good Government, 1
338,
Siena, Italy, Palazzo Pubblico
Road to Calvary Limbourg Brothers, February, calendar page from the Tres
Giotto, Road to Calvary, 1305, Padua, Italy, Arena Chapel Riches Heures du Due de Berry, before [415, Chantilly,
Simone Martini, Way to Calvary, 1340, Paris, Louvre France, Musee Conde
692 PATH / ROAD / CROSSROADS

Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, Blind I eading the Blind, i

568, icci, Annibale, Hercules at the Crossroad, fresco, circa
Naples, Italy, Museo Nazionale di Capodimonte 1 Rome, Palazzo Farnese
596,
Rubens, Peter Paul, Landscape with the Castle of Steen, 1636, Reynolds, Joshua, Portrait of David Garrick Between Tragedy
London, National Gallery and Comedy, 1760, Collection Rothschild
1 .1. Pi< ter van. Attacked by Brigands,
1. circa 1637, Lucca, Batoni, Pompeo, Hercules at the Crossroad, 1742, Florence,
Italy, private collection Italy, Palazzo Pitti

Wouwerman, Philips, Attacked by Bandits, 1650s, Vienna, Batoni, Pompeo, Hercules at the Crossroad, 1748, Vaduz,
Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum Liechtenstein, Liechtenstein Galerie
Ilobbema, Meindert, Avenue Middleharnes, 1689, London, Batoni, Pompeo, Hercules at the Crossroad, 1750s, Turin,
National Gallery Italy,Galleria Sabauda
Goya, Francisco de, Attacked by Brigands, 1776, Madrid, Batoni, Pompeo, Hercules at the Crossroad, 1763-1765, St.
Spain, de I ardies Collection Petersburg, Russia, Hermitage
Constable, John, Haywain, 1821, London, National Gallery Kauffmann, Angelica, The Artist Hesitating Between the Arts
Vernet, Horace, Italian Brigands Surprised by Papal Troops,
of Music and Painting, circa 1794, Nostell Priory, England,
1831, Baltimore, Maryland, Walters Art Gallery Lord St. Oswald
Cole, Thomas, Voyage of Life, series of four paintings, circa
840, Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art
1

Triumphal Processions
Courbet, Gustave, The Stone Breakers, 1849, destroyed
Mantegna, Andrea, Triumph of Julius Caesar, 1484-1492,
Courbet, Gustave, The Meeting, or Bonjour M. Courbet,
Hampton Court, England
1854, Montpellier, France, Musee Fabre
Diirer, Albrecht, Triumphal Arch of Maximilian I, 192
Hiroshige, Ando, Famous Views of the 53 Stations Along
woodcuts, 1 51
Tokaido Road, 1855, woodcuts
David, Jacques-Louis, Napoleon at St. Bernard, 1800,
Hiroshige, Ando, Sudden Showers at Atake, 1856-1858, from
Versailles, France, Musee National du Chateau de
A Hundred Famous Views of Edo Ohashi, woodcuts
Versailles
Breton, Jules, Blessing of the Wheat in the Artois, 1857, Paris,
Musee d'Orsay
Taunay, Nicolas Antoine, French Army Crossing the St.

Borglum, John Gutzon, Staging i860, Omaha, Bernard Pass, 1808, Versailles, France, Musee National du
in California,
Nebraska, Joslyn Museum Chateau de Versailles
Ottern, Thomas, On the Road, i860, Omaha, Nebraska,
Joslyn Museum
Leutze, Emanuel, Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Further Reading
Way, 1 86 1, Washington, D.C., National Museum of Brucke, O., "Betrachtungen uber das Bild des Weges in der
American Art
hofischen Epik," in Acta Germania, Kapstadt, Germany,
Gogh, Vincent van, Bridge in Rain, 1887, Amsterdam, The
1966
Netherlands, Rijksmuseum Vincent van Gogh
Conan, Michael, "The Conundrum of Le Notre's
D'Arcangelo, Allan, Highway 2, 1963, Wasserman Private
Labyrinthe," in Garden History: Issues, Approaches,
Collection
Methods, Washington, D. C: Dumbarton Oaks Research
Weingart, U., and F. Meurer, TO-D 593, 1970, object
Library, 1992
installation
Eberle, Matthias, Individuum und Landschaft: Zur
Long, Richard, A Crossing Place, sculpture, 1983, Cologne,
Entstehung der Landschaftsmalerei, Giessen, Germany:
Germany, Ludwig Museum
Anabas-Verlag, 1980
Falkenburg, Reindert, Joachim Patinir: Landscape as an

Tory, Geoffrey, V with Symbols of Awards and Punishments, Image of the Pilgrimage of Life, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania: J. Benjamins, 1988
1529, woodcut
Micker, Jan Christiaensz, Symbolic Representation of the Heifers, James, "The Mystic as Pilgrim," Journal of the

Broad and the Narrow Way, circa 1635, Leiden, The Rocky Mountain Medieval and Renaissance Association 1

Netherlands, Lakenhal Museum (1992-)

Hydes Minor, Vernon, "The Mind's Road to God: A
Hercules at the Crossroad Recorded Commission for Paolo Cavaceppi," The Art
Hercules at the Crossroad, woodcut from Sebastian Brant's Bulletin (1983)
Stultifera Navis, 149", Basel, Switzerland Panofsky, Erwin, Hercules am Scheidewege und andere
Raphael, Dream of Scipio, circa 1 502, London, National antike Bildstoffe in der neuren Kunst, Berlin: TIeubner,
Gallery 1930
Miner, Christoph, Hercules at the Crossroad, 1580, etching The Voyage of Life by Thomas Cole: Paintings, Drawings,
Sustris, Friedrich, Hercules at the Crossroad, circa 1590, and Prints, exhibition catalog, Utica, New York: Munson-
engraved by Johann Sadeler Williams-Proctor Institute, 1985
 PATRONAGE
Claire Lindgren

The following periods are covered in the discussion of the theme Patronage:

ANCIENT SEVENTEENTH AND

EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES
BYZANTINE AND MEDIEVAL
TWENTIETH CENTURY
RENAISSANCE

ht> 3
694 PATRONAGE

Altar of Zeus at Pergamum, reconstruction of west front, Berlin, Pergamum Museum, Staatliche Museen,
Antike Sammlung. (Courtesy of Foto Marburg/Art Resource, New York)
 PATRONAGE 695

Patronage, and protecting an artist or

the act of supporting Athena enhanced cultural and artistic connections between
an work, is as old as art itself. The intent of
artist's Athens and Pergamum.
patrons, however, has rarely been a simple love of the arts. Although the Attalid monarchs had been avid art collec-
Viewed chronologically and comparatively, there has been a tors and patrons, it was not until the reign of Eumenes II that
wide spectrum of goals that patrons have hoped to attain and — the most original Hellenistic sculpture was commissioned,
an equally wide spectrum of depictions of patrons in art. The such as the great frieze of the Altar of Zeus (180 B.C.). This
depiction of a mythological or religious tale or desired action, altar, dedicated to the king of the Olympic deities and father
for instance, may have another subliminal purpose: to reflect of Athena, had a precinct wall more than 400 feet in length
honor, glory, and power on the patron. Or the image of a and approximately 8 feet in height, which was covered with a
patron might literally be included in such a work. Often these gigantomachy, the supreme
frieze in high relief depicting the
kinds of depictions took the form of a portrait of the patron battle Greek mythology that marked the uncontested
in

holding the commissioned piece, be it a statue, temple, church, —

supremacy for the Olympic gods a suitable subject to com-
book, or city, as an offering to a deity. At the simplest level, memorate the great service to civilization performed by the
such a work might be a flattering portrait of the patron for his Attalids in their defeat of the barbaric Celtic tribe, the Gauls.
or her own aggrandizement. Just as Pericles had saved the classical Greek world and
The idea of supporting the work of an artist, or in some way rebuilt the Athenian Acropolis, so Eumenes II glorified his
insuring that an idea is transmitted via a work of painting, house, which had saved the Hellenistic Greek world, with
sculpture, or architecture, can probably be traced back to pre- similar construction. Thus, a pattern of patronage in art and
historic times. For example, the shaman or artist painting cave architecture similar to that found in fifth-century B.C. Athens
walls in return for a portion of the spoils of the hunt would was instituted in second-century B.C. Pergamum. A tradition
have the hunters as patrons. Unfortunately, because there is no was established whereby commissioned monuments deliber-
documentation available, this example, however logical, is ately carried references that could be easily associated with
speculative. positive past political events. A later ancient example of this
An early documented example of patronage and how the kind of patronage is the Ara Pacis Augustae (Altar of the
sculptural depiction of a mythological tale with all its ramifica- Augustan Peace, 13-9 B.C.) with its stylistic references to both
tions was used to flatter a patron is found during the reign of the Altar of Zeus and the cella (principal enclosed room of a
Eumenes II over the ancient Greek city of Pergamum. One of temple) frieze of the Parthenon.
the best known patrons in antiquity, Eumenes II was responsi- The story of the gigantomachy, as seen on the Altar of Zeus
ble for the erection of the Altar of Zeus (180 B.C.) at frieze, derived from Hesiod's Theogonia (circa 700 B.C.) and is

Pergamum, the rebuilding of the Pergamene Library (second very complex. According to archaeologist Erika Simon, it was
century a.d.), the construction of a copy of Pheida's chrysele- probably the work of Eumenes' librarian Krates, who modified
phantine (ivory and gold sheeting on a wooden framework) the Hesiodic tale. Art historian Margarete Bieber contends that
statue Athena Parthenos (447-432 B.C.) for the
of the the design was the product of a leading artist and the learned
Pergamene Library, as well as numerous copies of earlier Greek society at the Attalid court. Archaeologist Dieter Thimme
masterpieces for placement throughout Pergamum. These believes that the frieze was the work of many different sculp-
many works made Pergamum one of the most beautiful centers tors under the direction of a leading master whose identity has
of the Hellenistic world, a rival to Athens and Alexandria and been disputed. Yet, there is no doubt that the driving force
a symbol of the political and cultural mission of the Eumenes behind the work was Eumenes II, whose patronage made it

dynasty (Strabo, Geographic!, XIII, 4, z). possible.

The Pergamene Library had been conceived by Eumenes' Although Eumenes was prompted by political considera-
fatherand was rebuilt to surround the temple of Athena tions, devotional reverence, and aesthetics in commissioning
Nikephoros, protector of the pre-Attalid Greek Moreover, city. the great altar, history has interpreted this example of patron-
Eumenes restored the precinct outside the which was city, age in a variety of ways: Ampelius and the Spartan general
sacred to Athena, goddess of the arts, crafts, and war, and Pausanias saw it as a wonder ot the ancient world; the
established a new festival in her honor. Eumenes' devotion to Revelation of St. John the Divine saw it as Satan's throne; and
Athena and patronage of projects connected with honoring the German archaeologist Carl Humann, who discovered it in

goddess was not limited to his homeland. He and his brothers 1 87 1, called it "the greatest expression of art remaining from
visited Athens for the Panathenaea of 178 B.C. Archaeologist antiquity."
William BellDinsmoor suggested it was at this time that colos- Examples of this kind ot political-artistic patronage abound
sal statues of Eumenes and his father, Attalus I, were erected on in antiquity.Examples include the previously mentioned Ara
the west slope of the Athenian Acropolis. This devotion to Pacis Augustae. the Forum and the Column of Trajan, The
696 PATRONAG1

Basilica of Maxentius and ( onstantine, the numerous temples, On the other hand, the many works initiated under the
bath complexes, and triumphal arches that were erected all patronage of Charlemagne appear to be less an attempt to pla-
over the Roman world, .is well as the palace and court com- cate and influence a populace than to follow the tenets of reli-

plex! s so important to ancient rulers. Hellenistic monarchs and gion. Under Charlemagne one finds the alliance of church and
Roman generals and emperors used art and architecture as pro- state initiated by a ruler devoted to the utilization of the arts to
paganda tools,commissioning works ostensibly for the good of aid and abet the dissemination of the Christian doctrine. The
the state and the gods but in reality most often for the good of principal motivation for Charlemagne's commissions, from his
the patron. palace chapel (a.d. 792-805) at Aachen, Germany, to the impe-
In the postantique world, although politics certainly can rial monastic community at Centula and the manuscript illu-

never be totally dismissed, the concept of patronage as a devo- minations of the Coronation Gospels (circa 800-810) that,
tional expression appears to have become far more common. according to legend, were entombed with the emperor, seems to
The building of huge churches, beginning with the construction have been devotional, augmented by other more worldly con-
of Old St. Peter's under Constantine I, was impossible without siderations. This curious synthesis of church, state, and art per-

large donations from patrons such as the emperor, feudal aris- sisted, for a variety of reasons, through most of the medieval

tocracy, or the clergy, and the commissioning of elaborate illu- period, reaching a peak in the Gothic period in France during
minated manuscripts for use in private daily devotions testifies the reign of Louis IX with the construction of Sainte-Chapelle
to a change in the primary motivation of the patron during (1 243-1 248) in Paris, the palace chapel built to house relics

this time. acquired by the king.

There are abundant examples of devout patronage from the The Renaissance saw an attempt to return to the ideas and
early Christian, Byzantine,and medieval periods: Sta. Maria patronage concepts of classical antiquity; art was seen as
Maggiore in Rome; Sta. Sabina; the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, more of a temporal, rather than spiritual, propaganda
Turkey; the Hagios Georgios; St. Michael's in Hildesheim, device. Without the patronage of the merchant princes, such
Germany; St. Sernin in Toulouse, France; St. Front in as the Medici family, who wished to turn Florence into a new
Perigueux, France; Reims Cathedral and Chartres Cathedral in Christianized Athens, or the ecclesiastical authorities, such as
France, etc. Pope Julius temporal and spiritual ruler who embell-
II, a
Ravenna, Italy, on the Adriatic Sea, has particularly good ished the with the work of artists such as
Vatican
examples of the visualization of the act of patronage. The Michelangelo and Raphael, the Renaissance as we know it
Church of San Vitale (a.d. 526-547), founded by Bishop might never have occurred. All the major monuments of that
Ecclesius in the last years of the reign of Theodoric and begun period, from Lorenzo Ghiberti's Gates of Paradise (circa
under Bishop Victor, contains extensive mosaics. Within it 1435) for the Florentine Baptistery to Michelangelo's Sistine
one finds mosaic portraits of those connected with the found- Chapel frescos (1508-15 12) to the rebuilt St. Peter's Basilica
ing and construction of the building: from Bishop Ecclesius, (1503-15 13) were conceived and completed because individ-
depicted holding a model of the building in the apsidal mosa- uals commissioned artists to create works that would glorify
ic (somewhat inaccurate, if one judges by the completed struc- God and secular powers, although not necessarily in that
ture), to Emperor Justinian I, under whose rule the church order.
was completed. Justinian is shown presenting a costly paten These individuals often wished to ensure an everlasting rep-
to the church in a mosaic that flanks the altar. He is attended utation by having themselves included in the commissioned
by the archbishop Maximianus, who holds a jeweled cross, piece. This inclusion could be in the architectural sculpture of
and others such as the general Belisarius and the banker a cathedral, such as found on the portal of the Chartreuse de
Julianus Argentarius, who probably financed the building. Champmol (1385-1393) in Dijon, France, where Claus Sluter,
Directly opposite this mosaic is a mosaic depicting the who was employed by the duke of Burgundy, included Duke
Empress Theodora and her retinue, with Theodora offering a Philip the Bold and his wife in the portal's jamb statues. Or the
chalice as her donation. A later representation of a founder inclusion might occur in the painted portraits seen on altar-
offering a church can be seen in the fresco on the lower wall pieces such as the Master of Flemalle's Merode Altarpiece (circa
of the apse of Sant'Angelo in Formis, Italy (1072). Here 1425-1430) and Jan van Eyck's Ghent Altarpiece (1432), in
Abbot Desiderius (later Pope Victor III) is shown offering the which the donors are included kneeling in separate panels.
church to Christ. Similarly, in Masaccio's Holy Trinity with the Virgin and St.
In the many illuminated manuscripts commissioned during John (1425) two donors kneel and worship the holy persons on
the postantique period, one frequently finds a patron shown either side of the main subject. In a more secular vein, a por-
receiving a copy of a work, such as is illustrated inThe trait of the patron can be found in the Limbourg Brothers'
Presentation of the Bible to Charles the Bald (fol. 423) in the manuscript Les Tres Riches Heures du Due de Berry (before
Vivian Bible (ninth century) or in Abbess Hitda Presenting Her 141 5), in which the duke is shown seated at a table in the
Book to Saint Walburga in the Hitda Codex (circa 978). In January calendar page.
other instances the patron is shown honor from
receiving an After the Protestant Reformation, church patronage was vir-
God ami from the secular world, as in
Otto III Enthroned tually obliterated in non-Roman Catholic areas. Even in the
Between Church and State in the Gospels of Otto III (circa predominately Roman Catholic countries, artists could no
1000) or in the dedication page of the Bible Moralisee (circa longer look forward to vast commissions and so sought other
1 1-9), which depicts Blanche of Castile and her son, Louis IX. means of support.
Gradually, it seems that much of the binding of church and Commissioned portraits seemed to be the answer, and the
state was accomplished in works of art. portrait grew in popularity as did cycles that detailed the lives
 I'MKONAGE 697

of the aristocracy, glorifying their words and deeds. A supreme century English example of such beneficence was lord
monument of this sort was commissioned by Marie de Medicis, Egremont III, whose home, Petworth, J. M. W. Turner often
at
widow of Henri IV of France. Peter Paul Rubens, in order to stayed for months at a time.
satisfy her vanity, executed a cycle of paintings ( 1 620s) for his In the early twentieth century the Steins — Michael, his wife
patron, the former queen, in a style that turned her life into a Sarah, brother Leo, and sister Gertrude — aided many artists at
removed from actuality. Because she was
spectacle of glory far the start of their careers, including such great modern masters
no longer the queen of the reigning king, the impact of these as Henri Matisse and Pablo Picasso. Picasso's Gertrude Stein
paintings did not have serious political consequences. (1906), although ostensibly a portrait of his patron, marks the
By the next century the court portrait had gained greater beginning of the formal breakthrough to cubism. A patron less
significance. Frequently it was the vehicle used to express avant-garde than Gertrude Stein might have rejected the fin-
the aims of a monarchy to a significant inner circle. If the ished work. Her support, in a way, marks the beginning of the
depiction did not violate reasonable probability, it was importance of patronage in the development of modern move-
effective,and the patron, viewers, and artist were pleased; but ments. Other turn-of-the-century patrons of avant-garde artists
if the depiction and reputation of the patron were not com- were the Cones of Baltimore, Maryland, and Sergei Shchukin
patible and the work was scorned by the intended audience, of Moscow.
both the artist and patron could suffer dire consequences. For The most significant expansion of patronage in the twenti-
instance, Marie-Louise-Elisabeth Vigee-LeBrun painted Marie eth century was concurrent with the rise of the art dealer,
Antoinette and her Children (circa 1787) at the request of who, in effect, became the arbiter of taste in the modern art
Marie Antoinette as an effort to counter the pejorative image world. To a great extent, a kind of marketplace patronage
the queen had acquired. The importance of this commission is replaced the political and religious patronage of the past. By
indicated by the amount paid the artist, almost five times the 1912, dealer Daniel Henry Kahnweiler was the single agent
amount paid for a 1785 portrait of the queen by Adolph Ulric for Georges Braque and Picasso and had total control over
Wertmuller. In Vigee-LeBrun's work, the queen, surrounded by their works in exchange for a monthly stipend paid to the
her children,is seated in a manner reminiscent of depictions of
artists. For at least 10 years dealer Ambroise Vollard, whose
the Holy Family. Her features have been beautified and her portrait was painted by Picasso in 1910, enjoyed the same
costume is luxurious, creating a positive image that empha- control over the output of Georges Rouault. This system of
sizes the grandeur of monarchy. To this idea Vigee-LeBrun dealer-dominated patronage did not apply to architecture,
attempted to add the concept of maternal love, with a younger however. From the mid-nineteenth century onward, due to
child clasping the queen's breast, while an elder child gazes at
the complexities inherent to construction and architecture's
the queen in a loving manner. But the painting was not able to
relationship to engineering, architectural commissions were
counter opposition to the queen and the French monarchy. subject to an increasingly close collaboration between archi-
Ultimately Marie Antoinette was executed, and because the
tect and patron.
queen had been her patron, Vigee-LeBrun was forced to flee
Painting and sculpture in the second half of the twentieth
France.
century continued to be dominated by the dealer/patron, who
During the eighteenth century, notions of patronage
assembled stables of artists ready to produce for a specific
expanded to include rendering the ideas a patron held dear,
clientele with the instincts of an excellent merchant. Leo
such as Johann Joseph Zoffany's The Tribuna of the Uffizi
Castelli,one such dealer whose gallery played a key role in the
Gallery (1772-1779), commissioned by Queen Charlotte of
shaping of art in the post-World War II era, featured artists
Britain presumably to celebrate her taste and education. In this
such as Jasper Johns, Robert Rauschenberg, Roy Lichtenstein,
scene, the revered pieces of the Uffizi Gallery in Florence can
Andy Warhol, and Frank Stella to promote and sell the latest
be seen on the walls. Around and among these works one finds
movements in art. Sidney Janis, another dealer equally as
the intelligentsia and elite of the British community in
famous as Castelli, was himself immortalized as a collector and
Florence, a testament to the cultured taste of the queen. This
patron by George Segal in a mixed media work entitled Portrait
type of subject was a model frequently followed by eighteenth-
of Sidney Janis with a Mondrian Painting.
century collectors, and, to this day, the wealthy like to be pho-
From antiquity to the present, various types of patronage
tographed in An eighteenth-century
the midst of their art.
have contributed to the creation and completion of works of
antithesis to this crowded work, Thomas Gainsborough's Mr.
art. For patronage to must be an artist who \\ ishes
exist, there
and Mrs. Robert Andrews (circa 1748), is also a visualization
to receive payment for his or her laborand a patron who
of that which was most important to the patron in this — expects to achieve a specific result by meeting the expenses and
instance, his love of the land. An entire half of Gainsborough's
needs of the artist. The artist's need is the more constant of the
painting depicts the well-tended farm of this member of the
two requirements; the patron can be motivated by a variety <»t
landed gentry.
desires: religious, social, political, economic, or a combination
In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the rise of
of these and other factors that, in most instances, reflect the
democracies and the subsequent gradual demise of the dictato-
spirit of the times in which they both live. Although the goals
rial state resulted in the establishment of artistic academies and
of individual patrons may have differed over the centuries, the
affiliated exhibitions. Artists, now no longer certain of eventu-
use of the visual arts to achieve these results has been a con-
al support within a closed system, were in even greater need of
stant since antiquity.
financial backing. Sponsorship came in various ways.
Individuals of wealth who sought recognition for a number of
reasons sometimes chose to support an artist. A nineteenth- See also Artists/Art; Honor/Honoring
<„,s I'M KON \(,l

Selected Works of Art Vigee-LeBrun, Marie-Louise-Elisabeth, Marie Antoinette and

Her Children, circa 1787, Versailles, France
Am icnt

A then mi Acropolis, Creek, fifth centurj B.( Athens, rreece ., (

Twentieth Century
Athena Parthenos, copy of Greek original, 447-432. B.C., Picasso, Pablo, Gertrude Stein, 1906, New York,
Pergamum, Cireece Metropolitan Museum of Art
Pergamene Library, Greek, second century a.d., Pergamum, Picasso, Pablo, Ambroise Vollard, 1910, Moscow, Russia,
( recce Museum
i
Pushkin
Altar of Zeus, Greek, 180 B.C., Pergamum, Greece Segal, George, Portrait of Sidney Janis with Mondrian
Ara Pacis Augustae, Roman, 1 3-9 B.C., Rome, Museum of
Painting
the Ara Pacis
Pantheon, Roman, circa a.d. i 1 8, Rome
Selected List of Individual Patrons
Byzantine and Medieval
San Vitale, Byzantine architecture, 526-547, Ravenna, Italy An cent
Palace chapel of Charlemagne, Carolingian architecture, Pericles of Athens
792-805, Aachen, Germany Eumenes II of Pergamum
Coronation Gospels, illuminated manuscript, circa 800, Caesar Augustus
Vienna, Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum Hadrian
Vivian Bible, illuminated manuscript, ninth century, Paris,
Bibliotheque Nationale Byzantine and Medieval
Hitda Codex, illuminated manuscript, circa 978, Darmstadt, Constantine the Great
Germany, Hessiche Bibliothek Justinian I

Gospels of Otto III, illuminated manuscript, circa 1000, Charlemagne

Munich, Germany, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek Bernward of Hildesheim
Bible Moralisee, illuminated manuscript, circa 1179, Vienna, Louis IX of France

Austria, Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek (Cod. 25 54.

versions) Renaissance

Sainte-Chapelle, medieval architecture, Charles IV of Spain

1 243-1 248, Paris
Sinter, Claus, Chartreuse de Champmol, portal sculpture,
Lorenzo de' Medici
Cosimo de' Medici
1385-1393, Dijon, France
Pope Julius II

Renaissance Francis I of France

Limbourg Brothers, Les Tres Riches Hcitres du Due de Berry, Henry VIII of England
illuminated manuscript, before 141 Philip II of Spain
5, Chantilly, France,
Musee Conde
Masaccio, Holy Trinity with Virgin and Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries
St. John, fresco,
1425, Florence, Italy, Santa Maria Novella
Louis XIV of France
Peter the Great of Russia
Master of Flemalle, Merode Altarpiece, circa 1425-1430,
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art Catherine the Great of Russia

Eyck, Jan van, Ghent Altarpiece, 1432, Ghent, Belgium, St.

Louis XVI of France

Bavo Napoleon Bonaparte

Ghiberti, Lorenzo, Gates of Paradise, circa 1435, Florence,
Italy, Baptistery of St. Giovanni
Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries
Victoria of England
Bramante, Donato, Michelangelo, et al., St. Peter's Basilica,
Lord Egremont III
architecture, 1503-15 13, Vatican
Michelangelo, Sistine Chapel, ceiling frescos, 1508-15 12,
Gertrude Stein
Sergei Shchukin
Vatican
Daniel Henry Kahnweiler
Raphael, Vatican Stanze, 1510, Vatican
Leo Castelli
Sidney Janis
Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries
Rubens, Peter Paul, Life of Marie de Medicis, 1620s, Paris, Peggy Guggenheim

Louvre
Gainsborough, Thomas, Mr. and Mrs. Robert Andrews, circa
Further Reading
1748, London, National Gallery
Zoffany, Johann Joseph, The Tribuna of the Uffizi Gallery, Bieber, Margarete, Sculpture
of the Hellenistic Age, New
772-1779, London, Royal Collection
1 York: Columbia University Press, 1961
Barry, James, The Distribution of Premiums at the Blum, Shirley Neilsen, Early Nederlandish Triptychs: A Study
Society of Arts, 1 777-1 784, London, Royal Society in Patronage, Berkeley: University of California Press,
of Arts 1969
 PATRONAGE 699

Cox-Rearick, Janet, Dynasty and Destiny in Medici Art: Jones, Pamela M., Frederico Borromeo and the Ambrosiana:
Pontormo, Leo X, and the Two Cosimos, Princeton, New Art Patronage and Reform in Seventeenth Century Milan,
Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1984 Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press,
Dinsmoor, William The Architecture of Ancient Greece,
Bell, 1993
New York: Batsford, 1950 Kahler, Heinz, Der Grosse Fries von Pergamon, Berlin: Mann,
Foss, Michael, The Age of Patronage: The Arts in England, 1948
1660-1J50, Ithaca, New York, and London: Cornell Kempers, Brian, Painting, Power, and Patronage: The Rise
University Press, 1972 of the Professional Artist in the Italian Renaissance,
Gold, Barbara K., editor, Literary and Artistic Patronage in Baltimore, Maryland: Penguin, 1992; London: Allen Lane,
Ancient Rome, Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982 1992
Goldberg, Edward L., Patterns in Late Medici Art Patronage, Lytle, Guy Fitch, and Stephen Orgel, editors, Patronage in the
Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1983 Renaissance, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University
, After Vasari: History, Art and Patronage, Princeton, Press, 1 98
New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1988 Macready, Sarah, and F. H. Thompson, editors, Art and
Hanson, Esther Violet, The Attalids of Pergamon, Ithaca, Patronage in the English Romanesque, London: Society of
New York, and London: Cornell University Press, Antiquaries, 1986
1971 Morrow, Deborah, The Art Patronage of Maria de'Medici,
Harris, John S., Government Patronage of the Arts in Great Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1982
Britain, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, Pillsbury, Edmond P., Florence and the Arts: Five Centuries of

1970 Patronage, Cleveland, Ohio: Cleveland Museum of Art,

Haskell, Francis, Patrons and Painters: A Study in the 1971
Relations Between Italian Art and Society in the Age of Schmidt, Eva Maria, The Great Altar of Pergamon, Leipzig:
the Baroque, London: Chatto and Windus, 1963 VEB, 1962
Hollingsworth, Mary, Patronage in Renaissance Italy: From Simon, Erika, Pergamon und Hesiod, Mainz, Germany: von
1400 to the Early Sixteenth Century, Baltimore, Maryland: Zabern, 1975
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994; London: John Thimme, Dieter, "The Masters of the Pergamon
Murray, 1994 Gigantomachy," American Journal of Archaeology 50
Jackson, Marjory, Art for Work: The New Renaissance in (July 1946)
Corporate Collecting, Boston: Harvard Business School, Vigee-LeBrun, Marie-Louise-Elisabeth, Memoirs, translated by
1993 Lionel Stechy, New York: G. Braziller, 1989
 PEACE
Liana De Girolami Cheney

The following arts are covered in the discussion of the theme Peace:

EMBLEMS GRAPHIC ARTS

PAINTINGS AND DRAWINGS METALWORK
SCULPTURE TAPESTRY

701
702 I'l V< I
 PEACE 703

Giorgio Vasari, Portrait of Alessandro de'

Medici, 1534, panel, Florence, Italy, Museo
Mediceo. (Courtesy of Scala/Art Resource,
New York)

nr he Hebrew word for peace is shalom, which appears Augustae (Altar of the Augustan peace) in Rome in 9 B.C. to
Jl numerous times in the Bible with several significations: celebrate the successful pacification of Spain and Gaul four
individual reference to good health and safety (Genesis 15:15, years earlier. The large enclosure (39 feet by 35.5 feet), deco-
43:2.3; Exodus 18:7; Joshua 10:21; I Kings 22:17; J°b 5 :z 3; rated with bas-reliefs, surrounds the inner altar raised on a
Psalm 4:8, 38:3; Proverbs 3:2; Isaiah 38:17); social reference to platform. The reliefs depict Roman power and wealth resulting
public righteousness and judgment (Judges 4:17; Isaiah 48:18; from the fertility of the earth and the abundance of nature
60:17; I Kings 5:26); and theological reference to God as the made possible by peace. For example, in the Tellus Relief, the
source for individual contentment (I Kings 2:33; Psalm 4:8, Roman earth mother, an embodiment of fertility, sits with two
29:11; Isaiah 45:7) (Hawthorne, p. 579). children in her lap, surrounded by an abundant landscape and
The Greek word for peace is eirene, which is related to a the personifications of the winds. Other bas-reliefs depict a
harmonious state of mind harmonious rulership. The
as well as procession of citizens led by the emperor himself. Many grace-
Romans, like the Greeks, focused on the symbolism of peace ful plant forms underscore the abundance and plenitude
(Latin pax) to mean the end of war. The Christian concept of of nature.
peace fuses the Hebraic meaning of shalom with the Greek sig- The classical symbols of peace were equally familiar during the
nification of eirene; thus, through God/Jesus Christ, humanity Renaissance and Baroque periods, as can be seen in the icono-
can achieve tranquillity of mind and soul (Romans 5:1). graphic description of the Sala dei Cento Giorni in the Palazzo
In Christian iconography, the dove becomes a symbol of della Cancelleria in Rome (1546), where Giorgio Vasari referred
peace and renewal of life because it was the dove that was sent to peace as "having an olive branch in hand (aver Voliva in

out from Noah's ark after the flood seeking God's message. The mano)." This earlier iconographic motif was again applied in the

dove returned with an olive branch, thus alluding to God's rec- Chamber of Abraham in Vasari's house in Arezzo, Italy (1548), as
onciliation with humanity. This ancient image of the dove as a well as in the Refectory of Monteoliveto in Naples, Italy (1545).
symbol of peace has continued through the centuries. In the The olive tree or olive branch was a symbol of peace for both the
twentieth century, Pablo Picasso's poster image of the white Greeks and the Hebrews. According to St. Augustine, olive trees
dove recalls the ancient symbol of peace. Although Picasso had symbolize the feast of the Epiphany because
already joined the Communist Party when he designed this
Abraham and and Jacob are the progenitors from
Isaac
poster of the peace dove, it became a true symbol for the peace
whom the Jews drew their lineage. They might feast, not
movement. The signed poster contained at top an image of a
as legitimate offspring of these trees, but as grafts upon
white dove with an inscription announcing a world congress
their stock made through faith, so as to preserve the wild
for peace in April 1949 in Paris. Picasso's reputation and action
olive which is to be grafted upon the olive tree of which
encouraged others to protest against the threat of nuclear war
Saint Paul speaks [in Romans 11:24].
(Berger, p. 175).
Peace is celebrated at the end of a war by burning the arms Thus, in the figure of Peace, as in that of the Virtue of Chastity,
and weapons with a flaming torch. Usually the attributes of one observes the fusion of pagan motifs with religious symbol-
peace as a symbol of good government, or the peaceful quali- ism. The fact that Peace is located just below the tondo scene
ties of a ruler, are the olive branch (symbol of immortality and and has the same orientation is significant. Unlike the personi-
renewal of life), the dove (the life spirit or soul), the cornucopia fications of Modesty, Concord, and Chastity in the ceiling,
(horn of plenty), and the caduceus (symbol for a messenger of Peace relates directly to God's blessing of Isaac and Abraham,
good will). Sometimes peace is depicted with wings or is hon- as if God were reassuring the Hebrew people of His protection
ored with an olive crown alluding to the crown of olives worn and of peace on Earth.
by the victor at the Heraea races, acclaiming the moon goddess, According to Piero Valeriano and Vincenzo Cartari, peace
Hera; the crown of wild olives alludes to the victor at the and concord are one and the same. Both were adored by the
Olympic games, praising Zeus, the king of the gods. Legend has ancients, who desired a quiet and peaceful life. Cesare Ripa, in
it that in Greek as well as in Roman ritual the laurel had the his Iconologia, later adds that the olive tree was an attribute of
power to shake up those who had shed the blood of others. Pallas, goddess of peace. According to the Bible, since the time
Also, the laurel was the only tree that was never struck by light- of Noah the olive tree was a symbol of peace (Genesis 8:1 1).
ning. When offerings were kindled with laurel branches, the The Hebrews used the symbol of the olive tree as a reference to
crackling in the fire was considered an omen of peace the peaceful election of a king and to remind the people of
(Biedermann, p. 202). Judea to live in harmony. Also, because of its quantity of oil,
Rulers often used the symbols of peace to enhance their the olive tree was called a "tree full of richness" and svmbol-
reignand celebrate the tranquil aftermath of military victories. ized the providence of God toward the Hebrews (Judges
Emperor Augustus, who preferred to appear as a prince of 9:8-9). Valeriano recounts that the olive tree or olive branch
peace rather than as a triumphant victor, built the Ara Pacis was also a symbol of peace for the Greeks.
704 PEACE

Vasari's drawing ?eace Bearing an Olive Branch (1545) in identified as Lorenzo, a Florentine captain-general, and not
the Graphische Samrnlung Albertina in Vicuna, Austria (In v. Giuliano de' Medici, a papal captain-general. Also, the Medici's
461), which in the past was attributed to Perino del Vaga, rep- lineage followed from Lorenzo to his illegitimate son

resents a theme similar to that in his painting in the Refectory Alessandro, as visually reinforced in this comparison of seated
of Monteoliveto in Naples. A second drawing on the theme of images in sculpture and painting.

peace, found in an American private collection, has also been Cox-Rearick has unveiled the meaning of the laurel branch,
attributed to Vasari. Both drawings have been related to which derives from a personal impresa for Lorenzo the
.

Vasari's Apparato dei Sempiterni ( 1 54 1-1542), which was used Younger of 15 12 and from Vasari's description of the Duke
for the Pietro Aretino comedy La Talanta in Venice, Italy. Alessandro painting: "The dry laurel branch which puts forth
As Vasari recounts in his autobiography, his knowledge of that erect and flesh leafy twig is the Medici house, once extin-
hieroglyphs and emblemata derived from his education in the guished, which must grow with infinite progeny in the person
classics with Pollastra, his tutoring with Piero Valeriano during of Duke Alessandro." In this allusion to the Medici family's
his formative years, and his contact with the emblemist Andrea dynasty and strength, Vasari's imagery seems to be derived not
Alciati in Bologna, Evidence of these influences on
Italy. only from Francesco Melchiori's impresa, where a laurel
Vasari's paintings can be seen in the Portrait of Alessandro de' branch feeds an oak tree and thus symbolizes an illegitimate
Medici (1534) in the Museo Mediceo in Florence, Italy, in birth from a branch of the family (in this instance Alessandro's
which he portrays the duke as the symbol of peace. In a letter illegitimacy), but also from Antonio Borghesi's impresa, signi-

to Ottaviano de' Medici, Vasari describes the symbolism in this fying the power of ancestry. Vasari illustrates the implication of
portrait, comparing himself to the ancient painter Apelles, who this symbolism not only in his depiction of the laurel branch,
painted the portrait of his patron, Alexander of Macedonia, as seen on the left of the seated Alessandro and alluding to the
Vasari painted Alessandro de' Medici. Obviously, the paragone, political power of the Medici family, but also in the painted
or comparison, does not rest solely on the portrait commission truncated tree on Alessandro's right, signifying the interruption
but also extends to the patronage of two rulers named of the Medici dynasty caused by Duke Alessandro's present
Alexander. In this letter, Vasari further elaborates on the mean- lack of heirs and his illegitimate birth.

ing of the duke's armor as a symbol of public protection, court- Although difficult to see, behind the seated duke are two
ly love, and public trust. The artist continues explaining how columns and a tree encircled by a vine with a laurel crown.
the reflections in the Duke's shining armor mirror self-trust as From his interactions with the humanists Annibale Caro and
well as people's trust. Moreover, he explains that the seated Paolo Giovio, Vasari had continued to assimilate the emblem-
position of the duke on a circular chair, holding the bastone del atic imagery; for example, the two columns framing a truncat-
dominio (the baton of power), signifies eternal governance. ed branch decorated with laurel derive from Giovio's impresa
Furthermore, according to Vasari's letter, the decorated chair for Stefano Colonna. The two columns, referring to Hercules'
with three legs of truncated bodies and leonine paws refers to columns, are a conventional symbol of fortitude. However, the
the submission of nations to the Florentine governance of the meaning of the duke's imagery may be elaborated further from
Medici. Vasari further describes the background in the portrait: yet another Medici impresa executed by the Milanese Luigi
Behind the seated duke a row of ruined columns and edifices Marliano for the Medici Pope, Leo X, which alludes to the
allude to the siege of Florence in 1530. For Vasari, the redman- Medici good political fortune as well as to their fortitude in
tel covering the chair symbolizes the blood shed by the duke governing.
and his ancestors. In the letter he also describes the meaning of Vasari parallels the armored duke with the goddess Minerva,
the emblem of the flowering truncated tree, which refers to the probably because of his familiarity with Raphael's fresco paint-
necessity of preserving the Medici family. For Vasari, the burn- ing of 1512 in the Sala della Segnatura at the Vatican. Minerva
ing helmet is purposefully placed on the ground and not worn or Athena was the goddess of peace, although she frequently is

by the duke because it symbolizes the eternal peace created by represented in full armor, alluding to her victory for peace
the duke's good governance, which has brought a reign of through war. However, when she is surrounded by laurel branch-
friendship and love for his people. This letter concludes with a es and truncated trees with laurel, Minerva the warrior becomes
Latin epitaph probably composed by Paolo Giovio. Minerva the peaceful, thus symbolizing governmental peace.
Numerous art historians have analyzed this portrait, but Francesco Laurana's Minerva Pacifica, the reverse of the
none as eloquently as Janet Cox-Rearick, who viewed it as a medal of Rene of Anjou (King of Sicily) (1465), with an inscrip-
Vasarian conceit (invenzione) with a complex set of symbolic tion "Pax Augusti" (Augustus's Peace), symbolizes the trans-
references to legitimize theduke and aggrandize him political- formation of Minerva from a goddess of war to a goddess of
ly. According to Cox-Rearick (pp. 234-236) and other schol- peace (Wittkower, p. 135). She holds a dove in one hand and a
ars, such as Leo Steinberg, Julian Kliemann, and J. Malcolm laurel in the other. A truncated laurel tree balances her dis-
Campbell, this portrait is the first example of official Medici carded armor, which is no longer needed for protection and is

propaganda. By contrast, Karla Langedijk (p. 49) and Kurt now used as a trophy. In the 1480s, Botticelli, inspired by the
Forster (p. 135) focus on the uniqueness of the portrait as a imagery of Laurana, executed several drawings of Minerva
fusion of a commemorative line of ancestral images with a Pacifica in the Uffizi Gallery as a preparatory studies for the
notion of peaceful government. tapestry Minerva Pacifica for Comte Guy de Baudreuil, (1491,
For Duke Alessandro's seated position, Vasari obviously Favelles, France, Collection Vicomte de Baudreuil). Botticelli
recalls Michelangelo's statue Ghtliano de Medici (1534), in the further expanded this subject in the 1480s with a painting,
sacristy of San Lorenzo. However, according to Richard Trexler Minerva and the Centaur, for the Medici family, now at the
(pp. 109-111), Michelangelo's statue holding the bastone del Uffizi Gallery. Between the two columns, a tree with the encir-
dominio (here symbolizing decorum of sovereignty) should be cled vine refers to Alciati's Emblem 1 16, Prudentes vino absti-
 PEACE 705

nent (Those who

indulge in wine do not possess prudence). Americans. This was the calumet, or peace pipe, which was
With the crown on the tree, Vasari honors the duke with
laurel made from a reed decorated with eagles' quills or women's hair.
virtu for his fortitude and prudent political hehavior. About two and with a bowl made of catlinite
a half feet long,

The last significant emblem or hieroglyph to be deciphered or red pipestone, itwas smoked on ceremonial occasions, espe-
is the depiction of the flaming helmet. Obviously, Vasari visu- cially during the making of treaties of peace. Benjamin West's
ally quotes Alciati's Emblem 178, Ex bello pax (Peace from William Venn's Treaty with the Indians (1772) depicts Penn,
war). The painter has replaced Alciati's blood-covered helmet the founder of the colony of Pennsylvania, concluding a treaty
with a helmet on fire, alluding to the burning of the arms, a with the Lenape shortly after his arrival in 1682. The Quakers,
symbol of peace. The helmet clearly alludes to Duke in their sober black costume, contrast with the seminaked
Alessandro as a peace-giving Mars because a glyph of Mars, forms of the Native Americans, some wearing feather head-
Roman god of war, is incised in the helmet (unnoticed before). dressesand decorated robes. Prominent in the composition is
Cox-Rearick has observed that commemorative medal by
a the sheaf of arrowsthrown down on the ground in the center
Francesco del Prato (1534) portraying the duke as peacemaker foreground as the Lenape examine a roll of cloth offered to
contains the inscription "Fundator quietis" (Founder of Peace), them by Penn. The Native American in a central position is
and a glyph for Mars derives from Vasari's painting. Originally, holding his peace pipe. West, writing about the painting,
the frame of the painting (now lost) contained the inscription explained his motivation:
"Fundator quietis." All these attributes reinforce the symbol-
The great object I had in forming that composition was
ism of peace in the painting. Thus, this painting is a pictorial
to express savages brought into harmony and peace by
emblem, with an inscription, the Latin inscription originally
justice and benevolence, by not withholding from them
painted on the frame; a pictura, or painting; and a subscription,
what was their reight [sic], and giving what they were in
Vasari's letter to Ottavio de' Medici explaining the meaning of
want of, as well as a wish to give by that art a conquest
the images in the painting.
made over native people without sward [sic] or Dagder
Clare Robertson's study "Annibale Caro as Iconographer:
[sic]. (Von Erffa and Staley, p. 207)
Sources and Method" also informs us that Vasari acquired his
knowledge of iconography and emblems through his study of In another painting contrasting the two cultures, West paint-
the works of Caro. In his history of Italian Renaissance artists ed a seated English officer wearing a red coat and holding an
(1550), Vasari praises Caro, poet and translator of classical lit- upright musket but also wearing Indian moccasins and an
erature and secretary to Cardinal Farnese, for his clever and Indian cloak. The Native American standing behind him holds
creative invenziones. Caro, in turn, considered Alciati's and a peace pipe in a position parallel to the musket as he points to
Cartari's books iconographic manuals and praised them for a Native American encampment by a waterfall. The identity of
their significance. Furthermore, Julian Kliemann, in "II the sitters, as well as the date of the painting, is disputed, but
Pensiero di Paolo Giovio nelle pitture eseguite sulle inven- again West depicts a certain accommodation arrived at between
zioni," has brilliantly demonstrated the influence of Giovio's these men of two cultures. However, as the Native American
writings, such as Gli Elogi and Dialogbi, in Vasari's Roman gestures toward the peaceful scene and the pipe to indicate his
decorative cycles. Thus, the painter's manner of composing intentions, the Englishman firmly grasps the musket.
images for a program as a compendium of visual iconography American painters also looked to the Bible for their symbols
parallels and derives from the literary practices of Alciati, of peace. Edward Hicks's Peaceable Kingdom (183 5-1 83 8), of
Cartari, Francesco Colonna, Giovio, and Valeriano. Obviously, which there are many versions (one in the Brooklyn Museum in
Giorgio Vasari has been influenced by them. New York), illustrates Isaiah's prophecy of a peaceful world:
In addition, Giovio's Dialogo delle imprese militare et "The wolf shall dwell with the lamb, and the leopard shall lie
amorose (1555), Vasari's prefaces to his history, and later down with the kid; and the calf and the young lion and the
Ripa's Iconologia (1603) concur that the image should provide fatling together; and a little child shall lead them" (Isaiah 1 1 :6).
visual interest by showing beautiful elements, that its motto Hicks evoked the new Eden to be found in the natural abun-
should be brief (two or three words or a line of verse), and that dance of the United States, if only the example of the innocent
its meaning should be suggestively incomplete to intrigue or child and belief in the Gospels would prevail.
tease the viewer — in sum, a mannerist conceit. J. M. W Turner's Peace —Burial at Sea (1842) in the Tate
Renaissance and Baroque paintings also incorporated the Gallery in London, a memorial painting to his friend the artist
Christian iconography of the representation of the dove as a David Wilkie, suggested another meaning of peace. Wilkie died
symbol of peace as well as the symbol of the third person of the on board the ship Oriental as he was returning from the Middle
Trinity, the Holy Spirit, as noted in scenes of the baptism of East and was buried at sea off the coast of Gibraltar. The fune-
Christ (Matthew 3:16), the Trinity (Masaccio's Trinity, 1427, in real aspect of the event is echoed in the black sails of the ship and
the Sta. Maria Novella in Florence), and the Annunciation the black bird in the foreground. Wilkie had achieved final peace.
(Hubert van Eyck, Annunciation, circa 142.5, in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York). The dove as a sym-
bol of divine inspiration and spiritual well-being relates to the See also Abundance; Virtue/Virtues
seven gifts of the Holy Spirit (wisdom, understanding, counsel,
fortitude, knowledge, piety, and fear of the Lord). In cemeteries,
stelae or grave markers sometimes represent the dove as a sym-
Selected Works of Art
bol of the spirit or soul of the deceased resting in peace.
In the United States in the eighteenth century, a new symbol Emblems
of peace grew out of the relations between settlers and Native Alciati, Andrea, Peace, emblem, woodcut, 1
546
706 ri M i

\Ui.hi. Vndrea, Prudentes vino abstinent, emblem, woodcut, Campbell, J. Malcolm, "II Ritratto del Duca Alessandro de'

[546 Medici," in Giorgio Vasari: Tra decorazione ambientale e

Borghesi, Antonio, Idem et alter, impresa, woodcut, sixteenth storiografia artistica, Florence, Italy: Leo S. Olschki, 1981
century Cam, Annibale, Lettere Familiari, Florence, Italy: Leo S.

Giovio, Paolo, impresa, woodcut, 1550 Olschki, 1957

Marliano, Luigi, Plus ultra, impresa, woodcut, sixteenth century Cartari, Vincenzo, Imagini delli dei degl' Antichi, Venice,
Ripa, Cesare, Peace, emblem, from Iconologia, 1603 Italy: 1557

Cheney, Liana De Girolami, "Giorgio Vasari's Chamber of

Paintings ami Drawings Abraham: A Religious Ceiling in the Aretine House,"
I yck, Hubert van, Annunciation, circa 1425, New York, Sixteenth Century Journal (Fall 1987)
Metropolitan Museum of Art Colonna, Francesco, Hypnertomachia Poiiphili, Venice, Italy:

Masaccio, Trinity, 1427, Florence, Italy, Sta. Maria Novella 1499

Botticelli,Minerva Pacifica, drawing, 1480s, Florence, Italy, Corti, Laura, et al., Principi, letterati e artisti nelle carte di
Gabinetto dei Disegni
Uffizi Gallery, Giorgio Vasari, Florence, Italy: Edam, 1982
Vasari, Giorgio, Peace, fresco, 1548, Arezzo, Italy, Casa Vasari Cox-Rearick, Janet, Dynasty and Destiny in Medici Art,
Vasari, Giorgio, Peace Bearing an Olive Branch, drawing, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, T984
1545, Vienna, Austria, Graphische Sammlung Albertina Del Vita, Alessandro, Lo Zibaldone di Giorgio Vasari, Rome:
(Inv. 462) 1938
Vasari, Giorgio, Portrait of Alessandro de' Medici, panel, Forster,Kurt W, "Metaphors of Rule: Political Ideology
1534, Florence, Italy, Museo Mediceo and History in the Portraits of Cosimo I de' Medici,"
Vaga, Perino del, Peace, drawing, first half of sixteenth Mttteilungen des Kunsthistorischen Institutes in Florenz
century, Vienna, Austria, Graphische Sammlung Albertina 15 (i97i)
Guercino, Peace, fresco, 1627, Modena, Italy, private collection Hawthorne, Gerald E, "Peace," in The Oxford Companion to
West, Benjamin, Sir William Johnson, oil on canvas, the Bible, edited by Bruce M. Metzger and Michael D.
1 767-1 770, Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art Coogan, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press,
West, Benjamin, William Penn's Treaty with the Indians, oil 1993
on canvas, 1772, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Academy of Horapollo, Hierogliphica, 1505
Fine Arts Katzenellenbogen, Adolf, Allegories of the Virtues and Vices,
Hicks, Edward, Peaceable Kingdom, oil painting, 1835-1838, London: Warburg Institute, 1939; New York: Harper, 1962
New York, Brooklyn Museum Langedijk, Karla, De Portretten van de Medici tot omstreeks
Vigee-Lebrun, Marie-Louise-Elisabeth, Peace Leading 1600, Amsterdam: Van Corcum, 1968
Abundance, before 1842, Paris, Louvre Larkin, Oliver, Art and Life in America, New York: Holt,
Turner, J. M. W., Peace — Burial at Sea, oil on canvas, 1842, Rinehart and Winston, i960
London, Tate Gallery Male, Emile, L'art religieux de la fin du Moyen Age en
France, Paris, 1949
Sculpture Monbeig-Goguel, C, "Giorgio Vasari et son temps," Revue
Sansovino, Jacopo, Peace, sculpture, 1540s, Venice, Italy, de Part XIV (1971)
Loggetta Iconography of the Virtues
O'Reilly, Jennifer, Studies in the
and New York: Garland, 1988
Vices in the Middle Ages,
Graphic Arts Ripa, Cesare, Iconologia, 1603, 1611
Picasso, Pablo, Dove, lithograph, 1949, Paris Robertson, Clare, "Annibale Caro as Iconographer: Sources
Picasso, Pablo, Peace Dove, poster, 1949 and Method," Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld
Picasso, Pablo, Dove in Flight IV, poster, 1950 Institutes 45 (1982)
Russell, Daniel, "Emblems and Hieroglyphics: Some
Metalwork Observations on the Beginnings and the Nature of
Laurana, Francesco, Minerva Pacifica, medal, 1465, Florence,
Emblematic Forms," Emblematica II (1986)
Italy, Bargello
Scorza, R. A., "Vincenzo Borgini and Invenzione: The
Florentine Apparato of 1565," Journal of the Warburg
Tapestry
and Courtauld Institutes 44 (1981)
Minerva Pacifica, tapestry, r 49 , Favelles, France, Collection
1
Sebastian, Santiago, Alciato Emblemas, Madrid, Spain:
Vicomte de Baudreuil
Akal/Arte y Estetica, 1993
Trexler, R. C, "Two Captains and Three Kings," Studies in
Medieval and Renaissance History 4 (1981)
Further Reading
De sacris Aegyptorum,
Valeriano, Piero, Hieroglyphica sive
Alciati, Andrea, Emblcmatuni libellus cum commentariis, Lyon, France: 1521
1531
Paris: Von Erffa, Helmut, and Allen Staley, The Paintings of
Berger, John, The Success and Failure of Picasso, New York: Benjamin West, New Haven, Connecticut, and London:
Pantheon, 1980 Yale University Press, 1986
Biedermann, Hans, Dictionary of Symbols, translated by James Wittkower, Rudolf, Allegory and the Migration of Symbols,
Hulbert, New York and London: Thames and Hudson, 1994 London and New York: Thames and Hudson, 1977
 1/

PEASANTRY
Margaret A. Sullivan

The following periods are covered in the discussion of the theme Peasantry:

ANCIENT SEVENTEENTH CENTURY

MEDIEVAL NINETEENTH CENTURY
RENAISSANCE TWENTIETH CENTURY

707
708 PEASANTRY

?
 PEASANTRY 709

Jean-Francois Millet, The Sower, circa

1850, oil on canvas, Boston, Museum of
Fine Arts, Gift of Quincy Adams Shaw
through Quincy A. Shaw and Mrs. Jr.

Marian Shaw Haughton. (Courtesy of the

Museum of Fine Arts, Boston)

he peasantry, as represented in art, has traditionally served During those fortunate times when peasants had energy and
m. the interests of classes other than their own. The attitudes resources over and above the minimum required for survival,
and anxieties of the prosperous and powerful determine how they tended to focus their artistic efforts on the decoration of
they are depicted, and the peasants' own response to the harsh, theirhomes, tools, and utensils, and on the elaboration of cos-
often inhuman realities of their lives is rarely in evidence. tumes to be worn on special holiday celebrations. On those rare
Industrious and peaceful, they swing their sickles in reliefs on occasions when peasants depicted themselves, as in the stylized
the walls of Egyptian tombs, as in the Eighteenth Dynasty and colorful Rainbow over a Miao Village (circa 1980s), a
(1570-circa 1342 B.C.) mortuary chapel of Nakht in Thebes, painting by Ou Dehua (Miao), a member of China's Jinshan
Egypt; decorate the August page of Queen Mary's Psalter in the Peasant Painting Society, a power relationship still dominates
fifteenth century; and cut golden grain in Vincent van Gogh's the representation. The painting was created at the instigation
Reaper (1889, after Jean-Francois Millet). However, the har- of others, in a government program, under government super-
vest song "The Peasant Speaks," sung by Sicilian peasants and vision, and in terms of governmental goals. The 30-year-old
recorded in 1876, tells a different story. To the rhythmic swing effort to develop peasant art was considered successful when
of their sickles the peasants sang a vicious litany that called for traditional skills such as embroidery and paper cutting were
all landlords to be burned, lightning to strike all priests, incorporated into art acceptable to other classes. "Hands, more
"punches and kicks" to rain on the artisans, and hanging for all accustomed to the pick and the hoe and to needle and thread,
policemen. This violent and vindictive song, hostile toward all were at a loss with the brush and the palette," according to the
classes, is consistent with the long and bloody history of peas- publication of the China Social, Culture Editing and Publishing
ant rebellions from the great Peasant War of 1525 to the upris- Committee, "but after a short period of practice and patient
ing of the Mexican peasants in the twentieth century. coaching, real peasant painting flourished" (p. 14).

Expressed in a visual medium, the viewpoint of real peas-

ants who perform such backbreaking labor might bear little
Defining the Peasantry
resemblance to the ways in which the peasantry are tradition-
ally represented. The "Potemkinization" of Russian peasants in The term peasantry, as used here, refers to representations of
a Stalinist movie such as Traktoristy (Tractor-Drivers) is at nameless and obscure persons who occupy a subordinate place
odds with the actual response of the peasants to the collec- in the social hierarchy and earn their livelihood by working the
tivization of Soviet agriculture in the 1930s. The fictionalized land. It encompasses the figural (anonymous human beings),
and idealized representation of the Irish peasant in the work of situational (rural rather than urban settings), occupational
William Butler Yeats and John M. Synge justifies the title of (agriculture rather than trade or manufacturing), and hierar-
Deborah Fleming's study, A Man Who Does Not Exist (1995). chical (whether implicit or explicit, the subordinate place of the
The more privileged in a society create, and consume, art in peasantry in society is a significant factor in the way they are
which peasants are the subject. Occupation distances artists represented). The urban proletariat are excluded, although the
even when their roots are in peasant culture. Jean-Francois distinction between the two groups can be ambiguous, as in
Millet, a leading painter of the peasantry in the nineteenth cen- some seventeenth-century Flemish tavern scenes. Adriaen van
tury, was born into a peasant family in the Normandy region of Ostade's painting of 1652 is known as Villagers Merrymaking
France, but he was influenced by art and literature the Bible, — at an Inn, although a near-contemporary described it as "peas-
Virgil, the High Renaissance, and memories of "old Bruegel" ant-like." In the twentieth century the rural peasant and the
when he produced paintings such as The Gleaners (1857), The urban worker are often linked, as in Vera Mukhina's The
Grafter (1855), and The Angelus (1857-1859). Millet read Worker and the Collective Farm Girl (1937), a gigantic sculp-
Latin, drew casts after antique sculpture as part of his training, ture placed on top of the stepped art deco tower of the Soviet
cultivated his contacts with other artists and professionals, and pavilion for the 1937 Paris World Exhibition.
was responsive to the demands of the market, all of which
helped him to promote the myth of "peasant Millet."
The Working Peasant
Art with the peasantry as the subject has traditionally been
purchased by the aristocracy and the upper and middle classes, Although manipulated to serve radically different ends from the
city dwellers more often than country people, those who govern most conservative to the most revolutionary, representations of
or earn their living in the trades or professions. Millet's cycle the working peasant are remarkably stable in their imagery.
The Four Seasons (circa 1 866-1 873), for instance, was painted —
Hand tools and work animals the spade, scythe, hoe, sickle,
for a wealthy industrialist who was one of Millet's chief patrons. —
and horse-drawn plow rather than the tractor or mechanized
7IO PEASANTRY

reaper, identify the working peasant. The implements used by a well-to-do audience removed from actual peasant life. In
the peasant in van Qogh's drawing Reaper with Sickle (1885) Egyptian art the context is religious and funerary, with the

arc no different than those in Simon Bening's Book of Hours activities of the peasants organized in registers, an orderly and

(August or September^ circa 1540). Even in an era when agri- traditional arrangement, one repeated in tomb after tomb, cen-
culture is mechanized, the peasant continues to be shown in art tury after century, with little variation. Peasants harvest and
using tools that require strength rather than intelligence. thresh grain, milk cows, plow the fields, tend livestock, mill
Typically, working peasants are depicted in simple, utilitari- corn, and slaughter animals in reliefs in the mastabas of Ti in
an clothes usual 1\ ol a ncutial coloi urn 11 I heophile < .am in- Saqqara, Egypt (Fifth Dynasty, 2225-2134 B.C.). In tomb effi-
said of Millet's peasants that they were painted in the colors of gies peasants continue to occupy a fixed and subordinate role

the earth they tilled. They are usually in hare feet or wear crude in relation to other classes, supplying the needs of the deceased
shoes, a head covering for the women, and short, unkempt hair as they did in life.

for themen. The everyday garb of the peasants in Millet's In Greek art the working peasant has a decorative function

drawing Peasant Family (before 1875) differs little from that in houses, palaces, and bathing establishments. In the relief
worn by the peasant woman going to market in Albrecht Peasant Driving a Cow (first century B.C.), the peasant brings
Diirer's drawing of Maximilian II for the Book of Hours (
1 514) his cow to market, stooping under his load, a hare hanging
or that worn by the peasants in N. M. Kochergin's poster The from a pole over his shoulder, a basket of fruit in his right hand.

Firstof May 920). Three central figures make up Kochergin's

( 1
Hellenistic sculpture, such as the Statue of an Old Peasant
poster: a peasant woman, sickle in hand, wearing a kerchief, Woman (circa second century B.C.), was suited to the tastes of
her head thrown proudly back as she marches with her two a sophisticated clientele for whom the peasant was slightly
male compatriots, one carrying and the other a spade.
a scythe exotic. The old peasant woman wears a sleeveless belted chi-
The immobility of peasant fashion contrasts with the changing ton, a kerchief on her head, and carries to market a wicker bas-
fashions of the more privileged. When variety in peasant dress ket filled with fruit, vegetables, and three chickens.
appears early in the nineteenth century, most evident in the
it is In medieval art, the context is religious, with the working
clothes worn for leisure rather than In costume books
work. peasant included in seasonal series, especially in cycles of occu-
such as A Pictorial History of Costume (W. Bruhn and M. pations appropriate for the month. Peasants at their tasks
Tilke), little diversity can be seen in peasant costumes before appear in books and manuscripts for the wealthy, as in an
r8oo. After that date there are numerous regional variations eleventh-century manuscript, now in the British Museum in
and elaborate holiday costumes that for the most part were London, that includes peasants plowing and sowing in a calen-
handed down from generation to generation. As French histo- dar illustrated by an occupation for each month. The portals of
rian Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie has demonstrated, far from many churches built during this period are decorated with
being ancient and rootedin the peasant past, many peasant cos- carved calendars. At Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, a reaper
tumes recorded in nineteenth-century prints and paintings were whets his scythe for the month of July, and for December, in
of recent origin. preparation for the feasts of the Christmas season, the peasants
The physiognomy of the peasantry tends to reflect the view, kill pigs and slaughter beef. Placed below an appropriate sign
common among their social superiors, that peasants are closer of the zodiac, these small carved vignettes are emblems of the
to animals than to other people. Although in periods when the eternal peasants' bent to their never-ending tasks. Increased
peasant is viewed with sympathy, the bestial may be minimized urbanization in the fourteenth century broadened the context
so that body type and physiognomy more closely resemble in Italy to include the secular and political. Ambrogio
depictions of the upper classes. Faces and figures are romanti- Lorenzetti's fresco Good Government in the Countryside (circa
cized and idealized Louis Leopold Robert's Arrival of the
in 1338) in the Palazzo Pubblico in Siena, Italy, shows peasants
Harvesters in the Pontine Marshes (1830), in which the peas- plowing with oxen, flailing grain, taking a pig to market, and
ants look much like the heroes and heroines in history paint- tending the vineyards.
ings. In the sixteenth century, on the other hand, the distance
between classes was more emphasized. The grotesque old man
The Peasant at Leisure
and woman in the woodcut Rustic Couple (152.6) by Christoph
Amberger are exaggerated. In art the peasant represents a type Representations of peasants resting or celebrating their holi-
rather than an individual, and their features are often general- days with dancing and feasting appear more sporadically;
ized, as in The Winnower (circa 1847), or Diego
Millet's exhibit greater variation in settings, costumes, and activities;
Rivera's mural Mexican Peasant with Sombrero and Serape and in general have negative connotations. Snoring on their
(1923) in the Court of Labor in Mexico City, Mexico. Even backs or dancing wildly, engaged in their pastimes and merry-
when the peasant is portrayed with more specificity, as in van making, corpulent and overfed, with grotesque features, their
Gogh's many peasant portraits such as his Head of a Peasant farm implements laid aside or wielded as weapons, peasants are
Woman in a Day Cap (1885), the title remains general and the a problematic image, arousing laughter, fear, and occasionally
peasant unnamed. envy. Representations of the peasant at leisure reached the
Until modern working peasants appeared most fre-
times, height of their popularity in the sixteenth and seventeenth cen-
quently in cycles of the months, seasons, or estates where their turies, then declined in importance in the modern era. The lazy
supporting role in a stratified society was made clear by the peasant began to appear in the thirteenth century, a period of
context, or their labors served to decorate objects intended for increased open revolts. An early example of the bad or lazy
 PEASANTRY 7 I I

peasant occurs in an English bestiary (circa 1200), in which tleman or lady. Frhard Schoen's woodcut Peasant Wedding
wolves are about to attack sheep untended by a sleeping
left Feast (circa 1527) is example of these peasant satires,
a typical
shepherd. The lazy peasant is contrasted with the hardworking one that is divided between two of its most popular settings: the
peasant in the Somme le roi (12.79), a treatise on sin and virtue peasant dance and the peasant wedding banquet. On the left,
that reflects the viewpoint of both the clergy and royalty (it was inside the hut, the peasants are seated around the bride, eating
written by a Dominican for the king of France Philip III. and drinking, their gluttony indicated by one man defecating on
Paresse (Laziness) is illustrated by a sleeping peasant who has the floor and the dog lapping the vomit of another guest. On the
abandoned his plow and horses,and contrasted with Labeur right, the peasants dance, one man raising his arm in a familiar,

(Labor), represented by a man sowing corn. In the print The open-handed gesture while another man fondles his partner's
Good and the Bad Peasant (second half of the sixteenth centu- bottom. There is nothing subtle about the satire.
ry) by Maarten de Vos, a peasant in tattered clothes lies half- By the middle of the sixteenth century the status of the peas-
asleep on the ground, his decrepit dwelling and a gallows ant at leisure is elevated artistically, if not morally. Peasants'
behind him, receiving what he "deserves" —a cudgel and whip festivities become the focus in large, expensive panel paintings,
from a winged, allegorical figure in the center — while the hard- such as Pieter Aertsen's Peasant Company (1556), filled with
working peasant, spade in hand, looks up from his work and is visual references to emblem books, ancient proverbs, and other
rewarded with a crown, scepter, and open book. In Maerten literature favored by educated, urban audiences. The jokes are
van Heemskerck's prints of the Three Estates (circa 1560) the wittier, with less obscenity, "the ugly" is painted beautifully,
peasants are shown at their labors, and the text says they must and the paintings compare with ancient art. Pieter Bruegel the
plow, build, dig, reap, and "shun leisure and not tamper with Elder, who became renowned as a painter of peasants, contin-
the duties and functions of either king or clergy." Class lines are ued to use many of the traditional settings, as in the print Fair
clearly drawn. on St. George's Day (circa 1562) or his Peasant Dance (circa
Already a source of humor — as in the February page of the 1566) in Vienna, Austria. These works are innovative in their
Tres Riches Heures du Due de
Berry (before 141 5) in which the complexity and artistry, and like Aertsen he extends the range
peasants expose themselves in an unseemly way as they warm of peasant subject matter, crossing class boundaries in an
by the fire — by 1500 negative images of peasants are ubiqui- unprecedented way. In his Peasant Wedding Banquet (circa
tous on playing cards, decorating tapestries, in the Shrovetide 1566) a friar, and a scholar share the peasant
a gentleman,
plays, and as book illustrations, sculptures, and prints. As the feast; in his grisaille Farm (known from copies)
Visit to the

butt of coarse jokes, peasant was used as a synonym for fool, well-dressed people dispense charity to a peasant family. The
and peasants were derided for their stupidity, gluttony, boorish lazy peasant is joined by an equally somnambulant scholar and
manners, blasphemy, lust, violent nature, and envy of their bet- soldier in the Land of Cockaigne (1567); his portraitlike Head
ters. The popularity of peasant satires was a response by the of a Yawning Peasant (circa 1566) was related to the physiog-
middle and upper classes to the strains of rapid urbanization, nomic and moralistic interests of his audience; the full range of
the rising peasant discontents that culminated in the great peasant life — leisure as well as labor — is included in his sea-

Peasant War of 1525, the upheavals of the Reformation, and sonal paintings. In The Harvesters 1565) some peasants
(circa
increased familiarity with ancient literature. The nineteenth reap grain and pick fruit while others eat their noonday meal,
century favored the Virgilian tradition — idyllic peasant imagery one peasant sleeping sprawled at the foot of a tree.

in the tradition of Virgil's Georgics (circa 35-29 B.C.) —but the The inclusion of people from other classes in renderings of
Renaissance preferred the rustiens (rustic) of the satires, peasantry, an innovation during this period, has a curiously cir-
Horace's stupid bumpkin waiting for the river to run out cumscribed history. Unless outsiders have a punitive role, they
(Epistles, I. ii. and associated the peasant with the wood-
42), are rare in representations of the working peasant. Overseers
land satyrs, the lusty, violent, and uncivilized goat-footed crea- watch the peasants in Egyptian reliefs, an armed and uniformed
tures of the ancient world. man monitors women and children gathering the last grains of
Peasant satires were a mechanism for maintaining social wheat in Jules Breton's The Gleaners (1854), and men with
boundaries without any direct influence on the peasantry: the whips supervise peasants in ragged clothes in Rivera's mural
peasants were the subject, not the audience. The emphasis on Harvesting Sugar Cane (circa 1930). There is little visual evi-
social stratification was reassuring, both to the nobility at a time dence to suggest that those who enjoy regarding peasants at
when they felt their power being undermined, and to the new work wish to share their labors, or even their space. In the illu-
and upwardly mobile urban audience anxious to differentiate mination for the October page of the Tres Riches Heures du
themselves from the lower classes. Wittenwiler, in his peasant Due de Berry, the classes are separate. Peasants plow and sow-
satire Ring, advises the reader who wishes to become courtly in the foreground, while the city dwellers in the middle distance
and elegant to keep the peasants in mind, and whatever the take their ease on the other side of the River Seine, close to the
peasants do in their boorish way, do exactly the opposite. wall of the Louvre palace. David Teniers the Younger and oth-
Shown drinking and dancing, indulging their lust in public, ers continued to elaborate the interaction between the classes in
duped by quack doctors, and fighting each other with sword the seventeenth century. In Teniers's Kermess Before the Half
and flail in Hans Sebald Beham's Great Country Fair (1539), or Moon Inn (1641) burghers and peasants mix one male peas- —
dancing wildly with arms high and feet kicking in Diirer's ant tries to pull a well-dressed female visitor to her feet to join
engraving Peasant Couple Dancing (1514), the behavior of the the peasant dance — but such images are rare outside the six-

peasant was the opposite of that appropriate for an urbane gen- teenth and seventeenth centuries.
-II I'l \s-\NTRY

In the seventeenth century the Flemish and Dutch bour- These peasants are not working, but they invite respect rather

geoisie preferred images ot peasant festivities rather than peas- than laughter.
ants at work. Scenes ol plowing and sowing became almost The paintings of the Le Nains were exhibited in Paris in

nonexistent, although the peasant continued to arouse conde- 1850, attracting great and many nineteenth-century
interest,

scending laughter and serve as an object lesson. David works exhibit the same positive view of the peasantry. Each of
Vinckeboons's Peasant Kermis (1629) follows the conventional the five panels in Frederic Leon's The Stages of a Peasant's Life

schema for a multifigured painting of peasant festivities: an inn ( 885-1887), is devoted to a different stage, from youth to old
1

prominent in a foreground; clusters of revelers gathered to eat,
drink, dance, and fight; a church in the background; and glut-
ton) emphasized by details such as the family of pigs in the dis-
tance.An engraving after the painting calls these peasants
"minions of Bacchus" who indulge themselves while health and
money ebb away. Both the ancient reference and the didactic
message suggest that these images, like their predecessors, are
age, children to parents and grandparents, with the peasants
placed frontally in somewhat awkward poses as though they
had sat for a provincial group photograph. The series recalls
the paintings of the Le Nains as well as the medieval and
Renaissance cyclical conception of peasant life; the peasant
again serves as an image of the eternal, never-ending cycles of
human life.

meant to educate as well as amuse.

Conventional settings continued to be used as others were
The Cult of the Peasant
added, including indoor settings such as the tavern and the
barn. Adriaen van Ostade's Villagers Merrymaking at an Inn The rise of positive peasant imagery in the nineteenth century
(1652) and Adriaen Brouwer's Peasants Playing Cards in a is coincident with the modernization of European life, and the
Tavern (circa 1631) are typical, and such settings, unlike the "cult of the peasant" is, in many ways, a response to the dislo-
peasant fair, underline the distance between the classes because cations caused by the Industrial Revolution and the rapidly
these are places in which the urban, middle-class public would changing conditions of city and country life. The consumers of
be reluctant to set foot. The theme of the peasant brawl is elab- art continued to be members of the middle and upper classes,
orated, with peasants fighting soldiers instead of the tradition- purchasing art to decorate their homes, but their preference
al peasant versus peasant melee, as in Vinckeboons's shifted from satires that denigrated the peasantry to art that
Boerenverdriet (before 1632, The Peasants' Grief) in which idealized peasant life.

richly dressed soldiers and their camp followers harass the Happy peasants in picturesque costumes celebrate their hol-
peasants. In the companion painting, Boerenureugd (before idays with grace and decorum in Robert's Return from the
1635, The Peasants' Joy), the unwilling hosts send the soldiers Pilgrimage to the Madonna dell'Arco Near Naples at
flying. Whitsuntide (1827). A madonnalike peasant woman rides a
In Italy during the latter part of the sixteenth century, the donkey, holds a garlanded child, and is surrounded by dancing
Bassani —Jacopo dal Ponte (known as "Bassano") and his peasants in William Bouguereau's Return from the Harvest
sons — satisfied the demand of the upper classes for decorative (1878). No longer stigmatized as lazy, the peasant enjoys well-
works by painting sober peasants at work, frequently in sea- deserved rest in Leon Lhermitte's The Noonday Rest During
sonal series. The more caustic and colorful northern point of the Harvest (1905) and Camille Pissarro's The Rest, Young
view was introduced early in the seventeenth century. Pieter van Peasant Woman Lying on the Grass (1882). These were popu-
der Laer, known as "II Bamboccio," went from Haarlem, The lar images, but the greatest enthusiasm was reserved for repre-
Netherlands, to Rome in 1625 and joined the Bentvueghels, an sentations of the peasant at work, for scenes of a contented
association of northern expatriate artists. With his small out- peasantry laboring in pleasant, expansive fields, accepting their
door scenes of peasants intent on some game or on their work, lot and intent on their tasks.
his name became synonymous with paintings of shepherds, The peasants carrying out their labors with quiet devotion
peasants, and other "low life." The humorous and grotesque embodied the conservative moral values championed by the
art of the hambocciate appealed to wealthy patrons. "What bourgeoisie: work, family, religion, and patriotism. With raking
they abhor seeing alive," Salvator Rosa wrote, referring to this light and in sunny fields, as in Ferdinand Georg Waldmuller's
audience, "they like to see painted" (Briganti, p. 14). The Harvest (1846), these often nostalgic images offered sta-
In France, during the same period, the paintings of the bility in a period of instability, reassurance in a period of rapid
brothers Le Nain (Antoine, Louis, and Matheiu) foreshadowed change. In Giovanni Segantini's Ploughing in the Engadine
a shift to the more positive view of the peasantry that prevailed (1888) and Rosa Bonheur's Ploughing Scene (1854), horse,
in the nineteenth century. The resting peasant is not criticized peasant, and landscape are a seamless whole, a harmonious,
in Louis Le Nain's La charrette (1641) in which a reserved interconnected, and eternal universe. For Millet, the peasant at
peasant woman sits in front of a cart and holds her sleeping his labors was a symbol of humankind's endless struggle with
some with folded hands,
child while other children pose quietly, existence. Millet's The Sower (circa 1850), portrays a solitary
creating a peaceful, classically balanced composition. The figure silhouetted against the sky who scatters seed with a ges-
respite from work in the Le Nains' Le Repas des paysans ture unchanged since it was depicted on the walls of Egyptian
1 1642) is celebrated quietly, with simple food. Peasants drink tombs.
wine, but there is no sign of excess. A young boy holds a violin Gustave Courbet, more politically motivated, preferred
rather than a bagpipe, which has traditional sexual connota- peasant mediocrity over urban change and innovation, and in
tions, and another man folds his hands in a prayerful gesture. paintings such as Peasants of Flagey Returning from the Fair
 PEASANTRY 713

and Burial at Ornans (both 1850) the peasantry are cast in the unreal. PaulGauguin treated the peasants of Brittany as an
role of guardians of traditional values. Van Gogh shared with exotic, primitive people in his paintingThe Vision After the
Millet a conservative, somewhat nostalgic preference for the Sermon (1888), and Marc Chagall creates a poetic dream in The
traditional countryside: "To feel what has always been and Peasant's Life (1925). Representations of the peasant at rest, as

what always wrote van Gogh about being with peas-

will be," in Ernst Barlach's sculpture Two Sleeping Peasants (191 2), or
ants in the countryside (van Tilborgh, p. 18). In van Gogh's enjoying a meal, as in Arkadi Plastov's painting Collective Farm
copies after the paintings of Millet, such as Men Digging Festival (1937) in which the portrait of Stalin presides over a
(1889) or The Sower (1888), the colors are brighter, but the decorous and abundant peasant feast, continued to have the
peasants remain monumental in their gravity, evoking religious same positive connotations they had in the nineteenth century.
prayer rather than political action. Even Pissarro, an avowed It is working peasant that underwent the great-
the image of the
anarchist, did not call for rebellion in his paintings of the peas- est change. When the working peasant —
with his scythe, sickle,
antry.The hardships of peasant life are excluded from Apple or spade is —
adopted by the revolutionary movements in
Picking at Eragny r888). The painting is an optimistic expres-
(
Russia, Mexico, and China, this once reassuring symbol of a
sion of Pissarro's hope for an agro-industrial state in which stable society, well-loved by the upper classes, becomes a unify-
everyone would joyfully share in the labors of agriculture. ing symbol for those who oppose them.
A call for radical action is not characteristic of the period,
but toward the end of the nineteenth century, there are signs of
change. The conventional attributes remain, the plain clothes
See also Harvesting; Labor/Trades/Occupations;
and hand tools, but their function and they serve
is different
Shepherds/Shepherdesses
different ends. In Felicien Rops's etching he Semeur des
Parabola (before 1898), an emaciated farmer sows seeds on
rocky, unpromising soil, laboring with little promise of reward.
In Leon Lhermitte's The Harvester's Wages (1882), the farm is
Selected Works of Art
prosperous, but the laborer, his fatigue evident as he slumps on
a bale of hay in the barnyard, receives a pittance from the pro- Ancient
prietor. The title of Angelo Morbelli's painting of five peasant Mastabas of Ti, Fifth Dynasty, Old Kingdom, Saqqara, Egypt
women bent double as they plant the field, For Eighty Centimes Mortuary chapel of Nakht, Eighteenth Dynasty, Thebes,
(1895), ca " s attention to a similar inequity. Theophile- Egypt
Alexandre Steinlen, two lithographic covers made for the
in Peasant Driving a Cow, Greek relief, first century B.C.,
journal Chatnade (1894), is even more explicit. In one litho- Munich, Germany, Glyptothek
—
graph a peasant family a father and a mother holding a baby Statue of an Old Peasant Woman, Hellenistic sculpture, circa
in her arms —
are yoked like animals to a plow, and their ago- second century B.C., New York, Metropolitan Museum
nizing struggle to pull the plow is overseen by a fat, compla- of Art
cent, cigar-smoking man. In the second print the father, who
has broken out of the yoke, grimly pounds the fat proprietor Medieval
into the ground. Occupation of the Months, medieval manuscript, eleventh
Even though it was a period when agricultural problems century, London, British Museum (MS. Cottonianus Julius

—
were far from being solved peasants made up more than half A.VI, no. 33)
of the French population yet had benefited least from the grow- Sleeping Peasant, illumination, circa 1200, Aberdeen,
ing prosperity at mid-century — nothing indicates these prob- Scotland, Aberdeen University Library (MS 24, fol. 16 v.)
lems in Jules Bastien-Lepage's etching Mower Sharpening His Paresse, Labeur, manuscript illuminations, from Somme le

Scythe (1878). He endows the peasant with nobility: the labor- roi, 1279, London, British Library (Add. 54180, Fol.
er and the expansive landscape are in harmony and the subject 1 2 1 v.

is dignified and suitable for an audience that wished to believe Lorenzetti, Ambrogio, Good Government in the Countryside,
in the stability of the social system. Kathe Kollwitz, in one of fresco, circa 1338, Siena, Italy, Palazzo Pubblico
seven etchings in her series Peasant's War (1905), takes the
same subject and turns it upside down. In a shadowy, unspeci- Renaissance
fied space a peasant woman hones her huge scythe, her face Queen Mary's Psalter, August page, first half of 1400s,
almost hidden, one eye glaring malevolently over its sharpened London, British Museum (MS. 2B VII, Fol. 78r.)
edge. The activity of honing the scythe, peaceful and reassuring Limbourg Brothers, Tres Riches Heures du Due de Berry,
in Bastien-Lepage's etching, becomes a symbol of intolerable before 141 5, Chantilly, France, Musee Conde
discontent in Kollwitz's print, an image of hatred about to Diirer, Albrecht, Maximilian 11, forBook of Hours, drawing,
explode into violence. The scythe is destined to cut down 1 5 14 (Fol. 51V)
human oppressors, not stalks of wheat, and the print recalls the Peasant Couple Dancing, engraving, [514
Diirer, Albrecht,
violent song of the Sicilian peasants rather than the images of Amberger, Christoph, Rustic Couple, woodcut, 1526
van Gogh or Millet. Schoen, Erhard, Peasant Wedding Feast, woodcut, circa
In the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, peasant 1527
festivities continued to satisfy the taste for the romanticized and Beham, Hans Sebald, Great Country Fair, woodcut, [539
7 14 IM ASANTRY

Bening, Simon, Book of Hours, August and September, circa Millet, Jean-Francois, The Winnower, painting, circa 1847,
i
S40, London, Victoria and Albert Museum (Satling MS. I ondon, National Gallery
2600) Millet, Jean-Francois, The Sower, painting, circa 1850,

Aiertsen, Pieter, /'cow/// Feast, painting, 1550, Vienna, Boston, Museum of Line Arts
Austria, Kunsthistorisch.es Museum Courbet, Gustave, Burial at Ornans, painting, 1850, Paris,
Aertsen, Pieter, Peasant Company, painting, 1 556, Antwerp, Louvre
Belgium, \hiseum Mayer van den Berg Courbet, Gustave, Peasants of Flagey Returning from the
I [eemskerck, Maerten van, Three 1 states, engraving, urea Pair, painting, 1850, Besancon, Erance, Musee des Beaux-

560, Paris, Bibliotheque de l'Arsenal

1 Arts
Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, Fair on St. George's Day, engraving, Bonheur, Rosa, Ploughing Scene, painting, 1854, Baltimore,
circa 1
562 Maryland, Walters Art Gallery
Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, The Harvesters, painting, circa Breton, Jules, The Gleaners, painting, 1854, Dublin, Ireland,

565, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art

1 National Gallery of Ireland
Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, Peasant Dance, painting, circa 1566, The Grafter, painting, 1855, Munich,
Millet, Jean-Francois,
Vienna, Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum Germany, Bayerische Staatsgemaldesammlungen, Neue
Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, Peasant Wedding Banquet, painting, Pinakothek
circa 1 566, Vienna, Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum Millet, Jean-Francois, The Gleaners, painting, 1857, Paris,
Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, Head of a Yawning Peasant, Musee d'Orsay
painting, circa 1566, Brussels, Belgium, Musee des Millet, Jean-Francois, The Angelns, painting, 1857-1859,
Beaux-Arts Paris, Louvre
Land of Cockaigne, painting, 1567,
Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, Millet, Jean-Francois, The Four Seasons, paintings, circa
Munich, Germany, Alte Pinakothek 1866-1873
Vos, Maarten de, The Good and the Bad Peasant, engraving, Millet, Jean-Francois, Peasant Family, drawing, before 1875,
second half of sixteenth century, Paris, Bibliotheque de Cardiff, National Museum of Wales
l'Arsenal Bouguereau, William, Return from the Harvest, painting,
Bassano, Jacopo, The Seasons, before 1592, Vienna, Austria, 1878, Paris, Louvre
Kunsthistorisches Museum Bastien-Lepage, Jules, Mower Sharpening His Scythe, etching,
1878, Chicago, Art Institute
Seventeenth Century Pissarro, Camille,The Rest, Young Peasant Woman Lying
Vinckeboons, David, Peasant Kermis, painting, 1629, The on the Grass, painting, 1882, Bremen, Germany,
Hague, The Netherlands, Mauritshuis Kunsthalle
Brouwer, Adriaen, Peasants Playing Cards in a Tavern, Lhermitte, Leon, The Harvester's Wages, painting, 1882,
painting, circa 163 1, Munich, Germany, Alte Pinakothek Aisne, France, Hotel de Ville, Musee de Chateau-Thierry
Vinckeboons, David, The Peasants' Grief (Boerenverdriet), Gogh, Vincent van, Head of a Peasant Woman in a Day Cap,
painting, before 1632, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1885, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Rijksmuseum
Rijksmuseum Gogh, Vincent van, Reaper with Sickle, drawing, 1885,
Vinckeboons, David, The Peasants' Joy (Boerenvreugd), Otterlo, The Netherlands, Rijksmuseum Kroller-Miiller
painting, before 1632, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Leon, Frederic, The Stages of a Peasant's Life, paintings,
Rijksmuseum 1 88 5-1 887, Brussels, Belgium, Musee Royaux des
Ostade, Adriaen van, Peasants Making Merry in a Tavern, Beaux-Arts
Munich, Germany, Alte Pinakothek
painting, circa 1635, Segantini, Giovanni, Ploughing in the Engadine, painting,
Teniers, David, the Younger, Kermess Before the Half Moon 1 887-1 890, Munich, Germany, Neue Pinakothek

Inn, painting, 1641, Dresden, Germany, Staatliche
Kunstsammlungen
Le Nain, Louis, La charrette, painting, 1641, Paris, Louvre
Le Nain, Louis, Le Repas des paysans, painting, 1642, Paris,
Louvre
Ostade, Adriaen van, Villagers Merrymaking at an Inn,
painting, 1652, Toledo, Spain, Museum
Nineteenth Century
Robert, Louis Leopold, Return from the Pilgrimage to the
Madonna dell'Arco Near Naples at Whitsuntide, painting,
1827, Pans, Louvre
Robert, Louis eopold. Arrival of the Harvesters in the
1 Morbelli, Angelo, For Eighty Centimes, painting, 1895,
Pontine Marshes, painting, 1830, Paris, Louvre
Waldmuller, Ferdinand Georg, The Harvest, painting, 1846,
private collection
Gauguin, Paul, The Vision After the Sermon, painting, 1888,
Edinburgh, National Gallery of Scotland
Pissarro, Camille, Apple Picking at Eragny, painting, 1888,
Dallas, Texas, Museum of Fine Arts
Gogh, Vincent van, The Sower, painting, 1888, Amsterdam,
The Netherlands, Rijksmuseum Vincent van Gogh
of Art Gogh, Vincent van, Men Digging, painting, 1889,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Stedelijk Museum
Gogh, Vincent van, Reaper, 1889, Amsterdam, The
Netherlands, Rijksmuseum Vincent van Gogh
Steinlen, Theophile-Alexandre, two lithograph covers for
Chamade, 1894
Vercelli, Italy, Civico Museo Antonio Borgogne
Rops, Felicien, Le Semenr des Parabola, etching, before 1898,
Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art
 PEASANTRY 7 I
5

Twentieth Century Fitzpatrick, Sheila, Stalin's Peasants: Resistance and

Lhermitte, Leon, The Noonday Rest During the Harvest, Survival in the Russian Village After Collectivization,
painting, 1905, Toledo, Spain, Museum of Arr New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press,
Kollwitz, Kathe, Peasant Woman with Scythe, etching, from 1994
Peasant's War, 1905 Fleming, Deborah, A Man Who Does Not Exist: The Irish
Barlach, Ernst, Two Sleeping Peasants, sculpture, 191 2, Peasant in the Work of W. B. Yeats and J. M. Syngc, Ann
Dresden, Germany, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995
Servaes, Albert, Peasant Life: Death, oil on canvas, 1920, Herbert, Robert L., "City vs. Country: The Rural Image in
Antwerp, Belgium, Museum of Fine Arts French Painting from Millet to Gauguin," Art Forum
Kochergin, N. M., The First of May, poster, 1920 (February 1970)
Rivera, Diego, Mexican Peasant with Sombrero and Serape, Klinge, Margaret, David Teniers the Younger: Paintings and
mural, 1923, Mexico City, Mexico, Court of Labor Drawings, Antwerp, Belgium: Snoeck-Ducaju and Zoon,
Chagall, Marc, The Peasant's Life, painting, 1925, Buffalo, 1991
New York, Albright-Knox Art Gallery Minister for Culture, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Dresden,
Miro, Joan, Head of a Catalan Peasant, oil on canvas, 1925, Germany, Der Bauer und seine Befreiung, Dresden,
England, private collection Germany: Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, 1976
Permeke, Constantine, Peasant Family with Cat, 1928, Minneapolis Institute of Art, Millet's "Gleaner", Minneapolis,
Bruges, Belgium, Heritage of West Flanders Minnesota: Minneapolis Institute of Art, 1970
Rivera, Diego, Harvesting Sugar Cane, mural, circa 1930, Moxey, Keith, Peasants, Warriors and Wives: Popular
Cuernavaca, Mexico, Palace of Corte Imagery in the Reformation, Chicago and London:
Plastov, Arkadi, Collective Farm Festival, painting, 1937 University of Chicago Press, 1989
Mukhina, Vera, The Worker and the Collective Farm Girl, Raupp, Hans-Joachim, Bauernsatiren, Niederzier, Germany:
sculpture, Soviet Pavilion, 1937, Paris, World Exhibition
Lukassen, 1986
Ou Dehua (Miao), Rainbow over a Miao Village, painting, Scheider, Jane, and Peter Scheider, "The Peasant Speaks:
circa 1980s Sicilian Harvest Song," Journal of Peasant Studies 1:3
(April 1974)
Sullivan, Margaret, Bruegel's Peasants: Art and Audience in
Further Reading the Northern Renaissance, Cambridge and New York:
Alexander, Jonathon, "Labeur et Paresse: Ideological Cambridge University Press, 1993
Representations of Medieval Peasant Labor," Art Bulletin Sutton, Peter, Masters of Seventeenth-Century Dutch Genre
LXXIL3 (September 1990) Painting, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Philadelphia Museum
The Bestin Modern Chinese Folk Painting, edited by China of Art, 1984
Social, Culture Editing and Publishing Committee, Beijing, Thompson, James, The Peasant in French Nineteenth-Century
China: Foreign Languages Press, 1990 Art, Dublin, Ireland: Douglas Hyde Gallery and Trinity
Brettell, Richard R., and Caroline Brettell, Painters and College, 1980
Peasants in the Nineteenth Century, New York: Rizzoli, Tilborgh, Louis van, editor, VanGogh and Millet, Zwolle,
1983; London: Phaidon, 1983 The Netherlands: Waanders, 1989
Briganti, Giuliano, The Bamboccianti: The Painters of Webster, James Carson, The Labors of the Months in Antique
Everyday Life in Seventeenth Century Rome, Rome: Ugo and Medieval Art, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton
Bozzi, 1983 University Press, 1938
 penitence/repentance
Christine M. Boeckl

The following iconographic narratives and motifs are covered in the discussion of the theme
Penitence/Repentance:

ALLEGORIES OF PENITENCE ST. JEROME OTHER SAINTS

RELIGIOUS PENITENTS ST. CHARLES BORROMEO SACRAMENT OF PENANCE
MARY MAGDALEN ST. PETER SECULAR PENITENTS
PRODIGAL SON

717
7 I 8 I'l.NITl.NCf / REPENTANCE

Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, The Prodigal Son, circa 1879, canvas, Washington, D.C., National Gallery of
Art, Chester Dale Collection. (Courtesy of the Board of Trustees, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
 PENITENCE / REPENTANCE 719

Judeo-Christian theology, penitence closely related to the In the seventeenth century, Cesare Ripa, in Iconologia,
Inconcept of Repentance insinuates that the offender
sin.
is

represents Penitenza (Penance) as a woman holding a fish,

regrets the transgressions against divine laws and wants to which indicates that fasts are an appropriate way to do
redeem himself or herself spiritually or with good deeds. In penance. In his rococo edition, Poenitentia resembles depic-
Western religious art, the most important penitent of the New tions of Mary Magdalen chastising herself with a whip, and
Testament is St. Peter, who was contrite for having forsaken in a vignette farther toward the back of the book, John the

Jesus Christ. Even more frequently depicted is St. Jerome, who Baptist preaches repentance in the wilderness. Philip Galle's
withdrew from the world, trading his bishop's seat and his Allegory of Penitence also depicts a figure holding a rod in one
scholarly study for a life in the wilderness to repent. Images of hand and a water vessel in the other, which alludes to the words
Mary Magdalen, the harlot whom Jesus found worthy to that penitence "not only beats but also purifies." Contritione
redeem and who would spend the rest of her life in solitude to (Contrition) is not illustrated in Ripa but is described as a cry-
atone for her sins, are especially prevalent during the Counter- ing woman with her eyes turned toward heaven to seek God's
Reformation. Hendrick Goltzius's engraving Mary Magdalen forgiveness, a pose frequently chosen to represent lamenting
Crying over Her Sins, which shows the penitent saint sparsely penitents.
dressed as a half-length figure in a rocky landscape, is dated The group of religious repentant sinners is made up
largest
1582. The saint is surrounded by her attributes: the skull, a of male and female saints. Most commonly, a repenter is char-
book, and the jar with which she had anointed Christ's feet. acterized as a figure clutching his or her chest with the left hand
Magdalen is pictured once more in the background, kneeling (the heart, according to St. Augustine the seat of sin, was
under the cross. thought to be located on the left). St. Jerome's image, most
Other familiar contrite figures from the New Testament are favored in Italy during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries,
the Good Thief (good malefactor) and the Prodigal Son. The was closely related to contemporary literature on penitence. He
former is mostly seen in three-cross Crucifixion scenes, yet the spent three years as a hermit battling impure thoughts and sex-
latter's story repeatedly appears in secular settings. The Old ual temptations to atone for his sins by self-chastisement.
Testament subject of King David's Remorse also represents Leonardo da Vinci's unfinished painting St. Jerome in the
repentance. The king had disregarded Jehovah's command- Wilderness is probably the most haunting treatment of this sub-

ments and brought death to his people; for his sin David did ject. The saint appears in a beautiful rocky landscape; no
penance (this event is more thoroughly discussed in the essay unnecessary accoutrements clutter the painting, the lion in the

Plague/Pestilence). A rueful Adam and Ahadab represent foreground being his only companion. The saint's body lan-
themes from the old law as well, but they are rarely seen in the guage expresses remorse. Crouched low to the ground, kneel-
visual arts. Penance (confession) is one of the sacraments of the ing on one foot, St. Jerome fills the whole panel. His left hand
Eastern, Roman, and some Anglican churches that are briefly covers his chest in the customary gesture. His eyes seem to ask
discussed in this essay. Although allegorical figures representing forgiveness, and he presents himself to God through a sweep-
penitence are uncommon, the concept is centuries old. Of ing gesture with his right arm. Palma Giovane shows the kneel-
course, outside the religious realm, repentance also can indicate ing saint pointing toward Christ, symbol of salvation, while he
grief for actions taken or compunction for omissions and reads the Bible — indicating St. Jerome as the author of the
resolve to amend one's life. The most charming contrite figure Vulgate. Lucas Cranach's early painting Jerome as a Hermit St.

in Greco-Roman mythology is Psyche, the bride of the god of shows strong emotions and the urgency of his self-punishment.
love, Cupid. Her story is told by the Latin writer Apuleius and The saint holds the stone in his rigid right hand while the left
illustratedby Raphael and his followers in numerous palaces pulls his beard in despair. The religious fervor is echoed in the
from Italy to England. dense woods of the Danube School landscape. On the right,
As already noted, allegories illustrating repentance are rare. toward the back, an expressive Crucifixion scene becomes vis-

One of the first, if not the first, such figures appears in ible. The saint does not kneel exactly in front of Christ's image,
Botticelli's Calumny of Apelles. The subject is based on an as seen frequently in other works, such as Jerome Contemplating
Albertian concept: Calumny drags her victim before Midas, the the Cross by Cima da Conegliano, Tintoretto, and others. A vari-
unjust judge. Penitence wears a tattered Dominican habit. ation of the topic appears in Guido Reni's St. Jerome and the
Equally rare in monumental art is the demurely veiled penitent Angel, in which a messenger from God visits the hermit in the
figure depicted in an allegory for the Sala della Pazienza in the wilderness. The saint's leathery skin contrasts sharply with the
residence of Duke Ercole II in Ferrara, Italy. Girolamo da smooth complexion of the angel.
Carpi's Chance and Penitence belongs to a large, impressive Although St. Jerome is the most important ascetic saint
cycle of Justice, Peace, and Patience. Together the series repre- pictured in seclusion, he frequently is replaced by other con-
sents the virtues of a Christian ruler. trite hermits conveying similar didactic messages: St. John
7ZO PEN! I I M I '

Rl I'l NTANC1

Chrysostomos (Alhrecht Diirer, Penance of St. hrysostomos), ( well as criticized in the Salon. It has recently been proposed
Onuphrius (Palma Giovane, St. Onuphrius), and others. The work The Harrowing of Hell
that Paul Cezanne, in his early

life of St. Francis inspired many penitent orders. Seventeenth- and Mary Magdalen, intended to link the two themes visually
century Dutch artist derm Don conceived his Hermit less spir- as well as thematically, drawing on the Provencal tradition of
itually and more like a genre painting. The religious zest of the Pasqual plays. (The iconography of Mary of Egypt, a sixth-cen-
previous centuries seems lost, yet the visual tradition is still tury saint whose biography was included in
also the Legenda
strong: The lonely figure is surrounded by vanitas (vanity) sym- aurea, often is indistinguishable from that of the penitent
bols, such as a skull and a lantern. Magdalen in the wilderness.)
The subject of a repentant St. Peter involves most commonly Although painting is by far the most appropriate medium to
a half-length view of the apostle. Spanish artists are especially describe the emotional state of redress, a few sculptors attempt-
fond ot showing St. Peter's contrite heart. They emphasize his ed this theme with various degrees of success. Donatello's wood
tear-filled eyes turned toward heaven and his sensitive hand that carving Mary Magdalen what
represents the repentant saint in
rests on the saint's chest, trying to ease his pain of guilt for is probably most expressive depiction of her ascetic
the
betraying Jesus Christ. This expressive tradition was started by lifestyle. Her beauty gone, she has conquered vanity. Dressed

El Greco and continued until Francisco de Goya in the late eigh- only in her hairy shirt, she is the female hermit who becomes a
teenth century. Georges de La Tour's The Penitent Peter handles counterpart to John the Baptist. A Baroque sculpture by Jerome
the night scene with the highlight and shadow of a Caravaggio. Duquesnoy was designed to engage our emotions. His
The bearded saint stares wide-eyed in despair at the cock, refer- Repentant Mary Magdalen in a Cave, which presents the saint
ring to Christ's prediction of his betrayal. in the state of an "elegant dishabille," is situated in the seclud-
The main female character representing penance was unde- ed, natural setting of a park in Brussels, Belgium. The viewer is

niably Mary Magdalen; her conversion was already mentioned invited to enter her world and follow the saint's example.
in the Bible and elaborated further by Pseudo Bonaventura as Generally, single penitent figures are the rule, yet at times a
well as in the Legenda aurea. Over the centuries, the image of number of sinners were grouped together to address the com-
Mary Magdalen changes, with different traits emphasized plete issue of remorse. Abraham Bloemaert's Series of the
according to local customs and beliefs. The saint's narrative Penitents includes, with the more familiar biblical types, some
iconography was first consolidated circa 1285 by the Magdalen rare examples of sinners grouped in three pairs to indicate their

Master. The large panel is dominated by the central figure in a common mistakes. First, Saints Peter and Paul appear in peni-
long, hairy chemise. Magdalen's life is told in several smaller tent poses. St. Peter wrings his hands in front of a crowing
scenes: anointing Christ's feet, doing penance, under the Cross, cock; St. Paul points toward a scene in the background that
after the Resurrection, and others. In contrast to this early shows his fall from the horse when he was on his way to
ascetic version, in most later perceptions of the saint, Damascus to persecute Christians. The two apostles had sinned
Magdalen's beauty is part of her iconography. She is often against God but were absolved because of their contrite
found meditating, standing, kneeling, or humbly seated on the prayers. Next, Magdalen and Zacchaeus were mundane sin-
ground. ners. They demonstrate their foibles: Magdalen's vanity and
Although the former sinner was renowned for her devotion, Zacchaeus's ill-gotten gold. The two penitents that would not
it was probably the alluring submission of the female that be forgiven are King Saul and Judas Iscariot. They committed
inspired so many Magdalen, all paint-
different versions of the the gravest sin, suicide, and would be condemned for all eter-
ed by male artists (for male patrons?). Titian, working for the nity. Some painters grouped a number of penitents in the com-
Spanish court, created several versions of the most sensuous pany of Christ. For example, Otto van Veen's Christ and
nude saint expressing her undying love for God. The canvas, Penitent Sinners depicts King David, Mary Magdalen, the
documented to be shipped to Philip II in 1562, was placed in Prodigal Son, and the Good Thief (holding his cross). Peter
the sacristy of Spain's El Escorial (destroyed by a
fire in 1841). Paul Rubens followed van Veen's, his teacher's, iconography by
This type shows Magdalen turning her teary eyes toward heav- surrounding Jesus with the same penitents, but his Baroque
en while covering her nakedness with her beautiful tresses. La work gained in liveliness through emotional gestures and
Tour's version emphasizes the long nights spent in prayer; the expressions.
saint ponders her life as she gazes into the candle, holding the The sacrament of penance was another infrequent yet
whip and skull on her lap. One of the most dramatic narratives important subject for artists. In Catholic theology, Mary
is by Charles Le Brim. His Repentant Mary Magdalen Magdalen is most closely associated with this sacrament (a nec-
Renounces All the Vanities of the World shows Magdalen's essary step to regain grace after committing a sin); therefore,
inner turmoil before she goes into the wilderness. The beauti- she is frequently depicted on confessionals. Before this type of
fully dressed and coiffed saint, with her treasures at her feet, liturgical furniture was invented, the priest would hear confes-
gestures emotionally. She is saying farewell to her accustomed sion in public places. To induce expiatory sentiments, the con-
life and will henceforth turn to God. Nineteenth-century artist fessor held a rod in his hand, as illustrated in books of Doctrina
Jean Beraud, in Mary Magdalen m the House of the Pharisee, Christiana (several versions were printed in Rome in the six-
presented the saint in the dress code of the 1890s. Although teenth century). One of the few paintings of the sacrament of
Christ is depicted in the traditional classical garb, the sinner penance that comes closest in spirit to the catechetical illustra-
prostrate at his feet is The rest
dressed by a Parisian couturier. tion is the depiction of a Catholic priest hearing confession
of the dinner guests wear black tie and include a number of rec- from a penitent in Antonio de Bellis's St. Charles Borromeo
ognizable notables of the day. The artist's intention was to Administers the Viaticum to a Plague Victim. Ruefully, the sin-
depict contemporary social mores, for which he was praised as ner kneels before the clergyman, who leans heavily on a cane.
 I'l \l II NCE / REPENTANCE JZl

InRogier van der Weyden's Altarpiece of the Seven Sacraments, Penitence also is an integral part of the Prodigal Son para-
Confession and Absolution are depicted as a small figure group ble. Although it is frequently debated whether any particular
in the left background. pictorial version is Protestant or Catholic, it is seldom proved
Nicolas Poussin treated the Seven Sacraments twice in very beyond the shadow of a doubt. Protestant artists chose the sub-
similar compositions. His primary source for the two canvas- ject of the filius prodigus (prodigal son) because it indicated a
es of penance was the text describing the supper at Simon personal conversion. According to their beliefs, people are
(Luke 7:36-50), where Christ forgave Magdalen's sins because saved by faith and Christ's mercy rather than by their own mer-
"she loved much." Poussin was very intent on literary accura- The aged Rembrandt van Rijn treated
its. this theme most
cy in religious art, yet in the earlier series (commissioned by memorably in his version in the Hermitage in St. Petersburg,
the antiquarian Cassiano del Pozzo), Poussin displays his eru- Russia. In his Return of the Prodigal Son, the father opens his
dite grasp of authentic classical interiors. In the first Sacrament arms to the repenting youth, seemingly embracing the whole
of Penance, he depicts Christ reclining at the banquet on a tri- world. The impoverished son kneels before the old man in per-
clinium. The weeping sinner kneels at her Savior's feet (closest fect harmony and peace. According to Catholic doctrines, the
to the viewer) in the lower left-hand corner and demonstrates assumption would have been that the contrite son had repent-
great emotion. Poussin sent the second version to his French ed, confessed, and atoned before he would be absolved from his
benefactor Freart de Chantelou. Although the two sacrament sins. Seventeenth-century Counter-Reformation art favored the
series are less than 10 years apart, the second Sacrament of scenes of the return, as in Bartolome Esteban Murillo's recount-
Penance presents Magdalen adhering even closer to the bibli- ing of the story in epic breadth. Not only is the penitent
cal text, which reads that she "stood at his [Christ's] feet received by his forgiving father, but even the dog rejoices in the
behind him" (Luke 7:38), convincingly showing that the rea- reunion. The preparations for the feast and the clothing of the
son for Magdalen's changed position refers to the Jansenist "lost son" are illustrated in minute detail.

controversy over the four essential parts of the sacrament of Guercino, too, depicted the return of the son numerous
penance: contrition, confession, satisfaction, and absolution. times, yet he limited the narrative features. All his three-figure
Because Christ's gesture signifies granting Magdalen absolu- compositions are only half-length and appear close to the
tion, it was important to emphasize the sinner's deep inner observer. Guercino's earlier versions emphasize the outer
feelings (affetti) describing her remorse. The theological con- changes by including the servant with the new clothes
cept of contrition rather than attrition advocated by the Jesuits (Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, Austria; Galleria
(an imperfect form of penitence) is guaranteed by the pose of Borghese in Rome). Yet, his later paintings are more indicative
Magdalen, "whose very name suggested life-long repentance of the son's contrite state of mind (the importance of contrition
and expiation." already was mentioned in the context of Poussin's The
Two more aspects of the sacrament of penance were illus- —
Sacrament of Penance) crying, he confesses his sins (Diocesan
trated by artists: one concerned the sanctity of the confession Museum in Wloclawek, Poland; Tim Ken Museum in San
and the second the power of the Catholic clergy to absolve Diego, California). The servant of the earlier scenes is replaced
from sins (power of the keys). Giuseppe Maria Crespi treated by the "model brother" who had stayed home with his parent.
the first in his St. John Nepomuc Confessing the Queen of However, a century later, in Pompeo Batoni's Return of the
Bohemia. The painting describes the confessional: The saint Prodigal Son, the emphasis on the religious doctrine is less
attentively listens to the queen, yet unbeknownst to both, one obvious. The artist dazzles the viewer with the grandeur of the
of the king's spies eavesdrops. It was common knowledge that oriental costumes.
St. Nepomuc refused to divulge the queen's secrets and pre- Even in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the
ferred martyrdom by drowning in the Moldova River. The sec- topos remained popular. Again chose between a descrip-
artists

ond scene, Heinrich von Angeli's At the Confessional, relates to tive narrative style and an emphasis on the inner conversion.
the sacrament of penance as well. The painting depicts the The latter is clearly intended by Pierre Puvis de Chavannes's
stony countenance of a priest leaving a young woman, who The Repentant Prodigal Son. A large, almost nude figure is
cowers at his feet and raises her arms in a gesture of sheer des- seated in a monotone landscape. The man is self-absorbed and
peration, without absolution. It must have expressed the anxi- lost in thought. Similar scenes, painted by Lovis Corinth, Max
ety of a great many people because the scene was reproduced in Slevogt, and others, displayed greater psychological finesse
Gartenlauhe, one of the most popular German magazines of than in the previous centuries. On the other hand, Eduard von
the nineteenth century. Gebhardt's Return of the Prodigal Son accents the outer drama
The Roman Catholic Church frequently staged propitiatory of the reunion. Following tradition, the son kneels before the
processionals to express penitence. Medieval flagellants (Les old man, yet Gebhardt places the scene inside a quaint farm-
Belles Heures du Due de Berry) or St. Charles Borromeo (G. B. house — following not scripture but Jean-Baptiste Greuze's non-
Rovere and Pietro da Cortona, among others) led such public story of The Punishment of the Son
biblical (in which the
displays of repentance of communal sins. To avoid divine pun- young man returns too late to make peace with his father).
ishments, the faithful would humble themselves before God. A secular version of the Prodigal Son, a girl finding forgive-
Dressed like sinners, often barefoot, they would walk through ness, paralleling the biblical parable, appeared 111 the nineteenth
Baroque penetente figurines are small wood carv-
city streets. The Victorian
century. period's fondness for the "fallen
ings, produced in the Hispano-American culture, that were woman" was mentioned earlier. George Morland's The Fail

carried during Lenten processions. They have their roots in Penitent is a narrative series about a rural heroine, Laetitia. I he
Catholic Spain. The sculptures represent saints, the Immaculata, young woman, after a life of sin in the city, returns to the
and death imagery. bosom of her family in the country. Humbly, the girl sits on the
722 PENITENCE / RI I'l NTANCE

front steps, where her kind relatives find her. The Laetitia The Scourging of Psyche appears in a
hedonistic period. Again,
theme was popularized and disseminated in a series of engrav- prominent spot. The moralizing tone of the cassone (wedding
ings. The Pre-Raphaelite Dante Gabriel Rossetti painted a vari- chests) paintings seem to have been partly responsible for
ation of the theme. Found shows a woman down on her luck, Perino del Vaga's iconography in the papal chamber, a subject
seated in the gutter in London, turning away in shame from a worthy of further research.
young farmer (perhaps her former suitor) who extends his help- Another secular topic is Emperor Henry IV's proverbial,
ing hands. penitential Walk to Canossa. This event took place in 1077,
One of the most endearing penitents is the mortal Psyche in yet it is rarely seen in the visual arts before the nineteenth cen-
Apuleius's Golden Ass. This work recounts the endless trials tury. This incident ended imperial superiority in papal elec-
and tribulations the beautiful girl endured to prove herself wor- tions and curtailed lay appointments in the clergy. However,
thy to wed the god of love. Although this tale is based on an the theme was little in demand because it- describes the defeat
ancient Greek myth symbolizing the union of Cupid (love) with the German emperor had suffered at the hands of Pope
Psyche (soul) and is known in ancient sculpture, the first nar- Gregory VII when the penitent ruler had to wait for three
rative fresco cycles appeared during the Renaissance. The days, barefoot in the snow, for an audience to have his Roman
archetypes in the myth can be interpreted in many different Catholic Church ban lifted. Historic re-creation of Canossa
ways, which gave the artists and patrons the liberty to suggest found great favor in nineteenth-century Germany. The subject
a great variety of symbolism. In Raphael's Farnesina frescoes involving a supreme pontiff and the German emperor was
(possibly commissioned for a wedding), Psyche Received on used to communicate various political slogans. Much has been
Olympus and Wedding Celebration take the lion's share of the written about conveyance of antipapal tendencies in the
its

decorations. Comparatively little space is given to the contrite years before Germany's reunification (Friedrich Gross, Jesus,
bride and her redeeming tasks. A subordinate scene, Psyche Luther und der Papst im Bilderkampf i8ji bis 1918, among
Before Venus, depicts her humiliation; contrite, the girl kneels others). German artists did not try to portray a humbled pen-
before her future mother-in-law. Psyche offers as a sign of itent but rather a powerful emperor, unbroken in spirit. In
atonement the vase she had retrieved from the river Styx. 1863, Hermann Freihold Pliiddemann, as well as Hermann
It was Giulio Romano who expanded the iconography of Wislicenus, conceived the victim in Henry IV in Canossa as a
the fairy tale for Duke Federico Gonzaga of Mantua, Italy. reflective yet determined man. Henry IV, a commanding fig-
(Parallels can be drawn between the story and the prince's rela- ure, stands in front of the papal palace while the papal court
tionship with his mother.) The Sala di Psichi in the Palazzo del appears much reduced in size on a balcony in the background.
Te in Mantua displays the obstacles the young woman
most of Otto Friedrich, in his version of 1890, sees Henry IV as
had to overcome to regain Cupid's trust. She loses her lover accuser. At the same time, Pope Gregory VII seems shaken and
when she disobeys the god's command not to gaze at him dur- regretful about his own inhuman treatment of the emperor.
ing their "trial marriage." Psyche, finding herself abandoned The tables are turned.
by Cupid, resolves to devote her whole life to reclaiming his Penitents in art are often touchingly human and quite emo-
love. The soap-opera events continue as the regretful and hum- tional subjects. Unless the stories can be assumed to be com-
bled Psyche delivers herself into the power of the goddess of mon knowledge, their inner struggles do not lend themselves
love, Venus. The jealous Venus takes revenge, abusing Psyche well to depiction; therefore, at times the images appear stereo-
mentally as well as physically. Romano depicts Psyche being typed (St. Jerome, Mary Magdalen). Moreover, fervent experi-
whipped by Sorrow and Sadness (Tristitia).
(Solicitudo) ences of repentance occur far more often in religious scenes
Apuleius describes this incident, and The Scourging of Psyche than in secular works.
appeared on fifteenth-century wedding chests. The viewer also
feels empathy with the young girl's dilemma as she faces

Cinderella-like chores, as in Psyche Sorting Grains. In her seat- See also Betrayal; Calumny; Plague/Pestilence; Protestantism
ed pose in Durer's Melancholia, she seems overwhelmed by the
futility of the labor. To comply with Venus's whims, Psyche
finishes one dangerous mission after another, often receiving
outside help. Finally, Cupid convinces the gods to
Selected Works of Art
make his
bride immortal and win his mother's approval, and the lovers Allegories of Penitence
are united. Botticelli, Calumny of Apelles, 1485-1490, Florence, Italy,
About 20 years after the Mantua frescoes were executed, the Uffizi Gallery
subject of Cupid and Psyche was taken up again in the bed Girolamo da Carpi, Chance and Penitence, circa 1541,
chamber of Pope Paul III in Castel Sant'Angelo in Rome. Perino Dresden, Germany, Gemaldegalerie
del Vaga, another Raphael follower, used the format of a nar- Galle, Philip, Allegory of Penitence, from Prosopographia,
row frieze all'antka (in the antique style). The mood of the circa 1600
paintings seems more serious (Psyche's disobedience has at Ripa, Cesare, Penitenza, from Iconologia, circa 1603, p. 38
times been interpreted as analogous to the Fall of Man). The Ripa, Cesare, Poenitentia, from Iconologia, Frankfurt-am-
political and had changed, and although the
religious climate Main, Germany, circa 1758, plate 176
concetto (concept) has not yet been fully analyzed, it stands to
reason that the pontiff, who called the Council of Trent Religious Penitents
(
545-1563) and reinstituted the Inquisition, would have read
1 Limbourg Brothers, Flagellants, from Les Belles Heures du
the myth's meaning differently than people did in the preceding Due de Berry, before 141 5, New York, The Cloisters
 PENITENCE / REPENTANCE 723

Veen, Otto van, Christ and the Penitent Sinners, 1586, Mainz, Corinth, Lovis, The Prodigal Son Among Swine, 1 89 1

Germany, Mittelrheinisches Museum private collection

Abraham Bloemaert (engraved after), Series of the Penitents, Slevogt, Max, The Prodigal Son
Triptych, 898-1 899, 1

circa 161 Germany, Staatsgalerie

Stuttgart,

Rubens, Peter Paul, Christ and the Pentitent Sinners, circa Gebhardt, Eduard von, Return of the Prodigal Son, 1908,
161 5, Munich, Germany, Alte Pinakothek location unknown
Laer, Pieter van, Flagellantes, before 1642, Munich, Germany, Lipchitz, Jacques, Return of the Prodigal Son, bronze
Alte Pinakothek sculpture, 193 1, New York, Marlborough Gallery
Dou, Gerrit, The Hermit, 1670, Washington, D.C., National
Gallery of Art St. Jerome
Goya, Francisco, Flagellants, oil on panel, 1794, Madrid, Jerome in Penitence with Saints
Botticini, Francesco, Saint

Spain, Academia de San Fernando Damascus, Eusebius, Paula, Eustochium, and Donors,
tempera on panel, circa 1460, London, National Gallery
Mary Magdalen Leonardo da Vinci, St. Jerome in the Wilderness, 1481, Rome,
Magdalen Master, Repentant Mary Magdalen, circa 1285, Pinacoteca Vaticana

Florence, Italy, Accademia Cima da Conegliano, St. Jerome Contemplating the Cross,
Donatello, Mary Magdalen, sculpture, 1454, Florence, Italy, 1495, Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art
Baptistery
Cranach, Lucas, the Elder, St. Jerome as a Hermit, 1502,

Titian, Repentant Mary Magdalen, 1560s, St. Petersburg,

Vienna, Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum
Tintoretto, Saint Jerome, 1570s, Vienna, Austria,
Russia, Hermitage
Goltzius, Hendrick, Mary Magdalen Crying over Her Sins,
Kunsthistorisches Museum
Palma Giovane, Jerome Contemplating the Cross, circa 1603,
engraving, 1582
Gentileschi, Artemisia, The Penitent Magdalen, oil on canvas,
Riva del Garda, Italy, Sanctuario della Madonna Involata
Reni, Guido, St. Jerome and the Angel, circa 1635, Vienna,
circa 1619-1620, Florence, Italy, Galleria Palatine, Palazzo
Pitti
Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum
La Tour, Georges de, Repentant Mary Magdalen, circa
St. Charles Borromeo
1621-1623, Paris, Louvre
Rovere, Giovanni Battista della, St. Charles Leads the
Duquesnoy, Jerome, The Repentant Mary Magdalen in a
Procession of the Holy Nail, 1602, Milan, Italy, Cathedral
Cave, sculpture, circa 1650, Brussels, Belgium, Pare de
Palma Giovane, St. Charles Borromeo, circa 1603, Riva del
Bruxelles
Garda, Italy, Sanctuario della Madonna Involata
Le Brun, Charles, The Repentant Mary Magdalen Renounces
Pietro da Cortona, St. Charles Borromeo Leads the
All the Vanities of the World, circa 1656, Paris, Louvre
Procession of the Holy Nail, 1667, Rome, San Carlo
Sirani, Elisabetta, The Penitent Magdalene in the Wilderness,
di Catinari
oil on canvas, 1660, Bologna, Italy, Pinacoteca Nazionale
Cezanne, Paul, The Harrowing of Hell and Mary Magdalen,
St. Peter
1869, collection of John Rewald
El Greco, Repentant Peter, 1 603-1 607, Toledo, Spain,
Beraud, Jean, Mary Magdalen in the House of the Pharisee,
Hospital de San Juan Bautista de Afuera
1 89 1, collection of Mr. and Mrs. Robert Walker
La Tour, Georges de, The Penitent Peter, 1645, Cleveland,
Ohio, Museum of Art
Prodigal Son
Goya, Francisco de, Repentant Peter, 1 820-1 824,
Diirer, Albrecht, The Prodigal Son's Conversion Among the
Washington, D.C., Phillips Collection
Swine, engraving, 1496
Guercino, Return of the Prodigal Son, 161 9, Vienna, Austria, Other Saints
Kunsthistorisches Museum Diirer, Albrecht, Penance of St. Chrysostomos, engraving,
Guercino, Return of the Prodigal Son, 1 627-1 628, Rome, before 1495
Galleria Borghese El Greco, St. Francis in Meditation, 587-1 597, Valencia.
1

Guercino, Return of the Prodigal Son, 165 1, Wloclawek, Spain, Montesinos Collections
Poland, Diocesan Museum Palma Giovane, St. Onuphrius, circa 1603, Riva del Garda,
Guercino, Return of the Prodigal Son, circa 1655, San Diego, Italy, Sanctuario della Madonna Involata
California, Tim Ken Museum Nolde, Emil, Mary of Egypt with Sinners; Conversion; Death
Rembrandt van Rijn, Return of the Prodigal Son, circa 1668, in the Desert, triptych, 191 2, Hamburg, Germain.
St. Petersburg, Russia, Hermitage Kunsthalle
Murillo, Bartolome Esteban, The Return of the Prodigal
Son, circa 1670, Washington, D.C., National Gallery Sacrament of Penance
of Art Angeli, Heinrich (print after), At the Confessional, illustration
Batoni, Pompeo, Return of the Prodigal Son, 1773, Vienna, in Gartenlaube, vol. 9, 1874
Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum Bellis, Antonio de, St. Charles Borromeo Administers the
Puvis de Chavannes, The Repentant Prodigal Son, 1879, Viaticum to Plague Victims, circa 1640, Naples, Italy, San
Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art Carlo alle Mortelle
7Z4 PENITENCE / REPENTANCE

t respi, Ciiuseppe John Nepomuc Confessing the

Maria, St. Friedrich, Otto (print after), Henry IV in Canossa, sketch for
< Italy, Galleria Sabauda
\ueen oj Bohemid, 1743, Turin, Goslar, Kaisersaal, 1890

Poussin, Nicolas, The Sacrament of Penance, 1630s,

destroyed
Poussin, Nicolas,The Sacrament of Penance, 1640s, Further Reading
dmburgh, National Gallery of Scotland
1
Gaudioso, Alberti, and Eraldo Gaudioso, Gli affreschi di
Weyden, Rogier van der, Altarpiece of the Seven Sacraments, Paulo III a Castel Sant' Angelo, Rome, 198 1

circa 1453, Antwerp, Belgium, Musee des Beaux-Arts

und der Papst im Bilderkampf
Gross, Friedrich, Jesus, Luther
1871 bis 1918, Marburg, Germany: Jonas, 1989
Secular Penitents
Haeger, Barbara, "The Prodigal Son," Simiolus 16:2-3 U986)
Franceso di Giorgio Martini, The Scourging of Psyche, Henneberg, Josephine von, "Poussin's Penance: A New
Florence, Italy, Villa 1 Tatti
Reading," Storia del' Arte 61 (1987)
Raphael, Psyche Before Venus, fresco, 1519, Rome, Lewis, Mary Tompkins, "Cezanne's Harrowing of Hell and
Farnesina, Loggia di Psichi Magdalen," Gazette des Beaux-Arts 97 (1981)
Giulio Romano, Psyche Sorting Grains; The Scourging of Nochlin, Linda, "Lost and Found: Once More the Fallen
Psyche, circa 1527, Mantua, Italy, Palazzo del Te, Sala di Woman," in Feminism and Art History: Questioning the
Psichi Litany, edited by Norma Broude and Mary D. Garrard,
Perino del Vaga, The Scourging of Psyche, circa 1545, Rome, New York: Harper, 1982
Castel Sant'Angelo Ridderbos, Berhard, Saint and Symbol: Images of St. Jerome
Greuze, Jean-Baptiste, The Punishment of the Son, 1778, in Early Italian Art (Ph.D. diss., Rijksuniversiteit
Paris, Louvre Groningen, 1984)
Morland, George, The Fair Penitent, 1789, engraved by J. R. Roethlisberger, Marcel G., "Abraham Bloemaert's Series of
Smith, from Laetitia, plate 6 the Penitents," Print Quarterly 9 (1992)
Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, Found, 1854, Wilmington, Delaware Vetrova, Luisa, "Cupid and Psyche in Renaissance Painting
Art Museum Before Raphael," Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld
Wislicenus, Hermann, Henry IV in Canossa, drawing, 1863, Institutes 92 (1979)
sketch for Goslar, Kaisersaal, location unknown Wethey, Harold E., "Titian's Escorial-Ashburton Magdalen,"
Pluddemann, Hermann Freihold, Henry IV in Canossa, print, Burlington Magazine 118 (1976)
sketch for Goslar, Kaisersaal, 1863, from Gartenlaube, Wittkower, Rudolph, Allegory and Migration of Symbols,
vol. 2, 1877 Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 1977
 PHYSIOGNOMY
Margaret A. Sullivan

The following periods are covered in the discussion of the theme Physiognomy:

RENAISSANCE
SEVENTEENTH AND
EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES
NINETEENTH CENTURY

-is
jz6 PHYSIOGNOMY

Picter Bruegel the Elder, Head of a Lansquenet, circa 1 566, Montpellier, France, Musee Fabre.

(Courtesy of Musee Fabre)

 PHYSIOGNOMY 727

As it relates to the visual arts, physiognomy can be

defined as that which involves the relatively dispassion-
Diirer, this research
ugly was seen
and codification of the beautiful and the
as necessary preparation for his paintings, such
ate and analytic rendering of the human face, as distinct from as Christ Among the Doctors (1506), in which grotesque faces
both caricature and portraiture. Broadly defined, physiognomy communicate inner ugliness.
can any representation or description of
refer to facial features, On the other hand, the series of portraits French artist
especially when linked to science and medicine. Theodore Gericault painted around 822 reflect a different sci-
1

A portrait involves the depiction of a specific individual and entific perspective, and were probably created as a response to
is frequently a commissioned work that presents the subject as the medical concerns of doctors involved in the treatment of
he or she wishes to be seen. In Diego Velazquez's Portrait of mental illness. Only five of the paintings are known today, but
Pope Innocent X (1650), the novelty of the sitter's rueful each represents a patient suffering from some form of mono-
response troppo vero (too true) — is a reminder that portraits mania (obsessive concentration on a single idea). The portraits
rarely reveal the subject's inner person. The artist is usually became the property of Etienne-Jean Georget, a doctor at
constrained by stereotypes, the image he produces normalized Salpetriere, an institution for the mentally ill in France where
and adjusted to the aspirations and social position of the sitter. the affliction was originally described. Gericault's physiognom-
In caricature, the situation is reversed. The personal bias of the ic paintings were probably created as contributions to the

artist dominates, and whether representing a specific individ- "archive of the iconography of nervous illness" begun by the
ual, an occupational group, or racial type, the caricaturist uses doctors in Georget's circle — a kind of gallery of clinically clas-
deformation and exaggeration to create a terse, often defama- sifiable types. They also may have been painted records made
tory image that emphasizes those aspects of a person's features for diagnostic purposes, painted as examples of certain mental
that are most readily identifiable. disorders for training medical personnel or painted for use in
The physiognomic study differs from both portraiture and bolstering Georget's argument that medical experts should tes-

caricature in the degree to which it reflects the scientific knowl- tify in criminal cases. In any case, some degree of collaboration
edge current at the time the artist is working. If the artist's pur- between the artist and the medical world had to have occurred
pose is uncertain, however, it can be difficult to identify. When because the subjects were mental patients, the project was pri-

Thomas Rowlandson gave labels such as "The Pernicious," vate rather than commercial, and the portraits were not exhib-
"The Ostentatious," and "The Suspicious" to a series of faces ited in the Salon or sold on the art market.
and on the same sheet layered a series of profiles, it is likely that The belief that facial features predict mental states, character,

the profiles were physiognomic studies distinct from the labeled health, occupation, and even an individual's life span first

caricatures. On the other hand, it is not known whether appears as an important topic in the literature and painting of the
Leonardo da Vinci intended his "grotesques" as physiognomic ancient world. The classical, and classic, formulation of the phys-
studies (see the essay Caricature/Cartoon). The sculptures iognomic point of view is Cicero's declaration in De oratore
Austrian artist Franz Xaver Messerschmidt created in the eigh- (circa 50 B.C.) that image animi vultus vultii (The face is the
teenth century are even more problematic. In each of these 49 image of the soul) (III. lviii. 221). Ancient ideas were also for-
busts a man displays a different, grossly distorted expression. mulated in the pseudo-Aristotelian fragment Physiognomies,
But Messerschmidt's purpose in producing these renderings is which stressed the importance of the "region around the eyes,
not known, and his history of mental difficulties complicates forehead, head and face" (314b), as well as in allusions to phys-
the question of motivation even further. It is not certain iognomy in the writings of Seneca, Pliny the Elder, and the
whether these are physiognomic studies, caricatures, or projec- ancient satirists. Juvenal, the Roman satirical poet, wrote, "One
tions of Messerschmidt's own volatile personality. can detect in a sickly body the secret torments of the soul, as also
In a physiognomic study, the attitude of the artist toward its stamp of either" (Satire IX, 19-21
joys: the face takes the ).

his or her subject tends to be analytical, either to suit the Other ancients noted between the features of humans
parallels
artist's own research interests, or as a response to the scientif- and animals, used facial features to divide humans into races and
ic concerns of a doctor, psychologist, or other professional indicate behavioral differences, and recognized facial expressions
who wishes to have facial features recorded accurately for a as the outward manifestation of differing emotional states. The
diagnostic or investigative purpose. When Albrecht Diirer cre- ancient world widely accepted that occupational aptitude, mis
ated physiognomic studies for his treatise on human propor- ceptibility to certain diseases, character, and even the future
tions, he was pursuing his interest in rationalized art. could be read from facial features. In both its permanent and
According to his own statement, Diirer investigated "about —
temporal aspects as genetic endowment, but also as the traces
two or three hundred living persons," coordinated their left on the face by habit, experience, and fleeting emotions

images into types, and presented his findings in a schematic physiognomy was important in ancient literature, and from its
way, as in his print of overlapping heads in a profile series. For inception the artist and the physiognomist became related. Pliny
728 PHYSIOGNOMY

praised the portraits of the fourth century B.C. Greek painter Anatomy and Philosophy of I xpression as Connected with the
Apelles that were Fine Arts (1844) published in London, followed Lavater's
efforts.
so absolutely lifelike that incredible .is it sounds . . . one
Cautions about judging character solely on the basis of
ol those persons (.ailed "physiognomists," who prophesy
physiognomy are present from its beginnings. They appear in
people's future by their countenance, pronounced from
the Bible
— "Judge not according to the appearance" (John
their portraits either the year of the subjects' deaths
or the number of years they had already lived. (Pliny,
. . .

7:24) —and in classical literature. When Hippocrates' face was

"read" by a physiognomist as that of a fraud and a voluptuary,
Natural History, XXXV. xxxvi. 88-89)
he responded that while his "natural tendencies and evil
I Ik- sixteenth century saw a resurgence of interest in phys- desires" were accurately identified, reason had allowed him to
iognomy, with classical views widely disseminated in the popu- suppress them. Predictions made on the basis of inherited facial
lar physiognomy books of Jean de Indagine and Bartelomeo structure (the more permanent aspect of physiognomy), as well
—
Codes which included crude woodcuts and were obviously as magical and astrological subfields such as metoposcopy (pre-
indebted to ancient literature. Hans Baldung Grien's Head of a dictions made from observing the lines of the forehead), were
—
Fool (circa 1520s) a charcoal drawing of a man with large frequently under attack. During the Renaissance, for example,
lips, open mouth, lowered brows, and a long, sharp nose was — Leonardo da Vinci dismissed physiognomy as "false," although
recognizable as a fool on the basis of the contemporary phys- he accepted the assumption that the face shows some indication
iognomy texts even if the artist had not made the identification of the nature of people, their vices and character. Dutch schol-
explicit by giving him the fool's traditional eared hood. Grien ar and theologian Desiderius Erasmus tempered his generally
was clearly familiar with these books as his Portrait of Jean de positive view of physiognomic forecasting by admitting that
Indagine (1522) appears in Indagine's Introductiones apoteles- appearances could be deceptive.
maticae elegantes, in cbyromantiam, physiognomiam, astrolo- By the nineteenth century, however, few took these caveats
giam (1522) published in Strasbourg, France. Other artists, seriously,and physiognomy, profiting from its affinities with
including Pieter Bruegel the Elder, depict occupational types in the emerging sciences of ethnography and anthropology,
ways that are consistent with the physiognomy books. The reached the high point of its influence. Artists could count on
faces of the peasants in Bruegel's Peasant Dance (circa 1566) the physiognomic literacy of their audience and their willing-
are related to thephysiognomy books, as are his tiny physiog- ness to accept its premises. For the English artist William
nomic paintings such as Head of a Lansquenet (circa 1566) in Powell Frith, a self-confessed physiognomist, criminals had
Montpellier, France. This study of a wide-eyed, mustached sol- low brows; Irishmen looked like apes; the "bull-terrier type"
dier, only about three inches in diameter, is minutely detailed. was common in England; and virtue, vice, race, and social
He has wide-open eyes that slightly protrude, the whites entire- class could all be recognized from facial features. In his
ly visible around the iris; a subtle red shade of skin; taut facial panoramic paintings of mid-Victorian urban society, Derby
muscles; and a fierce expression, all of which exemplify the Day (1858) and Railway Station (1862), Frith includes dozens
physiognomy books con-
choleric individual as described in the of types in which physiognomic distinctions are made between
temporary to Bruegel. so-called embezzler, cockney gamester, fake country squire,
The view that character can be communicated by means of man about town, aristocrat, and country bumpkin. Frith could
a physiognomic repertoire increasingly influenced artists, audi- depend on his audience to study all them
these faces, identify
ences, and art criticism. Francesco Bocchi's response to accurately, and recognize them as representatives of familiar
Donatello's sculpture of St. George, written in 1571 and pub- types.
lished 1584, revealed his familiarity with physiognomic
in Vincent van Gogh, in similar fashion, used physiognomic
books and physiognomic theories. The codification of features criteria when selecting peasant subjects for his paintings. In one
that began with the physiognomy books of Indagine and Codes of his letters, van Gogh reports he has found among the peas-
continued in Giambattista della Porta 's De humana physiogno- ants "physiognomies reminding one of pigs or crows," and in
monia (1583, On Human Physiognomy), first published in another he writes that he is continuing his search for "rough,
Naples, Italy. Delia Porta visited prisons and gallows to see the flat faces with low foreheads and thick lips" (Uitert, p. 160).
dead, observing the bodies of criminals who had been hanged Van Gogh's terminology reflects the belief, common to nine-
and taking was especially con-
plaster casts of their faces; he teenth-century artists and audiences alike, that the face reveals
cerned to elaborate parallels between men and animals. A typ- character, intelligence, occupational aptitude, and even crimi-
ical illustration from della Porta's physiognomy book places the nal propensities.
head of a young boy with slanted eyes and long nose next to photography has replaced the recording func-
In recent times,
the head of a pig with the same features. and in the process has helped demolish many
tion of the artist,
In the seventeenth century, these same physiognomy books of the physiognomic stereotypes that were widely accepted in the
continued to be influential. In Velazquez's painting Aesop nineteenth century. In "The Physiognomy of Murderers" (1889),
(1 639-1 640), some see a bovine type with "great forehead, a visitor to a British prison noted the "ape-faces . . . angry dog-
and very large eyes" as described in della Porta's
fleshy face, faces, heavy sullen ox-faces" of the criminals, confirming the
physiognomy book. Johann Caspar Lavater's L'Art de con- belief that there was an identifiable criminal physiognomy, but
hommes par la physionomie 806-1809, The Art of
naitre les ( 1 when Charles Goring The English Convict (1913) compared
in
Knowing Men by Physiognomy) continued the tradition of drawings of 30 English criminals with an equal number of
reading faces from physiognomic signs. The influential works portraits based on photographs of criminals, he found that an
of Charles Darwin and Charles Bell, specifically Bell's The identifiable criminal physiognomy existed only in the minds of
 PHYSIOGNOMY 729

the observers (artist and audience alike). Physiognomic stereo- Nineteenth Century
typing began to be eroded. Gericault, Theodore, Portrait of a Kidnapper, oil on canvas,
Art and science have tended to go separate ways in the mod- circa 1822, Springfield, Massachusetts, Museum of
ern period, at least as far as the human body is concerned; sci- Fine Arts
ence has discredited physiognomy, which has left it to matters Gericault, Theodore, Portrait of a Kleptomaniac, oil on
of historical interest. The camera has replaced paintbrush and canvas, circa 1822, Ghent, Belgium, Museum of Fine Arts
pencil, and with the exception of the study of facial expression Gericault, Theodore, Portrait of a Man Suffering from
as it communicates temporary emotional states, physiognomy Delusions of Military Rank, oil on canvas, circa 1822,
has lost legitimacy. Winterthur, Switzerland, Oskar Reinhart Collection
However, even if artists are no longer concerned with phys- Gericault, Theodore, Portrait of a Woman Addicted to
iognomy or engaged in a scientific collaboration that focuses Gambling, on canvas, circa 1822, Paris, Louvre
oil

on facial features, many premises of the physiognomist are still Gericault, Theodore, Woman Suffering from Obsessive Envy,
operative in daily life. Recent studies of the responses elec- oil on canvas, circa 1822, Lyons, France, Musee de

torates have to their political leaders suggest we continue to Beaux-Arts

believe we can read character from the face. Anyone sitting for Frith, William Powell, Derby Day, oil on canvas, 1858,
a portrait may still be concerned that the outcome will be trop- London, Tate Gallery
po vero. Doctors continue to use exterior evidence to make Frith, William Powell, Railway Station, oil on canvas, 1862,

deductions about physical condition and inner states, and the Egham, Surrey, Royal Holloway College
art of "reading" faces is still considered a valuable asset in the Van Gogh, Vincent, Head of a Peasant Woman in a Black
conduct of daily life. Cap, oil on canvas, 1885, Otterlo, The Netherlands,
Rijksmuseum

See also Caricature/Cartoon; Fools/Folly; Humors; Madness;

Self-Portraits I: Men; Self-Portraits II: Women
Further Reading

Barasch, Moshe, "Character and Physiognomy," Journal of

Selected Works of Art

the History of Ideas XXXVI (July-September 1975)
Bell, Charles, Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression as
Renaissance Connected with the Fine Arts, third edition, London: John
Durer, Albrecht, Christ Among the Doctors, 1506, Madrid, Murray, 1844
Spain, Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection Boime, Albert, "Portraying Monomaniacs to Service the
Diirer, Albrecht, series of physiognomic studies (reproduced Alienist's Monomania: Gericault and Georget," Oxford
in Panofsky, fig.
320) Art Journal XIV: 1 (1991)
Grien, Hans Baldung, Head of a Fool, charcoal drawing, Camden, Carroll, "The Mind's Construction of the Face," in
circa 1520s, London, British Museum Renaissance Studies in Honor of Hardin Craig, edited by
Grien, Hans Baldung, Portrait of Jean de Indagine, Baldwin Maxwell, Stanford, California: Stanford
from Introductiones apotelesmaticae elegantes, in University Press, 1941
chyromantiam, physiognomiam, astrologiam, 1522, Cowling, Mary, The Artist as Anthropologist, Cambridge:
Strasbourg, France Cambridge University Press, 1989
Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, Peasant Dance, circa 1566, Vienna, Darwin, Charles, The Expression of the Emotion in Matt and
Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum Animals, London: John Murray, 1872
Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, Peasant Wedding Banquet, circa Domiquen Ortiz, Antonio, Velazquez, New York: Abrams,
1566, Vienna, Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum 1989
Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, Head of an Old Man, oil on wood, Eitner, Lorenz, Gericault: His Life and Work, London: Orbis,
circa 1566, Bordeaux, France, Musee de Beaux-Arts 1983
Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder,Head of a Lansquenet, oil on wood, Evans, E. C, "Physiognomies in the Ancient World,"
circa 1566, Montpellier, France,Musee Fabre Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 59:5
Bruegel, Pieter the Elder, Head of a Yawning Peasant, oil on (August 1969)
wood, circa 1566, Brussels, Belgium, Musee Royaux de Forster, Richard, Scriptors Physiognomonici: Graeci et Latini,

Beaux-Arts Leipzig,Germany: Teubner, 894 1

Jaton, Anne-Marie, Johann Caspar Lavater, Zurich,

Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries Switzerland: International-Schweizer Verlagshaus, 1988
Velazquez, Diego, Portrait of Pope Innocent X, oil on canvas, Kwakkelstein, Michael, "Leonardo da Vinci's Grotesque
1650, Rome, Galleria Doria-Pamphili Heads and the Breaking of the Physiognomic Mold,"
Velazquez, Diego, Aesop, oil on canvas, 1639-1640, Madrid, Journal of the Warburg and Courtwild Institutes 54 (1991)
Spain, Prado Laharie, Muriel, La Folie au Moyen Age, Paris, Presses de la
Messerschmidt, Franz Xaver, series of 49 sculptured busts, Renaissance, 1991
eighteenth century, Vienna, Austria, Osterreichische Lavater, Johann Caspar, Essays on Physiognomy, London:
Galerie Lower Belvedere Robinson, 1789
73° PHYSIOGNOMY

LeBrun, (.
of Lithographic Drawings Illustrative
harles, Series Rivers, Christopher, Face Value: Physiognomical Thought and
of the Relation Between the Human Physiognomy and the Legible BodyMariuaux, Lavater, Balzac, Gautier
in

That of the Brute Creation, Paris, 1806 and Zola, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1995
Mellcr, Peter, "Physiognomical Theory in Renaissance Heroic Shookman, Ellis, The Faces of Physiognomy: Interdisciplinary
Portraits," in The Renaissance and Mannerism: Studies in Approaches to Johann Caspar Lavater, Columbia, South
Western Art, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Carolina: Camden House, 1993
Press, [963 Stafford, Barbara Marie, Body Criticism: Imaging the
Miller, Margaret, "Gericault's Portraits of the Insane," Unseen in Fjilightenment Art and Medicine, Cambridge,
journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes IV Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1991
(1940) Sullivan, Margaret, Bruegel's Peasants: Art and Audience in

Montagu, Jennifer, The Expression of the Passions: the Northern Renaissance, Cambridge: Cambridge
The Origin and Influence of Charles Le Brim's University Press, 1993
"Conference sur L'Expression Generate et Particuliere, Tytler, Graeme, Physiognomy in the European Novel: Faces
New Haven, Connecticut, and London: Yale University and Fortunes, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University
Press, 199 Press, 1982
Panofsky, Erwin, The Life and Art of Alhrecht Diirer, Uitert, Evert van, editor, Van Gogh in Braband, Zwolle, The
Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1971 Netherlands: Waanders, 1987
Pseudo-Aristotle, Physiognomies, in Minor Works by Wechsler, Judith, A Human Comedy: Physiognomy and
Aristotle, translated by W. S. Hartt, London and Caricature in Nineteenth-Century Paris, Chicago and
Cambridge, Massachusetts: Loeb Classical Library, 1936 London: University of Chicago Press, 1982
 plague/pestilence
Christine M. Boeckl

The following motifs and iconographic narratives are covered in the discussion of the theme
Plague/Pestilence:

VOTIVE COMMISSIONS ST. ROCH

ALLEGORIES OTHER SAINTS
DEVASTATION OF THE AIDS POSTERS
PLAGUE
ST. CHARLES

731
732 PI \(.i i / ri si ii i N( i

<*,„ I

Plague Victim and Her Children, drawing after Nicolas Poussin, Plague at Ashdod, 1631, chalk on
blue-gray paper, Leipzig, Germany, Museum der bildenden Kiinste. (Courtesy of the Museum der
bildenden Kiinste)
 PLAGUE / PESTILENCE 733

Plague and pestilence, like death, war, and famine, are uni- al altarpieces created to ensure health, to give thanks, and to
versal themes and have been mentioned by Homer and in avert future epidemics. The second category — religious and sec-
the Bible. Yet, plague scenes appear only late in Western art ular paintings describing the devastation of the plague — is

and, as far as we know, do not exist in any other culture. In more diversified. Most of the narratives describe events from
both the Judeo-Christian tradition and classical antiquity, early the lives of saints who had been actively involved in comfort-
literature equates plague with divine punishment for human ing victims of the bubonic plague. St. Charles Borromeo was
transgressions. The sun god Apollo is said to have sent epi- the favorite subject for altar paintings that serve didactic and
demics by shooting his arrows from heaven. However, no illus- messianic functions. Over the centuries, a progressive secular-
tration of his punishment for the rape of Chryseis from the ization becomes apparent. During the romantic period, plague
Iliad, "which kept the Greek funeral pyres burning," has sur- paintings allude to new, threatening diseases, such as cholera
vived. The delay in developing a specific plague iconography and yellow fever. Even today, the word plague is often used as
can be attributed to the difficulties in characterizing the med- an analogy for a force unknown to and uncontrollable by
ical symptoms and, more important, the disease's absence from humans. In this sense, it describes the latest scourge: AIDS.
Europe between the sixth and fourteenth centuries. In 1347, Plague ex-votos are numerous, and they fulfilled a specific
the Black Death returned from Asia with a vengeance and function in sacred art. Their complex iconography draws on lit-
remained a constant threat in the West throughout the next 400 erary and visual sources. Many votive paintings refer to the
years. (In this essay, except when specified as bubonic plague, Second Coming of Christ. Eschatological scenes are based on
the terms pestilence and plague are used indiscriminately to the New Testament, which prophesied earthquake, war,
mean an epidemic disease.) famine, and plague to precede the final cataclysm. Although
Unquestionably, the Black Death was a cataclysmic event of many of the works refer to epidemics, they do not depict the
almost unprecedented proportions that drastically altered victims. Frequently, plague symbols such as skeletons, skulls,
medieval European civilization. An estimated one-third to one- arrows, swords, and crosses, indistinguishable per se from
fourth of Europe's population perished during the period from death allegories, imply the Middle Age's favorite theme:
1347 to 1353. Giovanni Boccaccio, in his Decameron, vividly memento mori. The Parisian "dance of death," painted on the
describes the terror that had gripped the city of Florence, Italy. walls of the Cimetiere des Innocents (now lost) is specifically
The resulting changes in postplague society have occupied plague related, as its visual realization was inspired by Jean
scholars for years. Lefebre's plague poem. The fresco Triumph of Death in
In the arts, a debate concerns the fascination with the Palermo, Italy (circa T447), differs iconographically from
"power of death," prominent since the beginning of the
a topos Francesco Traini's in Pisa, Italy: Its victims are wasted by
fourteenth century. In 195 1, Millard Meiss proposed that the plague arrows. Death as a metaphor for pestilence remains the
Pisan fresco Triumph of Death reflected a reaction to the Black most lasting tradition in the north and in the graphic arts. The
Death. However, the fresco is now dated prior to 1347; there- grim reaper, swinging his scythe, rides a haggard mare in
fore, scholarly opinions are more apt to blame trecento theo- Albrecht Diirer's drawing Plague.
logical controversies regarding eschatology for its morbid A sense of guilt and attempts to placate God appear in many
iconography. Still, after the onslaught of bubonic plague we devotional images showing the merciful Virgin and plague
find new adaptations of already existing themes of memento saints in prayer (in an effort to save the suffering people). The
mori or of the Madonna of Mercy. Completely new sublets icons that were said to have been painted by the physician-
appeared as well. Because the true cause of the plague was an evangelist St. Luke, such as Madonna of Constantinople, were
enigma until the 1890s, many fantastic theories circulated especially popular for plague commissions. The Nikopoia, as
about its origin and its infectious nature. It was commonly well as the misericordia type, also was believed to shelter the
thought that the disease was transmitted by air, so one charac- faithfulfrom pestilence. One of the earliest specifically plague-
teristic sign was a figure holding his nose. The man protecting related examples of the Madonna of Mercy is Barnaba da
himself against contagious vapors while trying to save a child Modena's Madonna delta Misericordia. The Virgin spreads her
who clings to his dead mother is a cliche repeated for hundreds mantle over some of the members of a confraternity while the
of years in both profane and religious works. figures outside her protection are struck by plague arrows.
Plague images can be grouped into two major categories. Raphael's Madonna <// l
:
oligno shows the typical composition
The first includes votive commissions that show the Trinity, the al pattern of ex-votos: the Madonna and Christ seated on
Virgin, and saints such as Sebastian, Anthony, and Roch clouds in the celestial region. The city of Foligno is visible
invoked as healers — their thaumaturgic powers characterized below, and several saints can be seen interceding for the city

by a Greek as well as by numerous early Christian martyrs. and the donor. It has been convincingly shown that eschatolog-
These religious figures appear in plague banners and devotion- ical connotation can be read into the little nude boy, holding a
734 P) AGUJ / PESTILENCI

cartello (poster), standing in the center oi the terrestrial zone. invention: the dead or dying mother with a healthy baby on her
I Ins schematic view oi heaven and Earth was repeated by breast.A third but rarely seen motif is the man covering his
Guido Rem, Anthony Van Dyck, Luca Giordano, and Jacques- head to show grief. In the two latter examples, Raphael had
1 ouis David, to name the best-known examples. Giovanni translated antique figures taken from nonplague subjects (the

Battista Tiepolo adheres to the established tradition in his
memorative painting St. Thecla Interceding for the City of ste;
however, his late Baroque aestheticism renders the dramatic
scene ineffective. The work appears to be routine and fails to
convince the viewer either of its religious fervor or of the seri-
ous threat posed by the disease.
In Cesare Ripa's Iconologia, Pest/Pestilentia is described as
an ugly old woman with hanging breasts, holding a flagellum.
She becomes the most lasting allegory for plague
arts. In1760 edition, Pestilence is illustrated next to
Ripa's
com- capture of a city and the sacrifice of Iphenigia) mentioned by
I Pliny in a descriptive plague narrative. These groups were fur-
ther publicized in Nicolas Poussin's Plague at Ashdod, after
which they become the symbol for plague itself.
The change of spiritual climate after the council is docu-
mented by the domination of religious plague themes and a
lessened concern for the physical condition of the sick, who
show acceptance of death in the hope of life everlasting. This
in the visual view was adopted from plague sermons, which spoke for the
first time of a merciful God who sends epidemics as a reminder

King David. However, Plague is found more frequently in reli- to repent and reform. Ars ad propaganda fidem (art for the
gious sculptures than in painting. The very fact that Ripa made propagation of faith) emphasized the importance of the spiri-
use of a disease in Iconologia should alert us to the metaphor- tual sustenance of prayer, sacraments, and piety during times
ic use of the word. After the Protestant Reformation, written of pestilence. These sentiments are reflected in a new topos: a
documents frequently implied a simile of plague with heresy, a priest, most often St. Borromeo, dispensing the
Charles
concept less readily traceable in the visual arts. A rare painting Eucharist to plague victims. This emphasis, developed from
is found in the Jesuit House in Antwerp, Belgium, The Triumph the Last Communion of a Saint, is now on the salvation of the
of the Cross over the Plagues of Heresy. common man. This innovative and polemic subject was used
The second group, the plague paintings that narrate the hor- by the Roman Catholic Church to defend doctrines against
rors of an epidemic, chose this unappealing subject for a num- Protestant teachings because it focused on theological issues,
ber of reasons. The earliest visual recordings can be dated back such as communion for laity in one species only, and upheld
Middle Ages, when, as might be foreseeable, most of
to the late the Catholic clergy's priestly status. The painting that proved
Only a few secular
the images remain in the realm of religion. most influential in European Catholic regions during the
medieval chronicles depict the multitude of victims and the Baroque period was Pierre Mignard's St. Charles Administers
overwhelming task of burying the dead as well as the phenom- the Viaticum to a Plague Victim, which was proliferated in
enon of flagellants who hoped to appease God by self-castiga- numerous prints. It depicts the Milanese archbishop among
tion. The fourteenth-century burning of Jews falsely accused of the sick and shows his self-sacrificing concern, humility, and
spreading the disease is recorded in rare woodcuts. Many of devotion. In the foreground, the mother with a child on her
these dramatic events were revived in romantic paintings, as in lap receives communion per modum viatici (in the manner of
Eugene Beyer's The Burning of the Jews in Strasbourg in 1349. a traveler), which during an epidemic frequently replaced the
Interest in medical subjects and aspirations to realism last rites. The communicant is seated on the ground and is

swayed artists in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries to paint reminiscent of a penitent Mary Magdalen supported by her
the characteristic symptoms, the plague buboes, for the first loving husband or father and surrounded by other plague vic-
time. A scene depicting a surgeon operating on a plague sore, tims in makeshift beds.
rendered with clinical objectivity, is preserved in a fifteenth- Apart from the ever-popular St. Charles, other saintly
century fresco of Savoyard Sebastian's Chapel in Lansleville, priests, such as Saints Camillus, Francis of Regis, and Anthony
France. The only religious references are the plague angel and of Florence, show their ministries on Earth as designated
a demon who appear upper right-hand corner; their
in the "pestilentiarius" (a clergyman assigned to comfort the plague
images are based on the Golden Legend. Numerous plague stricken). In every one of these Eucharistic scenes, the
altars are surprising because of the physicality in their rendi- Communion wafer, the spiritual and compositional focal point,
tions of an angel lancing and thereby healing St. Roch's leg gives the artist the welcome opportunity to display a chalice-
wound. Tintoretto, in St. Roch, described for the first time the shaped ciborium (container for consecrated hosts). The most
plight in a plague hospital; the scene was comparable to a set- popular Flemish plague saint was the eleventh-century bishop
ting in a cancer ward. Renaissance humanism is expressed in of Ghent, Belgium, who is depicted in Jacob van Oost the
the heroic quality of the victim as he points to his plague sore, Younger's Macarius Administers the Viaticum. The touching
St.
hoping to be miraculously cured by St. Roch. scene portrays in seventeenth-century dress an elderly, devout-
The verism of painting skin lesions, discolorations, and ly kneeling couple about to receive communion. Close to the
swelling of the flesh was abandoned after the Council of Trent picture plane lies a dead mother with her two infants. One has
(1545-1563) called for decorous art. This directive necessitat- already died, and a charitable man who cautiously covers his
ed the introduction of stereotyped plague motifs to ensure leg- nose helps the surviving child. At times, the custom of distrib-
ibility. Raphael, in The Phrygian Plague, first introduced the uting blessed pieces of bread, eulogia (not consecrated hosts),
appropriate gesture of holding the nose against the miasmic air, to prevent plague is shown, as in Karel Skreta's Nicolas da
an age-old convention to indicate the smell of death, in a plague Tolentino.
subject. The medical facts that women miscarry at the onset of Plague scenes were especially suited to depict other sacra-
the diseaseand that children under the age of five months have ments as well —a neglected subject in Christian art. Common
the best chance of surviving are borne out in another Raphael variations of the Eucharistic theme were baptism, penance,
 PLAGUE / PESTILENCE 735

confirmation, and last rites, all set in the gruesome surround- (1761), commissioned for St. Louis in Versailles, France,
ings of an outbreak of pestilence. These scenes are invaluable would have supplied a link between the old regime and
records not only because they show the human condition dur- Antoine-Jean Gros's Napoleon Visiting the Pesthouse of Jaffa.
ing an epidemic but also because they accurately portray Clearly, the implications in the propagandist painting, which
Catholic rituals that were implemented after the Council of portrays the dictator touching a soldier's plague sore (the event
Trent until Vatican II. The large canvases show an idealized never occurred), refer to the healing powers of the venerated
world: The clergy wear festive liturgical paraments, although saint as well as to the legendary thaumaturgic gifts of the
ordered to abandon them for hygienic reasons; the priests also French kings, especially those invoked against the plague, such
abstain from the use of communion tongues to reach quaran- as those of the sainted Louis IX. Gros's text speaks of the
tined people. Moreover, religious history paintings convey an "moral-raising effects" of Napoleon's death-defying courage,
idyllic picture of family support and impeccable ethical behav- which is described as "having healing powers of its own" —
ior. The attending figures show loving care and even refrain current medical opinion.
decorously from pipe smoking, which was commonly used as A political figurehead as plague intercessor is an old and fre-

The raison d'etre for these frightening plague

a disinfectant. quent motif in art that can be traced back to the most impor-
documentaries was the didactic message that the clergy would tant text in the Old Testament relating to pestilence: King
never abandon their parishioners. There is a lacuna of plague David's Remorse. Many illustrated Bibles depict David kneel-
subjects in Protestant northern countries until the romantic ing before the plague angel with the city of Jerusalem appear-
period, when William Blake, for his Europe a Prophecy, ing in the background. David atones for his sin by building an
would create his relief etching Plague — one of his most grip- and that sacred site was predestined to be chosen by
altar,

ping images. Solomon for his famous temple. (This accounts for the com-
Scenes depicting nonordained plague saints were commis- mon Christian practice of dedicating plague votive chapels and
sioned to promote religious figures of charitable nursing churches, for example, the "Spanish Chapel"; Santa Maria
orders, such as the Olivetans and the Camillians. Because the Novella in Florence; Santa Maria della Salute in Venice, Italy;
Roman Catholic Church granted martyr status to people who and Karlskirche in Vienna.) A cityscape remains part of the
gave their lives nursing during an epidemic, these didactic plague iconography throughout the centuries, be it Foligno,
paintings present positive role models for the communities. Milan, Naples, or Marseilles, to name a few examples. The
Related themes include the Seven Acts of Mercy, especially the grandiose stair decorations in the Scuola di San Rocco in
call totend to the sick and bury the dead. A typical example Venice show Pietro Negri's commemorative painting Plague in

is Giuseppe Maria Crespi's Blessed Bernbard Tolomei Venice, the female figure of the Serenissima humbling herself
Comforting the Plague Victims. The fourteenth-century before Christ, the Virgin, and Saints Michael, Mark, and Roch.
Olivetan lay brother, who had given his life in Siena, Italy, dur- Allegories of Christian virtues surround her, the Salute Church
ing the Black Death, is surrounded by a suffering crowd. The visible in the background. In another section of that large
artist has transposed this historic event into his own time: painting, frightened crowds shy away from the allegorical fig-
Monks perform charitable deeds, and a parish priest, walking ures of Death and Plague.
under a baldachin, brings the Eucharist to the plague encamp- The counterpart to the political figurehead interceding for
ment outside the city walls. This design has been repeated in a the good of his peoplethe high church official who prays to
is

number of workshop copies. Only the canvas in the Academy lift from his flock. The subject of Pope
the collective guilt
in Vienna, Austria, diverges from the original in one important Gregory's intercession is mentioned in the Golden Legend and
figure, the torch-bearing acolyte having been replaced by a will become the prototype for other propitiatory plague pro-
skeleton clad in the garment of a ministrant. Althoughit would cessions. The changes in the iconology of this theme can be
seem contradictory that death should precede the life-giving observed over a period of 400 years. One of the oldest plague
sacrament, one has to consider the painting's older prototypes frescoes can be found in San Pietro in Vincoli in Rome. St.

in print. Hans Holbein's Parish Priest of his Totentanz series Gregory is depicted in full papal regalia descending the stairs
introduced such a skeleton accompanying the clergyman on his of that church as his clergy follow him. God had commanded
last errand of mercy. an angel and a demon to bring death to Rome. These repre-
Another saint especially venerated for his love of his fellow sentatives of good and evil are pounding on the door of a
man was St. Roch. Peter Paul Rubens's altar design was dis- house on the right. The emphasis on an angry God in the story
seminated in prints throughout Europe. In St. Roch, Rubens changes to a more conciliatory mood in later versions: a vision
sums up the saint's legendaryfew key motifs. In the
life in a of the plague angel sheathing his sword over Castel
upper half, St. Roch, dressed as is accompanied by an
a pilgrim, Sant'Angelo (also based on a quote from the Golden Legend).
angel and received by Jesus Christ. Below, in a dungeonlike Therefore, in Federico Zuccaro's St. Gregory Interceding for
abyss, the plague victims are bedded down on straw. They the Cessation of the Plague, a ray of hope replaces the feeling
express a variety of emotions, ranging from despair to hope. of despair. Similarly, the theme is treated by Agnolo Solimena
Many eighteenth-century Italian and French paintings empha- and others, among them Sebastiano Ricci, who depicts the
size St. Roch's Christlike qualities of self-sacrifice and his heal- pope on his knees in front of a heavenly vision of the Virgin
ing powers (manus imponens curabat) by portraying him like with her Son blessing the crowd. A deceased mother is placed
the Savior. At times, only the pilgrim hat, staff, and St. Roch's in the foreground, and a man takes charge of her orphaned
faithful dog distinguish the saint from Christ. children.
Although now lost, Jean-Francois Millet's Salon entry St. Although the demons arc omitted in the Baroque versions,
Roch in a Plague Hospital Healing by Laying on Hands by the nineteenth century art has come full circle. Jules-Elie
736 PLAGUE / PESTILENCE

Delaunay, who knew the prototype in the Eternal City, painted painting, Poussin was associated with the subject of pestilence,
Plague 111 Early Christian Rome. On the basis of the text of a and the litter bearers in his Phocion's Funeral (Oakley Park,
nineteenth-century French translation of Golden Legend, the Plymouth Collection) are often included in other artists' plague
artist replaced the medieval demon with a dark but handsome scenes (e.g., Pierre Mignard).

wingless creature, '7c mauvais ange" bad angel) who (the Although no physician appears in a religious painting,
assists the plague angel in knocking down the door to the tem- Johannes I.ingelbach's Carnival in Rome shows a birdlike
ple of Asclepius, the god of medicine. The foreground is littered creature wearing the typical protective garb of a plague sur-
with corpses while farther back and to the left the pope is hold- geon, which makes him indistinguishable from the other
ing his procession. Delauney emphasizes the true Christian carousing masked revelers. In the same picture, a physician
faith false hope in the pagan idols.
triumphing over with a tome under his arm and a doctor sign on his back rides
A variant of the propitiatory procession is presented by in the foreground. The whole scene reflects the artist's distrust

Pietro da Cortona in St. Charles Leads the Procession of the of medicine. The reality of suffering during an epidemic, the
Holy Nail, which shows the saint in defiance of secular health breakdown of morality induced by fear that caused inhumane
ordinances demonstrating to the world his conviction that abandonment of family members, and calloused
treatment, the
divine obligations precede human laws. A charming, smiling people turned into stone (Niobe), all so frequently described in
angel swings a censer above the saint's baldachin (fumigation literature, are less popular Only a few secu-
in the visual arts.

was used to cleanse houses of plague air), seemingly incongru- lar works describe such plights. Micco Spadaro, who survived
ous to the modern viewer in a scene describing an epidemic; the 1656 Neapolitan epidemic, faithfully records the micro-
yet, to the seventeenth-century faithful, he represents the mes- cosm of human suffering in Plague in Naples by showing the
senger from a better world, thereby mirroring the Roman sick and the agony of the dying. Galley slaves, hired to clear
Catholic Church's philosophy on the ultimate questions of life the streets, drag bodies to mass burials. Violators of city ordi-
and death. nances were punished on the wheel or other instruments of
True profession of faith and divine chastisement are juxta- torture.
posed in Lodovico Carracci's St. Sebastian Resting on the France produced plague scenes long after the last major
Niohe Sarcophagus. The saint's innocence is emphasized by his European epidemic of 172.1, reviving some of the earlier tradi-
heroic endurance as he proudly displays his arrow wounds tions. In fact, poet Charles Baudelaire speaks of "/es pestiferes
(they resemble plague lacerations). The Christian martyr rests de Scio," indicating that in the nineteenth century, suffering
his foot on an antique sarcophagus that depicts the slaughter and the color of corpses were still associated with plague paint-
of Niobe's children by Apollo and Artemis, thereby linking ings, which had played such a decisive role in the development
two plague subjects. The queen's punishment for her pride and of French romanticism. Some secular nineteenth-century plague
insolence in taunting Leto, the mother of Apollo and Artemis, scenes show little concern for traditional iconography and
has been interpreted by Boccaccio and Carel van Mander, to iconology. Hans Makart, in Plague in Florence, depicts a lusty
name the most popular authors, as sudden death by pestilence. orgy. He emphasizes the corruption and lack of moral princi-
Luca Giordano paints the Niobe subject a number of times ples during the chaotic times as frequently deplored in plague
after the devastating Neapolitan epidemic, possibly as a pro- literature. On the other hand, Arnold Bocklin's Plague, painted
fane alternative for a plague subject. Other plague-related only a few years after the final discoveries of its causative
commissions chose the theme of St. Michael punishing the agents, depicts the disease as Death riding on a dinosaur, a
rebel angels' resurrection. Exodus in the Old Testament resurgence of a fossil from times past. Finally, Max Klinger's
describes the 10 Egyptian plagues. Bernardino Luini depicts print Plague, from on death, introduces the
a series of etchings
a number of these divine scourges in his painting The Slaying ancient topos into the twentieth century. It shows plague as an
of the Firstborn, emphasizing in the foreground mothers invisible force against which the humans in the hospital wards
mourning the slaying of their firstborns (often identified with are powerless.
middle ground appear cadavers of domestic
pestilence). In the Although the plague bacillus is still with us, its terror has
animals. Antonio Tempesta's series of prints individually illus- subsided. Modern authors, most famous of all Albert Camus,
trating all 10 plagues can be found in both Christian and expressed the isolation experienced in a quarantined city in La
Hebrew texts. Peste (1947, The Plague). Still, we
few plague scenes in the
find
Divine interference for blasphemy is implied in Poussin's twentieth century. In 1956, Ingmar Bergman's film The Seventh
Plague at Ashdod, where the Philistines are punished for cap- Seal (referring to the Revelation of St. John the Divine) gives a
turing the Ark of the Covenant (II Samuel 4-7). The artist char- compelling description of a medieval epidemic in Sweden.
acterized the scourge (until then thought to be dysentery) for Some AIDS posters draw on traditional plague iconography,
the first time as the bubonic plague. Because the Bible does not reviving a sense of memento mori, showing unrelenting sym-
specify the disease as pestilence (Hebrew deber, Greek loimos), bols that signify death: skulls and crossed bones. Others show
it was not considered a traditional plague text. Therefore, St. Sebastian, and a few posters appeal to the viewers' compas-
Poussin's masterpiece, although frequently copied and quoted sion. One print shows a child, infected with the HIV virus,
in part, did not inspire other versions of the
Samuel text. reaching out, saying, "Please hug me." A similar campaign to
However, the Raphael-Poussin tradition mentioned above is save the children has often been depicted in plague scenes.
responsible for developing the psychological responses to the
cataclysmic events. Some individuals show despair, others are
stoic in the face of death, some attempt to escape the epidemic,
and a few assist the less fortunate. Because of his innovative See also Death; Misfortune
 PLAGUE / PESTILENCE 737

Selected Works of Art Makart, Hans, Plague in Florence, 1868, Schvveinfurt,

Germany, Collection Georg Schafer
Votive Commissions
Warwick, Frank William Topham, Rescued from the Plague,
Barnaba da Modena, Madonna delta Misericordia, circa
1898, London, Guildhall Art Gallery
1372, Genoa, Italy, Santa Maria dei Servi
Bocklin, Arnold, Plague, 1898, Basel, Switzerland,
Raphael, Madonna di Foligno, circa 1513, Rome, Pinacoteca
Kunstmuseum
Vaticana
Klinger, Max, Plague, print, from Death Series II, plate no. 3,
Van Dyck, Anthony, Rosary Madonna, circa 1625, Palermo,
1903
Italy, Oratorio del Rosario
Reni, Guido, Palla delta peste, 1630, Bologna, Italy,
St. Charles
Pinacoteca
Landriani, Paola Camillo, St. Charles Confirms Adults During
Giordano, Luca, The Virgin and San Gennaro Interceding for
the 1575 Epidemic, 1602, Milan, Italy, Cathedral
Naples, circa 1662, Naples, Italy, Santa Maria del Pianto
Borgianni, Orazio, Charles Accepts the Care of an Infant
St.
Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista, St. Thecla Interceding for the City
During the Plague in Milan, 161 }, Rome, Chiesa da Casa
of Este, circa 1759, Este, Italy, Cathedral Generalizia dei Padre Mercedari
David, Jacques-Louis, St. Roch Interceding for the Plague-
Carracci, Annibale, St. Charles Baptizes an Infant in a
Striken, circa 1780, Marseilles, France, Museum Plague Encampment, circa 161 3, Nonatola, Italy, Abbey
Church
Allegories
Mignard, Pierre, St. Charles Administers the Viaticum to a
Diirer, Albrecht, Plague, drawing, 1505, London, British Plague Victim, 1657, Le Havre, France, Museum
Museum Pietro da Cortona, St. Charles Leads the Procession of the
The Triumph of the Cross over the Plagues of Heresy, 161 7, Holy Nail, 1667, Rome, San Carlo ai Catinari
Antwerp, Belgium, Jesuit University Luti, Benedetto, St. Charles Administers the Extreme Unction,
Corte, Josse de, Queen of Heaven Expelling the Plague,
1713, Schleissheim, Germany, Schloss Museum
sculpted high altar, 1670, Venice, Italy, Santa Maria della
Salute St. Roch
Tintoretto, St. Roch, 1549, Venice, Italy, Chiesa di San Rocco
Devastation of the Plague Rubens, Peter Paul, St. Roch, 1623, Alost, Belgium, St. Martin
Traini, Francesco, Triumph of Death, fresco, mid-fourteenth
century, Pisa, Italy, Campo Santo Other Saints
Triumph of Death, fresco, circa 1447, Palermo, Italy, Palazzo St.Gregory Interceding for Rome, fresco, 1476, Rome, San
Sclafani Pietro in Vincoli
Plague Doctor Performing an Operation, fifteenth century, Zuccaro, Federico, St. Gregory Interceding for the Cessation
Lansleville, Savoy, France, Sebastian's Chapel of the Plague, 1581, Bologna, Italy, Sta. Maria del
Raphael, The Phrygian Plague (II Morbetto), circa 15 13, print Baraccano
by Marcantonio Raimondi Carracci, Lodovico, St. Sebastian Resting on the Niobe
Luini, Benardino, The Slaying of the Firstborn, circa 15 15, Sarcophagus, circa 1610, Rome, Vatican, Pinacoteca
Milan, Italy, Brera Skreta, Karel, Nicolas da Tolentino, circa 1635, Vienna,
Lepautre, Jacques, or Jean, The Plagues of Egypt, engraving, Austria, Erzbischofliches Dom-und Diozesan Museum
seventeenth century Oost, Jacob van, the Younger, St. Marcarius Administers the
Poussin, Nicolas, The Plague at Ashdod, 163 1, Paris, Louvre Viaticum, 1673, Paris, Louvre
Lingelbach, Johannes, Carnival in Rome, circa 1650, Vienna, Solimena, Agnolo, St. Gregory Interceding for Rome, circa
Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum 1698, Sarno, Italy, Cathedral
Spadaro, Micco, Plague in Naples, 1660s, Naples, Certosa di Ricci, Sebastiano, St. Gregory Intercedes for the Cessation of
San Marino the Plague, circa 1701, Padua, Italy, Santa Giustina
Negri, Pietro, Plague in Venice, 1673, Venice, Italy, Scuola di Crespi, Giuseppe Maria, Blessed Bernhard Tolomei
San Rocco Comforting the Plague Victims, circa 1735, Los Angeles,
Blake, William, Plague, print, from Europe a Prophecy, plate California, J. Paul Getty Museum
11, 1793 Crespi, Giuseppe, School of. Blessed Bernhard Tolomei
Gros, Antoine-Jean, Napoleon Visiting the Pesthouse of Jaffa, Comforting the Plague Victims, eighteenth century, Vienna,
1804, Paris, Louvre Akademie der Bildenden Kunste
Austria,
Blake, William, Pestilence, pen and watercolor over pencil, Delaunay, Jules-Elie, Plague in Early Christian Rome, 1
869,
circa 1805, Boston, Museum of Fine Arts Pans, Musee d'Orsay
Beyer, Eugene, The Burning of the Jews in Strasbourg in
1349, circa 1850, Strasbourg, France, Musee des Beaux- AIDS Posters
Arts Dead Give Away, Don't Share Needles: Don't Get Stuck with
Gerome, Jean-Leon, Bishop Belzunce During the Plague in AIDS, Michigan Department of Public 1 lealth, Bethesda,
Marseilles, 1854, Paris, St. Severin Maryland, National Library of Medicine
Vedder, Elihu, The Plague in Florence, 1867, Lee B. Anderson / HAVE AIDS: Please Hug Me, (.enter for Attitude Healing,
Collection Bethesda, Maryland, National Library of Medicine
738 PLAGUE / PESTILENCE

Further Reading Grimm, Jurgen, Die literarische Darstellung der Pest in der
Antike und Romania, Munich, Germany: Fink, 1965
Biraben, Jean-Noel, Les hotnmes et la peste en Frani e et
Heitz, P., and Wilhelm Ludwig Schreiber, Pestblatter des 15.
dans les pays europeens et mediterraneens, Paris, Mouton,
Jahrhunderts, Strasbourg, France, 1901
1975
Herrlinger, Robert, History of Medical Illustration, from
Boeckl, Christine, Baroque Plague Imagery and Tridentine
University of Maryland,
Antiquity to 1600, Fondon: Pitman Medical, J 970; New
Church Reforms (Ph.D. diss..
York: Medicina Rar'a, 1970
1990)
Marshall, Louise Jane, "Manipulating the Sacred: Image and
, "A New Reading of Nicolas Poussin's The Miracle
Plague in Renaissance Italy," Renaissance Quarterly 47
of the Ark in the Temple <>/ Dagon," Artibus et Historiae
(Autumn 1994)
24 (1991)
Six Hundred Years of Plague Imagery: Its Iconography "Waiting on the
, Will of the Lord:" The Imagery
,

and Iconology (in preparation) of the Plague (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania,

Cagnetta, Francois, "Theater of Vanity: Gaetano Zumbo," 1989)

FMR Mollaret, FF, and J. Brossollet, "Fapeste, source meconnuc
37 (1989)
Cipolla, Carlo, Fighting the Plague in Seventeenth-Century d'inspiration artistique," Jarr book Kon. Mus. schone
Italy, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1981 kunsten Antwerp (1965)
Clifton, James Dean, Images of the Plague and other Catherine R., "Guido Reni's Pallione del Voto and
Puglisi,

Contemporary I rents of the Seventeenth Century (Ph.D. the Plague of 1630," Art Bulletin 57:3 (September 1995)
diss., Princeton University, 1987) Schroter, Elisabeth, "Raphaels Madonna di Foligno-ein
Gregg, Charles T., The Shocking Story of a Dread
Plague: Pestbild?," Zeitschrift fur Kunstgeschichte (1987)
Disease in America Today, New York: Scribner, 1978 Venezia e la peste: i}48-iy^j, Venice, Italy: Marsilio, 1979
 pointing/indicating
Fritz Laupichler

The following periods are covered in the discussion of the theme Pointing/Indicating:

ANCIENT EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

MEDIEVAL NINETEENTH CENTURY
RENAISSANCE TWENTIETH CENTURY
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY

739
740 POINTING / INDICATING

-^
 POINTING / INDICATING 74 I

Albrecht Diirer, Self-Portrait, Nude, circa

1 5 19, drawing, Bremen, Germany,
Kunsthalle. (Courtesy of Foto Marburg)

I m enerally speaking, a gesture of indication is a form of a Magus pointing at the star of Bethlehem, as in the Cologne
^^ I nonverbal communication by means of bodily signs School panel painting The Adoration of the Magi (circa 1340)
that conveys information and supplements or replaces speech. in the Louvre in Paris. In Benoit Audran the Elder's engraving

It is and can be performed by the index finger, the

dialogic The Flight to Egypt (before 1721) after Nicolas Poussin, an
hand, or the whole arm stretched out. The pointing/indicating angel (floating or going with them) directs the Holy Family
gesture can be specifically used in the sense of showing a direc- during their flight to Egypt.
tion, displaying something to someone, or presenting or accus- John the Baptist, the forerunner of Jesus Christ, has often
ing someone. Gestures of indication have occurred frequently been depicted pointing with one hand at a lamb that he is hold-
in art because they produce relations between persons, ing in the other, as in Martin Schaffner's
wing panel John the
between persons and objects, and between the work of art and Baptist (1521) in the Miinster in Ulm, Germany. Sometimes
the viewer. John the Baptist is depicted with the disciples Peter and
In ancient Greek art, gestures of indication were reserved Andrew, pointing at Christ and thus identifying him Ecce
almost exclusively for vase paintings. The arrival of spring is Agnus Dei (Behold the Lamb of God), as in Paolo de'Matteis's
the theme of a pelike by Euphronius (circa 500 B.C.) in the painting John the Baptist with Peter and Andrew, Pointing at
Hermitage in St. Petersburg, Russia. In it, three men point their Jesus (before 1728) in the Certosa di San Martino in Naples,
index fingers or widely stretched arms at a swallow, the first John the Baptist can also be seen pointing at Christ in rep-
Italy.

messenger of spring. On
Euphronius's calyx krater (circa 500 resentations of the Crucifixion, the most famous example of
B.C.) in the Staatliche Museen in Berlin, a young guardian which may be Matthias Griinewald's Isenheim Altarpiece
points an index finger at a discus thrower who is being given (1510-1515) in the Musee Unterlinden in Colmar, France. In
instructions for his training. the center panel, John stands beside the cross and points at the
Christian iconography contains numerous examples of ges- crucified Christ with an abnormally large index finger.
tures of indication, such as The on the bas-reliefs
Fall portrayed Of course, sometimes a gesture of indication is used to refer
of Bernward's doors (1015) at the Cathedral of Hildesheim, to oneself. Matthew points at himself at the moment of his call-

Germany. Reproved by God, Adam blames Eve by pointing at ing, unbelieving and astonished, in Caravaggio's The Calling of
her as she simultaneously points at a serpent, transferring the Saint Matthew (before 16 10) in San Luigi dei Francesi in Rome.
blame. Similarly, in Masaccio's fresco The Expulsion (circa In the Bible's parable of the rich man Dives and the diseased
1420-1428) in the Brancacci Chapel at Santa Maria del beggar Lazarus (Luke 16:19-31), it is usually the final scene
Carmine in Florence, Italy, an angel points Adam and Eve the that is depicted: Lazarus in paradise and Dives in hell.
way out of Paradise. Sometimes Dives is represented pointing at his tongue in thirst
Abraham's nephew Lot was said to have been
In the Bible, as he regards Lazarus in paradise, as in the Prayer Book of
ordered by God
to leave the doomed town of Sodom. In Mary of Geldern manuscript illumination (1415-1425, folio
Hendrick Goltzius's engraving Lot's Flight from Sodom 132V) in Berlin.

(before 1617) after Anthonie van Blocklandt, one of the advis- Gestures of indication occur frequently in works that por-

ing angels shows Lot and his family the way. In another Bible tray trials or acts of judgment. During the trial of Christ
story, Abraham, following the birth of his son Isaac, was said before the high priest Caiaphas (Matthew 26:57-70), a ser-
to have banished his concubine Hagar and their son Ishmael vant girl is said to have pointed at the apostle Peter and asked
after providing them with bread and water (Genesis 21:9-21). him if he was a disciple of Christ. This scene is depicted by
In depictions of this scene, such as Jacob Matham's engraving Bernardo Strozzi in The Denial of Peter (before 1644), a
The Dismissal of Hagar (before 163 1) after Abraham painting in the Collection Carvalho in Villandry. Since the late
Bloemaert, Abraham very clearly shows Hagar and Ishmael Middle Ages, Ecce Ho?Jto (behold this man) representations
with his stretched arm that they have to leave. In representa- have shown Pontius Pilate, the Roman procurator of Judea,
tions of the sacrifice of Isaac, the angel who is said to have Samaria, and Idumaea, gesturing toward Christ, whom he
restrained Abraham's hand from killing his son sometimes condemned. In Honore Daumier's Ecce Homo oil painting
points at a ram caught in a thicket, as in Caravaggio's paint- (before 1879), for example, Pilate points at Christ in a dra-
ing The Sacrifice of Isaac (circa 1 603-1 604) in the Uffizi matic gesture.
Gallery in Florence. One scene from the acts of Peter has seldom been depicted:
New Testament depictions of the Annunciation often when Peter, fleeing from Rome, meets Christ, who is carrying the
include the angel Gabriel pointing at a dove as symbol of the cross and shows him the way back to town. Annibale Carracci's
Holy Spirit, as in Jacob Matham's engraving The Annunciation Domine, quo vadis? (Christ Appearing to Saint Peter on the
(before 1631) after Giuseppe Valeriani. In a similar fashion, Appian Way, 1601-1602) in the National Gallery in London
representations of the Adoration of the Magi sometimes show depicts this rare scene, Peter's right arm widely stretched.
742 POINTING / INDICATING

In Italian painting since the quattrocento, assistant figures theMusee Didier in Langres, France, Sarpedon's body is car-
called festaiuolo have often been used to call attention to tin- riedaway by Hypnos (Sleep) and Thanatos (Death), while the
work's central scene. An angel points at the Christ Child, who god Apollo shows them the way to Lydia (in what is now
lieson the ground adored by Mary, in Filippo Lippi's painting Turkey). In Roman mythology, Venus, the goddess of love, is

The Virgin Adoring the Christ Child (circa 1465) in the Uffizi said to have brought weapons forged by Vulcan, the god of
Gallery. Similarly, Leonardo da Vinci depicts an angel pointing fire and Aeneas to be used in the
forge, to the Trojan leader

at John the Baptist as a child, instead of the Christ Child, in
The C-rotto-Madonna (circa 1483-1485) in the Louvre. In his
altarpiece The Burial of the Count of Orgaz (1586) in Santo
Tome in Toledo, Spain, El Greco depicts a boy pointing at the
dead count, a device that urges the viewer of the painting to
contemplate him.
In about 1519, Albrecht Diirer drew Self-Portrait, Nude,
now in the Kunsthalle in Bremen, Germany, which included an
inscription: "Where I point with my finger, it hurts." Although
reminiscent of Ecce Homo representations, it was presumably
made to be sent to an out-of-town physician. Preparatory
battle of Latium (in what is now Italy). In Nicolas Poussin's
painting Venus Bringing Arms to Aeneas (1639) in the Musee
des Beaux-Arts in Rouen, France, Venus gestures toward
Vulcan's weapons. In Theodor van Thulden's Croesus
Displays His Treasures to Solon (before 1669), an oil paint-
ing of yet another Greek mythological scene, Croesus, the rich
king of Lydia, displays his treasures to the Athenian philoso-
pher and statesman Solon. Finally, in Theodore Gericault's
The Raft of the "Medusa" (1819) in the Louvre, the weary
shipwrecked passengers are depicted pointing at a barely vis-
ible ship on the horizon.

drawings for the apostles in Diirer's Heller Altarpiece such as A gesture of indication can simply be the attitude of pre-
The Right Hand of the Hooded Apostle (1509) contain impres- senting someone or something to someone else. In the Bible,
sive hand studies that show the relevance of the pointing ges- Joseph, one of 12 sons of Jacob, was sold into Egyptian slavery
ture in relation to the spatiality of the composition, as well as by his jealous brothers but soon became an Egyptian official

the accentuation of indicated persons or objects. (Genesis 30:22-24; 37; 45). In Ferdinand Bol's painting Joseph
The showing gesture serves an important function in situa- Presenting His Father to the Pharaoh (before 1680) in the
tions of choice or designation. The most prominent examples Gemaldegalerie in Dresden, Germany, Joseph points a stretched

of this derive from the story of the Judgment of Solomon, when hand toward Jacob, presenting his father to the pharaoh. In
a quarrel between two prostitutes, each claiming to be the Michelangelo Presenting the Model of St. Peter to Pope Paul IV
mother of a disputed child, is King Solomon. This
settled before (before 1638), Domenico Cresti (Passignano) portrays
scene is depicted by Giorgione in The Judgment of Solomon Michelangelo pointing his index finger at the model of St. Peter
(circa 1506) in the Uffizi Gallery, and by Giovanni Battista in a presentation to Pope Paul IV
Tiepolo in a fresco of the same title (circa 1726-1728) in the In portrait paintings and portrait prints, the gesture of indi-
Archbishop's Palace in Udine, Italy. cation is often used to accentuate the rank, positive attributes,
Accusation is another function of the gesture of pointing. In or profession of the portrayed person. In the eighteenth centu-
medieval legend, King Mark of Cornwall is said to have sent ry, Antoine de Favray painted the Grand Master Pinto of Malta
the knight Tristan to Ireland to bring back the princess Yseult "grand manner style." In the portrait (before 1791), the
in the
to be his bride. On the way back, Tristan and Yseult fall tragi- Grand Master Pinto points at a king's crown and thus exagger-
cally in love. In the manuscript illumination Roman de Tristan ates his real importance. Similarly, gestures of indication are
(1401-1450, folio 186) in the Musee Conde in Chantilly, often used to call attention to vanitas (vanity) symbols. In Jan
France, the lovers are accused by King Mark of having slept Muller's engraving after Michiel Janszoon van Miereveld,
together. Johann Neyen of the Order of St. Francis points his index fin-
Gestures of accusation have also been portrayed in relation ger at an hourglass.
to the early Germanic poem Niebelungenlied (circa 1200). In Another example of a prominent gesture of indication is

the poem, Siegfried, a member of the Burgundian court at that of the military general directing his troops, as in Jacques-
Worms, is murdered after winning the hand of Kriemhild, Louis David's oil painting Napoleon Crosses the Saint-Bernard
King Gunther's sister. Siegfried had previously helped win (before 1825) in the Musee de Versailles in France. This also
King Gunther the hand of Brunhilde, an Icelandic queen. appears Antoine-Jean Gros's painting The Battle of the
in
Brunhilde, however, displayed an affinity for Siegfried, and cir- Pyramids (1810), also at the Musee de Versailles.
cumstances eventually forced her to bid Hagen, Guther's The madwoman portrayed in Giacomo Balla's painting The
uncle, to kill Siegfried. The scene in which Kriemhild stands Madwoman (1905) in the Donazione alia Galleria d'Arte
beside the corpse of Siegfried and points at Hagen, accusing Moderna in Rome points her index finger and stares out at the
him of murder, is depicted in both Julius Schnorr von viewer of the painting. The mysterious etching The Philosopher
Carolsfeld's fresco Kriemhild Accuses Hagen of Murder (1909) by the German graphic artist Max Klinger, held in the
(1846) in the Munich, Germany, and Henry
Residenz in Museum der bildenden Kiinste in Leipzig, Germany, depicts a
Fuseli's drawing of the same title (1805) in the Kunsthaus in standing nude man who points at his own reflection, yet is

Zurich, Switzerland. unable to recognize it.

The nonreligious history paintings of the seventeenth, Propaganda and political posters employ the appellative
eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries offer many examples of form of gestures of indication. Probably independently, artists of
gestures of indication. In Greek mythology, Sarpedon, the son several countries discovered the emotional effectiveness of the
of Zeus and Europa, is said to have been killed by the Greek gesture of pointing: the index finger pointed directly at the view-
warrior Patroclus during the Trojan War. In Jean-Simon er to stimulate involvement and send a message to the individ-
Berthelemy's painting Apollo and Sarpedon (before 181 1) in ual. The United States recruiting poster emblazoned with the
 POINTING / INDICATING 743

slogan "I want you for the U.S. Army," by James Montgomery Seventeenth Century
Flagg (19 1
famous example. In it, a respectable nine-
7), is a Carracci, Annibale, Domine, quo vadisi (Christ Appearing to
teenth-century Uncle Sam, with the stars of the nation on his Saint Peter on the Appian Way), panel, 1 601-1602,
hatband, establishes eye contact with, and directly points at, the London, National Gallery
viewer. Roy Lichtenstein produced the drawing Finger Pointing Caravaggio, The Sacrifice of Isaac, painting, circa 1 603-1604,
(1961) with likely knowledge of Flagg 's poster. Liechtenstein's Florence, Italy, Uffizi Gallery
drawing depicts only a large closed hand with an index finger Caravaggio, The Calling of Saint Matthew, before 16 10,
that points at the viewer. Rome, San Luigi di Francesi
Artists have incorporated gestures of indication in many Matham, Jacob, The Dismissal of Hagar, engraving, before
different situations. Whether to explain or further a story line, 163 1, after Abraham Bloemaert
emphasize the central focus of a work, play a part in the com- Matham, Jacob, The Annunciation, engraving, before 1631,
position of a work, highlight an attribute of a subject, or to after Giuseppe Valeriani
make reference to an earlier work, gestures of indication pro- Domenico (Passignano), Michelangelo Presenting the
Cresti,

vide an important means by which artists might tell a story in Model of St. Peter to Pope Paul IV, before 1638, Florence,
visual terms. Italy, Casa Buonarotti
Poussin, Nicolas, Venus Bringing Arms to Aeneas, painting,
1639, Rouen, France, Musee des Beaux-Arts
See also Arms Raised: Gaze
Strozzi, Bernardo, The Denial of Peter, painting, before 1664,
Villandry, Collection Carvalho
Thulden, Theodor van, Croesus Displays His Treasures to
Selected Works of Art Solon, oil painting, before 1669, private collection

Ancient Rosa, Salvator, Lo Spavento (Fear), oil on canvas, before

Euphronius, pelike, circa 500 B.C., St. Petersburg, Russia, 1673, Florence, Italy, Uffizi Gallery

Hermitage Bol, Ferdinand, Joseph Presenting His Father to the Pharaoh,

painting, before 1680, Dresden, Germany, Gemaldegalerie
Euphronius, calyx krater, circa 500 B.C., Berlin, Germany,
Staatliche Museen
Eighteenth Century

Medieval
Audran, Benoit, the Elder, The Flight to Egypt, engraving,
before 1721
The Fall, Bernward's door, bronze bas-relief, 1015,
Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista, The Judgment of Solomon, fresco,
Hildesheim, Germany, Cathedral
circa 1 726-1728, Udine, Italy, Archbishop's Palace
Cologne School, The Adoration of the Magi, panel painting,
Matteis, Paolo de', John the Baptist with Peter and Andrew,
circa 1340, Paris, Louvre
Pointing at Jesus, before 1728, Naples, Italy, Certosa di

San Marino
Renaissance
Favray, Antoine de, Grande Master Pinto, painting, before
Roman de Tristan, manuscript illumination, circa 1401-1450,
1 79 1, Valetta, Malta, Conventual Church of St. John
Chantilly, France, Musee Conde (fol. 186)
Prayer Book of Mary
of Geldern, manuscript illumination,
Nineteenth Century
141 5-142.5, Berlin, Germany, Staatliche Museen (fol. 132V)
Fuseli,Henry, Kriemhild Accuses Hagen of Murder, drawing,
Masaccio, The Expulsion, fresco, circa 1420-1428, Florence,
1805, Zurich, Switzerland, Kunsthaus, Graphic
Italy, Brancacci Chapel
Collection
Lippi, Filippo, The Virgin Adoring the Christ Child, painting,
Gros, Antoine-Jean, The Battle of the Pyramids, painting,
circa 1465, Florence, Italy, Uffizi Gallery
1 8 10, Versailles, France, Musee de Versailles
Leonardo da Vinci, The Grotto-Madonna, circa 1483-1485, Berthelemy, Jean-Simon, Apollo and Sarpedon, painting,
Paris, Louvre
before 181 1, Langres, France, Musee Didier
Giorgione, The judgment of Solomon, circa 1506, Florence, Gericault, Theodore, The Raft of the "Medusa," oil painting,
Italy, Uffizi Gallery 1 8 19, Paris, Louvre
Diirer, Albrecht, The Right Hand of the Hooded Apostle, David, Jacques-Louis, Napoleon Crosses the Saint-Bernard,
drawing, 1509, Vienna, Austria, Graphische Sammlung oil painting, before 1825, Versailles, France. Musee de
Albertina Versailles
Griinewald, Matthias, Isenhcim Altarpiece, center panel, Schnorr von Carolsfeld, Julius, Kriemhild Accuses Hagen of
1 5 10-15 1 5, Clomar, France, Musee Unterlinden Murder, fresco, 1846, Munich, Germany, Residenz
Diirer, Albrecht, Self-Portrait, Nude, drawing, circa 15 19, Daumier, Honore, Ecce Homo, oil painting, before 1879,
Bremen, Germany, Kunsthalle Essen, Germany, Folkwangmuseum
Schaffner, Martin, John the Baptist, wing panel, 1521, Ulm,
Germany, Miinster Twentieth Century
El Greco, The Burial of the Count of Orgaz, painting, 1586, Balla, Giacomo, The Madwoman, painting, 1905, Rome,
Toledo, Spain, Santo Tome Donazione alia Galleria d'Arte Modem.
Goltzius, Hendrick, Lot's Flight from Sodom, engraving, Klinger, Max, The Philosopher, etching, 1901). eip/ig, I

before 1617, after Anthonie van Blocklandt Germany, Museum der Bildenden Kunste
744 I'Ol NUNC / INDICATING

I lagg, fames Montgomery, / Want You for the U.S. Army, Griffin, Jocelyn Crane, Pointing Gestures in Medieval
reci uiting poster, [917 Miniatures: A Study Based on Illustrated Manuscripts
Lichtenstein, Roy, Finger Pointing, drawing, 1961, New York, of the Terence Comedies (Ph.D. diss., New York
collection of Kiki Kogelnik University, 1991
Neumann, Gerhard, Gesten und Gebdrden in der
Griechischen Kunst, Berlin: Walter De Gruyter, 1965
Further Reading Reinach, Salomon, "L'histoire des gestes," Revue

Brilliant, Richard, Gesture and Rank inRoman Art: The Use Archeologique 20 (1994)
Denote Status in
Gestures to Roman Sculpture and Revilliod, Alphonse, La geste, I'attitude et Vexpression
0/ <

Coinage, New Haven, Connecticut, and London: Yale dans les arts plastiques, Geneva, Switzerland: La Classe
University Press, 96 1
des Beaux-Arts, 1904
5

Critchley, Macdonald, The Language 0/ Gesture, London: E. Smart, Alastaire, "Dramatic Gesture and Expression
Arnold, 1939; New York: Haskell House, 1971 in the Age of Hogarth and Reynolds," Apollo 82
Gandelman, Claude, "Le Geste du 'montreur'," in he Regard (1965)
dam le te.xte. Image et ecriture du Quattrocento, Paris: Strehle,Hermann, Mienen, Gesten und Gebdrden, Munich,
eopard d'or, 986
I
1
Germany: Reinhardt, 1974
Gamier, Francois, Grammaire des Gestes, Paris: Leopard d'or, Wittkower, Rudolf, "El Greco's Language of Gestures,"
[989 Art News 56 (1957)
 PREGNANCY
Beth Gersh-Nesic

The following motifs and iconographic narratives are covered in the discussion of the theme Pregnancy:

FERTILITY GODDESSES IMPREGNATION: LEDA POVERTY

SCIENTIFIC OBSERVATION MATERNITY SORROW
IMPREGNATION: PORTRAITURE SHAME
ANNUNCIATION TO THE
VIRGIN

IMPREGNATION: DANAE

745
746 PREGNANCY

4*H*

3*

*1
 I'Ri (.NANCY 747

Venus of Willendorf, circa 25,000-15,000

Vienna, Austria,
B.C., Paleolithic sculpture,

Naturhistorisches Museum. (Courtesy of

the Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna,
Austria)

Perhaps the oldest extant works in art history are represen- United States, the Minoans of ancient Crete, and the prehistoric
tations of a pregnant woman. With bulbous breasts and peoples of Ireland, the symbol of the labyrinth as earth-womb
swollen belly, Paleolithic fertility goddesses, such as the Venus is similar. An eighth-century B.C. Etruscan bronze amulet
of Willendorf, testify to a time when the portrayal of pregnan- shows a labyrinth of three concentric circles, each incomplete
cy inspired reverence and hope. However, pregnancy in art does at one end so that they form a passageway, like the uterus open-
not always signify fertility and optimism. In some contexts, it is ing into the birth canal. A long shaft piercing through the three
the premise for sorrow or shame. This essay examines the circles ends in a cruciform with a rounded "head" that fills the
iconography of fertility, medieval and Renaissance scientific center of the womb. The cruciform seems to be the fetus. This
illustrations of embryos, impregnation, maternity, portraits of amulet may have been used to protect women during labor and
pregnant women, and pregnancy in scenes of poverty, sorrow, delivery.
and shame. In ancient Egypt, the goddess Ta-Urt/Taweret/Thoeris was
the protectress of women in childbirth. She had the body of a
pregnant hippopotamus and carried an ankh to symbolize life.
Fertility
In an ivory amuletic wand from the Middle Kingdom (circa
Humans first worshiped mother-goddesses who would inter- 2000 B.C.), Ta-Urt stands with Bes, a dwarf-deity with leonine
cede to bring forth bounty from the earth. Fashioned during the features; he is the helper of women in childbirth. She also
Paleolithic and Neolithic periods, statuettes of fertility god- stands with Thith, scribe to the gods, and a number of snakes,
desses had round pregnant bellies, small heads, and short lions, and other animals. Again, this object may have been used
pointed legs. They were also very small: The Austrian Venus of to protect women during childbirth.
Willendorf (circa 25,000-15,000 B.C.) and the Romanian Reminiscent of prehistoric sacred mounds is Diego Rivera's
Fertility Goddess of Cernavoda (circa 5,000 B.C.) are only 4.75 mural painting El Cdrcamo for the Lerma Water Supply System
inches and 6.25 inches high, respectively. It is believed that in Chapultepec, Mexico. Commissioned in 195 1, its theme is
worshipers would push the pointed legs into the earth to erect "Water, Origin of Life on Earth," and it features the workers,
a temporary shrine for this itinerant culture. architects, and contractors who made this hydrodynamic facil-

The Neolithic Fertility Goddess (circa 6000 B.C.) of Qatal ity possible. Outside the building is a sculptured pool with the
Hiiyiik in Anatolia, Turkey, sits on a birthing chair. Enthroned, rain lord and master spirit Tlaloc lying outstretched on the bot-
she becomes a sign of fertility and a site of power. In early tom. Inside the building on the chamber's walls and floor a
matriarchal societies, the queen would sit on the lap of the giant mural depicts a fertilebody of water teeming with fish,
enthroned mother-goddess to symbolize her union with the crustaceans, protozoa, and Giant hands cradle the gush-
fossils.

goddess's power. Enthronement as a sign of power continues ing flow, and two nude people —
a pregnant Mongoloid woman
through the history of art in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and (whose unborn child in utero is painted on her abdomen) and
Western Europe and among the Ashanti in West Africa (Sjoo a Negroid man —
stand half submerged in the depicted water.
and Mor, pp. 72-73). They represent the roots of Mexico's population and are seen
Sacred mountains or mounds were considered sites of rooted in the life that fills the water's underworld. Thus, the
enthronement ("sitting" on the earth) and fertility. The earth fertility of the water and that of their bodies intermingle, each
was the divine body of the Mother-Goddess (Sjoo and Mor, p. enriching the other.
73), and the sacred mountain or mound was the primordial
pregnant belly from which sprang the water of chaos, "the
Scientific Illustrations
world egg born from the primordial sea of night" (Sjoo and
Mor, p. 104). The first drawing of an actual fetus in the womb appears in

Silbury Hill at Wiltshire Downs in southwestern England is
an example of a sacred mountain. More than 4,500 years old,
it is 130 feet high and 520 feet in diameter. Silbury Hill is one
of more than 1,500 sites that have an enclosure at the top and
earthen banks arranged in circles or coiled in a spiral around its
circumference. The circles or spirals may have been sacred
mazes (Sjoo and Mor, p. 104).
The sacred maze gave rise to the labyrinth as a metaphor for
the womb. Among the Hopi Indians of the southwestern
Leonardo da Vinci's notebooks (circa 15 10-15 12). Previously
and subsequently, manuals on midwifery provided copies of
illustrations found in a book written in the sixth century by
Moschion. It was a translation of Soranus of Ephesus's
Gynaecia {On Gynecology) from the early second century a.d.
The earliest extant copy of the Moschion manuscript is a ninth-
century codex, now in the Bibliotheque Royale in Brussels,
Belgium. This ninth-century copy and subsequent copies from
the thirteen through the sixteenth century show a series of
74^ l'RKGNANCY

flasklike forms with cherubic bodies representing the fetus in Annunciate by Antonello da Messina); and Meritatio (Merit
utero. Moschion's influence can be clearly seen in Rucharius the Virgin meditates on the divinity of her condition).
Rosslin's book on midwifery Rosengarten (1513), Scipione Paralleling the impregnation of a mortal virgin by a divine
Mercurio's La Comare (1595), and Andrian Spiegel's De source, the story of Danae was viewed in the sixteenth and sev-

Formato foetu (1626), among many others. In the eighteenth enteenth centuries as a prefiguration of the Annunciation.
century, William Hunter departed from copies of Moschion's Danae, the daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos, was shut away
illustrations by basing his drawings on direct observation. His in an underground bronze chamber when her father learned

book The Anatomy of the Human Gravid Uterus was pub- from the oracle of Delphi that his daughter would give birth to
lished in 1774, 350 years after Leonardo sketched from life in a son who would kill him. The room had one opening, and
his notebooks. through this opening Zeus, king of the gods, came to Danae in
a shower of golden rain (Ovid, Metamorphoses, 4:611). The
seduction produced Perseus, who accidentally slew Acrisius
Impregnation
with a discus during athletic games in Greece.
The illustrations in medieval and Renaissance books on Paintings from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
embryology show that Aristotle's explanation for conception demonstrate the prefiguration of the Annunciation through
in On the Generation of Animals (fourth century B.C.) their iconography: Danae (the virgin), a putti (the angel), and
remained the main source of information among theologians, the shower of golden rain (the divine source of impregnation).
medical practitioners, and the general public. According to Correggio's nude Danae lies on her bed as one putto lifts her
Aristotle, the woman provided "Matter" with her menstrual cover to facilitate the entry of a shimmering glow (paralleling
blood in her womb and the man provided "Form" in his Gabriel's facilitation of the union between the Virgin and the
semen. The "Form" transformed woman's "Matter" into a Holy Ghost). Two other putti at the side of Danae's bed dip
human being, Aristotle explained, like rennet transformed their arrows in a love potion (reminding us that this extraor-
milk into cheese. dinary event belongs to pagan mythology). Titian's nude
Art historian Susan Koslow, in her essay on Rogier van der Danae lies on her bed, resting her head against the pillows as
Weyden's Columba Annunciation, discussed the influence of she stares at a golden cloud hovering above. In the Naples
Aristotelian ideas on contemporary images of the Annunciation version, a lively little putto strides in, looking over his right
in early Netherlandish art and concluded that the "curtain- shoulder at the golden mist; in the Prado version, an old
sack" —the balled-up swag hanging from the canopy of the woman chaperon lifts comes
her apron as the golden shower
bed, which resembles the cheese-maker's cloth wrapped around drifting in. Francesco Primaticcio and Rembrandt van Rijn
the finished product —seems to describe Aristotle's notion that included the maidservant and the putti: Primaticcio's maid-
conception was a kind of cheese-making process. Koslow sup- servant and putto play together while the cloud hovers above
ported her thesis by pointing out that the Holy Ghost in the the nude virgin sitting upright in bed, and Rembrandt's maid-
form of a hovering white bird (not necessarily a dove) or servant sweeps aside the curtains of the bed to let in a golden
homunculus appears near the curtain-sack, thus signifying the mist while a putto flies over the head of the enchanted nude
moment of impregnation, when the Word was made flesh and Danae. The mood of these paintings is quietly erotic: an occa-
"Matter" united with "Form." sion to show off young female flesh placed in a tantalizing
Whereas Koslow's article decodes fifteenth-century pose of expectation and wonder. Such scenes call forth asso-
Netherlandish Annunciations, Michael Baxandall decodes fif- ciations with Venus rather than the Virgin, for they portray
teenth-century Italian Annunciations in his book Painting and Danae as an odalisque (passive and inviting) whose womanly
Experience in fifteenth Century Italy (pp. 48-56). According beauty, availability, and innocence constitute most of her
to Baxandall, the priest and the painter interpreted the Gospels charm.
for each other. For example, in Fra Roberto Caracciolo da Similarly, the mortal Leda, wife of Tyndareus, king of
Lecce's sermons on the Annunciation, he discussed three prin- Sparta, is impregnated by Zeus, who came to her as a swan. In
cipal mysteries: the Angelic Mission, the Angelic Salutation, paintings by Michelangelo, Correggio, and Andre Lhote, this
and the Angelic Colloquy. The Angelic Colloquy was the supernatural event provided the opportunity to depict sexual
exchange between the archangel Gabriel and the Virgin Mary. intercourse, a far cry from Leonardo's earlier Leda, which
Caracciolo described five moments that occurred during their depicts her standing under the shelter of the swan's wing gaz-
conversation that account for the different expressions of the ing lovingly at her four children, who have just hatched from
Virgin in fifteenth-century Italian Annunciations. Baxandall two large eggs. Michelangelo's Leda was painted in 1529 for
describes moments with
these the following examples: Alfonso d'Este to reciprocate his hospitality (Panofsky,
Conturbatio (Disquiet when the — angel Gabriel appears
first p. 146).
suddenly, as in Annunciation in Florence by Fra Filippo Lippi);
Cogitatio (Reflection — the Virgin understands the meaning of
Maternity
his presence, as in Annunciation by the Master of the Barberini
Panels); Interrogatio (Inquiry —the Virgin asks why she has During the Hellenic and Hellenistic periods, small statues of
been chosen, as Annunciation by Alesso Baldovinetti);
in women were popular images. Among them are depictions of
—
Humilidtio (Submission the Virgin accepts her fate, as in pregnant women. In ancient Greece, women were valued as
Annunciation in Florence by Fra Angelico and Virgin breeders of healthy children, preferably sons. Funerary stelae
 PREGNANCY 749

and vases commemorate women who died in childbirth, such each other, as depicted on the west portal of Reims Cathedral
as the Attic lekythos with the scene of a midwife holding the (circa 1 225-1245), where jamb figures of the Virgin and
limp body of a dead pregnant mother while the husband looks Elizabeth turn toward each other. In the sixteenth century, the
on in grief. Visitation becomes a more emotional event, and the pregnan-
The Christian era continued the veneration of the pregnant cies become quite full. Jacopo da Pontormo and Albrecht Diirer
woman, influenced by the cult of the Virgin Mary (Warner, pp. show the expectant mothers embracing, whereas Giulio
177-205; Kristeva, "Stabat Mater"). However, unlike previous Romano has Elizabeth taking hold of the Virgin's right hand
mother figures, the Virgin's pregnancy connotes not fertility but while embracing her with her left arm.
self-sacrifice —
the giving of oneself (and one's most prized pos- References to maternity also appear in secular art, as in Jan
session, virginity) for the greater good. Thus, statues of the van Eyck's Arnolfini Wedding (Portrait of Giovanni Arnolfini
pregnant Virgin become devotional images and paradigms of and Giovanna Cenami), in which the "curtain-sack" hangs
the ideal woman. from the canopy of the bed and a carving of St. Margaret of
Three sculptures from Europe show the pregnant Virgin Antioch (patron saint of childbirth) appears in the center back-
alone: a fifteenth-century Spanish sculpture of a standing figure ground. These symbols either promise fertility in the marriage
with her right hand raised and left hand resting on her round- or announce the pregnancy of the bride. Jan Vermeer's paint-
ed abdomen, a fifteenth-century Bohemian seated figure with ings Woman in Blue Reading a Letter and Woman Holdi>ig a
her right hand over her gravid stomach and her left hand rest- Balance (both circa 1660-1665) seem to incorporate pregnan-
ing on her left knee; and a seventeenth-century Spanish stand- cy into a vanitas theme, representing life surrounded by mate-
ing figure whose abdomen remains open to reveal the Holy rial goods and subject to the vicissitudes of fate. In his book

Child. These figures were probably appealed to by expectant on Vermeer, John Nash claims that the reader in blue "repre-
mothers, as was Piero della Francesca's fresco Madonna del sents the truth that though her love is physical and fruitful its
Parto, where the pregnancy protrudes through a vaginally fundamental reality is spiritual" (Nash, p. 92) and that the
shaped opening in her robe, an indication of her "supreme fem- woman with a balance may represent the weighing of one's
ininity" (Lavin, p. 104). soul because she stands before a picture of the Last Judgment
The pregnant Virgin also appears in scenes of her life await- (Nash, p. 98).
ing the Nativity. In a fourteenth-century French ivory carving, Such sober and serene images of pregnant women contrast
Mary and Joseph under an elaborate arch, Joseph's out-
sit with Samuel van Hoogstraten's The Sick Lady from the late
stretched hand touching the rounded stomach of his wife; in a seventeenth century, wherein a doctor performs a uroscopy
fourteenth-century apse fresco in San Abondio Basilica in before the pale and wan female patient. The humor of detect-
Como, Italy, a very pregnant Virgin lumbers along on the back ing pregnancy can also be found in the early nineteenth-centu-
of a donkey heading for Bethlehem. ry satiric print Time the Best Doctor, in which four doctors try
The between the newly pregnant
Visitation, the meeting to explain the cause of a female patient's swollen stomach.
Virgin and her six-months-pregnant cousin, Elizabeth (who Some years later, Honore Daumier ridiculed the pregnant
carries St. John the Baptist), was often included in scenes of woman's hearty appetite in his lithograph line enuie de femme
the life of Jesus Christ or the Virgin Mary. In early Byzantine grosse (1840). Here, a pregnant bourgeois wife tries to take a
versions from the fifth and sixth centuries, tiny children in bite out of the butcher's arm while he carries a tray full of meat.
mandorla-shaped uteri were placed on
the mothers' Meanwhile, her husband grabs her arm and pulls her back,
abdomens, like a window to their wombs; in sculpture, these exhibiting his annoyance and exercising the manly duty of con-
exposed wombs were called platytera (Hall, p. 337). The trolling his wife.
exposed womb appeared in Europe during the Middle Ages Far from finding humor in the subject of pregnancy,
(especially in Germany). It resembled the embryos illustrated Gustav Klimt selected the pregnant woman as a symbol of
in contemporary copies of Moschion's translation of hope for his 1903 painting of that title. This young expectant
Soranus's On Gynecology. Examples of these Visitation mother, with flaming red hair and ghostly white skin, stands
scenes with exposed wombs include a painting by the Master before specters of death and decadence, representing the "tru-
of the Cologne School (circa 14 10); a fresco in St. Georg zu ism," art historian Alessandra Comini believes, "that life and
Rhazlins in Graubiimden, Switzerland (1375); an initial in a death are equally present in the great continuum of biological
Cistercian gradual (circa 1340); and a miniature from the renewal" (p. 15).
Pontificale di Wiirzburg in Germany (circa 1507). The in In a happier vein is Marc Chagall's The Pregnant Woman
utero infant Jesus appears again about 250 years later in (1912-1913), a childlike description of maternity wherein the
Gottfried Bernhard Goz's fresco Maria, die Mutter der scho- "window to the womb" returns to painting about a decade after
nen Liebe (circa 1750), although here the Christ Child seems Margaret MacDonald MacKintosh depicted it in her Visitation.
to be a sunburst applied to a Virgin floating in majesty. Otto Dix's playful postcubist pregnant woman follows in [^zo
Around 1900, Margaret MacDonald MacKintosh painted an with the display of a colorful nude body composed of disks that
artnouveau version of The Visitation wherein the two moth- look like bubbles converging into an S-curve. The mother rides
ers overlap and intertwine at the stomach, sharing one womb a diminutive cow, her face aglow with stars in her eyes and a
that holds one child. star in her womb. This fanciful image of pregnancy may be
The Child in utero rarely appeared outside Germany. More another symbol of hope in response to the horrors of World
typically, the Visitation simply showed the two women greeting War I.
750 PREGNANCY

Faith Wilding wove the Womb Room for Womanhouse, a Anniversary (1906) marked her wedding anniversary.
fifth

project created by the Feminist Art Program at the California She married Felix Modersohn on May became
25, 1901. She
Institute of the Arts in 1972. Comprised of a web vault that pregnant in early 1907, gave birth to a daughter on
represents "everybody's firsi room" (Raven, p. 443), is 1 1 1 November 2 of that year, and died three weeks later from an
piece produces an atmosphere of comfort and enclosure while embolism.
it asserts the language of feminist rhetoric in Wilding's choice Alice Neel's portraits of pregnant women are less sentimen-
of medium and execution, something reminiscent of crochet- tal. In an early work from 1930, she drew a young couple
ing and macrame, which are usually considered women's sleeping on a train, the wife quite pregnant. Later she painted
crafts. Pregnant Maria (1964) and Pregnant Woman (1971), in which
In Japan, an artist painted five upper bodies and five lower she focuses on frank sexuality and womanly pride, as these two
bodies of nude pregnant women tumbling through the air, over- nude women lie recumbent, gazing directly at the viewer as in
lapping one another to form nine different bodies in nine dif- Edouard Manet's Olympia. Neel's Margaret Evans Pregnant
ferent positions with nine different wombs — all on a novelty (1978) lacks the confidence exuding from the earlier two. Also
fan (undated). In an undated Japanese print (perhaps from the nude, Margaret sits upright, grasping the sides of an armless
same era), several pregnant women, nude from the waist up, yellow stuffed chair, her eyes wide and her mouth and chin set
display the different stages of fetal development on their firmly. Less graceful with her pale skin and a sunburn on her

exposed wombs. neck and shoulders, she seems vulnerable and ill at ease as an
expectant mother.

Portraits
Poverty
Portraits of pregnant women also vary in their spirit of presen-
tation. Raphael's La Gravida (1 505-1 507) is a very plain While the blessings of fertility and maternity inspired many
woman in fine Renaissance clothes hand on who puts her left artists in many cultures, the burden of caring for too many chil-
her belly and clasps her gloves in her right hand, which rests on dren concerned others. Alphonse Levy dramatized this situa-

a book (perhaps the Bible). The gloves in her hand symbolize tion in his 1880 lithograph Ca, e'est pour les riches, which
trust and openness. She looks at the spectator with an implaca- depicts a poor pregnant woman standing outside a bakery shop
ble stare, revealing nothing, as if her pregnancy should speak with a baby in her arms and a toddler at her side, eyeing the
for itself. cakes and chocolates in the window. Here, pregnancy augments
Thomas Couture portrayed his pregnant wife Marie-Heloise a pictorial commentary about poverty and class consciousness
Servent walking toward the open gate of a garden in his paint- with the issue of birth control, a topic that gained attention
ing La Lecture (i860). Lost in a book as she walks, the preg- with urbanization and its attendant problems.
nant woman is enfolded in a large shawl that hides the contours Kathe Kollwitz's etching Woman with Folded Hands
of her body. The iconography refers to approaching a change (Pregnant (1898) focuses on a pregnant woman
Woman)
and the prospect of entering anothei phase of one's life. whose simple clothes and haunting eyes convey the anxiety,
Berthe Morisot, too, suppressed the look of pregnancy in helplessness, and resignation of poor pregnant women among
the portraits of her sister that she painted during Edme's two the peasants and working class. Kollwitz's "At the Doctor's"
confinements: Madame Morisot and Her Daughter Madame from Scenes of Poverty (1 908-1 909) shows a pregnant
Pontillon (1869-1870), Interior (1871), Portrait of Madame woman knocking on the door of her physician, her downcast
Pontillon (1871), and Madame Pontillon and Her Daughter, face in shadow, her large powerful hands strengthened by
Jeanne (1871). Both Couture and Morisot reflect the hard work, and her body slightly bent with the physical and
Victorian preference for hiding the look of pregnancy from psychological strain of bringing a new life into a poor family.
public view. Compounding the hardship of pregnancy and poverty,
Contrary tothis Victorian attitude, two German artists, Kollwitz added the burden of loss in a woodcut entitled The
Lovis Corinth and Paula Modersohn-Becker, celebrate the Widow I (1922-1923), which portrays a young pregnant
physicality of pregnancy in portraits that clearly highlight the woman shrouded in black, her large hands enfolding her chest
condition. Corinth painted a portrait of his wife, Charlotte above a swelling stomach and her head turned to the right
Berend-Corinth, while she was in her ninth month. Dated and resting on her shoulder. She is lost in her pain, lonely, and
October 8, 1904, in the upper right-hand corner, hn desperately in need of solace. With her 1924 poster Down
Seidenmantel (In a Silk Coat) shows off Frau Corinth's full with the Abortion Paragraph! Kollwitz added her voice to the
pregnant stomach in profile. She faces the viewer with a serene fight for birth control. Reminiscent of Levy's lithograph, it

expression and holds a small handbag at her side as if she is also depicts a pregnant woman with an infant in her arms and
about to go out. Their son Thomas was born on October 13, a toddler at her side holding her hand. The exhausted face of
1904. the mother, her eyes sunken into two black hollows, becomes
Paula Modersohn-Becker painted a self-portrait in which a poignant plea to relieve women who are trapped by their
she envisioned her own pregnancy before she had even con- biological and economic circumstances.
ceived. A three-quarter length nude with amber necklace, she Similarly, in his painting The Soup (1903), Pablo Picasso
encircles her rounded stomach with her two hands and seems portrays a poverty-stricken pregnant woman who wearily
to peer into a mirror. Self-Portrait on Her Sixth Wedding offers her small daughter a bowl of piping-hot soup. Bent over
 PREGNANCY 75

with eyes closed and Madonnaesque in her draped mantel, this not celebratory, although the eyes again betray Picasso's
mother reflects the continued influence of the pregnant Virgin ambivalence about fatherhood.
as the symbol of humility and self-sacrifice. Less than 15 years later, Picasso's stiff Pregnant Woman
and awkwardly skinny She-Goat Great with Kid (two sculp-
tures from 1950) seem to represent another kind of sadness
Sorrow
brought about by pregnancy. According to Franchise Gilot,
In his book La Femme, French historian Jules Michelet wrote, Picasso's lover during the late 1940s and early 1950s, Picasso
"Happy the man who liberates a woman, who frees her from wanted more children after the births of Claude (May 15,
the physical frailty to which Nature condemns her, from the 1947) and Paloma (April 19, 1949) but was disappointed that
weakness which is her lot in her loneliness, from so many Gilot was too ill at the time to consider it (Gilot and Lake, p.
chains, and miseries" (translated in Seznec, p. 132). These 320). Mary Matthews Gedo views Pregnant Woman, She-
words surely influenced Vincent van Gogh while he composed Goat Great with Kid, and Baboon with Young (1951) as evi-
Sorrow (1882), a drawing of a seated nude pregnant woman dence of Picasso's jealousy and anger, Gilot having become so
folded in on herself, hiding her head in her arms to show her caught up in her role as mother that she had little time to
loneliness and suffering. Clasina (Sien) Maria Hoornik, who devote exclusively to Picasso. Gedo proposes that the sculp-
posed for this drawing, was van Gogh's mistress and had been tures may be his "efforts to master deep disturbance and
abandoned by the man who had made her pregnant. ambivalence" (Gedo, p. 212).
In the first version of Sorrow, given to his brother Theo, the Sadness brought about by pregnancy also appears in Judy
figure appears with the word Sorrow written in English in the Chicago's Birth Project (1980-1985), a collection of works that
lower right-hand corner. Two other drawings were made at the and mythological significance
celebrates the personal, political,
same time by pressing down on three sheets of paper. Of those of childbirth. Having talked and new mothers,
to experienced
two drawings, one was embellished with landscape elements Chicago focused her vision on their anxiety and sadness. In
and a quote from Michelet's La Femme: "Comment se fait-il Smocked Figure (1984), the artist drew an outline of a pregnant
qu'il y ait sur la terre une femme seule —
delaissee. Michelet" woman in profile with the hands covering the face to show
(How is it that on earth there can be a woman alone and for- — weeping and her dress clinging to her body, as if it were a
saken. Michelet). With this subsequent version we can ascertain metaphor for her confining condition. Mary Ewanoski, who
van Gogh's state of mind as he identified Sien with Michelet's embroidered Smocked Figure, said it reminded her of the time
everywoman. her mother cried when she learned she was pregnant for the
Pablo Picasso's The Embrace (1903) describes the sadness fifth time (Chicago, p. 73). In another series of five pregnant
of two lovers affected by an untimely pregnancy. With bodies figures,Chicago depicted mothers worrying about their unborn
entwined and heads resting on each other's shoulders, they babies: "One is staring at her bulging stomach in dismay; the
seek mutual support and comfort for a problem they both next gazes at the milk pouring from her breasts; the third sees
must share. Their nudity obviates their socioeconomic identi- a monster growing in her womb; and the last figure ponders
ties and directs attention to the sexuality of pregnancy, his with horror the miscarriage that is carrying away the child she
penis resting on her large belly. Three preparatory sketches wants to bear" (Chicago, p. 78). The fifth figure from this
executed in January 1903 inform us about the implicit narra- series is a pregnant woman, swaddled like a mummy, and a
tive for The Embrace: Man Kneeling at a Woman's Feet, newborn child
— "a metaphor for the containment of the self

wherein a nude pregnant woman stands and a nude man
kneels, reaching toward her feet pleading for forgiveness; The
Surprise, wherein a nude man stands with raised hands in
rejection while a nude pregnant woman clings to him desper-
ately; and The Reconciliation, wherein a nude pregnant
woman walks toward her solicitous lover, her face buried in
her hands, weeping. In these sketches, Picasso seems to have
worked out his meditation on the threat of an unwanted preg-
nancy, and at the age of 22 it seems likely that he or a close
friend had been involved with this sort of situation. Mary
Matthews Gedo suggests that these sketches may "relate to
Picasso's guilt and ambivalence about his sexual desires and
activities" (Gedo, p. 52).
Untimely pregnancy may be the subject again in Picasso's lit-
tle-known painting of Marie-Therese Walter titled Figure
(dated April 15, 1936). The woman, Picasso's lover, was preg-
nant at this time. Here, two yellow ovals form a face, and one
pale blue oval forms the round belly. In a surreal cubist man-
ner, the anxious face seems divided between happiness and fear
while the third oval, like a robin's egg, promises life — perhaps
hope eternal. The colors in this work certainly appear gay, if
and the ego that childbearing requires" (Chicago, p. 80).
Chicago also created birth garments that she hoped would
"speak of power and imprisonment simultaneously" (Chicago,
p. 122).
From Zaire, a father from the Keenge in the northeastern
Kuba kingdom carved a sculpture of his daughter who died in
childbirth. The sculpture follows Kuba artistic traditions, with
only the pregnancy as a mark of identification (Vansina, p.
112). In another work from Kuba country, a standing pregnant
woman seems to have a sad expression, which art historian Jan
Vansina relates to the sadness of womanhood, the result of
being taken from one's family to live among strangers (Vansina,
p. 205).
Shame
Pregnancy also signifies the loss of virginity, sometimes a
shameful revelation for a young, unmarried woman. For
Callisto, a nymph and one of the attendants of Artemis
(Diana), goddess of childbirth and wild animals, pregnancy
was the result of a rape. She had been duped by Zeus (Jupiter),
75^ I'KI (,\ \N< ^

king of the gods, who approached her disguised as Artemis and Selected Works of Art
then defiled her while ignoring her protests. Some months later,
fertility Goddesses
while Artemis and her nymphs were bathing in a stream,
Venus of Willendorf, Paleolithic sculpture, circa 25,00-1 5,000
the other nymphs tore oft Callisto's clothes to reveal her preg-
B.C., Vienna, Austria, Museum of Natural History
nane to Artemis. According to Ovid, Artemis immediately
Fertility Goddess, Neolithic sculpture, circa 6000 B.C., from
banished Callisto from her retinue, and Callisto was forced to
Shrine A. II. 1, Cental Hiiyiik, Turkey, now in Ankara,
wander. Alter she gave birth to her son, Areas, the jealous Hera
Turkey, Archeologica'l Museum
(Juno), wife of Zeus, transformed Callisto into a hear, thus
FertilityGoddess, Neolithic sculpture, circa 5000 B.C.,
depriving her of motherhood. When Areas grew up, he and a
originally from Cernavoda, Romania, now in Bucharest,
hunting party found his mother. Callisto recognized her son
Romania, National Museum
and approached. Areas raised hi s spear to kill the menacing
Downs, southwestern England
Silbury Hill, Wiltshire
bear, but Zeus stayed his hand and transformed the mother and
Egyptian amuletic wand, ivory, circa 2000 B.C., London,
son into the constellations Ursa Major and Arctophalax.
Incensed by this honor, Hera asked the river god Oceanus and
British Museum
Foetus in Utero, Etruscan amulet, eighth century B.C., Zurich,
his wife, the sea goddess Tethys, to prevent the two constella-
from resting in their cool water. Thus, these constellations
Switzerland, Sammlung Griinwald
tions
never fall below the horizon (Ovid, Metamorphoses, Rivera, Diego, El Cdrcamo: El Agua Origen de la vida en la
tierra, mural painting, 195 1, Chapultepec, Mexico,
1:407-461).
In two woodcuts from and paintings
the sixteenth century
Camara de Distribuscion del Agua del Lerma
by Annibale Carracci, Titian, Jan Saenredam, Peter Paul
Scientific Observation
Rubens, and Rembrandt, the Callisto tale is reduced to the rev-
Positions of the Fetus in Utero, manuscript, ninth century,
elation of her pregnancy and Artemis's angry response.
Although this moment dramatizes Callisto's humiliation and copy of sixth-century Moschion manuscript (translation
of Soranus of Ephesus, On Gynecology, first century
shame, in the hands of these male artists, the plethora of female
a.d.), Brussels, Belgium, Bibliotheque Royale
nudes brings an erotic element to a moralistic subject.
During the medieval and Renaissance periods, interpreters Positions of the Fetus in Utero, Moschion manuscript,
of Ovid ignored Callisto's rape and decided that she willingly thirteenth century, Munich, Germany,
succumbed to Zeus's advances (Wall, p. 28). The significance of Universitatsbibliothek

the story became her misfortune, which parallels the story of Positions of the Fetus in Utero, Moschion manuscript,
Actaeon, who accidentally discovered the bathing Artemis, was thirteenth century, Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale

turned into a stag by the goddess and was then devoured by his Anatomy of a Pregnant Woman, 1400, drawing, Leipzig,

own dogs. Titian and Rembrandt made this parallel clear: Germany, Universitatsbibliothek
Titian painted pendants of the stories, and Rembrandt painted Positions of the Fetus in Utero, Moschion manuscript,

both stories in one work. Their focus portrays Callisto as a vic- fifteenth century, Erlangen, Germany, Universitatsbibliothek

tim, and her story becomes allegorical, with Artemis the per- Leonardo da Vinci, Fetus in Utero, drawing in notebooks,
sonification of fortune. circa 15 10-15 12, Windsor, England, Windsor Castle

The shame of lost virginity and illegitimacy is given a much Rosslin, Eucharius, Positions of the Foetus in Utero, from

more straightforward treatment in Godfried Schalcken's La Rosengarten, 15 13

consultation indiscrete (1680-1685) and its pendant La Vogtherr, Heinrich, Anatomy of a Pregnant Woman, from
remonstrance inutile (1685-1690). In the former, a young Tabula foeminae membra demonstrans, 1539, Strasbourg,
woman stands behind her father and a doctor who examines a France
flask of urine in which a tiny fetus floats. The daughter holds Anatomy of a Pregnant Woman, in Propleumata Aristotelis,

a kerchief to her closed, tearful eyes. Her father sneers at his 1543, Strasbourg, France
daughter in disdain. In the latter, a young woman sits next to Ryff, Walter Hermann, Anatomy of a Woman, from
a table with her hand on an elaborate box. The lid of the box Description anatomiques de toutes les parties du corps
is slightly ajar, and the head of a bird emerges; the bird is humain
about to fly away, symbolizing her lost virtue. An older man Estienne, Charles,Anatomy of a Pregnant Woman, from De
(presumably her father) stands before the young woman lec- humani libri tres, 1545, Paris
dissectione partium corporis
turing her in vain. The two paintings inform each other, and it Dryander, Johannes, Abnormal Positions of the Foetus in
appears that the spectator should sympathize with the frail Utero, from Artzenei Spiegel, 1
547, Frankfurt-am-Main,
young women one should sympathize with the victimized
(as Germany
Callisto) but still agree with the condemnation of the older Rueff, Jacob, Anatomy of a Pregnant Woman, from Du
men. Thus, pregnancy in art infers a wide range of meanings conceptu el generatione honnnis, 1580, Frankfurt-am-
and provokes a wide range of sentiments, from reverence to iVlain, Germany
sadness to censure. Mercurio, Scipione, Positions of the Foetus in Utero, from
La Comare, 1595
Spiegel, Andrian,Anatomy of a Pregnant Woman, from De
Sec also Annunciation; Birth/Childbirth; Visiting/Visitation formato foetu, i6z6, Padua, Italy
 PREGNANCY 753

Berrettino, Petro,Anatomy of a Pregnant Woman, from Pregnancy with Abdominal Binder, terra-cotta statue, fifth
Tabulae anatomicae, 1741, Rome century B.C., Athens, Greece, National Archaeological
Stages of the Foetus in Utero, sculpture, mid-eighteenth Museum
century, Bologna, Italy, University of Bologna, Teatro Woman Dying of Childbirth, Attic lekythos, fourth
Anatomico century B.C., Athens, Greece, National Archaeological
Hunter, William, The Anatomy of the Human Gravid Uterus, Museum
1774, Birmingham, England Pregnant Woman, Hellenistic statue, second century B.C.,
Izmir, Turkey, Gulf of Smyrna
Impregnation: Annunciation to the Virgin Visitation, sculpture, circa 1225-1245, Reims, France,
Lippi, Filippo, Annunciation in Florence, painting, Cathedral
1440-1460, Florence, Italy, San Lorenzo Saint Joseph and the Virgin, French ivory carving, fourteenth

Angelico, Fra, Annunciation in Florence, fresco, 1440-1460, Musee de Cluny

century, Paris,

Florence, Italy, Museo di San Marco Mary on the Road to Bethlehem, fresco, fourteenth century,

Christus, Petrus, Annunciation, altar wings, panel from Como, Italy, San Abondio Basilica, Apse
Annunciation and Nativity and Last Judgment, 1452.,
The Visitation, initial in Cistercian gradual, from Wonnenthal
Berlin-Dahlem, Germany, Gemaldegalerie, Staatliche 1340, Karlsruhe, Germany, Badische
Cloister, circa
Landesbibliothek
Museen
Weyden, Rogier van der, The Annunciation, panel from The Visitation, fresco, circa 1375, Gradunden, Switzerland,
The Columba Triptych, 1460-1462, Munich, Germany, St. Georg zu Rhaziins
Pinakothek
Piero della Francesca, Madonna del Parto, painting, fifteenth
century, Arezzo, Italy, Chapel of Monterchi
Bouts, Dirck, Annunciation, painting, mid-fifteenth century,
Master of the Cologne School, Mary and Elizabeth: The
Los Angeles, California, J. Paul Getty Museum
Visitation, circa 14 10, Utrecht, The Netherlands,
Master of the Barberini Panels, Annunciation, painting,
Aaetsbisschoppelijk Museum
fifteenth century, Washington, D.C., National Gallery
Die Schw angersch aft der Heiligen Maria, Bohemian sculpture,
of Art
circa 1430, Prague, Czech Republic, National Gallery
Baldovinetti, Alesso, Annunciation, painting, fifteenth century,
Eyck, Jan van, Arnolfini Wedding (Portrait of Giovanni
Florence, Italy, Uffizi Gallery
Arnolfini and Giovanna Cenami), 1434, London, National
Antonello da Messina, Virgin Annunciate, painting, circa
Gallery
1473, Munich, Germany, Alte Pinakothek
School of Amiens, The Expectant Madonna with Saint
Joseph, oil on panel, circa 1437, Washington, D.C.,
Impregnation: Danae
National Gallery of Art
Correggio, Danae, painting, 1531, Rome, Borghese Gallery
The Pregnant Mary, Spanish sculpture, circa 1450, Santiago
Titian, Danae, painting, circa 1554, Naples, Italy, Galleria
de Compostela, Spain, Diocese Museum
Nazionale di Capodimonte
Diirer, Albrecht, The Visitation, woodcut from The Life of
Titian, Danae, painting, 1554, Madrid, Spain, Prado
the Virgin, circa 1 500-1 505
Primaticcio (after), Danae, tapestry, sixteenth century, Vienna,
Giulio Romano, The Visitation, painting, sixteenth century,
Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum Madrid, Spain, Museum of Madrid
Rembrandt van Rijn, Danae, painting, 1636, St. Petersburg,
The Visitation, German miniature, circa 1507, from
Russia, Hermitage
Pontificate di Wiirzburg, Florence, Italy, San Lorenzo
Pontormo, Jacopo da, The Visitation, circa 1530, Camignano,
Impregnation: Leda Italy, Parish Church
Leda, drawing after classicalrelief, Veste Coburg, Germany,
The Virgin, Spanish sculpture, seventeenth century, Amiens,
Kunstsammlugen (MS. HZ II, Codex Coburgensis) France, Bibliotheque Municipale
Leonardo da Vinci (after), Leda and the Swan, painting, Vermeer, Jan, Woman Holding a Balance, circa 1660,
1506, Rome, Spiridon Collection Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art
Rosso Fiorentino (after Michelangelo), Leda, painting, 1529, Vermeer, Jan, Woman in Blue Reading a Letter, circa 1665,
London, National Gallery Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Rijksmuseum
Correggio, Leda and the Swan, painting, t 5 30-1 5 3 2, Berlin, Hoogstraten, Samuel van, The Sick Lady, late seventeenth
Gemaldegalerie, Staatliche Museen century, Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum
Lhote, Andre, Leda and the Swan, painting, 1934, Paris, Goz, Gottfried Bernhard, Maria, die Mutter der schoen Liehe,
Stiebal Collection fresco, circa 1750, Bernau aum Bodensee, Wallfahrtkirche
San Marien
Maternity Time, the Best Doctor, English print, 1804 (Speert, p. 4-1
Death of a Woman in Childbirth, Attic gravestone, Daumier, Honore, Une envic de femme grosse, lithograph
sixth-fourth century B.C., originally from Oropus, from Moeurs Conjugates, 1 840
now
Greece, in Athens, Greece, National Archaeological MacKintosh, Margaret MacDonald, The Visitation, relief,
Museum circa 1900, London, Victoria and Albert Museum
754 PREGNANCY

Klimt, Gustav, Hope, i

903, ( )ttawa, Ontario, National Picasso, Pablo,The Embrace, pastel, 1903, Paris, Collection
Gallery of C anada Walter-Guillaume, Musee de l'Orangerie
( Marc, The Pregnant Woman, 19 12-1913,
hagall, Picasso, Pablo, Man Kneeling at a Woman's Feet, drawing,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Stedlijk Museum 1903, Barcelona, Spain, Museu Picasso
Dix, Otto, Schwangeres Weib, circa 192.0, Berlin, Galerie Picasso, Pablo, The Surprise, drawing, 1903, Barcelona,
Nierendorf Spain, Museu Picasso
Wilding, Faith, Womb Room, installation, mixed media, Picasso, Pablo, The Reconciliation, drawing, 1903, Barcelona,
1972, collection ot the artist Spain, Museu Picasso
Pregnant Women with Fetus in Utero at Various Stages of Picasso, Pablo, Figure, painting, 1936, Marina Picasso
Development, Japanese print, undated Collection, courtesy of Jan Krugier Gallery, New
Positions of the ictus in Utero, Japanese novelty fan, undated York
Picasso, Pablo, Pregnant Woman, sculpture, 1950, New
Portraiture York, Museum of Modern Art
Raphael, La Gravida, 1505-T507, Florence, Italy, Pitti Palace Picasso, Pablo,She-Goat Great with Kid, sculpture,
Couture, Thomas, La Lecture, i860, painting, Compiegne, 1950-195 1, New York, Museum of Modern Art
France, Musee de Compiegne Female Figure, sculpture, circa 1953, from Mapey, Kuba
Morisot, Berthe, Madame Morisot and Her Daughter country, Zaire, now in Tervuren, Koinklijk Museum
Madame Pontillon {Mother and
of the Artist), Sister voor Midden Africka
1 869-1 870, Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art, Figure of a Pregnant Woman: Portrait of the Daughter of
Chester Dale Collection the Carver, sculpture, circa 1956, Keenge, northeastern
Morisot, Berthe, Interior, circa 1871, private collection Kuba kingdom (Vansina, p. 112)
Morisot, Berthe, Portrait of Madame Pontillon, 1871, Paris, Chicago, Judy, Smocked Figure, executed by Mary Ewanoski,
Louvre, Cabinet de Dessins from The Birth Project, smocking and embroidery on
Morisot, Berthe, Madame Pontillon and Her Daughter, linen, 1980-1985, collection of the artist

Jeanne, 1871, Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art, Chicago, Judy, Birth Figures, constructed by Sally Babson,
Alisa Mellon Bruce Collection from The Birth Project, fabric, 1980-1985, collection of
Corinth, Lovis, Im Seidenmantel, 1904, oil on paper, Linz, the artist
Germany, Neu Galerie de Stadt Ling, Wolfgang-Gurlit- Chicago, Judy, Swaddled Figures, fabricated by Sally Babson
Museum and weaving by Jan Cox-Harden, from The Birth Project,
Modersohn-Becker, Paula, Self-Portrait on Her Sixth weaving, 1980-1985, collection of the artist
Wedding Anniversary, 1906, Bremen, Germany, Ludwig- Chicago, Judy, Birth Garments, fabricated by Sally Babson
Roselius Sammlung, Bottcher-Strasse and Pamella Nesbit, from The Birth Project, applique
Neel, Alice, Pregnant Maria, painting, 1964, New York, and embroidery, 1980-1985, collection of the artist
Robert Miller Gallery
Neel, Alice, Pregnant Woman, painting, 1971, New York, Shame
Robert Miller Gallery The Story of Callisto, woodcut, from P. Ovidii Metamorphosis,
Neel, Alice, Margaret Evans Pregnant, painting, 1978, New Venice, Italy, 15 13, p. xxii
York, Robert Miller Gallery Duke, Lodovico, The Story of Callisto, woodcut, from Les
Transformationi, Venice, Italy, 1553, p. 44
Poverty Titian, Diana Discovering the Pregnancy of Callisto, 1559,
Levy, Alphonse, Ca e'est pour les riches, lithograph, circa Vienna, Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum
1880 Titian, Diana Discovering the Pregnancy of Callisto, 1559,
Kollwitz, Kathe, Woman with Folded Hands (Pregnant Edinburgh, National Museum of Scotland
Woman), etching, 1898 (Kl. 41.) Carracci, Annibale, Landscape with Diana and Callisto,
Picasso, Pablo, The Soup, painting, 1903, Toronto, Canada, circa 1 598-1 599, Mertoun, Scotland, St. Boswell's,
J. H. Grang Collection Duke of Scotland
Kollwitz, Kathe, At the Doctor's, 1 908-1 909, reproduction of Rubens, Peter Paul, Jupiter and Callisto, 1613, Kassel,
a drawing published in Simplicissimus 14 (November 29, Germany, Kgl. Galerie
1909) Rembrandt van Rijn, Diana Surprised by Actaeon; Diana
Kollwitz, Kathe, The Widow I, woodcut, 1922-1923 (Kl. Discovering the Pregnancy of Callisto, 1632-1635,
,:

i8o. -)
Anhot Wasserburg, Germany, Prince Salm-Salm
Kollwitz, Kathe, Down with the Abortion Paragraph!, Collection
lithograph-poster commissioned by the KPD, 1924 (Kl. Rubens, Peter Paul, Diana and Callisto, 163 6-1 640, Madrid,
189.) Spain, Prado
Saenredam, Jan, Diana and Callisto, engraving, late
Sorrow seventeenth-early eighteenth century
Gogh, Vincent van, Sorrow, lithograph, 1! \z, Laren, Schalcken, Godfried, La Consultation Indiscrete, 1680-1685,
Germany, Sammlung V. W. Van Gogh The Hague, The Netherlands, Mauritshuis
 I'KlCiNANCY 755

Schalcken, Godfried, La remonstrance inutile, 1685-1690, Lehmann, Voler, Die Geburt in der Kunst, Braunschweig,
Salzburg, Austria, Residenzgalerie, Collection Schonborn- Germany: Braunschweiger Verlangsanstalt, 1978
Buchheim Musee Municipal de Senlis, Thomas Couture, Senlis, France:
Le Sauvegarde de Senlis, 1978
Nash, Jane, Veiled Images: Titian's Mythological Paintings for
Further Reading Philip II, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Art Alliance Press,
1985; London: Associated University Press, 1985
Baxandall, Michael, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth
Nash, John, Vermeer, London: Scala, 1991; New York:
Century Italy, Oxford and New York: Oxford University
Rizzoli, 1991
Press,1972
Ovid, Metamorphoses, translated by Rolfe Humphries,
Beherman, Thierry, Godfried Schlacken, Paris: Maeght, 1988
London: Heinemann, 1951; Cambridge, Massachusetts:
Boime, Albert, Thomas Couture and the Eclectic Vision, New
Harvard University Press, 1969
Haven, Connecticut, and London: Yale University Press,
Palau Fabre, Josep, Picasso: The Early Years, translated by
i

1980
Kenneth Lyons, New York: Rizzoli, 1981; Oxford:
Chicago, Judy, The Birth Project, Garden City, New York:
Phaidon, 1981
Doubleday, 1985
Panofsky, Irwin, Problems in Titian: Mostly Iconograpbic,
Comini, Alessandra, The Fantastic Art of Vienna, New York:
Knopf, 1978
New York: New York University Press, 1969
Perry, Gillian, Paula Modersohn-Becker: Her Life and Work,
Cutler, Charles, Northern Painting from Pucelle to Bruegel,
London: Woman's Press, 1979
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1973
Raven, Arlene, "Blood Sisters: Feminist Art and Criticism," in
Fluegel, Jane, "Chronology," in Pablo Picasso: A
Retrospective, edited by William Rubin, New York:
Division of Labor: "Women Work" in Contemporary Art,

Museum of Modern Art, 1980 New York: Bronx Museum of Art, 1995
Gedo, Mary Matthews, Picasso: Art as Autobiography, Richardson, John, A Life of Picasso, Volume One:

Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1980 1881-1906, New York: Random House, 1991
Gerken, Gerhard, Lovis Corinth, 185-8-1925, Koln, Germany: Rodriguez, Antonio, Diego Rivera: Pintura Mural, Mexico

Dumont Buchverlag, 1985 City, Mexico: Dundo Editorial de la Plastica Mexicana,

Gilot, Francoise,and Carlton Lake, Life with Picasso, New 1987
York: McGraw-Hill, 1964; London: Virago, 1964 Seznec, Jean, "Literary Inspiration in Van Gogh," in Van
Hall, James, Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art, Gogh in Perspective, edited by Bogomila Welsh-Ovcharov,
revised edition, NewYork: Harper, 1979 Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1974
New York: Abrams, 1983
Hills, Patricia, Alice Neel, Sjoo,Monica, and Barbara Mor, The Great Cosmic Mother:
Hinz, Renate, editor, Kdthe Kollwitz: Graphic, Posters and Rediscovering the Religion of the Earth, San Francisco,
Drawings, New York: Pantheon, 1981 California: Harper, 1975

James, Thomas Garnet Henry, An Introduction to Ancient Sorlier, Charles, editor, Chagall by Chagall, translated by John
Egypt, New York: Harper, 1979 Shepley, New York: Abrams, 1979; London: Thames and
Koslow, Susan, "The Curtain-Sack: A Newly Discovered Hudson, 1981
Incarnation Motif in Rogier van der Weyden's Columba Speert, Harold, Iconograpbia Gyniatrica: A Pictorial History

Annunciation," Artibus et Historiae 13:7 (1986) of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania:
Kristeva, Julia, The Kristeva Reader, edited by Toril Moi, Davis, 1973
New York: Columbia University Press, 1986; Oxford: Vansina, J. Art History of Africa: An Introduction to Method,
Basil Blackwell, 1986 London and New York: Longman, 1984
Lavin, Marilyn Aronberg, Piero della Francesca, New York: Wall, Kathleen, The Callisto Myth from Ovid to Atwood:
Abrams, 1992; London: Thames and Hudson, 1992 Initiation and Rape in Literature, New York and London:

Lefkowitz, Mary R., and Maureen Fant, editors, Woman's Thames and Hudson, 1988
Life in Greece and Rome, Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Warner, Marina, Alone of All Her Sex: The Myth and the
Hopkins University Press, 1982 Cult of the Virgin Mary, New York: Knopf, [976
 PROTESTANTISM
Christine M. Boeckl

The following periods are covered in the discussion of the theme Protestantism:

SIXTEENTH CENTURY
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
NINETEENTH CENTURY
TWENTIETH CENTURY

757
758 PROTESTANTISM

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7777
 pro 11 si \\i js.vi 759

Lucas Cranach the Younger, Differences

Between Lutheran and Catholic Services (and
detail), circa 1545, print, Berlin, Staatliche
Museen, Preussischer Kulturbesitz,
Kupferstichkabinett, Sammlung der
Zeichnungen und Druckgraphik. (Courtesy
of the Staatliche Museen, Berlin)

Protestant religious art, works generated by the reformers deliberately treated ambiguously to avoid detection and possi-
who had caused the sixteenth-century schism within the bly persecution by intolerant governments. Numerous prints
Roman Catholic Church, is defined primarily by its scarcity. recorded cruel and inhuman treatment administered to
Although German Reformation leader Martin Luther and the Protestants — in the —
name of faith or scenes of the Bartholomew
dukes of the German state of Saxony were keen on invent- Massacre of French Huguenots.
ing a new iconography that would distinguish itself from For centuries most European regions were governed by the
the established tradition, their efforts were short lived. which meant that the civil ruler
principle cuius regio eius religio,
—
Iconoclasm first advocated by German theologian Andreas determined a given Over the years, a few
territory's religion.
Bodenstein and echoed by Swiss reformer Huldrych Zwingli, Protestant countries such as Holland gained religious freedom.
French reformer John Calvin, and Henry VIII of England Yet, even in Protestant regions where the climate was tolerant,
soon dampened the Protestants' enthusiasm for religious religious subjects remained rare. Secular, moralizing history
imagery altogether. Total abstention from religious art was paintings and landscapes became popular honoring the —
promoted after the desecration and destruction of churches in "Invisible Creator." Moreover, artists in Protestant countries
Paris; Basel, Switzerland; Strasbourg, France; and Antwerp, began producing more portraiture celebrating the individual.
Belgium. Moreover, Muslims who invaded Europe from the Secular post-Reformation art, such as that recording the history
East had strong aversions to representational art and further of Protestantism, remained scarce until the nineteenth century,
reinforced these iconoclastic tendencies. at which time budding nationalists, particularly in Germany,
Although it is difficult to make a definitive statement about chose Reformation events to express current political ideas.
the views on religious imagery that were held by the countless Finally, a must be made between Protestant
distinction
individual sects that were founded in Europe and later in the works and Church that referred
art created within the Catholic
Americas, they all distinguished themselves from Catholicism to different denominations, as they conveyed disparate views
through their basic belief in fide sola (that man is ultimately and served dissimilar functions. The first group consists of dog-
saved through faith) and gratia sola (divine grace), which is matic art commissioned by Protestant patrons and executed by-
believed to operate independently of human merit and good artists with similar religious convictions. Although sixteenth-

works. Another common concern was the Roman Catholic century Protestant factions held more or less iconoclastic views
Church's refusal to grant the chalice to laity in the Eucharistic about church decoration, they emphasized images on the print-
feast. A meaningful image after the Reformation was that of ed page. Nowhere are the basic differences between the two
cornmunio utraque, two men serving the paten and chalice to main Western religious philosophies better illustrated than in
the congregation, such as in a detail taken from Lucas Cranach Cranach the Younger's aforementioned woodcut Differences
the Younger's woodcut Unterscheid zwischender ivaren Religion Between Lutheran and Catholic Services. The print is a mas-
Cbristihmd falschen Abgottischenlehr des Antichrists in den terpiece that conveys the chasm that opened in the Christian
furnemsten stucken (circa 1545, Differences Between Lutheran community following Luther's publication of his 95 Theses in
and Catholic Services). The Protestants' most prolific and cre- Wittenberg, Germany, in 15 17. Cranach the Younger's work,
ative output consisted of kampfbilder (propagandistic prints) divided into two parts, addresses the main issues of both
aimed at educating the masses and persuading people to join denominations. The right-hand side represents the Catholic
their ranks. Many polemic pamphlets, even catechisms and Church with all its shortcomings, as seen through the
Bibles, derided Catholicism. Protestants' eyes. The left-hand side corresponds visually to the
The most important known to have been sympathet-
artists right, but the details reveal the dogmatic changes of the
ic were Albrecht Diirer, the Cranach
to reformatory teachings Reformation. As the Protestant preacher proclaims the word of
family, Hans Holbein the Younger, Jacob Jordaens, and God from an open Bible, his right arm points to a banderole
Rembrandt van Rijn. The few biblical subjects commissioned that connects him to the Agnus Dei symbol and the kneeling
by Protestants usually depicted episodes of Jesus Christ's life, figure of Christ before God the Father, thus giving him direct
most importantly the Crucifixion and parables such as the access to heaven. Since the Protestants recognized only two of
Prodigal Son. Depictions of biblical sermons were preferred by the traditional seven sacraments — baptism (in the Lutheran rite
Protestants because preaching was an integral part of their by scooping by hand the water from the baptismal font rather
liturgical services. Religious subjects, of course, were popular than poring it from and the Eucharist these
a liturgical vessel) —
with the Catholics as well as with the reformed churches, and Cranach the Younger's print. (A
are the only ones depicted in
it is remarkable how few paintings (sculpture was even less in variation of the Communion detail appears in a woodcut
demand because of the commandment "Thou shalt not make Luther and Hus Serving Communion in Both Spheres third |

thee any graven image") can be recognized specifically as quarter of the sixteenth century].) On the right-hand side, the
Protestant commissions. The biblical stories may have been artist directs his biting sarcasm at all traditional teachings of
760 PROT1 STAN! ISM

the Roman Catholic Church. The Catholic priest has no visible humankind, was one of the most important images (as Good
link with (iocI and a devil is on his shoulder. Cranach the
sitting Friday is the most revered day in the Lutheran liturgical year).
Younger also mocks religious customs such as the cult of the Generally speaking, in the Protestant repertoire the treatment
and above all attacks the papacy. He hints
Virgin, at the sale of of Ghrist on the cross was traditional, although eighteenth-cen-
indulgences by filling the foreground with money bags collect- tury Protestant Crucifixions may have differed from Catholic
ed by an insatiable pope who rakes in the ill-gotten riches. depictions in small details. For example, Protestants were
Other popular Cranach woodcuts represent the pope as instructed in writings such as Huldericus Pulsnicensis's
Antichrist, most importantly in the 26 plates of Passional Erbauliche Nachrichten von allerhand Irrtumern deren Mahler,
Christi and Antichristi (1521). so sie in Entwerffung der Bihlischen Geschichte Alten und
Apart from polemic rhetoric, the most productive and inno- Neuen Testaments zu hegehn pflegen (1723), published in
vative dogmatic designs that expressed Protestant piety treated Leipzig, Germany, not to follow tradition but to acknowledge
the two remaining sacraments that needed redefining in the the updated biblical research that suggested that four rather
wake of the Reformation. A few Protestant altar paintings rep- than three nails had pierced the Savior's extremities. (No study
resent the new liturgical practices of baptism and the Eucharist. has been made to determine whether Protestant artists did
Otto Wagenfeldt's Baptism (circa 1650) and Communion in indeed follow such suggestions.)
Both Species (circa 1650) repeat representations of the Because of the Cranachs' personal acquaintance with
Protestani liturgical ceremonies firsl seen 111 ( ranach the Luther, Cranach the Elder's canonical scenes of the
Younger's print. Crucifixion — diagonally placed thieves and a painfully distort-
Last Supper altarpieces were most likely to be displayed in ed figure of Christ— carried great authority and were frequent-
Protestant churches. Lucas Cranach the Elder's altar (1547) for ly quoted by later artists: in the sixteenth century by Protestant
the City Church in Wittenberg, finished a year after Luther's sympathizers such as Jorg Breu and Georg Lehmberger, among
death, updated the traditional subjects by replacing the apostles others; in the nineteenth century by artists such as Eduard
with important personalities of the Reformation: one of the Gebhardt. Gebhardt, a German Protestant, refused to follow
side panelsshows Philipp Melanchthon, Protestant scholar and the fashionable, neo-Byzantine school of the Benedictine
Luther's associate, baptizing an infant. Lucas Cranach the Monastery of Beuron, Germany (Crucifixion [circa 1868] after
Younger's Last Supper Altar (1565) for the Palace Church in the designs of Peter Lenz in the St. Maurus Chapel near the
Dessau, Germany, repeats the use of contemporary portraits Monastery of Beuron) and interpreted his Crucifixion (1873) m
and gives some of the apostles the likenesses of Luther, a novel, veristic style using Cranach's prototype to great advan-
Melanchthon, and others (Cranach the Younger included him- tage. The figures under the cross in Gebhardt's work are not
self as a servant serving the wine). iconic saints but human beings, a realistically conceived crowd
Another influential innovative composition, credited to that expresses anguish over the Savior's death.
Cranach the Elder, is the Allegory of the Law and the Gospel Not all nineteenth-century Protestants painted narrative ver-
(circa 1529), which refers to Luther's proclamation that the sions of the Crucifixion; a number created symbolic crosses. New
harsh mosaic Old Law was doomed in the light of Christ's ground was broken by Caspar David Friedrich in his innovative
grace. It is effectively a visual sermon of Lutheran doctrine. Tetschen Altar (Cross in the Mountains) (1808). The intense
Again, Cranach the Elder divided the composition into two luminosity and stillness of his landscape give it a spiritual quali-
halves. The tree in the center has barren branches that reach ty even though it does not display any obvious doctrinaire
toward the where the Fall of Man
side, is depicted along with a details. The cross is represented from an unusual vantage point,
Judgment scene where
traditional Last a dammed soul is pur- the view of a bird in flight. Attacked as being too vague and mys-
sued by death and the devil. The other side of the painting dis- tical, Friedrich defended his work's symbolism, stating that the
plays the tree of life's green branches that point toward a saved setting sun represents the old order before Christ, and the gilded
man praying before the crucified Christ, the risen Savior bless- figure on the crossreflects the last sun rays back to Earth. He
ing a saved soul. Cranach the Elder's pedagogical panel, also also mentioned that the rock on which the cross stands symbol-
referred to as Rechtfertigung des Sunders durch den Glauben izes faith, and the green trees, the color of hope, represent
(Fall of Man/Salvation), was frequently copied in the graphic people's confidence in their salvation through Christ. A simpler
arts as well as in painting. The most famous version is attributed version by the same artist, Cross on the Baltic Sea (circa 1815),
toHans Holbein the Younger. His Allegory of the Law and the displays similar symbols in a small yet very detailed sketch. A
Gospel (circa 1535) differs from Cranach's Gotha version in a wooden cross perched up on a cliff (faith) overlooks the sea
few details. Latin inscriptions help clarify its meaning, and three where a boat, visible in the distance, and a large anchor placed
figures have been added in the foreground. In the center, a seat- in the foreground seem to refer to the traditional symbol of hope
ed man turns his body toward an Old Testament prophet. This (also the symbol of the Christian Church since the days of the
half bears the superscript Lex (Law). The man's face, on the catacombs).
other hand, looks at St. John, who points emphatically to the Equally impressive is Thomas Cole's Cross at Sunset (1840s).
side of the painting labeled Gratia (Gospel [literally Favor]). The The artist painted this symbolic landscape four years after he
allegoryis clear: humankind, caught in the age-old dilemma, was baptized as an Episcopalian, at a time when he decided to
must decide between good and evil as well as damnation and cast aside his worldly ambitions and work for the Protestant
eternal life. Church. (Inspired by John Bunyan's Puritan allegory Pilgrim's
The Protestant North preferred Christian topics to Old The Cross and
Progress, 1678, he planned a whole series titled
Testament themes. As already mentioned, in the reformers' the World, which remained unfinished at Cole's untimely
opinion, the crucified Redeemer, whose sacrifice saved death.) Cross at Sunset shows stylized rays similar to those in
 PROTESTANTISM 76 I

Friedrich's Tetschen Altar, while the foreground dominated by is undeniably the most frequently depicted scene was the Return
a simple cross shape. This canvasAmerican nine-
is typical of of the Prodigal Son. Rembrandt treated the subject a number of
teenth-century landscapes, which emphasize the moral values of times media. His Return of the Prodigal Son (circa
in different

the aesthetic experience. Such paintings were intended to be 1668), a masterpiece in the Hermitage, in St. Petersburg,
contemplated as God's sensuous image of revelation. Russia, is most impressive in its simplicity. All descriptive nar-

Apart from Crucifixions, the most common biblical narra- rative details are suppressed, and the action focuses on the joy-
tives used to represent Protestant ideology were Christ and St. ous reunion of father and son. It has been said that this recon-
John preaching (such as rendered by Cranach the Younger), the ciliatory meeting dealt not with human love of an earthly father
Last Judgment, the Pharisee and the Publican, Lazarus and the but God's divine love and mercy.
Rich Man, the Calling of Matthew, the Conversion of Saul, the In contrast to Protestant ideology, Catholic images, such as
Raising of Lazarus, and the Prodigal Son. Of course, as already several of Guercino's versions of Return of the Prodigal Son
mentioned, none of these themes were exclusively the domain (165 1, Museum in Wloclawek, Poland; circa
Diocesan 1655,
of Protestant artists. Tim Ken Museum in San Diego, California), depict the youth
The topos of the Prodigal Son who was exonerated by his crying visibly into a white handkerchief, revealing his contrite
change of heart, indicating a personal conversion, had been heart. Such pathos was uncommon in Protestant versions. Both
commented on by both Luther and John Calvin. The narrative, faiths, however, generally included the elder brother, who orig-
based on the Gospel According to Luke (15:11-32), told the inally objected to the father's acceptance of the erring son.
story of a son who demanded his inheritance from his father, One of the few biblical subjects that originated as a
left home, caroused, was expelled from an inn, lived in pover- Protestant topic is Christ blessing the children. Lucas Cranach
ty among swine, and finally returned to be greeted by his rejoic- the Elder invented it in his Christ Blesses the Children (circa
ing father, who convinced the elder brother to join in the fam- 1538), a panel that depicts Christ inundated by a crowd. The
ily celebration. The New Testament parable lent itself well to Savior holds a child in his arms (a male counterpart to Madonna
didactic theater performances or sermons that could present to images) and blesses the rest of the babies. Jesus appears infinite-
the audience the reason why
was forgiven. The two
the son ly accessible to the mothers who present their innocent young-
Christian factions disagreed on this fundamental issue. sters while his apostles remain at a distance. The reason for
Protestant commentators emphasized God's grace and mercy choosing this unusual biblical episode may have been the new
toward poor sinners. Catholics stressed that the Prodigal Son emphasis on the family in Protestant circles. In contrast to
cooperated with God's grace and decided of his own free will Catholic views, Protestants denied that the celibate clergy had a
to return home. Moreover, the youth atoned for his sins by con- higher status in the eyes of God. (Luther married a former nun
fession and through penance, thereby actively contributing to in 1526 and they had a number of children.) Moreover, numer-
his reinstatement in his father's favor. Although the question of ous authors proposed that the continued popularity in the
which faith the individual paintings of the Prodigal Son were Netherlands of Christ blessing the children, as in works by the
advocating is frequently debated, the findings are seldom con- circle ofRembrandt and Jacob Jordaens, among others, may
clusive because of the complex theological questions involved. have had to do with contemporary anti-Anabaptist sentiments.
However, by and large the Protestant North developed tenden- This militant sect advocated only adult baptisms and was equal-
cies toward the secularization of religious subjects, exemplified ly unpopular with Calvinists, Lutherans, and Catholics.
in the treatment of the different episodes of the Prodigal Son's The art discussed so far has concerned traditional subjects,
sinful life. His way and debaucheries were given mor-
stations yet some painters created new images to voice their very per-
alizing connotations. The Catholic South, on the other hand, sonal beliefs. Albrecht Diirer, perhaps the most gifted artist of
primarily stressed the dramatic finale of the return of the the Reformation, donated his The Four Apostles (1529) to his
Prodigal Son. native city of Nuremberg, Germany. The two panels testify to
Prints depicting the theme of the filius prodigus were easy to Diirer's early identification with the cause of Protestantism: not
understand because they frequently included explanatory texts. only does a lengthy inscription warn against false prophets, but
For example, Cornelis Anthonisz's series of six woodcuts the painting itself displays an innovative iconographic pro-
expresses sectarian by introducing allegorical figures
belief gram. Visually, The Four Apostles follows the tradition of the
identifiable by captions. The Expulsion of the Prodigal Son sacra conversazione (sacred conversation), but Diirer demon-
(circa 1540) is background fig-
particularly revealing, because a strates a deliberate secularization of the theme by the glaring
ure in "Synagoga Sathanae" (Satan's Synagogue) wears a papal absence of the central image of the Virgin. Peter, the first pope,
tiara: the woodcut insinuates that the young man is about to isshown behind John, Luther's favorite apostle.
depart for Rome. The wayward youth is accosted by two omi- Rembrandt was another figure who expressed his faith
nous females. This subject plays on a variant of Hercules at the through art; his relationship to Calvinism has spawned numer-
Crossroad with one major difference Superstitio (Superstition) ous studies. The depiction of a painted, open curtain device, as
on his right and Heresia (Heresy) to his left both seem to threat- in the Kassel, Germany, Holy Family 1646). has been quoted
(

en his spiritual prospects. as proof that Rembrandt had studied Calvin's Commentaries,
Other scenes from the Prodigal Son are masked as genre in which the curtain had been interpreted as "revelation of the
paintings. Rembrandt's Self-Portrait with Saskia (circa divine." This theory opposes the generally accepted view that
1634-1636), portraying a toast to the good life, has been inter- the drapery was a mundane feature characteristic of
preted as the subject of the Prodigal Son in the tavern, and Netherlandish realism. Furthermore, Rembrandt's unusually
Polish Rider (1660s), a work attributed to Rembrandt, as the sympathetic treatment of beggars and cripples has been inter-

departure of the Prodigal Son from his parental home. Yet, preted as a Protestant simile to Christ's poverty on Earth.
76Z PROTESTANTISM

Turning to secular Protestant art, quasi-iconic status must
have been granted to posthumous portraits of Luther and other
reformers, as these were produced in great quantity over the
following centuries. Lucas Cranach the Elder's print Luther as
Junker Jorg (circa 1522) is the earliest known portrait after
While the subject of Luther dominated German art, other
religious figures unsympathetic to Rome were also honored.
For example, Carl Friedrich Lessing's Hussite Sermon (1836)
emphasizes the revolutionary aspirations of the fifteenth-centu-
ry reformer Hus. Lessing renders the controversial chalice held

Luther had left his religious order. Later portraits generally ren-
dered Luther dressed in a Protestant preacher's robe, using
Cranach the Younger's life-size portrait (1546) as guide. In
addition to individual portraits, artists created a number of
matched panels representing Luther and his wife.
Other secular Reformation topics were the so-called
Confessio paintings, which recorded important milestones in
Protestant history. Most notable was Luther presenting his
Doctrines to Emperor Charles V in Augsburg, Germany. These
venerated Lutheran paintings became the basis for nineteenth-
high by one of the Hussites, who seems to remind other mem-
bers of the sect that Hus had been executed for demanding this
sacred rite. Ferdinand Hodler painted The Reformers, or
Calvin at the University of Geneva (1884), a canvas that
depicts Calvin in academic regalia debating four other col-
leagues. The style is deliberately austere in its composition and
architectural background. Calvinistic teachings are expressed
in the scholarly work ethic the students demonstrate.
Hendrik Leys's Publication of the Edicts of Charles V (circa
1 861) impartially records an important, local historic incident.

century historicized creations. Luther's cult of personality The large canvas describes the devastating effect on townspeo-
developed in Germany after 1830 and became most prominent ple as they listen to the emperor's decree that from that day for-
toward the end of the century. ward Protestantism was punishable by death. First exhibited in
Politics played a decisive role in nineteenth-century re-cre- his Catholic hometown of Antwerp in 1861, Leys's work was
ations of important events in Protestant history. Germany's intended to make the people relive the hardships of the
nationalist movement tried to rally independent principalities Reformation. For added authenticity Leys emulates sixteenth-
under the Prussian flag, 1871 with the founding
culminating in century styles of artists such as Peter Bruegel the Elder and
of the Hohenzollern, the Protestant German "empire" in Hans Holbein the Younger. Although these romantic re-cre-
Prussia run by the Hohenzollern family until 191 8. Most ations of times past were inspired compositions, they never
important were the paintings of Luther's public life. For exam- entered the mainstream of European art because they had a
ple, Hermann Wislicenus's wall decorations in the ancient pala- limited audience and worked with even more restricted icono-
tine Imperial Residence Germany, included Luther at
in Goslar, graphic traditions.
Worms (circa 1895), in which the reformer once announced his Finally, two additional aspects of this subject are of interest:
steadfast faith: "Hier stehe ich, Gott helfe mir ..." (Here I how Catholics viewed members of the other faiths and the phe-
stand, God help me). The cycle celebrated the continuity of nomenon of Protestant artists' conversions to Catholicism.
Germanic leadership from Charlemagne to Emperor Wilhelm I, During the Counter-Reformation of the sixteenth century, the
with Luther as the "new dawn" after the decline of the Roman Catholic Church saw the Protestants as dangerous
medieval (Catholic) Holy Roman Empire. heretics. Much has been written about the surge of Catholic
Similar sentiments are expressed in Wilhelm von religious imagery created to combat Protestantism a number —
Kaulbach's Age of Reformation (1863), a large, tableau-vivant of these works of art attacked the schismatics. On the
styled mural that decorated the staircase in Berlin's Neue grandiose St. Ignatius monument in Rome's II Gesu chapel, the
Museum (destroyed in 1945). The grandiose and controversial individual heretical branches are identified by their founders'
painting implied that the German Reformation was the most names. Pierre Le Gros the Younger's marble group Religion
momentous event in modern history. The center of the multi- Overthrowing Heresy (circa 1695) shows a small angel tearing
figural composition is taken up by Luther, brandishing an pages from a volume on which the inscription "Hulderic
open Bible and standing in front of a copy of Leonardo da Zwingli" (the name of the Swiss religious reformer) appears.
Vinci's Last Supper. Other reformers pictured include John The book under Heresy's foot is labeled "Martin Luther," and
Wycliffe, Jan Hus, John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, Elizabeth I in the background another tome shows John Calvin's name as
of England, and Gustav Adolph of Sweden. Christopher author.
Columbus appears as one of the explorers in the company of Another example of Roman Catholic iconography is perti-
the astronomers Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo, Tycho Brahe, nent here, the art of converts such as seventeenth-century
and Johannes Kepler. The arts are represented by Diirer Dutch painter Jan Vermeer, who converted to Catholicism
working on his The Four Apostles and von Kaulbach, who (most likely influenced by his mother-in-law). His first known
portrayed himself as one of the master's assistants. painting, St. Praxedis (1655), inscribed "Meer, 1655" and
Michelangelo, Leonardo, and Raphael are joined by the most "[VerJMeer N[aar] R[ip]o[s]o," has proven to be a copy after
celebrated writers of the ages. a similar painting by the Italian Felice Ficherelli, nicknamed
In 1920, Lovis Corinth supplied 40 plates for a commemo- Riposo. The early Christian Praxedis was known to have
rative, limited edition of his series Martin Luther. The color cared for martyrs, and in Vermeer's work she wrings a blood-
lithographs included scenes from the reformer's life such as soaked sponge over a decorative vessel. Vermeer added a new
Luther's parents, his time as monk (Monch Tetzel), posting his iconographic meaning to the Italian prototype by adding a
propositions {Theses), Luther in Worms, political figures of the small crucifix to the hands of the saint. The Dutch convert
Reformation, Luther's Bible of 1534, family scenes such as Vermeer presents a religious scene where Christ's blood sym-
Magdalen's Deathbed, and the final print Luther's Death bolically mixes with that of the martyrs, emphasizing the
(based on a Cranach design). The scenes are expressive and Catholic doctrine of the communion of saints. Of equal
some refer to historic documents. importance is Vermeer's Allegory of Faith (circa 1671-1672)
 PROTESTANTISM 763

in which he created an innovative pictorial statement (proba- Seventeenth Century

bly for Jesuit neighbors) by deriving semiotics from Cesare Herneisen, Andreas, Luther Presenting His Doctrines
Ripa's Iconologia and Dutch emblemata. (Confessio Augustana to Emperor Charles V), circa 1601,
Over the centuries the Protestant sects remained critical of Nuremberg, Germany, Mogeesdorf
religious images, an attitude that restrained artistic output. Rembrandt van Rijn, Self-Portrait with Saskia, circa
While it is fairly easy to recognize Catholic topics, the treat- 1 634-1 63 6, Dresden, Germany, Staatliche

ment of Protestant understated and difficult to

religious art is Kunstsammlungen
attribute to a specific religious movement. Apart from the Jordaens, Jacob, Christ Blesses the Children, circa 1640,
polemic prints, few new images were created until the nine- Copenhagen, Denmark, National Museum
teenth century. At that time, Protestants recognized the propa- Rembrandt van Rijn, Holy Family, 1646, Kassel, Germany,
gandistic potential of monumental art (religious as well as Gemaldegalerie
secular). However, these paintings were concerned less with Wagenfeldt, Otto, Communion in Both Species; Baptism,
religious fervor than with underscoring political tendencies and circa 1650, Hamburg, Germany, Kunsthalle
celebrating freedom from religious oppression. Vermeer, Jan, St. Praxedis, 1655, Barbara Piasecka Johnson
Collection
Maes, Nicolas, Christ Blesses the Children, circa 1659,
See also Baptism; Communion; Crucifixion; Judaism;
London, National Gallery
Path/Road/Crossroads; Penitence/Repentance; Sin/Sinning
Rembrandt van Rijn (attributed to), Polish Rtder, 1660s, New
York, Frick Collection
Rembrandt van Rijn, Return of the Prodigal Son, circa 1668,
St. Petersburg, Russia, Hermitage
Selected Works of Art
Vermeer, Jan, Allegory of Faith, circa 1 671-1672, New York,
Sixteenth Century Metropolitan Museum of Art
Breu, Jorg the Elder, Crucifixion, 1524, Budapest, Museum
Anthonisz., Cornells, The Expulsion of the Prodigal Son, Nineteenth Century
woodcut, circa 1540 Friedrich, Caspar David, Tetschen Altar (Cross in the

Cranach, Lucas, the Elder, Crucifixion, circa 1501, Vienna, Mountains), 1808, Dresden, Germany, Staatliche
Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum Kunstsammlungen
Cranach, Lucas, the Elder, Passional Christi und Antichristi, Friedrich, Caspar David, Cross on the Baltic Sea, circa 1815,

woodcuts, 1 521, Wittenberg, Germany Cologne, Germany, Wallraf-Richartz Museum

Cranach, Lucas, the Elder, Luther as Junker Jorg, woodcut, Lessing, Carl Friedrich, Hussite Sermon, 1836, Berlin,

circa 1522 Germany

Lehmberger, Georg, Crucifixion, 1524, Leipzig, Germany, Cole,Thomas, Cross at Sunset, painting, 1840s
Museum der Bildenden Kunste Leys, Hendrik, Publication of the Edicts of Charles V, circa

Cranach, Lucas, the Elder, Martin Luther, pendant to 1861, Baltimore, Maryland, Walters Art Gallery
Katharina von Boras, 1526, Schwerin, Germany, Kaulbach, Wilhelm von, Age of Reformation, mural, 1863, in

Staatliches Museum Berlin's Neue Museum, destroyed

Cranach, Lucas, the Elder, Allegory of the Law and the Gebhardt, Eduard, Crucifixion, 1873, Hamburg, Germany,
Gospel, 1529, Gotha, Germany, Schlossmuseum Hamburger Kunsthalle
Diirer, Albrecht, The Four Apostles, 1529, Munich, Germany, Hodler, Ferdinand, Calvin at the University of Geneva (The

Alte Pinakothek Reformers), 1884, Geneva, Switzerland, Musee d'Art et

Holbein, Hans, the Younger, Allegory of the Law and the d'Histoire

Gospel, circa 1535, Edinburgh, National Gallery of

Wislicenus, Hermann, Luther at Worms, wall decoration,

Scotland circa 1895, Goslar, Germany, Imperial Residence

Cranach, Lucas, the Elder, Christ Blesses the Children, circa
Twentieth Century
1538, Hamburg, Germany, Kunsthalle, Kunstsammlungen,
Corinth, Lovis, Martin Luther Series: Portrait of Martin
Alte Gallerie
Luther; Monch Tetzel; Theses; Luther Burns the Papal
Cranach, Lucas, the Younger, Differences Between Lutheran
Bull; Luther in Worms; Luther and Catherina von Bora;
and Catholic Services, print, circa
1545
Ein Feste Burg; Luther's Bible of 1534; Magdalen's
Cranach, Lucas, the Younger, Portrait of Martin Luther,
Deathbed; Luther's Death, lithographs, text by Tim Klein,
1546, Schwerin, Germany, Staatliches Museum
Berlin, Germany, 1920
Cranach, Lucas, the Elder, Last Supper, Baptism, Public
Confession, 1547, Wittenberg, Germany, City Church
Cranach, Lucas, the Younger, St. John the Baptist Preaching,
1549, Braunschweig, Germany, Herzog Ulrich Museum
Further Reading
Cranach, Lucas, the Younger, Last Supper Altar, 1565,
Dessau, Germany, Palace Church Altendorf, Hans Dietrich, and Peter Jezler, editors,
Luther and Hits Serving Communion in Both Spheres, Bilderstreit: Kulturwandel in Zwinglis Reformation,
woodcut, third quarter of sixteenth century Zurich, Switzerland: Theologischer Verlag, 1984
764 PROTESTANTISM

Baldwin, Robert, "'On Earth We Are Beggars, As Christ Held, Julius, "A Protestant Source for a Rubens Subject,"
Himseli Was': Hie Protestant Background of Rembrandt's in Liberamicorum Karel G. Boon, Amsterdam, The
Imagery of Poverty, Disability, and Begging," Netherlands: Swets and Zeitlinger, 1974
Konsthistorisk tidskrift 54:3 (1985) I lotmann, Werner, ed., Luther und die Folgen fiir die Kunst,

Blanchard, Amos, Book 0) Martyrs, Cincinnati, Ohio: Munich, Germany: Prestel-Verlag, 1983
Robinson and Fairhank, 1
8 1
Klijn, Marc de, De Invloed van bet Calvinisme op de
5

Bott, Gerhard,Martin Luther und die Reformation in Noord-Nederlandse Landschapschilderkunst, Apeldoorn,

Deutschland, Nuremberg, Germany: Germanisches The Netherlands: Zwijgerstichting, 1482
Nationalmuseum, 1 98 Kruse, Joachim, Luthers Leben in Illustrationen, Coburg,
5

Christensen, Carl, Art and the Reformation in Germany, Germany: Die Kunstsammlungen, 1980
Athens: Ohio University Press, 1979
Kunst der Reformationszeit, exhibition catalog, Staatliche

Princes and Propaganda: Electoral Saxon Art of the

Muzeen zu Berlin, Berlin, Henschelverlag Kunst und
,

Gesellschaft, 1983
Reformation, Kirksville, Missouri: Sixteenth Century
Kuspit, Donald, "Durer and the Lutheran Image," Art in
Journal, 1992
America 64 (1975)
Christin, Olivier, Une revolution symbolique, Paris: Les
Larsen, Eric, Calvinist Economy and Seventeenth Century
Editions de Minuet, 1991
Dutch Art, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1979
Corinth, Lovis, Luther Lithographs, Springfield, Ohio:
Michalski, Sergiusz, "Aspekte der Protestantischen
Chantry Music Press, 1968
Bilderfrage," Idea, Jahrbuch der Hamburger Kunsthalle 3
Eimer, Gerhard, Zur Dialektik des Glaubens bei Caspar
(1984)
David Friedrich, Frankfurt, Germany: Goethe University
Moffitt, John, "Rembrandt, Revelation and Calvin's
Press, 1982
Curtains," Gazette des Beaux-Art 113 (April 1989)
Ferm, Vergilius, Pictorial History of Protestantism, New
Moxey, Keith, Peasants, Warriors, and Wives: Popular
York: Philosophical Library, 1957
Imagery in the Reformation, Chicago: University of
Freedberg, David, "The Hidden God: Image and Interdiction
Chicago Press, 1989
in the Netherlands in the Sixteenth Century," Art History
Parshall, Linda, Art and the Reformation: An Annotated
5:2 (June 1982)
Bibliography, Boston: Hall, 1986
Gonzales-Rodriquez, Pedro, "Los reformadores del siglo XVI Perrig, Alexander, Albrecht Durer oder die Heimlichkeit der
y el arte," Goya 191 (March-April 1986) Deutschen Ketazerei, Weinheim, Germany: Acta
Gross, Friedrich, Jesus, Luther und der Papst im Bilderkampf
Humaniora, 1985
i8jt bis 191 8, Marburg, Germany: Jonas, 1989 Poletto, Christine, Art et pouvoirs: a Page Baroque, Paris:
Haeger, Barbara, "The Prodigal Son in Sixteenth and LHarmattan, 1990
Seventeenth Century Netherlandish Art: Depiction of the Schmidt, Philipp, Die Illustration der Lutherbibel,
Parable and the Revolution of a Catholic Image," Simiolus 1522-ijoo, 1962
Basel, Switzerland: Reinhardt,
16 (1986) Scribner, Robert, For the Sake of the Simple Folk: Popular
, "Cornelis Anthonisz Representation of the Parable of Propaganda for the German Reformation, Cambridge:
the Prodigal Son," Nederlands Kunsthistorisch Jaarboek Cambridge University Press, 1981
37(1986) Ullmann, Ernst, Von der Macht der Bilder: Kunst und
Halewood, William, Six Subjects of Reformation Art: A Reformation, Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1985
Preface to Rembrandt, Toronto, Ontario: University of Wencelius, Leon, Calvin et Rembrandt, Paris: Societe
Toronto Press, 1982 d'edition "Les Belles Lettres," 1937
 v.

READING
Alicia Craig Faxon

The following periods and motifs are covered in the discussion of the theme Reading:

ANCIENT SAINTS LETTER READING

HOMER HISTORIC READING MUSIC

OLD TESTAMENT LITERARY READING A NEWSPAPER
MADONNA READING GENRE SCENES MODERN

765
766 READING

John Flaxman, Paolo and Francesca, 1793, illustration to Dante's The Divine Comedy, engraved by
Tomaso Pirelli. (Courtesy of the author)
 READING 767

Reading maketh a full man, conference a the earliest record of reading can be found in the existence of
ready man, and writing an exact man. fragmented tablets (circa 1750 B.C.). The Sumerians used a
(Francis Bacon, Of Studies) cuneiform script that was later copied by the Assyrians and
Babylonians.
Although reading as a practice has been around a long time, it In classical Greece, literature developed out of an oral tradi-
isone that has always been limited to certain sectors of the tion.The earliest surviving Greek writing is probably that of
population, typically the privileged. The verb to read can be Homer, an eighth or ninth-century B.C. poet who created (and
used to refer to a number of different acts. The most obvious possibly wrote, according to recent research) the Iliad (circa
form of reading is that which involves the interpretation of 750 B.C.) and the Odyssey (circa 720 B.C.), epic poems written
some form of writing, a practice that began as early as Egyptian at a time when reading and writing were used primarily to sup-
pictograph writing and Sumerian cuneiform tablets. To read, plant memory and the oral tradition in the telling of a tale.
however, can refer to the interpretation of many types of mate- Evidence of persons reading in classical art appear to be fairly
rial other than writing. rare. However, there are representations and references to clas-
One of these "other" kinds of reading is the interpretation sical reading in such nineteenth-century works as Lawrence
of symbols. For example, a symbol such as a lion with wings Alma-Tadema's painting A Reading from Homer (1885) in the
has connotations much the same as written language does. It is Philadelphia Museum of Art in Pennsylvania and the John
the symbol of St.Mark the Evangelist and is usually employed Keats poem "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer."
to denote the Gospel of Mark in the New Testament, just as an An allegorical interpretation of reading can found in Jean-
ox identifies St. Luke, an eagle St. John, and an angel St. Auguste-Dominique Ingres's The Apotheosis of Homer (1827)
Matthew. These symbols appear both in transcribed Gospel in the Louvre, which shows the poet crowned by figures of
illuminations and on the facades of churches, such as the west Victory (Nike) and surrounded by the great artists and writers
facade of Chartres Cathedral in France, where the symbols of of the past. This neoclassical painting can be interpreted as a
the authors of the Gospels surround the figure of Jesus Christ. statement on the importance of reading the classics.
form of reading, meaning in a work of art can be deter-
In this Among Christian images of reading, Moses displaying the
mined through a knowledge of its iconography or particular stone tablets of the Ten Commandments to the people to read
symbolism relative to era, artist, and patron. (Exodus 20:1-17) is probably the most compelling. This was
Additional types of reading include the reading of lips by the captured consummately by Rembrandt Van Rijn in Moses
deaf, reading physical signs or signals, reading clues in the man- (1659) in the Staatliche Museen in Berlin-Dahlem, Germany.
ner of a detective, and "reading between the lines," that is, Moses holds the Ten Commandments, which are written in
inferring from a text meaning that is not fully spelled out or Hebrew, over his head to show his followers. Michelangelo's
directly articulated. To read is also used colloquially, as in "I sculpture Moses (1545) at the Church of San Pietro in Vincoli
can read him like a book," or "her life was an open book," in Rome has Moses holding the tablets while seated.
both of which mean that a person's character, motives, or Another thematic use of reading in the Old Testament
maneuvers are clear to an observer. involves the story of Belshazzar, the last king of Babylon, who
Some forms of reading, or interpreting what one sees, have was warned of his defeat by the appearance of handwriting on
been in use since the Paleolithic era (early Stone Age), as evi- a wall (Daniel 5) —the origin of the expression, "I can see the
denced by the elaborate cave pictures (circa 15,000-10,000 handwriting on the wall." The prophet Daniel interpreted the
B.C.) at such sites as Lascaux in France and Altamira in Spain. mystic words "MENE MENE TEKEL UPHARSIN" to mean
Although present-day viewers do not agree on the specific that Belshazzar's days as kingwere numbered, and his kingdom
meaning of these paintings, it may be assumed that those who would be given to the Medes and Persians events that actual- —
drew and painted them had a specific purpose in mind. ly occurred. In Rembrandt's Belshazzar Sees the Handwriting
The earliest Egyptian writing was also form of pic-
in the on the Wall (1630s), Belshazzar can be seen reading handwrit-
tures, such as the stone relief King Narmer (circa
The Palette of ing on a wall, written upside down in Hebrew, as if it had been
3000 B.C.) in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Here the mean- written by God on high.
ing is fairly clear, Narmer portrayed as a conqueror of his ene- Other representations of Old Testament figures reading
mies. Later Egyptian writing was in the form of pictographs, a include Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel fresco Prophets and
writing in existence by at least 2500 B.C. A whole class of pro- Sibyls (151 1), in which five of the seven prophets hold books
fessional writers was devoted to the production of pictographs, and all five sibyls read. (Sibyls were classical figures such as the
as can be seen in the Seated Scribe sculpture from Saqqara Delphic Oracle, whose prophesies were thought to foretell
(circa 2400 B.C.), now in the Louvre in Paris,one of the many Jesus Christ's coming). Another example of a prophet reading
representations of scribes as official writers. In Sumerian art, appears in the right background of Parmigianino's The
768 READING

Madonna with the long Neck (i 534—1 540) in the Uffizi cycle Education of Marie de Medici (1622) in the Louvre, in
Gallery in Florence, which a prophet, probably
Italy, in Isaiah, which Athena, the goddess of wisdom, instructs Marie, and the
reads a scroll predicting the coming of the Messiah (Isaiah Graces and Mercury, the messenger god, look on. Saints have
11:1-9; 40:1-11). also been portrayed reading, as in Filippino Lippi's Vision of St.
One New Testament example of reading refers to a book Bernard (before 1504) in the Church of the Badia in Florence,

from the Old Testament: Christ reading from the Book of the in Albrecht Diirer's Jerome in His Study (before 1 528) in the
St.

Prophet Isaiah in the synagogue of Nazareth (his hometown). National Gallery in London, and many others.
Christ reads, ". . . he hath anointed me to preach the gospel to One of the more famous reading scenes involves the adul-
the poor; he hath sent me to heal the brokenhearted, to preach terous love affair between Francesca da Rimini and her broth-
deliverance to the captives, and recovering of sight to the blind, er-in-law Paolo Malatesta as described by Dante in The Divine
to set at liberty them that are bruised" (Luke 4:18). After Christ Comedy (1472, written 1307—1321). Upon seeing Francesca
hands the book to a minister and sits down, he says, "This day and Paolo amid a whirlwind of lovers, Dante asks them how
is this scripture fulfilled in your ears" (Luke 4:2.1). they got there:
Although not expressly described in the Bible as having
One day we read for pastime how in thrall
occurred, a great many representations of Mary show her read-
Lord Lancelot lay to love, who loved the Queen;
By far the majority of these are scenes of the Annunciation
ing.
that portray Mary reading the prophecies of the Messiah in the
—
We were alone we thought no harm at all.
As we read on, our eyes met now and then,
Old Testament. Early examples include medieval manuscript
And to our cheeks the changing color started
illuminations such as Jean Bourdichon's "Annunciation" in the
Tres Grandes Heures d'Anne de Bretagne (before 1521) in the
But just one moment overcame us when —
We read of the smile, desired of lips long thwarted,
Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris; one attributed to Jean
Such smile, by such a lover kissed away,
Colombe in the Pierpont Morgan Library in New York (M.
He that may never more from me be parted
834, fol. 29); and one in the Hours of Henry VII in the British
Trembling all over, kissed my mouth. say I
Library in London (Add. MS 35254). These representations
the book was Galleot ... we read no more that day.
have been cited as an important precedent: at one time scholas-
(The Inferno V, lines 127-138).
tics argued about whether or not women in ancient times had

read, an argument that was partially settled by citing the Both souls ended up in hell after they were killed during their
Annunciation scenes that portray the Virgin reading. lovemaking by Francesca's husband. They had been reading the
Sometimes the Madonna is shown reading alone at the Arthurian legend of the knight Lancelot du Lac's illicit love for
Annunciation, as in Giotto's fresco The Annunciation Guinevere, which inspired similar activity on their part. John
(1305-1306) in the Arena Chapel in Padua, Italy. Another Flaxman's engraving Paolo and Francesca (1793), which shows
example is Antonello da Messina's painting The Annunciation the lovers reading, inspired a number of works on this scene
(fifteenth century) in the Museo Nazionale in Palermo, Italy. that warn of the dangers of reading. Examples include Paolo
Sometimes Mary is portrayed reading in the company of an and Francesca paintings by Ingres (1819) in the Musee Conde
angel, as in Joos van Cleve's The Annunciation (early sixteenth in Chantilly, France; Eugene Delacroix (nineteenth century) in
century) in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, Nathan in Zurich, Switzerland; and
the collection of Dr. Peter
Simone Martini's panel The Annunciation (1333) in the Uffizi, Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1855) in the Tate Gallery in London;
Fra Filippo Lippi's panel The Annunciation (circa 1440) in San as well as William Dyce's Francesca da Rimini (circa 1837) in
Lorenzo in Florence, and Botticelli's Annunciation panel the National Gallery of Scotland in Edinburgh.
(1489-1490) in the Uffizi. Many genre scenes of reading exist, such as Jean-Honore
Mary has also been portrayed reading amid an elaborate Fragonard's The Reader {A Young Girl Reading) (circa 1776)
interior, as she does in the Annunciation panel of the Merode in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.;
Altarpiece (circa 1425) by the Master of the Flemalle (Robert Rembrandt's Old Woman Reading (seventeenth century), Titus
Campin?) in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Here the paint- Reading (seventeenth century), and The Prophetess Hannah
ing itself must be "read" to get a sense of its full significance. Reading (1631) in, respectively, Drumlanrig Castle in Scotland,
Mary is seated on the ground, signifying her humility, near a the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, and the
bench decorated with lions at the corners, a reference to the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Berthe Morisot's
house of David. She holds around the Bible as a display
a cloth The Artist's Mother and Sister (1 869-1 870) in the National
of reverence. There on the table, a symbol of her puri-
is a lily Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.; Vincent van Gogh's
ty, and a candle whose flame has just gone out, a symbol of the L'Arlesienne (Madame Ginoux) (1888) in New York's
light of the divine entering human flesh in the Incarnation. Metropolitan Museum of Art; and Winslow Homer's The New
Through the window on the left, a tiny figure flies holding a Novel (nineteenth century) in the Museum of Fine Arts in
cross, signifying the future crucifixion of the baby to be born. Springfield, Massachusetts. During the nineteenth century,
Additional symbolism can be read in this triptych, but this is a when literacy among the general population of the Western
sufficient example of how one can "read" less apparent mean- world improved dramatically, a number of paintings began to
ings from a painting's iconography. show newspaper reading, such as Paul Cezanne's portrait of his
Additional representations of Mary reading include the father reading entitled L'Evenement (circa 1859), in the
Virgin being taught to read by her mother Anna, and Mary National Gallery in London; Edgar Degas's The Office of a
teaching the Christ Child to read. Peter Paul Reubens secular- Cotton Firm (nineteenth century) in a museum in Pau, France;
ized the former scene from the Christian setting into the Medici Mary Cassatt's Reading Le Figaro (1883) in a private collec-
 READING 769

tion; and Richard Caton Woodville's War News from Mexico Madonna Reading
(nineteenth century) in the National Academy of Design in Giotto,The Annunciation, fresco, 1 305-1 306, Padua, Italy,
New York. Arena Chapel
Letter reading is another specific type of reading that has Simone Martini, The Annunciation, panel, 1333, Florence,
been depicted over the centuries, such asin Jan Vermeer's Girl Italy, Uffizi Gallery
Reading a Letter (circa 1657) and The Love Letter (circa Antonello da Messina, The Annunciation, painting, fifteenth
1670). Reading music has also frequently been depicted, such century, Palermo, Italy, Museo Nazionale
as in Hendrik Terbrugghen's Boy Singing (1620s) in Boston's St. Anne Teaching the Virgin to Read, illumination, from
Museum of Fine Arts, and Vermeer's The Concert (circa 1670), Burgundy Breviary, French, circa 141 5, London, British
formerly in the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston. Library (Harley MS
2897, fol. 340b)
A classic example of nonreading, Cezanne's Lady in Blue Lippi, Fra Filippo, The Annunciation, panel, circa 1440,
(before 1906) in the Museum of Western Art in Moscow, Florence, Italy, San Lorenzo
Russia, shows a woman holding a closed book. The woman Master of the Flemalle (Robert Campin?), Merode
herself looks withdrawn, as if she does not want to face the Altarpiece, oil, circa 1425, New York, Metropolitan
viewer and has her own distinct rules and ideas. She is sealed Museum of Art
off from unwelcome contact with others or from new ideas — Botticelli, Annunciation, panel, 1 489-1 490, Florence, Italy,
"closed book." Uffizi Gallery
Cleve, Joos van, The Annunciation, painting, early sixteenth
century, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art
See also Kiss/Kissing; Logos/Word
Bourdichon, Jean, Annunciation, from Tres Grandes Heures
d'Anne de Bretagne, before 152.1, Paris, Bibliotheque
Nationale
Selected Works of Art La Tour, Etienne de, The Education of the Virgin, oil, circa
649-1 650, New York, Frick Collection
1
Ancient
Colombe, Jean, manuscript, New York, Pierpont Morgan
The Palette of King Narmer, stone, circa 3000 B.C., Cairo,
Library (M. 834, fol. 29)
Egypt, Egyptian Museum
Hours of Henry VII, illuminated manuscript, London,
Seated Scribe, sculpture, circa 2400 B.C., originally from
British Library (Add. MS 35254)
Saqqara, Egypt, now in Paris, Louvre

Saints
Homer
Bellini, Giovanni, Saint Jerome Reading,oil on panel,
Ingres, Jean-Auguste-Dominique, The Apotheosis of Homer,
circa 1480-1490, Washington, D.C., National Gallery of
oil, 1827, Paris, Louvre
Art
Alma-Tadema, Lawrence, A Reading from Homer, oil, 1885,
Lippi, Filippino, Vision of St. Bernard, before 1504, Florence,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Museum of Art
Church of the Badia
Italy,

Diirer, Albrecht, St. Jerome in His Study, before 1528,

Old Testament
King Solomon Reading the Torah, miniature, from Hebrew London, National Gallery
Bible and Prayer Book, thirteenth century, London, British
La Tour, Georges de, St. Jerome Reading, before 1652, Paris,

Library (Add. MS. 11639, fol. 116a) Louvre

Michelangelo, Prophets and Sibyls, fresco, 1511, Vatican,
Historic
Sistine Chapel
Michelangelo, Moses, sculpture, 1545, Rome, Italy, San Pietro Rubens, Peter Paul, Education of Marie de Medici, oil, 1622,
in Vincoli
Paris, Louvre

Parmigianino, The Madonna with the Long Neck, oil, Barocci, Federico, Quintilia Fischieri, oil on canvas, circa

1534-1 540, Florence, Italy, Uffizi Gallery 1 600, Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art
Rembrandt van Rijn, Belshazzar Sees the Handwriting on the
Wall, oil, 1630s, London, National Gallery Literary

Rembrandt van Rijn, The Prophetess Hannah Reading Flaxman, John, Paolo and Francesca, line engraving, 1793,
(Rembrandt's Mother), panel, 163 1, Amsterdam, The Boston, Massachusetts, Museum of Fine Arts
Netherlands, Rijksmuseum Ingres, Jean-Auguste-Dominique, Paolo and Francesca, oil,

Rembrandt van Rijn, Moses, oil, 1659, Berlin-Dahlem, 1 819, Chantilly, France,Musee Conde
Germany, Staatliche Museen, Gemaldegalerie Delacroix, Eugene, Paolo and Francesca, nineteenth century,
West, Benjamin, Daniel Interpreting to Belshazzar the Zurich, Switzerland, collection of Dr. Peter Nathan
Handwriting on the Wall, oil on canvas, 1775, Pittsfield, Dyce, William, Francesca da Rimini, oil on canvas, circa
Massachusetts, Berkshire Museum 1837, Edinburgh, National Gallery of Scotland
Allston, Washington, Belshazzar's Feast, oil on canvas, Munro, Alexander, Paolo and Francesca, marble sculpture,
1817-1843, Detroit, Michigan, Detroit Institute of Art 1852, Birmingham, England, Museums and Art Gallery
Martin, John, Belshazzar's Feast, oil on canvas, 1821, Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, Paolo and Francesca, watercolor,
Hartford, Connecticut, Wadsworth Athenaeum 1855, London, Tate Gallery
770 READING

Genre Scows Morisot, Berthe, Reading, oil, 1873, Cleveland, Ohio,

Rembrandt van Rijn, Old Woman Reading, painting, Museum of Art
seventeenth century, Scotland, Drumlanrig Castle Homer, Winslow, The New Novel, watercolor, 1877,
Rembrandt van Rijn, Titus Reading, painting, seventeenth Springfield, Massachusetts, Museum of Fine Arts
century, Vienna, Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum Gogh, Vincent van, L'Arlesienne [Madame Ginoux), painting,
Stubbs, George, A Lady Reading in a Wooded Park, 1888, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art
1768-1770, private collection John, Gwen, Woman Reading at a Window, 1900, New York,
Fragonard, Jean-Honore, The Reader (A Young Girl Museum of Modern Art
Reading), oil on canvas, circa 1776, Washington, D.C., Cezanne, Paul, Lady in Blue, painting, before 1906, Moscow,
National Gallery or' Art Russia, Museum of Western Art
Martineau, Robert Braithwaite, The Last Chapter, oil on Matisse, Henri, Marguerite Reading, oil; 1906, Grenoble,
canvas, 186}, Birmingham, England, Museums and Art France, Museum
Gallery Rauschenberg, Robert, Rebus, 1955, Sweden, private
collection
Letter Reading Rauschenberg, Robert, Small Rebus, 1956, Los Angeles,
Vermeer, Jan, Girl Reading a Letter, oil, circa 1657, Dresden, California, Museum of Contemporary Art
Germany, Gemaldegalerie
Vermeer, Jan, The Love Letter, oil, circa 1670, Amsterdam,
The Netherlands, Rijksmuseum Further Reading
Newman, Robert Loftin, The Letter, oil on canvas, 1880s,
Bedaux, Jean Baptist, The Reality of Symbols, The Hague,
Washington, D.C., Phillips Collection
Picasso, Pablo, The Reading of the Letter, oil, 1913, Paris,
The Netherlands: Schwarts, 1990
Musee Picasso
Bindman, David, editor, John Flaxman, R. A., London:
Thames and Hudson, 1979
Carter, John, and Percy Muir, editors, Printing and the Mind
Reading Music
Delia Robbia, Luca, Cantorio, marble relief, 1431-1438, of Man, London: Cassell, 1967; New York: Rinehart and
Florence, Museo dell'Opera
Italy, del Duomo Winston, 1967
Terbrugghen, Hendrik, Boy Singing, oil, 1620s, Boston, Dante Alighieri, The Divine Comedy, translated by Dorothy
Massachusetts, Museum of Fine Arts L. Sayers, Baltimore and Harmondsworth, England:

Vermeer, Jan, The Concert, oil, circa 1670, formerly in

Penguin, 1973
Boston, Massachusetts, Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Dyson, Anthony, Pictures to Print: The Nineteenth Century
Picasso, Pablo, Three Musicians, oil, 1921, Philadelphia, Engraving Trade, London: Farrand Press, 1984
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Museum of Art Jussim, Estelle, Visual Communication and the Graphic Arts:
Photographic Technologies in the Nineteenth Century,
Reading a Newspaper New York: Bowker, 1974
Cassatt, Mary, Reading Le Figaro, oil, 1883, private Moran, James, Printing Presses: History and Development
collection from the Fifteenth Century to Modern Times, London:
Woodville, Richard Caton, War News from Mexico, oil, Faber, 1973
nineteenth century, New York, National Academy of Murray, Linda, Michelangelo, Oxford and New York: Oxford
Design University Press, 1980
Cezanne, Paul, L'Evenement (The Painters Father, Louis Nochlin, Linda, The Politics of Vision: Essays on Nineteenth
Auguste Cezanne), oil, circa 1859, London, National Century Art and Society, New York: Harper, 1989
Gallery Panofsky, Erwin, Meaning in the Visual Arts, Baltimore,
Degas, Edgar, The Office of a Cotton Firm, painting, Maryland, and Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1955
nineteenth century, Pau, France, Museum Roskill,Mark, The Interpretation of Pictures, Amherst:
Picasso, Pablo, Student with Newspaper, oil, 191 3, private University of Massachusetts Press, 1989
collection Scholes, Robert, Semiotics and Interpretation, New Haven,
Connecticut, and London: Yale University Press, 1982
Modern Steinberg, Leo, "Interrupted Reading," First M. Victor
Morisot, Berthe, The Artist's Mother and Sister, oil, Harvard University, Cambridge,
Leventritt Lecture at
1 869-1 870, Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art Massachusetts, December 10, 1985
 SACRIFICE
Alicia Craig Faxon

The following iconographic narratives and motifs are covered in the discussion of the theme Sacrifice:

DIANA MANOAH ADULT ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST

IDENTIFYING CHRIST AS
IPHIGENIA JOACHIM AND ZACHARIAS
LAMB OF GOD
ALCESTIS ISAAC
PELICAN
PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA LAMB AS SACRIFICE
SACRIFICE IN WAR
MITHRAS SLAYING A BULL LAMB IDENTIFYING CHRIST
MISCELLANEOUS
SACRIFICE OF CAIN AND WITH HOLY FAMILY OR
ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST
ABEL
NOAH

771
772 SACRI1 K 1
 SACRIFICE 773

Rembrandt van Rijn, Abraham's Sacrifice,

1655, etching, Boston, Museum of Fine

Arts, Harvey D. Parker Collection.
(Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston)

nr he root meaning of sacrifice is "to make sacred," and its in sculptures of the early Christian period, the most notable
M. first definition is an offering to a deity as propitiation or being the marble representation from the first half of the fourth
homage. It also means that which is sacrificed, a renunciation century at the Christiano Museum in Rome.
of something valued for the sake of a more important goal, and The lamb of God standing such works
for Christ is shown in

a selling or giving up of something at less than its estimated as the manuscript illustration (circa 1180) in theSan Pedro de
value. The difference between martyrdom and sacrifice is that Cardena Burgos Beatus. The lamb with a nimbus stands below
martyrdom is a willing offering of self for one's principles, the cross in gold, from which the letters alpha and omega (the
whereas a sacrifice may be an unwilling one, not chosen by first and last letters of the Greek alphabet) hang. Two angels

the victim. (The offering of the fruits of the land is considered flanking the lamb point to it.
separately in this encyclopedia in the essay Offering.) The infant Christ is often identified with a lamb in repre-
In ancient times, sacrifice was seen as restoring the balance sentations of the Holy Family, especially in those including the
of nature: an offering to promote fertility. This sometimes took infant John the Baptist. In Leonardo da Vinci's painting
the form of the ritual sacrifice of the king to bring fertility to Madonna and St. Anne (circa 1508-15 13) in the Louvre in
the land. The most common type was animal sacrifice. Often a Paris, Christ appears on the right side as an infant holding a
young or a lamb was sacrificed as a burnt offering
bull, a goat, lamb, as if The infant St.
defining his future sacrificial role.
to the gods. Animal sacrifice as part of a religious ritual still John offers the lamb number of paint-
to the Christ Child in a
occurs in parts of India and among voodoo cults. Human sac- ings, such as those by Palma Vecchio and Simon Vouet. In
rifice traditionally was associated with atonement for sins or works such as the early sixteenth-century painting by Bernardo
for the overreaching ambitions and pride of men. Child sacri- Luini in the Ambrosiana in Milan, Italy, the child St. John
fice was also practiced in the ancient world, as in the appears with a lamb; in others, such as Infant Christ and St.

Phoenician sacrifice of children into a fiery furnace to propiti- John the Baptist by Bartolome Esteban Murillo in the Prado in
ate the god and ensure population control. In the religion of the Madrid, Spain, a lamb next to Christ foretells his sacrifice.
sun god Mithras, the sacrifice of a bull expressed the desire that Sometimes, lambs are associated with the flock of Christ
the spirit might triumph over animal passions, an example of and may be deserted, as in William Holman Hunt's Hireling
the idea of sacrificing to transcend the confining pattern of Shepherd (1851) and Strayed Sheep (1852). These flocks are
existence and rise to a higher state. at risk because they do not have a faithful shepherd to care
Certain symbols have been associated with sacrifice, such as for them.
the lamb, which was an offering at the altar in classical, Old The adult St. John the Baptist is also portrayed with a lamb,
Testament, and New Testament contexts. The lamb as a sacri- which he identifies with Christ, as in the illumination of Pol,
ficial animal is cited as early as Genesis 4:3-4, when Abel's Jean, and Herman de Limbourg in Belles Hemes de Jean, Due
offering of a lamb, the "firstlings of his flock and of the fat de Berry, where John the Baptist in the wilderness holds a
thereof," approved by God, while Cain's offering of "the
is lamb in his right arm and points to it with his left. The adult
fruit of the ground" is rejected. In the New Testament, the lamb St. John the Baptist identifying Christ as the Lamb of God also
is a symbol of Jesus Christ and also of his followers. Christ is appears in paintings by Giovanni di Paolo, Guido Rem, and
identified as the Lamb God
such passages as John 1:29:
of in Salvador Rosa.
"The next day John coming unto him, and saith,
seeth Jesus
Behold the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of the
Christ as the Lamb
Catholic and Anglican liturgies
of God is

in
also involved in the
the Agnus Dei
— "OhRoman
Lamb
world." Jesus is both lamb and shepherd in John 10:1 1-18: "I of God that takest away the sins of the world, have mercy upon
am the good shepherd: the good shepherd giveth his life for the us. . .
." In music, this chorus is one of the high points of
sheep. ... I lay down my life for the sheep. ..." Following the George Frideric Handel's Messiah. Some Anglican hymns also,
description in Revelation 14:1, Christ as lamb is often shown as in the Lenten hymn or the 1940 Hymnal, identify Christ as
with a nimbus, standing on a hill from which four streams of the Lamb of God: "At the Lamb's high feast we sing Praise to
water flow. our victorious King. ..."
Christ as Good Shepherd, with a lamb resting on his shoul- The Lamb of God on the altar, with blood flowing from its
ders, appears in a fresco of the third century a.d. in the cata- breast, appears inAdoration of the Lamb, the central panel of
comb of St. Callixtus in Rome. Similar figures symbolizing the Ghent Altarpiece 4} 2) by Jan and Hubert van Eyck. The
(
1

Christ also appear in the fourth century in the catacomb of blood of the lamb symbolizes both sacrifice and the wine of the
Domitilla and that of SS. Pietro e Marcellino, both in Rome. Mass or Eucharist. The lamb is also associated with innocence,
The Good Shepherd with a lamb on his shoulders is also shown as in the innocence of Christ's sacrifice and as a more general
774 SACRIFICE.

characterization, such as in William Blake's poem "The Lamb" raising her arm entreatingly. Giovanni Battista Tiepolo painted
from Songs of Innocence. an illusionistic rendering of the scene at the Villa Valmarana in

The pelican is another symbol for sacrifice because, accord- Vicenza, Italy, in 1757.
ing to legend, the pelican pierces its breast to feed its children an early version of the sacrifice of Iphigenia (circa 490
In

with its own blood. This action is seen as analogous to Christ's B.C.) from the ancient Greek city of Selinus in Sicily, Iphigenia
sacrifice on the cross, as he gave his blood for the redemption is dressed as a bride arid is led to the altar by a warrior, sword

of humanity, according to Christian belief. Psalm 102 identifies in his hand, identified as Teukeros. A variant appears on a

the pelican with suffering, such as that of Christ on the cross: fourth-century B.C. red-figure vase in the British Museum in
London; here, the high priest Calchas holds a knife pointing
Hear my prayer, O Lord, and let my cry come unto thee.
toward Iphigenia while just behind her appears the deer that
Hide not thy face from me in the day when I am in trou-
will be substituted for the human victim. Tiepolo follows this
ble; incline thine ear unto me: in the day when I call
version in his fresco The Sacrifice of Iphigenia in the entry hall
answer me speedily. For my days are consumed like
of the Villa Valmarana. Here, the victim is placed centrally at
smoke, and my bones are burned as an hearth. My heart
the altar while Calchas looks imploringly to heaven. The deer
is smitten, and withered like grass; so that I forget to eat
sent by Artemis arrives airborne on a small cloud on the left
my bread. By reason of the voice of my groaning my
and is held by a winged putto. The drama of the story is fully
bones cleave to my skin. I am like a pelican of the wilder-
."
realized because the fresco is at the level of the viewer, who
ness. . . (Psalm 102: 1-6)
becomes a participant in the scene.
Representations of the pelican occur in church art, as on a nave Another popular sacrifice of a beautiful young maiden is the
capital in the church of Ste. Madeleine at Vezelay, France. story of Perseus and Andromeda, told by Ovid in
Pelicans also occur nesting above the cross to emphasize Metamorphoses (books 4 and 5) and later in William Morris's
Christ's sacrifice, as in Francesco Pesellino's Crucifixion with poem "The Doom of Acrisius" in his Earthly Paradise saga.
St. Jerome and St. Francis (1440-1445) in the National Gallery Both Sophocles and Euripides wrote plays on the subject, but
of Art in Washington, D.C., and they were used in church dec- the story does not appear in Homer or Hesiod. Andromeda was
orative art, as in examples by Dante Gabriel Rossetti made for the daughter of King Cepheus and Queen Cassiopeia, who
Morris, Marshall, Faulkner and Company, which had many boasted that she was more beautiful than the sea nymphs or
commissions for liturgical art. Rossetti's sketches may have Nereids. They complained to Poseidon, the god of the sea, who
been designed for the sedilia in the Llandaff Cathedral in sent a monster to ravage the land. When the king consulted the
Wales, where he designed an altarpiece, The Seed of David. oracle, it said that sacrificing Andromeda on a rock by the sea
Representations of pelicans as symbols of self-sacrifice also would appease the monster. Accordingly, she was bound to a
appear in ecclesiastical stained glass, as in a pelican roundel rock (or stakes in earlier representations) but was saved at the
(1862) for a window by William Morris Church
for All Saints last moment by Perseus, who swooped down on his winged
in Selsey, England, or Philip Webb' c nineteenth-century draw- sandals, or winged horse, killed the monster, and then claimed
ing of a pelican in a quatrefoil design for stained glass. Andromeda as his bride —the male fantasy of rescue, complete
The representation god Mithras slaying
of the Indo-Persian with the reward of a beautiful princess. The sacrifice and res-

a bull to ensure continuing fertility provides another symbol of cue appear as early as 560 B.C. on a black-figure Corinthian
sacrifice. The Mythraic mystery cult, which flourished in Rome amphora from Cevetri, now in Berlin, with Perseus throwing
and the Roman Empire, was a rival to early Christianity. In late rocks at a monster. An 430 B.C.)
Attic red-figure hydria (circa
Roman sculpture, Mithras is shown wearing a Phrygian cap, shows Andromeda held by servants, with others driving stakes
tunic, and leggings, standing over the bull with one knee to which she will be bound; a mid-fourth-century Campanian
pressed into its back, holding the bull's nose or horn to pull its red-figure hydria shows Andromeda chained to a rock with
head back while plunging a dagger into its neck. Most exam- Perseus below, attacking an enormous fish with a harpoon or
ples of the sacrifice of the bull, often in a cave, come from sicklelike sword. A classical Greek relief in the Capitoline
Roman sculpture of the second or third century a.d., although Museum in Rome shows Andromeda being helped off her rock
reference to Mithras and the bull occur in later art as well. by the hero. In all these representations, Perseus is shown
Perhaps the sacrifice of the bull survives in the Iberian tradition naked (the heroic nude) and Andromeda fully dressed.
of the bullfight. By the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, however,
In classical literature, two plays by Euripides, Iphigenia in Andromeda is the nude figure and Perseus is fully armored, as
Aitlis and its sequel, Iphigenia in Taurus, recount the sacrifice evidenced in works by Titian and Peter Paul Rubens in the
of Iphigenia, the daughter of Clytemnestra and Agamemnon, to Wallace Collection in London and the Gemaldegalerie in
enable the becalmed Greek ships to sail to Troy. In Euripides' Berlin-Dahlem, respectively. The nudity of Andromeda and the
version, a deer is sent as a substitute at the moment of sacrifice, armor of Perseus continue into nineteenth-century representa-
and Iphigenia is transported to Taurus to be a priestess of the tions of the sacrifice ofAndromeda, like those by Edward
moon goddess, Artemis, but in the play Agamemnon by Coley Burne-Jones in a private collection; Frederick Leighton in
Aeschylus (11. 199-257), Iphigenia becomes a human sacrifice the Walker Art Gallery in Liverpool, England; and Edward
to propitiate the gods. An early representation of the sacrifice John Poynter, now in a private collection. The naked vulnera-
of Iphigenia is in a wall painting from Pompeii in the Museo bility of the victim likely enhanced her appeal to Victorian men
Archaeologico Nazionale in Naples, Italy, which shows her with chivalric pretensions.
 SACRIFICE 775

Alcestis, who offered to die in place of her husband, for his son to succeed, possibly where the father had not, as an
Admetus, King of Pherae in Thessaly, is another ancient exam- athlete, a lawyer, a wealthy man, and so on).
ple of sacrifice. At their wedding, Admetus neglected to sacri- The sacrifice of Isaac was a popular subject with artists not
fice to Artemis and therefore was destined to die. Apollo per- only as a prefiguration of God's sacrificing His only son in the
suaded the Fates to let Admetus live if someone were willing to New Testament but also for the drama and emotions it con-
die in his place. Only Alcestis would make this sacrifice, but she tained. Early Christians depicted the scene in the Roman cata-
was spared because Hercules wrestled Death (Thanatos) for her combs of St. and Priscilla. It appears in the thirteenth
Callixtus
life and restored her to her husband. This legend was told in century in the Upper Church of St. Francis in Assisi, Italy, and
Euripides' play Alcestis, Plato's Symposium, Apollodorus's was the subject of the competition for the Baptistery doors in
Biblioteca, and Hyginus's Fabulae. Florence, Itaiy, which included gilt bronze reliefs by both
This story of wifely sacrifice is represented on Roman sar- Andrea Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi, now in the Bargello
cophagi such as Sarcophagus of C. Junius Euhodius (circa a.d. in Florence. Andrea del Sarto painted a dramatic version of the

161-170) in the Museo Chiaramonti in the Vatican and Story sacrifice, now in the Cleveland, Ohio, Museum of Art, as did
of Alcestis Sarcophagus (circa 170-180) in the Villa Albani in Caravaggio, whose painting, now in the Uffizi Gallery in
Rome. It also occurs in a painting by Jean-Francois-Pierre Florence, is in grand Baroque style.

Peyron (1785) Louvre in Paris.

in the Titian painted a spectacular Sacrifice of Isaac on the ceiling
Sacrifices to various gods and goddesses have also been of the Church of Sta. Maria della Salute at the same time as his
depicted. In one mid-seventeenth-century example, Eustache ceiling of Cain Killing Abel and David Killing
renditions
Le Sueur's Sacrifice to Diana, a man in profile on the left and Goliath. The two show heavily muscled figures in violent
latter

a woman on the right sacrifice at a flaming altar before a cen- action organized in a dominant diagonal composition. They are
tral sculpture of the huntress goddess. This scene re-created painted to be seen from below, with dramatic foreshortening of
the classical custom of offering incense or sacrificing an ani- the figures and strong dramatic action. Titian's Sacrifice of
mal to propitiate a god or goddess, ask for a favor, or give Isaac is an illusionistic tour de force, combining Roman draw-
thanks. ing with Venetian color in a seldom equaled synthesis.
In Christian literature, sacrifice is a continuing theme. It In addition to the Cain and Abel sacrifice and the sacrifice
starts as early as the fourth chapter of Genesis in the sacrifice of Abraham, which appear in a number of pictorial and sculp-
of Cain and Abel: Abel's sacrifice of the lamb is preferred to tural works, there are many representations of Noah's sacrifice,
Cain's offering of the fruits of the earth, and Cain in his jeal- the sacrifice of Jacob and Laban, Aaron's offerings to the gold-
ousy slays his brother. The scene of the sacrifice appears on a en Manoah's sacrifice, David's sacrifice, and Solomon's
calf,

Spanish Romanesque capital in the Fogg Art Museum of sacrifices topagan gods. This last subject was especially popu-
Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts, with the lar with seventeenth-century Dutch artists and can be seen in
hand of God coming out of a cloud and pointing to Abel's sac- paintings by Leonard Bramer, Gerbrand van den Eeckhout,
rifice. Another is a nineteenth-century painting by John Everett Solomon Koninck, and Willem de Poorter.
Millais in the City Art Gallery in Birmingham, England. Still The sacrifice of Manoah was an important subject for
others include the eleventh-century bronze doors of Bishop Rembrandt and his pupils. The story, which comes from Judges
Bernward at St. Michael's in Hildesheim, Germany, and 13:2-24, tells of Manoah and his wife sacrificing in thanksgiv-
Titians's oil painting (1542-1543) in the Church of Sta. Maria ing for the news brought by an angel that they would have a
della Salute in Venice, Italy. son, Samson. Pieter Lastman, Rembrandt's teacher, painted the
Sacrifice that has received more artistic representation is subject in 1627, but Rembrandt's version of 1641 bears little

Abraham's sacrifice of his only son at God's command, told in resemblance to his master's. In Lastman's painting, the angel
Genesis 22.Abraham had left Ur of the Chaldees at God's com- with raised arms stands frontally in the air on the left, the
mand and, although old, was the father of a young son, Isaac, kneeling wife appears frontally with raised arms, and Manoah,
as God had promised he would be. This promise of posterity in profile, kneels in the right foreground. Lastman presents his
was seemingly cut short when God ordered Abraham to take version in daylight, Rembrandt
showing the couple
at night,
his only son to a high mountain and sacrifice him as a burnt kneeling in from the back,
a vast space, while the angel, seen
offering. The sacrifice of his only son would be a test of ascends left. Rembrandt borrowed his composition from a
Abraham's faith. The overwhelming feelings of horror and woodcut of the same subject (1563) by Maerten van
despair that came over Abraham as he was about to cut the Heemskerck, and this form, with the angel on the left seen in
boy's throat in sacrifice are mirrored in his face and pose in the flight from the rear, appears in similar compositions of
etching Abraham's Sacrifice (1655) by Rembrandt van Rijn. Manoah's sacrifice by Rembrandt's pupils Govaert Flinck and
Just as Abraham about to strike, an angel appears behind
is Jan Victors.
him and stays Abraham's hand. The amazement and terror of An unusual depiction of sacrifice occurs in William Holman
the intervention are obvious on Abraham's face, as he is shown Hunt's The Scapegoat (1856) in the Lady Lever Art Gallery 111
in the engraving not as an imposing Old Testament patriarch Port Sunlight, England, which shows the goat that the Jews
but as a very human father. The scene is not a costume piece of used on the Day of Atonement as a surrogate sacrifice for their
a biblical past but an eternal theme that raises questions about sins thatwas to be driven out to die in the wilderness (Leviticus
a father's relationship to his son. It calls to mind the phrase 16). Hunt painted most of the work by the Dead Sea to capture
"The son was sacrificed to his father's ambition" (or his desire the verisimilitude of its Old Testament site but had difficulties,
776 SA( i< J i k i

as the goats, staked out in the intense heat of the salty plain, "I beseech you therefore, brethren, by the mercies of God that
kept dying on him — a case of sacrifice to art. ye present your bodies a living sacrifice, holy, acceptable unto
The topic of sacrifice runs like a scarlet thread through the God, which is your reasonable service."
Bible, with each mention departing further horn human or ani- In a modern secular context, sacrifice usually means giving

mal sacrifices as burnt offerings to God. A new concept of sac- up one's life for a cause or a principle believed, such as Nathan
rifice appears in Psalm 51:16-17: "For thou desirest not sacri- Hale's sacrifice of his life for his country in the American
fice, else would give it; thou delightest not in burnt offering.
I Revolution, Ford Byron's death at Missolonghi in 1824 for the
The sacrifices of God are a broken spirit; a broken and a con- cause of Greek independence from Turkey, or Martin Futher
trite heart, O God, thou and in Hosea 6:6:
wilt not despise"; Kin^; Jr.'s assassination in the cause of civil rights. Nathan Hale
"For I and the knowledge of
desired mercy, and not sacrifice; is the subject of a commemorative sculpture by Frederick
God more than burnt offerings." Proverbs 21:3 proclaims, "To MacMonnies, who shows Hale, condemned to die as a spy by
do justice and judgment is more acceptable to the Ford than the British during the American Revolution, striding forward as
sacrifice." Here, the outward form of burnt offerings is if uttering his famous words, "I only regret that have but one
I

changed to an inner sacrifice of contrition and to behavior that life to lose for my country." The deaths and maimings of war

pleases God. provide another context for sacrifice, perhaps best expressed by
Although scenes of sacrifice are less common in the New United States President Abraham Fincoln in the Gettysburg
Testament, there are pictorial representations of Zacharias sac- Address on November 19, 1863:
rificing incense at the altar when an angel appears to him to
But we cannot dedicate, we cannot con-
in a larger sense,
announce the coming birth of John the Baptist. One example is
secrate, we cannot hallow this ground. The brave men,
Andrea Sacchi's mid-seventeenth century Zacharias Sacrificing
living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it,
at the Altar in the Fateran in Rome.
far above our power to add or to detract. ... It is rather
Another similar subject that has been explored by artists is
for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining
the story of Joachim, the father of the Virgin Mary, whose sac-
before us; that from these honored dead we take
rifice at the altar is refused by the priest Zacharias because
increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the
Joachim is childless. Sometimes, the sacrifice of both Joachim
last full measure of devotion.
and his wife, Anna, are refused, and Joachim is driven from
the temple. Joachim's exile from the temple is the subject of Kathe Kollwitz poignantly expressed this concept in her
works such as those by Agnolo Gaddi in the Cathedral of Pieta in the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, which portrays
Prato, Italy, and Taddeo Gaddi in S. Croce in Florence. a mother holding her dead son in her lap (Kollwitz's son died
Domenico Ghirlandaio also shows Joachim's sacrifice refused in World War I, her grandson in World War II). Ernst Fudwig
in a fresco on the left wall of Sta. Maria Novella in Florence. Kirchner depicted his own sacrifice as a soldier in World War
Several moving representations by Giotto show Joachim's sac- I when he painted a self-portrait in uniform with his right
rifice refused and his exile into the wilderness. Of these works —
hand amputated a symbolic statement for his experiences in
by Giotto, all in the Arena Chapel in Padua, Italy, the first the war, which were so traumatic that they prevented him
shows Joachim on the far right being pushed out of the temple from painting for a period and drove him to a nervous
by an officious bearded priest. In the second, the dejected breakdown.
Joachim is on the left, bending his head in grief as he talks to Sacrifice was one of the motive forces in Toltec, Mayan,
the shepherds in the center of the fresco, with the sheep and and Aztec civilizations in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. It was
sheepfold on the right. their belief that the gods needed blood sacrifices, especially the
In the New Testament, Fuke (2:23-24) tells of the custom- sun god, who required still-beating hearts, usually of captives,
ary sacrifice of a pair of turtledoves or young pigeons offered to sustain him in his journey across the sky. Captain James
for the firstmale child born and of the prophet Simeon's recog- Cook reported human sacrifice for success in war on his third
nition of Jesus as the promised Messiah when his parents come voyage in the Pacific in 1777. German anthropologist and
to sacrifice: "For mine eyes have seen thy salvation" (Fuke archaeologist Feo Frobenius wrote of sacrifice for rain in
2:29-32). southern Rhodesia. The idea of sacrifice appears to bring out
In his ministry, Jesus echoed Hosea 's definition of sacrifice the best and the worst in humanity: the best when we sacrifice
when he answered the Pharisees' question about why he ate ourselves and our selfish goals, the worst when we sacrifice
with publicans and sinners. He said that those who are well do others.
not need a physician, but those who are sick do. "I will have
mercy, and not sacrifice: for I am not come to call the righteous,
but sinners to repentance" (Matthew 9:10-13). Christ himself See also Martyrdom; Offering
became the ultimate sacrifice, offering up his life in the
Crucifixion for the sins of the world: "He appeared to put
away sin by the sacrifice of himself. ... So Christ was once
offered to bear the sins of many; and unto them that look for
Selected Works of Art

him shall he appear the second time without sin unto salva- Diana
tion" (Hebrews 9:26-28). The final Christian ideal of sacrifice Fe Sueur, Eustache, Sacrifice to Diana, oil, mid-seventeenth
is an offering of oneself to God, as Paul wrote in Romans 12:1: century, Boston, Massachusetts, Museum of Fine Arts
 SACRIFICE 777

Iphigenia Rossellino, Antonio, Mithras Slaying a Bull, relief sculpture,

The Sacrifice of Iphigenia, Attic white-ground lekythos, circa detail from Tomb of the Cardinal of Portugal, Florence,
490 B.C., originally from Selinus, Italy, now in Palermo, Italy, San Miniato
Italy, Museo Nazionale Mithras, woodcut, from Cartari, Imagini degli dei . . . , 161 5,
The Sacrifice of Iphigenia, red-figure vase, fourth century Padua, Italy
B.C., London, British Museum
The of Iphigenia, fresco, from the House of the
Sacrifice of Cain and Abel
Sacrifice
Tragic Muse, Pompeii, circa 50 B.C., Naples, Italy, Museo Cain and Abel with Offerings, fresco, 320-350, Rome, Via
Archaeologico Nazionale Latina, Catacomb, Cubiculum B
Steen, Jan, Sacrifice of Iphigenia, 1671, Amsterdam, The of Abel, Approved by God, bronze relief sculpture-
Sacrifice
Netherlands, Rijksmuseum on Doors of Bishop Bernward, 1015, Hildesheim,
Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista, The Sacrifice of Iphigenia, fresco, Germany, St. Michael
1757, Vicenza, Italy, Villa Valmarana The Sacrifice of Abel, marble column capital, Spanish
Romanesque, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard
Alcestis University, Fogg Art Museum
Sarcophagus of C. Junius Euhodius, relief sculpture, circa Sacrifices of Cain and Abel, nave capital relief, 1 120-1 132,
161-170, Vatican, Museo Chiaramonti Vezelay, France, Ste, Madeleine, North Clerestory
Story of Alcestis Sarcophagus, relief sculpture, circa 170-180, Ghiberti, Lorenzo, Sacrifice of Abel Approved by God, gilt
Rome, Villa Albani bronze relief, on Gates of Paradise, circa 1435, Florence,
Peyron, Jean-Francois-Pierre, Death of Alcestis, oil, 1785, Italy, San Giovanni, Baptistery, east doors
Paris, Louvre of Cain and Abel, circa 15 10,
Albertinelli, Mariotto, Sacrifice
Delacroix, Eugene, Hercules Bringing Alcestis Back from Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University, Fogg Art
Hades, oil, 1862., Washington, D.C., Phillips Gallery Museum
Burne-Jones, Edward Coley, Love Leading Alcestis, Titian, Cain Killing Abel, oil, 1 542-1 543, Venice, Italy, Sta.
watercolor cartoon for a tapestry, 1863, Oxford, Maria della Salute
England, Ashmolean Museum Millais, John Everett, The Rejection of Cain's Sacrifice,
Leighton, Frederick, Hercules Wrestling Death for the Soul nineteenth century, Birmingham, England, City Art
of Alcestis, oil, 1871, Hartford, Connecticut, Wadsworth Gallery
Athenaeum
Story, William Wetmore, Alcestis, marble sculpture, after Noah
1874, Hartford, Connecticut, Wadsworth Athenaeum Noah, fresco, circa 1447-1455,
Uccello, Paolo, Sacrifice of
Florence, Maria Novella, Cloister
Italy, Sta.

Perseus and Andromeda Michelangelo, Noah's Sacrifice, fresco, 1 508-1 512, Vatican,
and Rescue of Andromeda, Corinthian black-figure
Sacrifice Sistine Chapel, ceiling
amphora, 560 B.C., from Cevetri, now in Berlin, Antique Palma Vecchio, Noah's Sacrifice, oil, early sixteenth century,
Museum Detroit, Michigan, Art Institute
Andromeda and Servants, Attic red-figure hydria, circa 430 Rubens, Peter Paul, Sacrifice of Noah, oil, early seventeenth
London, British Museum
B.C., century, Oxford, Ashmolean Museum
Andromeda Chained to the Rock, Campanian red-figure Castiglione, Giovanni, Noah's Sacrifice After the Deluge, oil
hydria, mid-fourth century B.C., Berlin, Antique Museum on canvas, circa 1650, Los Angeles, County Museum
Perseus Rescuing Andromeda, marble relief, Greek classical Bourdon, Sebastien, Sacrifice of Noah, nineteenth century,
period, Rome, Capitoline Museum Moscow, Russia, Pushkin State Museum
Titian, Perseus Rescuing Andromeda, oil, circa 1556, London, Schick, Chirstian Gottlieb, Sacrifice of Noah, 1805, Berlin,
Wallace Collection Staatliche Museen, Nationalgalerie
Vasari, Giorgio, Perseus and Andromeda, oil, 1570-1572,
Florence, Italy, Palazzo Vecchio Manoah
Burne-Jones, Edward Coley, The Rescue of Andromeda, oil, Lastman, Pieter, The Sacrifice of Manoah, 1627, private
1887-1893, private collection collection
Leighton, Frederick, Perseus and Andromeda, oil, 1891, Flinck, Govaert, The Sacrifice of Manoah, 1640, London,
Liverpool, England, Walker Art Gallery Marshall Spink
Rembrandt van Rijn, The Sacrifice of Manoah, 1641,
Mithras Slaying a Bull Dresden, Germany, Staatliche Gemaldegalerie
Mithras Slaying a Bull, relief fragment, second century, Post, Frans Jansz., The Sacrifice of Manoah, mid-seventeenth
Boston, Museum of Fine Arts century, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, Museum Boymans
Mithras Slaying a Bull, relief sculpture, third century, Paris,

Louvre Joachim and Zacharias

Mithras Slaying a Bull, sculpture, Roman, London, British Giotto, Joachim's Sacrifice Refused, fresco, circa 1305, Padua,
Museum Italy, Arena Chapel
778 SACRIFICE

Ghirlandaio, Domenico, Joachim's Sacrifice Refused, late Eyck, Jan and Hubert van, Adoration of the Lamb, from
fifteenth century; Florence, Italy, Sta. Maria Novella Ghent Altarpiece, oil on panel, 14^2, Ghent, Belgium,
Sacchi, Andrea, Zacharias Sacrificing at the Altar, mid- St. Bavo

seventeenth century, Rome, the Lateran Hunt, William Holman, Hireling Shepherd, oil, 1851,
Manchester, England, City Art Gallery
Isaac Hunt, William Holman, Strayed Sheep, oil, 1852, London,
Sacrifice of Isaac, wall painting, early Christian, Rome, Tate Ciallery
( atacomb of St. Callixtus
Sacrifice of Isaac, fresco, 320-350, Rome, Catacomb of Via Lamh Identifying Christ with Holy Lamily or
I, anna, Cubiculum C St.John the Baptist
Ghiberti, Lorenzo, The Sacrifice of Isaac, bronze gilt relief, Leonardo da Vinci, Madonna and St. Anne, oil on panel, circa
1302, Florence, Italy, Bargello 508-1 5 1 3, Paris, Louvre
1

( fozzoli, Benozzo, Sacrifice of Isaac, fresco, fifteenth century, Palma Vecchio, Madonna and Child with St. John, early
Pisa, Italy, Campo Santi sixteenth century, Florence, Italy, Uffizi Gallery
Tintoretto, Sacrifice of Isaac, oil, sixteenth century, Florence, Luini, Bernardo, Child St. John the Baptist with a Lamb,
Italy, Uffizi Gallery early sixteenth century, Milan, Italy, Ambrosiana
Veronese, Paolo, Sacrifice of Isaac, oil, sixteenth century, Vouet, Simon, Holy Family with St. John, oil, early
Vienna, Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum seventeenth century, San Francisco, California, Fine
Andrea del Sarto, Sacrifice of Isaac, oil, 1520s, Cleveland, Arts Museum
Ohio, Museum of Art Murillo, Bartolome Esteban, Infant Christ and St. John the
Titian, Sacrifice of Isaac, oil, circa 1542, Venice, Italy, Sta. Baptist, oil, circa 1670, Madrid, Spain, Prado
Maria della Salute
Carracci, Ludovico, Sacrifice of Isaac, oil, after 1585, Vatican, Adult St. John the Baptist Identifying Christ
Vatican Museums as Lamb of God
Domenichino, Sacrifice of Isaac, oil, 1602, Fort Worth, Texas, Limbourg Brothers, St. John the Baptist Preaching,
Kimball Art Museum manuscript illumination, from the Belles Heures de
Caravaggio, Sacrifice of Isaac, oil, 1603, Florence, Italy, Uffizi Jean, Due de Berry, tempera on gold leaf parchment,
Gallery circa 14 10, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art
Allori, Alessandro, Sacrifice of Abraham, oil, before 1607, Giovanni di Paolo, Scenes from the Life of John the Baptist,
Florence, Italy, Uffizi Gallery tempera on panel, circa 1450-1460, Chicago, Art
Carracci, Annibale, Sacrifice of Abraham, oil, before 1609, Institute
Paris, Louvre Reni, Guido, Meeting of Christ and St. John the Baptist,
Lastman, Abraham's Sacrifice, oil, 1616, Paris, Louvre
Pieter, before 1642, Naples, Italy, San Filippo Neri
Rembrandt van Rijn, Abraham's Sacrifice, oil, 1635, St. Gninewald, Matthias, Crucifixion, from Isenheim Altarpiece,
Petersburg, Russia, Hermitage oil on panel, circa 15 10-15 15, Colmar, France, Musee

Brueghel, Pieter, the Younger, Sacrifice of Isaac, oil, before Unterlinden

1638, Montreal, Quebec, Museum of Fine Arts Rosa, Salvador, Landscape with St. John the Baptist Pointing
Domenichino, Sacrifice of Isaac, oil, before 1641, London, Out Christ, oil, seventeenth century, Glasgow, Scotland,
Courtauld Institute of Art Art Gallery
Rembrandt van Rijn, Abraham's Sacrifice, etching, 1655,
Boston, Museum of Fine Arts Pelican
Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista, Sacrifice of Abraham, oil, Two Pelicans, nave capital relief, n 20-1 13 2, Vezelay, France,
seventeenth century, New York, Metropolitan Museum Ste. Madeleine, north clerestory
of Art Pesellino, Francesco, The Crucifixion with St. Jerome and
St. Francis, oil on panel, 1440-1445, Washington, D.C.,
Lamb as Sacrifice National Gallery of Art
Good Shepherd with Lamb on Shoulders, fresco, third Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, Pelican, pen and ink, circa i860,
century, Rome, Catacomb of St. Callixtus England, private collection (variant in Birmingham,
/ Shepherd with Lamb on Shoulders, ceiling fresco, England, Museum and Art Gallery)
fourth century, Rome, Catacomb of SS. Pietro e Marcellino Morris, William, Pelican Roundel, stained glass, 1862, Selsey,
Good Shepherd with Lamb on Shoulders, ceiling fresco, England, All Saints Church
fourth century, Rome, Catacomb of Domitilla Webb, Philip, Pelican, pen and ink and graphite, nineteenth
Good Shepherd, marble statue, first half of fourth century, century, London, Victoria and Albert Museum
Rome, Christiano Museum
Lamb of God Before the Cross, Flanked by Two Angels, Sacrifice in War
manuscript illumination, from San Pedro de Cardena, Fenton, Roger, Valley of the Shadow of Death, salt print
Burgos Beatus, tempera and gold leaf on parchment, circa photograph, 1855, Austin, University of Texas,
1 1 80, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art Gernsheim Collection
 SACRIFICE 779

O'Sullivan, Timothy H., The Harvest of Death, Gettysburg, Bober, Phillis Pray, and Ruth Bubenstein, Renaissance Artists
albumin print photograph, 1863, Austin, University of and Antique Sculpture, Oxford and New York: Oxford
Texas, Gernsheim Collection University Press, 1 99 1

Butler, Elizabeth, The Roll Call, oil, 1 873—1 874, London, Campbell, Joseph, A Hero with a Thousand laces, Princeton,
Collection of Queen Elizabeth II New Jersey, and London: Princeton University Press,
MacMonnies, Frederick, Nathan Hale, bronze, 1889, New J973
York, City Hall Park, Broadway and Murray Street Carpenter, Thomas, Art and Myth in Ancient Greece, London
Kollwitz, Kathe, Pieta, plaster, 19 17, Boston, Museum of and New York: Thames and Hudson, [99]
Fine Arts Carter, David, Rembrandt and His Pupils, Raleigh: North
Kollwitz, Kathe, Killed in Action, lithograph, 1921, New Carolina Museum of Art, 1956
York, Galerie St. Etienne Coe, E. T, "Rubens in 1614: The Sacrifice of Isaac,"
Kollwitz, Kathe, The Volunteers, woodcut, 1922-1923, New Bulletin of the Nelson Gallery and Atkins Museum
York, Galerie St. Etienne
4:7 (i960)
Kirchner, Ernst Ludwig, Self-Portrait as a Soldier, oil, circa Durand, Jean-Louis, Grece anaemic,
Sacrifice et labour en
1915, Oberlin, Ohio, Oberlin College, Allen Memorial Paris: Decouverte, 1986
Museum Jung, Carl Gustav, Man and His Symbols, Garden City, New
Davie, Alan, Sacrifice, oil, 1956, private collection York: Doubleday, 1964; London: Aldus, 1964
Kestner, Joseph A., Mythology and Misogyny, Madison:
Miscellaneous University of Wisconsin Press, 1989
Reynolds, Joshua, Lady Sarah Bunbury Sacrificing to the
Maybaum, I., The Sacrifice of Isaac: A Jewish Commentary,

Graces, 1765, Chicago, Art Institute London: Vallentine, Mitchel, 1959

Hunt, William Holman, The Scapegoat, oil, 1856, Port Munich, Adrienne Auslander, Andromeda's Chains, New
Sunlight, England, Lady Lever Art Gallery
York: Columbia University Press, T989
Saxl, Fritz, "Rembrandt's Sacrifice of Manoah," Studies of
the Warburg Institute IX (1939)
Further Reading Shapiro, M., "The Angel with the Ram in Abraham's
Aeschylus, The Orestian Trilogy, translated by Philip Sacrifice: A Parallel in Western and Islamic Art," Ars

Vellacott, Baltimore, Maryland, and Harmondsworth, Islamica 10 (1943)

England: Penguin, 198 Smith, A. Moore, "The Iconography of the Sacrifice of Isaac
Anderson, Gary A., Sacrifices and Offerings in Ancient Israel, in Early Christian Art," American Journal of Archaeology
Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press, 1987 26 (1989)
Bakker, Willem Frederik, The Sacrifice of Abraham, Solie, Pierre, Le sacrifice: foudateur de civilisation et

Birmingham, England: University of Birmingham, 1978 d' individuation, Paris: Albin Michel, 1988
Balmay, Marie, he sacrifice interdit: Freud et la Bible, Paris: Woerden, I. Speyart van, "The Iconography of the Sacrifice
B. Grasset, 1986 of Isaac," Vigiliae Christianae 15 (1961)
 SANCTUARY
Claudia Hill

The following sanctuaries and topics are covered in the discussion of the theme Sanctuary:

SECOND TEMPLE VIOLATION OF SANCTUARY: GREAT ZIMBABWE

ST. THOMAS A BECKET
DOME OF THE ROCK TEMPLE OF THE SPHINX
KAABA
TEMPLE OF ZEUS
TEOTIHUACAN
HAGIA SOPHIA
PANTHEON POSSIBLE SANCTUARIES
THE GREAT STUPA
CHARTRES CATHEDRAL IDEA OF SANCTUARY
ANGKOR WAT

781
782 SANCTUARY

Mecca, Saudi Arabia, Kaaba and Haram, from History of Aleppo Temple (Boston: E. J. Hall, 191 5),
photographs provided by Newman Travel Talks Co. (Courtesy of the Aga Khan Program, Fine Arts
Library, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts)
 SANCTUARY 783

c
^^
^J
anctuary derives from the Latin word sanctuarmm
Although sanctuaries have frequently been depict-
place).
(a holy tum contained the chest known as the Ark of the Covenant,
which held the two stone tablets of the Ten Commandments
ed in works of art, sanctuary is most often exemplified in a spe- given to Moses by God on Mount Sinai. Worshipers would go
cific place. The earliest sanctuaries date from the caves of in a procession to the temple and then perform ritual sacrifices

Paleolithic times (early Stone Age) in which the mysterious rites at the altar along with prayers of thanksgiving.
took place that left magnificent cave art. Soon humans The only remaining section of the Second Temple is thought
improved upon and further embellished their natural sanctuar- to be a stone wall that dates from the first century B.C. This
ies, as at Abu Simbel in Egypt or the Tun-huang caves in China, wall, the Western Wall, is the most hallowed spot in the Jewish
by enhancing natural configurations and decorating them with religion. It is believed that the divine presence resides at that
effigies and paintings. location because of the wall's proximity to the sacred Ark.
Eventually humans built structures to encompass their holy When the Second Temple became a casualty of war, the Ark of
sites. The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology defines the Covenant disappeared. The mourning that takes place daily
sanctuary as a building for religious worship or part of a by the wall is for Israel's exile from Egypt and the destruction
church, temple, or shrine immediately surrounding the altar. of the Second Temple. The Western Wall, also known as the
Although sanctuaries need not have altars, they are often Wailing Wall, is one of four stone walls surrounding the build-
placed within the building or on the sacred precinct. The altar ings on the Temple of the Mount.
is frequently tied to the concept of the sanctuary as a place of
refuge.
Dome of the Rock
A common feature of sanctuaries is the importance placed
upon the cardinal points of the compass, perhaps symbolizing The Dome of the Rock is one of 100 structures in the enclosed
the cosmos. East and west are strongly associated with religious trapezoid of the Temple of the Mount area in Jerusalem.
belief, and sacred buildings are often aligned along this axis. Muslims gather around this building to worship in numerous
Sanctuaries are not necessarily enclosed structures but holy prayer spots. The octagon-shaped structure was constructed
spaces separated from profane spaces by man-made demarca- over an enormous rock by the Islamic leader of the Umayyads,
tions, natural boundaries, or acombination of the two. Both Caliph Adb al-Malik, in a.d. 685. Muslims believe that the
the image and meaning of the word sanctuary are as dependent rock was where the Prophet Muhammad rose to heaven in an
upon the preservation of records describing the sacred space as event described by the Koran. The rock is also sacred to Jews,
on the durable materials and methods of construction. who believe it was where Adam was entombed and where Isaac
was bound for sacrifice.
The Dome of the Rock has two concentric ambulatories
Second Temple
and is crowned by a gilded dome. There are windows at the
The Old Testament documents the Israelites' attempts to build base of the dome and glazed pottery tiles decorate the exterior
a temple to house the sacred Ark of the Covenant, one that of the structure. The shimmering of the multicolored tiles of
would act as a central sanctuary of their state and religion. The the geometric designs along with the immense, gold-covered
First Temple, built by Solomon and destroyed by the dome produce a magnificent effect. Arabic inscriptions,
Babylonians, left no archaeological traces. A considerable num- mosaics of vegetation, precious metals, and colored stones are
ber of speculative and imaginary images of the First Temple part of the original seventh-century interior decoration. The
and its successor can be found, ranging from early manuscripts Dome of the Rock did not have an altar, as Muslims believe
to twentieth-century works of art. There are no descriptions of that all prayer should be directed towards the Kaaba, their
the building of the Second Temple in the Old City of Jerusalem. most holy sanctuary.
In the Torah, however, there is mention of the reconstruction of
the temple. Archaeological drawings indicate that an altar was
Kaaba
placed outside and in front of the temple. The remains of some
ancient Jewish stone altars reveal hornlike protrusions at the According to the Koran, the Kaaba was the Earth's first sanc-
corners. In the Old Testament
Kings 1:50-51) the persecuted
(I tuary. The Kaaba, considered "the temple or house of God," is
who were able to seize the horns on the altar were assured of in the center of the Haram, or mosque, at Mecca, Saudi Arabia.

justice if not safety. The Koran specifies that all Muslims must perform a pilgrim-
The Second Temple was rectangular, with a porch, main age to the Kaaba once in their lifetime. Part of the pilgrimage
hall, and a dark, windowless inner sanctum. These were all ori- includes a ritual walk to the Haram, around the Kaaba, and the
ented along a single, horizontal, east-west axis. The inner sanc- recitation of prayer. Because a Muslim has a direct relationship
784 SANCTUARY

with God, there are no priests on Earth nor saints in heaven for The emperor and his court walked to the south aisle and the
intercession, neither are there ritual vessels or vestments. clergy continued to the chancel around the altar. The remaining
Prayers are said five tunes a day as the means for worship. aisles and galleries were reserved for the congregation.

I he Black Stone, the central focus of this sanctuary, is The interior were originally decorated in gilded
walls
touched and kissed by the faithful during a ritual walk. Built mosaics done in and precious materials such as marble,
colorful

into the e.ist corner of the Kaaba, its relation to the Kaaba is stones, bronze, and other metals. The beauty and sparkle of the
not known. For the Muslims, it is the world's axis. In the sev- walls were further enhanced by the clergy's sumptuous liturgi-
enth century A.D., Muhammad is believed to have assisted with cal implements. The mosaics of Christ, the Virgin and Child,

the placement of the sacred Black Stone in the sanctuary and to other holy figures, and members of Justinian's court were later
have led the first pilgrimage to the site. additions that served to impress and educate a largely illiterate

The Kaaba is rectangular, with a flat roof that slopes to the congregation. After the Turkish conquest, the mosaics were
northwest corner, tapering into a mizab (gilt water spout). The covered with plaster and whitewash but were later revealed and
existing building is made of mortared layers of a gray-blue restored.
stone from the neighboring The four corners of the
hills. The Hagia Sophia was erected on top of the ruins of a
Kaaba roughly correspond compass and its
to the points of a fourth-century church that had been built by the Roman
walls are covered with a black curtain. Entry to the Kaaba by emperor Constantine. Constantine, the first Christian emperor,
appointed caretakers is gained from a side door. Inscriptions selected the site for the sanctuary after having a dream. His
cover the interior walls, and marble is set into the floor. There body was allegedly buried in the center of this early church. By
is no altar or other furnishings except for some silver and gold the time the Byzantine emperor Justinian (a.d. 483-565)
lamps. embarked on the construction of the Hagia Sophia, the sancti-
The inviolability of the sacred enclosure of the Haram was ty of the area had already been established. The recycling of
a guaranteed right. Peace reigned within this space; feuding sanctuary buildings and their sites throughout history is often

Arab tribes were forbidden weapons in the mosque. On the due to their sacred or convenient location.
Kaaba was a handle that fugitives could grasp and expect
mercy, somewhat analogous to the horns on the Jewish altar.
Chartres Cathedral
Safety was also extended to animals and plants in the Haram.
Blood could not be spilled and murder in the sanctuary was Some 500 years after the building of the Hagia Sophia, the
seen as a heinous crime. Roman Catholic Cathedral of Chartres was constructed south-
west of Paris over a holy relic reputed to be the Virgin's birthing
tunic. The structure was originally rectangular, similar to the
Hagia Sophia
basilica of the Hagia Sophia. However, fire destroyed all but the
The basilica was an early prototype of the Christian sanctuary. sculptured portal on the west facade in the eleventh century.
The Hagia Sophia (a.d. 537), a Byzantine basilica, was built on Influenced by the high Gothic style of the French cathedrals
a high ridge overlooking the city of Constantinople, now of Notre Dame and Sens, Chartres was rebuilt on the same
Istanbul, Turkey. The architects Anthemius of Tralles and sacred site by Abbot Suger. The twelfth-century building is

Isidorus of Miletus designed this sanctuary for the Roman made of mortared stone over a wooden framework and has
emperor Justinian. After the Turkish conquest of Constantinople sculptured stone entryways. It is designed with a long nave and
in 1453, it became a mosque and four minarets were added. In short transepts, or arms. A double ambulatory, also known as
use today as a museum, the Byzantine building is rectangular, a walkway, has radiating chapels and encloses the central altar
with a wide nave or central passageway flanked by aisles with at the east end. The triforium (a narrow second-story gallery)
galleries above them. borders the nave, and stained-glass windows along this upper
A great dome caps the center of the Hagia Sophia and rests clerestory wall reflect the Cult of the Virgin.
on four piers that descend into giant arches. The piers are made Whereas Hagia Sophia has subdued light because of its

of stone, and the roof, vaults, and arched masonry ceiling are enclosed space, Chartres has an abundance of light from a
made of brick and mortar. These materials add to the church's broad expanse of windows. The windows at Chartres give a
massive and monumental appearance, although the dome itself "cage" effect and are supported by multiple pointed and arched
appears to float above the building. The base of the dome is vaults. These vaults have four ribs that transfer the weight of
surrounded by small windows, and four smaller domes extend the building to flying buttresses, stone arch supports, on the
from each corner of the central dome. The nave lies on an exterior of the cathedral. Medieval pilgrims to Chartres entered
east-west axis with a protruding apse that surrounds the altar the cathedral from the west portals, which were flanked by two
at its eastern end. The most sacred space in the building is the towers. The walked eastward through the large,
faithful then
area around the altar, which is also referred to as the sanctuary. horizontal nave toward the sanctuary that contained the altar
At the opposite end of the sanctuary apse, to the west, is an where priests performed the Christian ceremony.
inner porch.
As soon as it was consecrated, the Hagia Sophia served as
an imperial court as well as a center for Byzantine ritual based
Violation of Sanctuary: St. Thomas a Becket

on the Bible. The building therefore represented both ecclesias- Sanctuary as a place of refuge is also recorded in Christian
tical and political authority. The clergy, emperor, and the churches. Thomas Becket, the twelfth-century English arch-
emperor's court processed eastward through the great nave. bishop, fled to the altar in Canterbury Cathedral when pur-
 SANCTUARY 785

sued by four of Henry IPs knights. He thought that his pur- In Greek society, the statues of the gods were housed in

suers would honor the right of sanctuary in the church. sacred areas apart from the community and appeased through
Ignoring existing church laws regarding asylum, they decapi- sacrifice. The priest of the cult of Zeus would have faced east

tated him at the altar in the cathedral. The Roman Catholic toward the god's image in his temple and made burnt offerings
world was horrified at this sacrilege: the assassins were dealt at his altar. A procession of the faithful may have followed the
with swiftly, and Becket was promptly canonized. Even though and departed once the gifts were made to the
priest to the altar
he actually vigorously defended himself, depictions of the god. The Temple of Zeus at Olympia underwent various mod-
event usually show Becket in prayer, kneeling before an altar, ifications, and for reasons unknown, was eventually aban-

in order to emphasize the violation of sanctuary. In an illumi- doned in the sixth century a.d.
nation from the Hastings Hours (circa 1480) in the British
Library in London, for example, not only is the saint kneeling
Pantheon
and praying at the altar as he is attacked from the rear, but his
tonsured head and the cross on the back of his chasuble are An altar, dedicated to all the Roman gods, may have been
clearly visible to his attackers. placed outside a temple that lies beneath the Pantheon in

To this day, the quest for asylum in the Roman Catholic Rome. However, archaeological evidence supporting the altar's
Church persists. On December 24, 1989, General Manuel location is inconclusive. The temple was rectangular and
Noriega of Panama pleaded with a diplomatic representative of roughly followed the Greek model. It burned twice, was rebuilt
the Pope for refuge in the nunciature. The former military ruler in concrete and brick, and was newly dedicated in 128-126

was fleeing U.S. forces sent to destroy his corrupt regime and B.C. Under Emperor Hadrian's rule (a.d. 111-138) the Romans
install a civilian government in its place. The representative of rebuilt and rededicated the temple. Hadrian's temple, with
the Vatican sheltered Noriega as an act of the Church's age-old is what stands today in Rome.
architectural modifications,
However, fear-
tradition of providing a safe haven for fugitives. The Pantheon is designed as a hemispherical dome with a
ing that the Vatican would lift diplomatic immunity and he rectangular colonnaded porch at the entrance. Eight unfluted
would be turned over to Panamanian authorities, Noriega sur- columns support the entablature of the porch. The precedent
rendered to U.S. troops. for the round, rather than rectangular, shape of the temple may
stem from ancient funerary and religious structures. Inside the
dome are recessed coffers with an oculus (circular opening) in
Temple of Zeus
the ceiling. In the seventh century, all "pagan" statues were
Sanctuary as a place of asylum also has roots Greek mythol-
in removed, was placed in the church's interior
a central altar
ogy. Paris, the son of the Trojan King Priam and his second apse, and the structure was consecrated as the Christian church
wife, Hecuba, was abandoned at birth. The child was raised by Sancta Maria ad Martyres. The church was stripped of its gild-
shepherds and eventually returned to the city of Troy to partic- ed bronze roof tiles 50 years later, but the western entry still

ipate in the annual funeral games. He defeated his royal broth- retains its The Pantheon has frequently
ancient bronze doors.
ers in the games and angered one of them. Fearing for his life, been depicted in art, perhaps most memorably in the many ver-
Paris sought refuge in the Temple of Zeus, king of the gods. sions by Giovanni Paolo Pannini (circa 1730-173 5).
Later, he was recognized as the son of Priam and accepted into The Pantheon, along with the sanctuaries previously men-
the royal family. Ironically, Priam's own death at the hands of tioned, are all constructed of durable building materials.
Neoptolemus during the Trojan War occurred as he clung to an Sanctuaries built of inorganic materials such as clays, glass,
altar of Zeus. rock, and precious materials such as ivory, silver and gold tend
The stone altar at the Greek sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia to withstand the test of time, whereas those built of organic
was apparently located in front of his temple. Both the altar materials such as wood or leather do not. Of course there are
and temple were built in the fifth century B.C. This site was exceptions, because precious materials are often pillaged, like
established as a sanctuary in northern Greece at the base of a the bronze coffers of the Pantheon, or subjected to natural and
hill called Cronos. In Greek mythology, Zeus, the son of man-made devastation, as exemplified by the burning of
Cronos, overthrew and became the supreme god. The
his father Chartres Cathedral and the destruction of the Second Temple.
rectangular sacred area around Zeus's temple was bordered by
stone walls, only ruins of which exist today. Archaeological
The Great Stupa
remains indicate that some burnt offerings to Zeus dated from
the tenth century B.C. Built of earth, faced with stone, and covered with white and
The rectilinear Doric Temple of Zeus at Olympia was made gilded stucco, the Great Stupa is a formidable construction.
of a local limestone, covered with white stucco, and designed This sanctuary —one of three stupas (sacred mounds) Sanchi in

with fluted columns, six across the facades and 1 3 along the in north-central India — was erected during the Shunga and
flanks. The and rear of the temple had a porch, and the
front Early Andhara periods (before the first century a.d.). It is the
chamber) probably housed the image of
cella (central interior first stupa and probably once housed the relics of the founder
Zeus and his wife, Hera. The sculptural decoration on the ped- of Buddhism, Siddhartha Gautama, otherwise known as the
iment below the roof was made of marble imported because of Buddha.
the need for fine-grained carving stone. The figures along the The three stupas at Sanchi, built in a similar manner, are
pediment were a mixture of free-standing and high- and low- symbolic of Siddhartha Gautama and his teachings. The Great
relief sculpture. Stupa is surmounted with a three-tiered stone "umbrella" that
786 SANCTUARY

stands for the Buddha, the Buddha's law, and order. An upper conical tower, a smaller tower, and a mass of fallen stonework

protective railing usually surrounded the umbrella, and around from other buildings. No altar has been found at the Great
the base of the mound was a path. Pilgrims circumambulated Zimbabwe, which does not rule out the possibility that one exist-
this path counterclockwise, which represented the Path of Life ed. The Shona believe that a divine king, Monomotapa, reigned in

around the World Mountains. these buildings, which functioned as a royal palace and a temple.
There are four stone gateways to the Great Stupa, each This South African center, like that of the Hagia Sophia,
with two columns on posts capped with three architraves. The would have been the capital of a kingdom of religious and tem-
sculptural program on the architraves represented folktales, poral power. A variety of pottery vessels, clay birdlike figures,
scenes from the life of the Buddha and symbols associated with and clay bovine figurines, possibly connected to cults in this

Buddhism. Carved on the gateway brackets were the guardian center, have been excavated through uncontrolled and con-
figures called yakshas and yakshis. The carvings on the gate- trolled archaeological digs.

ways served to educate pilgrimswho were not well versed in

the teachings of Buddha but were familiar with local folklore.
Temple of the Sphinx
Archaeological excavations have uncovered a sanctuary devot-
Angkor Wat
ed to the sun at Giza, Egypt, immediately in front of the stone
This temple, possibly the largest in the world, once stretched sculpture of the Great Sphinx. This sanctuary, also known as
more than z.5 miles and soared 200 feet high. Angkor Wat (circa the Temple of the Sphinx, is part of a group of temples and
1 1 2.0-1 1 50) was built of carved sandstone held together, without pyramids. Through scientific dating and study of Egyptian
mortar, by iron clamps. The Khmer ruler and god king hieroglyphics, archaeologists have attributed these buildings to
Suryavarman II initiated its construction with the intention of the Egyptian kings of the Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty
placing his tomb inside. He dedicated the enormous stone temple (2680-2565 B.C.). One of these kings, Khafra, is credited with
northwest of Phnom Penh, Cambodia, to the Hindu god Vishnu. building the Temple of the Sphinx as a place of worship to the
Hinduism is a complex religion of multiple deities — like the sun god Ra, the chief deity. The ancient Egyptians may have
—
pantheon of the Greeks that developed as early as 800 b.c. in greeted Ra in the morning sun god at
in the east, feared the

northern India. Hindus embrace an endless cycle of reincarna- midday for his intense heat, and honored him as the sun fell
tion of human and animal forms bound by a strict caste system. below the horizon to the west.
This succession karma and is described in the sacred
is called The Temple of the Sphinx is a rectangular structure, its four
religious Bhagavad Gita (zoo B.C.). Among the three
poem the corners correspondent to the points of the compass. Two entry-
higher gods of orthodox Hindu tradition are Brahma, Vishnu, ways from the east lead to the north and south sides of the
and Siva: Brahma is the creator of the universe, Vishnu the pre- The outer and inner walls of
inner pillared halls of the court.
server, and Shiva the destroyer. the temple are faced with granite,which is also used for the pil-
A metal statue of Vishnu was pl?ced in the entry to the cen- lars and roof beams. The complex design of the temple reflect-
tral shrine at Angkor Wat and was approached by ascending ed the Egyptian belief in the afterlife associated with the cult of
steps from the west. Over this central shrine is a massive spire the sun. Since it is to the west that the sun descends at day's
with four smaller spires capping shrines at its corners. Relief end, the death of the king was equated with the sun's disap-
sculpture of figures in motion and organic matter related to pearance. The cyclical reappearance of the sun was symbolic of
Hinduism cover the walls of this immense architectural feat. the eternal existence of Khafra 's spirit, or Ka. Perhaps Khafra,
The rectangular symmetrical plan of Angkor Wat represents the in the form of the Great Sphinx, faced east behind the temple
cosmos and is aligned along an east-west axis. A large moat to await his emerging Ka with the rising sun god.
around the entire complex once provided water to the temple The Temple of the Sphinx was probably linked to the other
and inhabitants of the nearby city. The moat surrounding the architectural structures at Giza. These included a valley temple
temple made it an impregnable fortress and provided sanctuary to the south of the Temple of the Sphinx, a covered causeway
for the Khmer ruler in more ways than one. or raised road, a funerary temple, and a pyramid. In ancient
Egypt pyramids served as markers for sacred areas selected for
funerary precincts and temples. They contained the tombs of
Great Zimbabwe
rulers and high officials and were decorated with murals and
—
Oral histories from the Shona Bantu peoples of Zimbabwe sculptures depicting the afterlife. Khafra 's funeral procession
—
and southern Mozambique point to the existence of a sacred would have entered the valley temple from the Nile Valley to
site, the Great Zimbabwe in South Africa. Their folklore tells the east and continued along the causeway and through the
of the Mbire, their forefathers, traveling to the area of the funerary temple. A passage to the north side of the temple led
Great Zimbabwe, where they established a religious center. At directly into the pyramid where Khafra's body was entombed.
this site their supreme god Mwari was worshiped and the spir-
its of their royal ancestors cared for. Archaeological data from
Teotihuacan
the remnants of this fortified city indicate that the site was first
occupied in the fourth century a.d., but the stone walls date The abandoned monumental "pyramid" temples at Teotihuacan,
from the thirteenth century a.d. Mexico, or "birth place of the gods," form Mesoamerican sanc-
The Great Zimbabwe's massive outer stone wall stands 30 feet tuaries. Myths from the region describe the death of the sun fol-
high and 20 feet thick. It surrounds a smaller incomplete wall, a lowed by the creation of a new sun, as well as a moon, by gods
 SANCTUARY 787

assembled at Teotihuacan. Dominated by the Temples of the Sun, Chartres Cathedral, twelfth century, France
Moon and Quetzalcoatl —the god of life, wind, and wisdom Canterbury Cathedral, twelfth century, England
this Aztec ceremonial center was constructed on a plateau 20 Angkor Wat, circa 120-1 150, Cambodia
1

miles north of Mexico City. The temples were directly off a

wide avenue called the Avenue of the Dead, which bisected the Possible Sanctuaries
gridded center. The center layout, covering 13 miles, coincided Caves, Altamira, Spain, Paleolithic era
with an astronomical plan that served civic, economic, political, Caves, Lascaux, France, Paleolithic era
and religious functions. It flourished between about 500 B.C. and Apollo II Cave, Paleolithic era, Namibia
a.d. 750. Easter Island, Polynesia
The Temple of the Sun was built over a sacred cave that Stonehenge, Salisbury, England
probably housed an altar. The cave, in the center of the pyra- Rock Engravings, Utah, twelfth century
mid, was accessed through a natural tunnel that ran from its

west side toward the east. The Temple of the Sun was a stepped
and truncated pyramid with steep sides, closer in style to the Selected Works of Art
ziggurats of Mesopotamia than the pyramids of Egypt. A stair-
Sanctuaries
way provided access to the top platform, where religious cere-
Temple of Vesta in the Forum of Rome, Roman relief,
monies would have taken place, possibly around an altar of
Florence, Italy, Uffizi Gallery
some type. Residue of polychrome suggests that the temples
Temple Facade, Shekel from Bar Kochba War, 132-135,
were covered with painted murals. Elaborate carvings of vari-
London, British Museum
ous deities in the form of birds, butterflies, jaguars, and ser-
Temple Facade, wall paintings from Synagogue of
pents also decorated temples. These designs on the temple
Dura-Europos, central panel above niche for scrolls,
walls, along with some pottery and weaving, are the only
records of the Teotihuacanos and have yet to be deciphered.
244-245, Damascus, Syria, National Museum
The political sovereigns —the divine rulers, considered
Consecration of the Tabernacle and Its Priests, wall paintings

descendants of the gods, who served as priests —were the clos-

from Assembly Hall of Synagogue of Dura-Europos,
est entities to the Aztec gods. Worshipers would gather at the 244-245, Damascus, Syria, National Museum
bases of the temples, which were only accessible to priests, to
Muhammad Replacing the Black Stone in the Ka'ba,
manuscript illumination, from Jami'al-Tawarikh, 1306,
pay them homage. The explanation of the sudden demise of
thisceremonial center is merely conjectural and may have been Edinburgh, Scotland, University Library (Arabic MS

the result of climatic changes and war. No. 20, fol. 45r)
Eyck, Herbert van (attributed to), The Three Marys at the
Open Sepulchre, early fifteenth century, Rotterdam, The
Possible Sanctuaries Netherlands, Boymans-van Beuningen Museum
Places that appear to be sacred but are insufficiently docu- Foucquet, Jean, Conquest of Jerusalem by Nebuzzar-Adan;
mented as sanctuaries include northeastern Utah, where there Entry of Ptolemy; Pompey in the Temple, illuminations
are extensive twelfth-century rock engravings; Stonehenge in from Antiquites Judaiques, circa 1470, Paris, Bibliotheque

Salisbury, England; and the site of 600 Polynesian sculptures on Nationale

Easter Island. Extensive pictographs left by Paleolithic artists in Raphael, Healing the Lame at the Beautiful Gate, cartoon

the Apollo Cave of Namibia as well as those in the caves of

II for tapestry, circa 15 16, London, Victoria and Albert
Lascaux, France, and Altamira, Spain, suggest that at one time Museum
these were also holy places. Villalpando, Juan Bautista, Holy of Holies, from Ezechielem
Explanationes, vol. II, fol. 318, 1 594-1 608, London,
British Library
See also Communion; Devotion/Piety; Funeral/Burial;
Pannini, Giovanni Paolo, Interior of the Pantheon, Rome,
Penitence/Repentance
painting, circa 1730-1735, Washington, D.C., National
Gallery of Art
Constable, John, Stonehenge, watercolor, 1835, London,
Selected Works of Architecture
Victoria and Albert Museum
Sanctuaries Bauernfeind, Gustave, Lament of the Faithful at the Wading
Haram, Mecca, Saudi Arabia Wall, Jerusalem, painting, circa 1904, private collection
Temple of the Sphinx and Pyramid of Khafra (Chefren), circa
2560 B.C., Giza, Egypt Idea of Sanctuary
Temple of Zeus, fifth century B.C., Olympia Ernst, Max, Sanctuary, oil and collage on wood, 1965, New
Pyramid of the Sun, 500 b.c-a.d. 750, Teotihuacan, Mexico York, collection of the artist

Pantheon, circa 126 B.C., Rome

Great Stupa, before first century a.d., Sanchi, India Violation of Sanctuary: St. Thomas a Beckct
Great Zimbabwe, fourth-thirteenth century A.D., South Africa Martyrdom of St. Thomas Becket, illumination from English
Hagia Sophia, a.d. 537, Istanbul, Turkey manuscript, circa n 80, London, British Library (Cotton
Dome of the Rock, a.d. 685, Temple of the Mount, Jerusalem Claudius BII, fol. 341)
788 SANCTUARY

.\s±js<uijtin>t <>/ St. Thomas Backet, from the St. Thomas Brandon, Samuel George Frederick, Man and God in Art and
Becket Reliquary, inlay and metalwork, twelfth century, Ritual, New
York: Scribner's, 1975
Paris, Louvre Branner, Robert, editor, Chartres Cathedral, New York:
Martyrdom of St. Thomas Becket, fresco, late twelfth century, Norton, 1969
Spoleto, Italy, SS. Giovanni e Paolo Burmingham, David, and Shula Marks, "Southern Africa," in

Murder of Thomas Becket, illumination from English Psalter, Cambridge History of Africa, Cambridge: Cambridge
circa 1 190-1200, London, British Library (MS Harl. 5102, University Press, 1.977
£61. 32) Butler, John, The Quest for Becket's Bones, New Haven,
Martyrdom of Thomas Becket, Ramsey
illumination from Connecticut, and London: Yale University Press, 1995
Psalter, circa 1200, New York, Pierpont Morgan Library Gibb, Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen, editor, The
(M302, fol. 4V) Encyclopedia of Islam, Leiden, Germany: Brill, 1978
Murder of Thomas Becket, ceiling boss, fourteenth century, Gilton, Werner,A Short History of African Art, Baltimore,
Exeter, England, Exeter Cathedral Maryland, and Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1990
Murder of Thomas a Becket, illumination from Hastings Grabar, Oleg, The Formation of Islamic Art, New Haven,
Hours, Flemish, circa 1480, London, British Library (Add. Connecticut, and London: Yale University Press, 1973
Mss. 54782, fol. 55V) Heyden, Doris, and Paul Gendrop, Pre-Columbian
Death of St. Thomas a Becket, illumination from Flemish Architecture of Mesoamerica, translated by Judith Stanton,
manuscript, circa 1500, London, British Library (Add. New York: Abrams, 1973
Mss. 1 701 2, fol. 21 v) Honor, Hugh, and John Fleming, The Visual Arts: A History,
Martyrdom of St. Thomas Becket, illumination from Flemish
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1992
manuscript, circa 1500, London, British Library (Kings 9, New
Lee, Sherman, A History of Far Eastern Art, York:
fol. 3 8v)
Abrams, 1974
MacDonald, William, The Pantheon: Design, Meaning, and
Progeny, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University
Further Reading Press, 1976
Alcock, Susan, and Robin Osborne, Placing the Gods: Scully, Vincent, The Earth, the Temple, and the Gods: Greek
Sanctuaries and Sacred Space in Ancient Greece, Oxford Sacred Architecture, New
York: Praeger, 1969
and New
York: Oxford University Press, 1994 Smith, Emerson, Hagia Sophia, New York: Columbia
Barlow, Frank, Thomas Becket, Berkeley and London: University Press, 1940
University of California Press, 1986 Tomlinson, Richard Allan, Greek Sanctuaries, New York:
Borenius, Tancred, St. Thomas Becket in Art, London: St. Martin's Press, 1976; London: Book Club Associates,
Methuen, 1932 1976
 SEASONS
Shane Adler

The following regions and motifs are covered in the discussion of the theme Seasons:

CHINA AND JAPAN AGES OF MAN AND STAGES

OF LOVE
THE MOVEMENT OF TIME
SEPARATED SEASONS
ABUNDANCE AND
PROSPERITY

789
790 si ASONS

Uii roTtrnj our. ,

 SEASONS 791

Wenceslas Hollar, The Four Seasons:

Summer, print, 164 i. Cleveland, Ohio,
Museum of Art. (Courtesy of the Cleveland
Museum of Art)

he seasons provide ample evidence or their own existence. itself in unspotted beauty, thereby linking the season with the
M. With their continually changing colors and cycles of quality. Winter was composed of "three friends," combining
growth and withering, these periods of the year provide themes pine and bamboo, which keep their foliage, with flowering
for visual and verbal description. The passing of time is cele- plum (prunus), the first tree to bloom in the new year. Fruit
brated through nature's appearance and endurance in Eastern trees in gardens assimilated the cycle of seasons, from blossom
art. It is the more complex human relationship to the natural to matured fruit, with all the senses and their blessings of fra-
world, always in transition itself, that expresses the contradic- grance and sweetness in taste.

tions and conflict of Western cultures. The garden provided the fullest human experience, with the
The belief that nature is alive and conscious and that all seasons always the prevalent motif. Japanese artists, painters,

living things, growing or inert, are part of the same eternal
cycles of interdependency was the primordial conclusion
about the origin of the world, a belief still held among many
Native American peoples, like the Hopi of the southwestern
United States. The creative process that changed chaos to
—
order also brought seasons regular, predictable, and provid-
ing sustenance. The corn goddess narrative, like that of the
Greek goddess of agriculture Demeter and her daughter
Persephone, whose annual descent to the underworld
explained winter's barrenness and spring's reawakening, is
paralleled in the Sumerian story of Tammuz, the shepherd, as
well as that of Osiris, husband of the Egyptian nature goddess
Isis. According to a legend of the Seneca Indians of the north-
eastern United States woodlands, Old Winter melts, like
snow, when he encounters the warmth of young and vigorous
Spring. In ancient myth and mysticism, people, their gods,
and the land in which they dwelled were inextricably bound.
That spirit and the reverence for nature's providence meant
that the physical world was not subordinated to its inhabi-
tants until Western thought defined nature in terms of
resources, or products.
The gardens planned and used in medieval China, there-
after to beadapted to Japanese religion and aesthetics, reflect-
ed that sense of harmony. From garden to art, the emphasis
was on capturing scenes of nature, the fleeting qualities of
each season expressing human transience in contrast to
nature's permanence. The moods and character of each season
were evoked by allusion but not formalized into allegory. The
series of picturesque scenes planned as the decoration of the
physical environment, a microcosm of the world, were like
nature's shifting seasonal changes of perspectives; the preor-
dained path, or Tao, that one took reflected the balance of aes-
theticsand philosophy.
The seasons were also the beauty of women and the ages of
man, the latter summarized in a sixteenth-century poem by Pai
Ta-Shun of that title, with human life altered as spring to
autumn. Plants within the garden symbolized the seasons
through their transformation as well as their inherent traits.
and printmakers similarly relied on scenes of nature's seasons.
For example, Mt. Fuji, a metaphor in itself, was shown in its
variations named by season. Moreover, human activity was
affected by the time of year. Whereas the season formed the
title, thereby describing the subject, landscape was only sug-
gested because the season was a recognized state of mind. In
the epic Tale of Genji, the author, Lady Murasaki Shikubu, has
the prince give to his four ladies a special garden, each crafted
to evoke her fine qualities through visual beauty in reference
to a season: spring's profusion of flowersand their meaning,
the symbolism of summer scents and sensuality, the brilliant
and dramatic effluence of color in autumn, and the display of
winter when clusters of snow glisten on bare branches. In
Japan as in China, elegant women frequently connoted the
seasons, their beauty like that of flowers and, like flowers, fad-
ing with time.
In the primeval beginning of Western civilization was anoth-
er garden: a perpetual springtime, a paradise like a tropical
island of gentle climate and lush vegetation. This land of nat-
ural harmony was disrupted by human weakness, and the
enduring legacy was the seasons and their travail. In Genesis,
two opposing concepts provided a balance of contrasts, not
unlike those that marked the way of Tao and the garden path:
"seedtime and harvest, and cold and heat, and summer and
winter" (Genesis 8:22). Divisions of the year into two parts
were dependent on observable cycles of sun and moon (noting
either the solstices or the equinoxes) and connected to changes
in weather conditions.
Throughout the ancient Mediterranean world, an acknowl-
edgment of three seasons appeared in written form in Asia
Minor from the seventh century B.C. and were related to the
agricultural year. Egyptian tombs decorated in the Old
Kingdom had indicated periods of time by the activities of the
depicted people in search of food: bird hunting, harvest, or vin-
tage. To the Greeks, the Egyptians gave their three seasons and
possibly a name, the Horae, after the god Horus. The Greek
three-season system was one of many feminine triads corre-
sponding to the moon's phases: new, full, and old. ike the 1

For example, the lotus represented summer by the fecundity in moon's phases, the Horae were aspects of a single entity and
its seed as well as purity, as it grew in a murky pond but opened pictorially were undifferentiated. On sixth-century b.c. vases,
792. SEASONS

tin- 1 lorae were depicted as a unit of overlapping figures in pro- Ovid, consumed all things in death and would account for the
cession, together wrapped in one cloak and wearing fine prevalence of the motif of the Seasons on Roman sarcophagi,
clothes. Inscriptions identified them, thereby distinguishing the reappeared in the sixteenth century's outlook of time as a force
Horae from other groups of feminine powers: the Graces or the of destruction, although the Seasons were not deemed respon-
fates. As spirits of weather, the Horae brought a good harvest. sible. This perspective gave way to the perception ofTime as
Attributes reminiscent of the vegetative year (spring, summer, Revealer, a concept inherited from philosophy of the sixth cen-
and autumn) were thereafter carried by each Hora and estab- tury B.C., in which the time that elapsed was the vehicle lead-
lished the identity of each as a season. With the recognition of ing to an ultimate truth. Sir Walter Raleigh's monumental
the solar year and its interstices (the solstices and equinoxes History of the World (1608-1614) looked back through time
combined), astronomers established four separate seasons, each and recognized its judiciousness. In contrast, the engraving The
with a certain span of time. Each season, in its regularity, order, Four Seasons (1607) by Otto van Veen showed the personified
and repetition, became a symbol of divinity in the heavens. figures of the seasons as ages of life and history marching away

The various meanings attached to the seasons in antiquity in single file, from the eager child reaching out toward what lies

have since recurred, like their periods of blossom, abundance, ahead to the tottering elder moving away from the viewer with-
decay, and renewal. Revolving like the year in which each sea- out so much as a backward glance. However, the cycle of the
son in its time returns, themes recur in art: the concept of time same title by Nicolas Poussin (1607) united the past with its les-
itself, defined by its passage and the history it leaves behind, son in a parable of natural redemption: The calamity of
and the fertile seasons, aided by labor and rewarding mankind Winter's deluge must inevitably yield to the sustenance from
with wealth and well-being. As a reflection of the human con- another Spring coming in succession.

dition, the seasons align with the life of humankind and the After the flood, the Lord said to Noah, "Be fruitful, and
yearning for the seasonless perfection of a lost paradise. And, multiply, and replenish the earth" (Genesis 9:1). Fecund were
like the cycle they represent, each theme depends on the oth- the mother and the land; as children were the seeds of the
ers — they are interconnected and overlapping, as seasons in future, the Earth's produce was its display of riches. The sea-
a year. sonal crops of nature's rituals —flowers enlivening spring,
Perhaps originating in the frenzied abandon of the grain bundled in sheaves from summer's harvest, vintage
Dionysian god associated with the sea-
sacrificial rites for the grapes and other autumn fruits, as well as a brazier to ease the

sons, or otherwise related to the Hebrews' festive communal
dance called the hora, the personified seasons have swayed to
the motion of time. Pictorial and theatrical arts have simulated
the seasons' rhythmic repeated patterns of
the year, changing them and turning back to begin again.
chill of barren winter — remained the attributes from the Greek
Horae through medieval illumination, as in the Tacuinum
Sanitatis and eventually the elaborate decorative cycles of
movement through more recent eras. Recalling each season's specific characteris-
tics, these products also recorded nature's abundant gifts, the

Initially, the Horae were part of processions encircling Attic fig- basis of wealth in agricultural societies. On the Ara Pacis
ured vases. Then, in their first definitive portrayal as separate Augustae in Rome, children walk in procession with their
Seasons, Dionysus led them through their light-footed steps on elders, a reminder of the prosperity associated with future gen-
a marble relief (circa 300 B.C.). The same dance was performed, erations. The Romans were financially rewarded for having
although the seasons were guided by Apollo, in an etching by large families, thereby increasing the empire's population, with
Claude Lorrain: Amid ancient ruins of times past, the Seasons penalties levied against the childless. This imperial shrine was
glide by, imitating their earlier choreography. And, unaccom- further decorated with a bounty of fruits and flowers, arrayed
panied, they danced on other sculpted pieces or on frescoes dec- as garlands or opulent offerings, as if paradise had returned to
orating the walls of Pompeian villas in Italy, with attributes in the Romans; these same emblems formed of the seasons' sym-
hand and draperies swirling around them. The cosmic dance of bols appeared on public monuments and in private domestic
Renaissance court masques represented the arrangements of settings.
scientific correspondences that linked the locations of heavenly Mother Earth, or Tellus, a recumbent figure, also depicted
planets to a destiny wrought below, and the Seasons were part on the Ara Pacis Augustae, was surrounded by her infant chil-
of the ensemble. In his own honor, Louis XIV of France devised dren, the Seasons, on sculpted reliefs during the same period.
pageants whereby the eternal momentum of time was Childlike putti have since flown, like time, as representations of
rearranged to revolve around him. The seventeenth century the seasons into the nineteenth century. Roman coins were
ended with a ballet, Les Saisons, in four acts. embossed with legends that proclaimed that the seasons
The passage of time was a preoccupation of the brought prosperity and good fortune: felicitas temporum (hap-
Renaissance. This general concern would culminate in the piness of the seasons). While the bucolic life was poetically
development of landscape painting expressing the visual nota- extolled as love of the land, warfare provided the gain of addi-
tions of continual changes; these constant transformations of a tional a large land base. The Seasons, formerly
territories,
moment — variations on the colors and moods of each season female, became male personifications on Roman triumphal
were allegories of time itself. Meanwhile, accuracy in time's arches, where they were set in the spandrels below the figures
measurement by more precise instruments occurred contempo- of military victory. Later, with industrialization, a nation's
raneously in the seventeenth century with the pendulum clock affluence was measured by its manufactured goods, and the
and the spiral balance spring watch. Also, sentiment shifted changes in the seasons were shown through costume. A return
from pathos to ethos. Time the Devourer, which, according to to female figures also occurred.
 SEASONS 793

Clothing had always helped to indicate the time of year, Spring, like the figure from Stabiae, so called for her solemn
with garments adjusted to the temperature: and
lightened walk through a meadow of flowers, would have had sisters. In
bared, as bathers for summer's warmth, and heavily wrapped an attempt to deify all the seasons, Ovid successfully assigned
against winter's chill, with sandals in spring and sturdy boots the goddess of flowers to springtime. Flora sometimes intro-
for tramping in the autumn fields. In the mid-seventeenth cen- duced medieval lyric poetry because alluding to spring was a
tury, seasonal cycles in England and Jean
by Wenceslas Hollar way of announcing a beginning. The first painting referring to
Convay in France used fashionable accessories to replace tradi- a single and separate segment of time, Botticelli's Primavera,
tional attributes: a fan for summer's heat and a veil to protect was the allegory of a concept. Representing not a season but
the complexion from the sun's harsh rays and a hood and a fur the idea of the Renaissance, a time reawakened after a pro-
muff for winter. Worn
emblems of refinement, industrial
as longed slumber, this work heralded pagan human
a return to
products were dyed with those of the Earth and produced by desire. The metamorphosis from the maiden Chloris to the
the laboring classes. Louis XIV revitalized the seasons, estab- nymph Flora through sexual knowledge paralleled the trans-
lishing strict dress regulations as court etiquette; his edicts formation of love from the spiritual to the sensual.
appeared as illustrations in Le Meratre Galant, showing the Renaissance portraits named after Flora (paintings of cour-
seasonal changes in the luxury fashion trades. The industrial tesans or other beloved women) were more mythological dis-

economy was reflected in the paint-

of the nineteenth century guise than personification of spring. Many nineteenth-century
ings by the most modern of artists. As allegories of the seasons, allegories titled Spring, naked like Eve or provocatively pos-
fashionably dressed and accessorized, Autumn and Spring by tured as if courtesans, recalled the duality of that temptation,
Edouard Manet were the most successful. The series by Alfred with Franz Xaver Winterhalter's Spring modeled after Titian's
Stevens, which distinguished each season by the symbolic color Flora, although the association of spring with youth and inno-
selected for the gown and suitable to the age of the wearer, con- cence was sometimes a pretense for unclothed female bodies.
veyed the emotional stages of a woman's life. Sweet Victorian childhood was also thus portrayed in unculti-
In the eighteenth century, those emotional stages had been vated outdoor settings, as in Spring by William McTaggert and
of a man's life, telling of his moods and how they progressed Spring by Joseph Wilson Forster. In these works, fertility and

through his personal seasons of growth. The eighteenth-centu- the future were together suggested as the embodiment of spring
ry notion of nature, as a metaphor for human nature, alone. Although the golden age from which the spirits of the

described the changes in man as a circuitous walk through the changing times had evolved was the moment most fervently
landscape of his life. Love, a feeling of many states, was por- sought, the luxuriant growth of quiet, sultry summer or the
trayed in picturesque settings, from spring's budding rapture melancholy mood of autumn were also independently-
through summer's marriage and fertility in family and expressed as works of art. Frigid winter, not recognized in the
autumn's wizened understanding, concluding with winter's vegetative year, was generally absent in the painted Seasons of
homey shelter and protection, as indicated in the illustrations urban and its seasonal social events. Art and artifice, not
life

to James Thomson's epic poem, or skating on slippery ice, the nature, gave them meaning. Cycles of growth and renewal were
outcome foreseen by French artists. The seasons were first frozen, hibernating like winter; the year was composed of iso-
likened to human ages by Pythagorus and subsequently lated moods and moods of isolation. The seasons had become
recounted by Ovid. Engraved cycles made this theme visible as mere fragments of time.
the sequence of physical aging, as in that of Hendrik Goltzius,
or in the gradations of maturing into manhood, as in the print
cycles of Jacob Matham. As a man's character was delineated See also Abundance; Humors; Months
by the concordances of the planets, temperaments, elements,
ages, and seasons, cycles of these subjects contained inter-
changeable narratives. A picture of spring was a composite, an
Selected Works of Art
example of the youthful and sanguine child of Venus, the god-
dess of love, as well as a story of love. China and Japan
The four ages of man, as the seasons, were separate pieces Lu Kuang, Spring Dawn over the Elixir Terrace, hanging
of a whole. The set The Four Ages of Human Life by J. J. scroll, Yuan Dynasty, New York, Metropolitan Museum
Grandville, actually composed of several stages within each of Art
division, foretold the nineteenth century's disruption of their Untitled Painting of the Summer Palace, Beijing, China, Ming
unity with announcement: "Chaque age a ses plaisirs" (Each
its Dynasty, now in Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, Cabinet des
age has its pleasures). Despite some modest decorative schemes Estampes
that retained elements of classicism and feigned a reverence for The Tale of Genji, hand-scroll painting, mid-twelfth century,
laboring on the land that was being abandoned (Pierre Puvis de Nagoya, Japan, Tokugawa Museum
Chavannes, Adolphe-William Bouguereau), the nineteenth cen- Hiroshige and Toyokumi III, Prince Genji in the Plum
tury isolated the seasons and disturbed their cyclical rhythm. Blossom Garden, woodblock triptych, circa 1X49-1850,
As in poetry or music, each was an ode to a moment, complete Walton Rawls Collection
in itself, and savored for its own sake. Although the ancient Kangaku Shinsuhitsu, Landscape of the Four Seasons, screen,
Greeks individualized each Hora, they remained an unbroken early sixteenth century, New York, Metropolitan Museum
chain. of Art
794 SEASONS

lns.i,Mitsuoki, Cherry Blossoms (Spring); Maple Leaves
(Autumn), screens, seventeenth century, New York,
Metropolitan Museum of Art
Harunobu, Celebrated Poems on the Four Seasons,
woodblock print, late 1760s, Japan, Takahashi Collection
Mosaic of Tellus and the Seasons, third century, original!}
from Sentinum, Italy, now in Munich, Germany,
Glyptothek
Mosaic of the Seasons, pavement from Daphne, Antioch,
early fourth century, Paris, Louvre

Utamaro, Games of the Four Seasons: Charms of Flowers, Heyden, Pieter van der, and Flans Bol (after Pieter Bruegel the
woodblock print, circa 1782, London, British Museum Flder), The Four Seasons, 1570, New York, Metropolitan

Tamechika, Raizei, \Zlerriments of Spring and Autumn, Museum of Art

hanging scroll, late 1850s, Shizuoka, Japan, Museum Velde, Jan van de (after Willem Buytewech), The Four
oi An Seasons, circa 1622, Coburg, Germany, Kunstsammlungen
der Veste
The Movement 0/ line I Hollar, Wenceslas, The Four Seasons, three-quarter length,
Dionysus and three Horae, black-figure vase, circa 540 B.C., 1 64 1, Cleveland, Ohio, Cleveland Museum of Art; full

Antiquarium (no. F.3989)

Berlin, length, 643-1 644, Paris, Fondation Custodia; half length,
1

Dionysus and Four Dancing Horae, Hellenistic relief, third 1644, London, British Museum
century B.C. Convay, Jean, The Four Seasons, circa 1660, Pans,
Dancing Seasons, House of Ganymede, House of the Ancient Bibliotheque Nationale
Hunt, House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii Seasons Fountains: Spring, by Philippe Magnier; Summer, by
Child's Season Sarcophagus, sculpture, circa a.d. 250, Rome, Pierre Hutinot; Autumn, by Thomas Regnaudin; Winter,
San Lorenzo in Panisperna by Francois Girardon, 1674, Versailles, France, Chateau
Season Sarcophagus, sculpture, before a.d. 275, Zurich, gardens
Switzerland, Cenetary Rehalp Gheyn, Guillaume de, and Jeremias Falck (after Charles Le
Sarcophagus with Vintaging Seasons from Catacomb of Brun), The Four Seasons, circa 1680, Paris, Bibliotheque
Fretestato, sculpture, fourth century a.d., Rome, Lateran Nationale
Museum Watteau, Antoine, Crozat Seasons: Summer, circa 1712-1715,
Louis XIV Program, included seasons as fountains and Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art
statues in Gardens of Versailles; the apartments of Petrini,Giuseppe Antonio, The Seasons, circa 1740, Lugano,
Premier at Fontainebleau; the Grand Salon and its Switzerland, Museo Cantonale di Belle Arti
adjacent apartment, the small pavilions, and garden Boucher, Francois, Ceiling Decoration with Putti as Seasons,
sculpture at Marly; embroidered wall hangings by circa t750, Fontainebleau, Chateau
Charles Le Brun Sauvage, Piat Joseph, The Seasons as Tellus and Children, late

Coecke van Aelst, Pieter, I (after Raphael cartoon), Border eighteenth century, Cincinnati, Ohio, Cincinnati Museum
with the Seasons, circa 1532, Rome, Pinacoteca (Inv. no. of Art
3867/A) Pajou, Augustin, The Four Seasons, sculpture, circa 1770,
Veen, Otto van, The Four Seasons, 1607, Princeton, New Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Museum of Art
Jersey, Princeton University Library Crane, Walter, The Earth and [Child] Spring, 1875
Poussin, Nicolas, The Four Seasons, 1 660-1 664, Paris, Stevens, Alfred, The Four Seasons, circa 1876, Williamstown,
Louvre Massachusetts, Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute
Lorrain, Claude, Tune, Apollo, and the Seasons, etching, Morisot, Berthe, Winter, 1880, Dallas, Texas, Dallas Museum
1662, Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale of Art
Chauveau, Francois, The First Day of the Pleasures of the Manet, Edouard, Spring, 1881, New York, Mrs. Harry Payne
Enchanted Isle of 1664 with the Parade of Seasons, 1673, Bingham
London, British Museum
Ages of Man and Stages of Love
Abundance and Prosperity Galle, Philip (after Maerten van Heemskerck), The Four
Wall paintings from House of Livia, late first century B.C., Seasons, circa 1563, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,
Rome, Palatine Hill Rijksmuseum
Ara Pacis Augustae, 13-9 B.C., Rome Matham, Jacob (after Hendrick Goltzius), The Four Seasons,
Arch of Trajan, a.d. 7-1 20, Benevento, Italy
i i circa 1580. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Rijksmuseum
Arch of Septimius Severus, a.d. 203, Rome, Roman Forum Matham, Jacob, The Seasons, circa 1585, Amsterdam, The
Car laud Sarcophagus with Putti, sculpture, mid-second Netherlands, Rijksmuseum
century a.d., originally from Capranica, Italy, now in New Saenredam, Jan (after Hendrick Goltzius), The Four Seasons,
York, Metropolitan Museum of Art circa 1597, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Rijksmuseum
Seasons, fresco, first half of third century a.d., Rome, Frisius, Simon Wynouts, and Hendrik Hondius II (after David
Catacomb of Pretestato, Crypt of St. Gennaro Vinckeboons), The Four Seasons, 161 8, Boston, Museum
Sarcophagus with Earth and the Seasons, sculpture, circa of Fine Arts
a.d. 250-260, Buffalo, New York, Albnght-Knox Art Bosse, Abraham, The Four Seasons, 1630, Paris, Bibliotheque
Gallery Nationale
 SEASONS 795

Watteau, Antoine, The Julienne Seasons, circa 17 10, private Puvis de Chavannes, Pierre, The Four Seasons, 1892., Paris,
collection Hotel de Ville
Pater, Jean-Baptiste, The Four Seasons, circa 17Z1: Spring Forster,Joseph Wilson, Spring, 1898, private collection
and Summer, Cleveland, Ohio, Cleveland Museum of Benson, Frank, Summer, 1909, Providence, Rhode Island
Art; Autumn and Winter, Barcelona, Spain, Coleciun School of Design, Museum of Art
Cambu
Tardieu, Nicolas (after William Kent), The Seasons,
illustrations for The Seasons by James Thomson, 1730, Further Reading
London, British Museum
Castriota, David, The Ara Pads Augustae and the Imagery
and Peltro William Tomkins (after
Bartolozzi, Francesco,
of Abundance inLater Greek and Early Roman Imperial
William Hamilton), The Seasons, illustrations for The
Seasons by James Thomson, 1793-1794, London, British
Art, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press,

Library 1995
Collins, Marie,and Virginia Davis, A Medieval Book of
Boucher, Francois, The Four Seasons, 1755, New York, Frick
Collection
Seasons, New
York: Harper Collins, 1992.
Davis, Shane Adler, There Is a Season: The Changing Nature
Longueil, Joseph de (after Charles Eisen), The Four Seasons,
circa 1785, Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art of Gardens, Art, and Fashion, (forthcoming)
Dudley, Michael Kioni, Man, Gods, and Nature, Honolulu,
Debucourt, Philibert-Louis, Le Printemps ou les Amants and
L'Hiver ou le Mari, 1808, Paris, Musee Carnavalet
Hawaii: Malo Press, 1990
Hanfmann, George Maxim Anossov, The Season Sarcophagus
in Dumbarton Oaks, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard
Separated Seasons
Botticelli, Primavera, circa 1482, Florence, Italy, Uffizi Gallery University Press, 1951

Millais, John Everett, Autumn Leaves, 1856, Manchester, Held, Julius S., "Flora, Goddess and Courtesan," in De
England, City Art Galleries Artibus Opuscula XL: Essays in Honor of Erwin

Bouguereau, Adolphe-William, The Four Seasons, for Hotel Panofsky, New York: Johnson, 1971
Pereire, 1858: Spring, Old Westbury, private collection Hellerstedt,Kahren Jones, Gardens of Earthly Delight:
Millais, John Everett, Apple Blossoms, Spring, 1859, Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century Netherlandish

Collection Viscount Leverhulme Gardens, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: Frick Art Museum,

Dore, Gustave, Summer, circa 1 860-1 870, Boston, Museum 1986
of Fine Arts Pearsall, Derek, and Elizabeth Salter, Landscapes and
McTaggert, William, Spring, 1864, Edinburgh, National Seasons of the Medieval World, London: Paul Elek,
Gallery of Scotland 1973
Burne-Jones, Edward Coley, Flora, or Spring, 1868-1884, Sauerlender, W., "Die Jahrezeiten. Ein Beitrag zur alle-
London, Owen Edgar Gallery gorischen Landschaft beim Speten Poussin," Miinchner
Winterhalter, Franz Xaver, Spring, circa 1870, private Jahrbuch der bildenden Kunst VII (1956)
collection Thacker, Christopher, The History of Gardens, Berkeley and
Bouvier, Joseph-Laurent-Daniel, Le Printemps, 1870, Paris, London: University of California Press, 1979
Musee des Arts Decoratifs Veldman, Ilja M., "Seasons, Planets and Temperaments in the

Tissot, James, L'Ete, 1878, Grey, Ontario, Musee Baron Work of Maarten van Heemskerck," Simiolus 1 1:3-4
Martin (1980)
Morisot, Berthe, Summer, 1878, Montpellier, France, Musee Whitrow, Gerald James, Time in History: The Evolution
Fabre of Our General Awareness of Time and Temporal
Cot, Pierre-Auguste, Le Printemps, circa 1880, private Perspective, Oxford and New York: Oxford University
collection Press, 1988
Manet, Edouard, Autumn (Mery Laurent), 1881, Nancy, Wu, John C. H., The Four Seasons of T'ang Poetry, Rutland,
France, Musee des Beaux-Arts Vermont: Tuttle, 1972
Bouguereau, Adolphe-William, Spring, 1886, Omaha, Wu, William Din Yee, "Plants and Poetry in Chinese
Nebraska, Joslyn Art Museum Gardens," Pacific Horticulture 51:3 (Fall 1990)
 SELF-PORTRAITS K MEN
Christine M. Boeckl

The following periods are covered in the discussion of the theme Self-Portraits I: Men:

FIFTEENTH CENTURY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

SIXTEENTH CENTURY NINETEENTH CENTURY
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY TWENTIETH CENTURY

797
798 SEL1 PORTRAITS I: MEN

^fc
w
 SELF-PORTRAITS I: MEN 799

Norman Rockwell, Triple Self-Portrait,

i960, for the cover of the February 13,
i960, Saturday Evening Post, Stockbridge,
Massachusetts, Norman Rockwell
Museum. (Courtesy of the Norman
Rockwell Museum, Stockbridge,
Massachusetts)

c
^^
^-^
ome
appeared
scholars
in
have proposed that self-portraits
Egyptian tomb paintings during the Old
first the defense of holy images as a whole, a popular Catholic
theme, particularly after the Protestant Reformation (sixteenth
Kingdom (3110-2258 B.C.). The Roman writer Pliny and the century).
Greek historian Plutarch both reported that ancient artists cre- Frequently in Western art, the features of the evangelist St.

ated figures in theirown image. However, the production of Luke reveal the face of a painter. This custom started in the cir-
self-portraits in the modern sense of the word can be credited cle of Rogier van der Weyden. As art historian Erwin Panofsky
to the rise of humanism in the wake of the Middle Ages. explains: "Figuratively speaking, representations of this kind
Artists' self-portraits can be allegorical or realistic. These [St. Luke painting] were always self-portraits, and as time went

paintings and sculptures at times take the form of a signature, on they tended to become self-portraits in a literal sense also"
such as a miniaturist's bust in a prayer book, an architect's por- (Panofsky, Early Netherlandish Painting: Its Origin and
trait on a cathedral, or Lorenzo Ghiberti's famous likeness on Character, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1953, p. 253).
the frame of the Gates of Paradise (circa 1450). Many early The topos of St. Luke was widespread and long-lived. Due
examples appear in religious settings. to the lack of comparative material it is difficult to establish if

Through the centuries artists' images of themselves became the recorded tradition is correct — it's not totally certain
increasingly secular and related to their place in society. whether artists such as Hinrich Bornemann, Lancelot Blondeel,
Eventually, Baroque artists' self-portraits become coveted col- Frans Floris, and others did model their St. Lukes after
in fact

lectors' items. Patrons such as the Medici family and

in Italy their own countenances. Thereno doubt, however, that
is

Charles I of England put great store in images of famous Jacques van Schuppen's features appear on the altarpiece in the
painters executed by their own hands. The Galleria degli imperial church of St. Charles Borromeo in Vienna, Austria. In
Autoritratti in the Uffizi in Florence, Italy, for example, holds his St. Luke Painting the Virgin (circa 1735) the cerebral

more than 1,000 such canvases. Flemish painter and founder of the Viennese Art Academy-
Since the beginning of the eighteenth century, most well- and
refers to St. Luke's three professions: evangelist, physician,
known artists, male and female, have recorded their features in artist.However, van Schuppen refrains from being too obvious
some way for posterity. Twentieth-century painters frequently in lending St. Luke his own countenance. He changes the color
use an analytical approach in autobiographical works and of his eyes and gives St. Luke the customary beard van —
explore their inner lives as well as their environment. Such por- Schuppen appears clean shaven in his Self-Portrait (1718).
traits areby and large less traditional, their results diverse in Raphael altered the time-honored tradition of artistic self-
form and meaning. The inclusion of a mirror is rare but can be portraiture when he created his St. Luke Painting the Virgin
seen in works such as Norman Rockwell's Triple Self-Portrait (circa 151 1). Here the young painter appears as the inspiring
(i960). Because the Allegory of Painting was traditionally rep- genius behind the evangelist St. Luke, stressing the importance
resented by a female —thereby excluding male artists from of inventio (inventiveness) in sixteenth-century art. For years
appearing as pittura (paintings) — women's self-portraits are an Raphael's painting served as the main altar in the Roman
integral, but separate, part of this discussion (see the essay Self- church of Martina e Luca, and is now located in St.
artists SS.
Portraits II: Women). Luke's Academy in the same city. Maerten van Heemskerck's
One of the most important sources for the development of votive panel for Haarlem's St. Luke's guild in The Netherlands
self-portrait iconography is the legend of St. Luke, which orig- (1532) is based on Raphael's idea; he portrays himself as furore
inated in the East. St. Luke was said to have once painted him- dell'arte (fury of art) and his father as the aged evangelist.
self painting a true likeness of the Virgin. This Tbeotokos Pierre Mignard's self-portrait also emerges behind the saint in
Hodegetria (Mother of God showing the way) icon was sup- his St. Luke Painting the Virgin (1695), a work he created after
posed to have miraculously survived the iconoclast controversy his appointment to the Royal Academy in 1695.
(eighth and ninth centuries). After the restitution of orthodoxy As already noted, artists often indicated what they believed
in the ninth century, this type of icon became especially vener- to be their special place in society by including themselves in
ated. Fourteenth-century writer Nicephorus Kallistos religious scenes and history paintings. Jan van Eyck's reflection
Xanthopoulos reemphasized the authenticity of the sacred can be found in St. George's shield in his Madonna with Canon
Theotokos Hodegetria icons (claiming to have based his text on George van der Paele (1436). Botticelli, Albrecht Diirer,
a sixth-century source). From the fourteenth century onward, Caravaggio, and Rembrandt van Rijn, among many others,
renderings of the evangelical Madonna painter St. Luke became included themselves in religious scenes. Renaissance master
an important pictorial tradition in the East and even more so in Raphael's portrait and those of many contemporary dignitaries
the West where St. Luke was elevated to the patron saint of art appear as ancient philosophers in his School of Athens
guilds and academies. Because of the association of the evange- (
1 508-1 5 10), a work that advertises
painting's place among the
list St. Luke with icons, his image became inextricably linked to liberal arts.
8oo SELF-PORTRAITS I: MHN

Artists honored by royal patrons by the gift of a coveted Self-Portrait (circa 1560) Anthonis Mor indicates his intellec-

gold chain frequently recorded the event itself. Most famous tual powers by portraying himself in front of a canvas that dis-
are the paintings by Titian and Anthony Van Dyck. Diego plays only a Greek poem, a reference both to the process of
Velazquez also appears to have indicated his noble status as inspiration and to painting as "mute poetry." The erudite
court painter in his enigmatic masterpiece Las Meninas (1656). Nicolas Poussin emphasized his role as a scholar over that of a
Although the painting is purportedly a royal portrait of the painter in his Self-Portrait (1650) in the Louvre. Poussin,
charming Infanta Margarita, who stands in the foreground, dressed in a black suit'; looks directly at the observer. There is

Velazquez himself appears standing at a large easel, which no reference to his painting utensils, and all but one of his can-
raises questions about the true subject of his art. The king and vases can be seen turned to face the wall. The crowned head of
queen appear as reflections in a mirror, their images signifying a classical goddess — after an ancient relief fragment — is promi-
Velazquez's position in a royal household. Luca Giordano nently displayed at Poussin's left. She represents, according
spoke of this work .is a "theology of Painting." Francisco de to seventeenth-century scholar, connoisseur, and theorist
Goya followed Velazquez's composition by including himself in Giovanni Pietro Bellori, pittura. Modern scholarship has sug-
the background of his royal portrait Family of Charles IV gested she is an allusion to Minerva, the goddess of wisdom,
(1800). technical skill, and invention; Poesia; or Perspective. Poussin's
Artists frequently indicated their aspirations to belong to the head casts a shadow over on the
the explanatory inscription
upper class by the social settings which they portrayed them-
in right: and theorist Leon Battista
fifteenth-century architect
selves, their spouses, and/or their circle of family and friends. Alberti's old paragon between painting and sculpture. Alberti,
One of the earliest examples of a double-portrait is Jacob basing his belief on the Roman rhetorician Quintilian's
Cornelisz. van Oostsaanen's Self-Portrait Painting His Wife Institutio oratoria, suggested that painters first traced their

(1530), in which the artist presented himself in the process of own shadows. A year before, Poussin already had expressed
rendering his wife, both middle-aged and meticulously dressed. analogous art-theoretical ideas in his Berlin Self-Portrait
Peter Paul Rubens's Self-Portrait with Isabella Brant (circa (1649). Similarly, Anton Raphael Mengs's Self-Portrait (1773)
1609) shows the happy and fashionable young couple seated in in the Uffizi Gallery addresses the viewer like a lecturer ready

an idyllic honeysuckle arbor, the painting done in celebration of to expound his theories. Rembrandt's London Self-Portrait
their wedding. In his Self-Portrait with Helena Fourment (circa (1640) depicts the artist as a Renaissance man. His pose simul-
1630), Rubens recorded his second marriage as well. This taneously refers to Titian's portrait Poet Aristo (15 12), now
painting depicts Rubens among worldly success in his palatial, generally called Portrait of a Man, and Raphael's Baldassare
Italianate home, the Rubenshuis, in Antwerp, Belgium. The Castiglione (circa 151 5), a portrait of the Italian author of The
couple and son Nicolas are captured strolling in the garden Courtier. One of the last important works in the tradition of
among peacocks. The double-portrait tradition was one that artists portraying themselves as scholars and scientists is
endured a long time and was used by artists such as Benjamin Charles Wilson Peale's Self-Portrait Showing His Natural
West, among countless others, to record their marital bliss. History Museum (circa 1820) in which the painter lifts a cur-
John Singleton Copley's mature seli-portrait in The Copley tain and grants us a glimpse at his impressive collection of ani-
Family (1780) also includes his wife and his family gathered mal specimens.
around a large table. Intimate interiors such as this were fre- The painter in his studio becomes a topos that depicts
quently used as the settings for artists' family portraits in the work amid the paraphernalia of their profession.
artists at
seventeenth and eighteenth century. Male and female renditions typically stress that they are part
The tradition of the artist rendering himself among his cir- of the upper middle class. Well-groomed, they sit at their
cle of friends has its Raphael's School of Athens,
beginning in easels and advertise their specialties: histories, landscapes,
mentioned above. Rubens's Self-Portrait with Justus Lipsius, miniatures, portraits, genre scenes, or still lifes. An early
Jan Woi'erius, and His Brother Philip Rubens (circa 161 1-1612) example of such a work done by a landscape painter is Paul
refers to the group's intellectual achievements. During the nine- 1590), which shows the artist seated
Bril's Self-Portrait (circa
teenth and twentieth centuries, when artists' associations were in front of a completed canvas as he strums a lute and casu-
less stringently regulated by academies, it once again became ally turns to the observer. Bril wears a hat to add to the for-
very important to form alliances with colleagues, as in the mal character of his portrayal. Annibale Carracci's famous
impressionist Henri Fantin-Latour's Homage to Delacroix Self-Portrait on Easel (1605) simply presents his likeness on a
(1864), now in the Musee d'Orsay and
in Paris. Artists, critics, canvas propped up for the viewer's perusal. The Artist in His
writers banded together to exchange ideas. The group
surrealist Studio (1864) by James Abbott McNeill Whistler is set in his
had its "class picture" painted by Max Ernst (seated on Fyodor elegant fin de siecle atelier, which includes two stylish models
Dostoyevsky's knee), who created All Friends Together in 1922. dressed in white.
More revealing is the inclusion of Ernst's self-portrait, along with Other emphasized the intimacy of the studio by don-
artists
fellow surrealists Andre Breton and Paul Eluard, in Virgin ning work Rembrandt's two self-portraits of circa
clothes, as in
Chastising the Infant Jesus (1926). In this work Ernst not only 1660 (in Kenwood House in London and in the Louvre).
mocks Parmigianino's Virgin-type (Madonna with the Long Painters have also portrayed themselves with maulstick and
Neck, circa 1 540, in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence) but also refers brushes in hand, presenting their palettes. Scholars have stud-
skeptically to the tradition of the artist's inclusion in religious ied these depictions of palettes because they indicate artists'
images. personal preferences as well as availability of colors. In William
Male as well as female self-portraits were often the vehicle Hogarth's Self-Portrait with Palette (1758) the artist displays
to convey the artist's credo on art theory. For example, in his an array of different hues on his palette to emphasize his keen
 SELF-PORTRAITS I: MEN 8oi

interest in color theory. Francisco de Goya, in his Self-Portrait both work with close-up lenses and complex mirror reflections.
with Palette (1826), displays his well-organized oils, 12 in all, The latter creates the illusion that the canvas lets one see in

with the notable omission of green. Paul Cezanne, Vincent van both directions.
Gogh, and Pablo Picasso continued this tradition into the twen- Another prop typically available in a painter's workshop is a
tieth century, although the realistic rendering of their features skull used in life drawings and as a memento mori in still lifes.

and surroundings become less important to statements about In Herman van Vollenhoven's Painter in His Studio (circa
themselves as painters. 1640), for example, the artist is captured in the process of
A select group of artists described themselves as academi- depicting a couple with a skull. Salvatore Rosa's Self-Portrait
cians. Pierre Subleyras's complex and autobiographical The with a Skull (1659) emphasizes his philosophical nature. Johann
Studio of the Painter (circa 1740) attempts to sum up his entire Zoffany elaborated on this tradition in Self-Portrait with Skull
life: the elderly artist is perched in the foreground holding his (1776). In his Self-Portrait (before 1824), the romantic, youth-
youthful portrait. Every object in the large interior is laden with fulTheodore Gericault poses in a contemplative mood in his
symbolism and famous
significant to his oeuvre: plaster casts of garret studio below a shelf upon which a skull rests.
classical sculptures and an array of his important commissions Other artists' self-portraits refer to the old tradition of the
such as the prominently displayed portrait of Pope Benedict danse macabre (some seventeenth-century versions of the cycle
XIV. This tradition of creating a visual narrative is further included "death and the artist," a type uncommon in the
enhanced by Gustave Courbet in The Painter's Studio: A Real Middle Ages). In Arnold Bocklin's Self-Portrait with Death
Allegory Summing up Seven Years of My Life as an Artist (1872) the painter can be seen listening attentively to a seduc-
(1855). On the left of the enormous canvas (measuring close to tivetune a grinning skeleton fiddles into his ear. Other artists
12 feet by 20 feet) Courbet presents his models and subjects, follow this tradition but give the subject an autobiographical
such as the figure of Muse-Truth who stands behind Courbet, twist. For example, Hans Thoma —who may have known
and on the right he presents his most important patrons and Bocklin's prototype — painted with Cupid and
Self-Portrait
friends. Death (1875) as an account of Thoma's love for his wife Cella,
The mirror, an age-old implement for artists, typically whom he met that year. Lovis Corinth, in his Self-Portrait with
alludes to the faithful reflection of nature. (Legend explains the Skeleton (1896), deliberately distances himself from an allegor-
origin of painting as the result of artists watching their reflec- ical interpretation and stresses realism. A skeleton dangles

tion in water.) Mirrors also symbolize Veritas (truth) and self- powerlessly from an iron hook, the artist's robust countenance
awareness and were recommended by the Athenian philoso- seemingly defying the grim reaper. Artists such as Adolf
pher Socrates, who told his pupils to look into the mirror "to Hildenbrand continued the tradition of the artist and death
know thyself." It is remarkable that few artists include this well into the twentieth century.
essential tool of their trade in their self-portraits — as if pur- Rembrandt, van Gogh, and Picasso systematically
Diirer,
posefully removed, just as the scaffold is dismantled when a recorded their features as they journeyed through life and

structure is completed. In Rockwell's Triple Self-Portrait the developed changing senses of self. Diirer first rendered his fea-
mirror is included as a joke. The artist pokes fun at himself as tures in a drawing when he was only 12 years old. Rembrandt
he peeks at his aging, spectacled reflection, translating it into an also made personal character studies as a very young man, and
idealized picture of a suave young man. Pinned to the large can- his expressive face can be recognized in a number of early his-
vas are reproductions of some of the most famous self-por- tory paintings. Over the years Rembrandt's exercises become
traits: Diirer's, Rembrandt's, and van Gogh's, artists clearly in independent artworks, and these penetrating inward looks are
another league. The only precedence for a similar triple image among the most treasured examples of his oeuvre. No other
seems to have been Johannes Gump's Self-Portrait with Mirror painter left as many psychological portraits in print or on can-
(1646). vas as did this Baroque genius. Rembrandt's gaze is expansive
Mirrors, however, may be referred to indirectly or included even in the darkest hours of his life, as one can observe in the
to lend another pictorial dimension, as in Jan van Eyck's stoically defiant Self-Portrait (1658) in the Frick Collection in
Arnolfini Wedding (Portrait of Giovanni Arnolfini and New York. It was conceived during his bankruptcy proceedings
Giovanna Genami) (1434) in which the artist's reflection in a in the 1650s. Rembrandt is seated as "the philosopher king
mirror serves as one of the witnesses to the event. The mirror who does not give in to misfortune" (Kenneth Clark,
was also used later by Velazquez in his Las Meninas, noted Rembrandt and the Italian Renaissance, New
York, 1966, p.
above. In his Vienna Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror (1524), 130). Van Gogh was similarly obsessed with recording his face.
mannerist Parmigianino ingeniously captures the look of his Unlike Rembrandt's expansive gaze, Van Gogh's eyes often
reflection from a uniquely curved surface resembling a bull's- reflect the pain of a caged animal. This is most pronounced in

—
eye mirror which at times were called "magic." He created the work Man with the Bandaged Ear (1889). Picasso's eyes are
this narcissistic work in the hope of impressing the pope with the most characteristic feature of his face even in his highly-
his brilliant new concept. abstracted, masklike paintings. We recognize Picasso in his

Optical play dominates many postmodern works, stressing proto-cubist portrait of 1907 by his expressive, enlarged eyes.
the objectivity of the portrayal along with multifaceted illu- Although twentieth-century self-portraits are less realistic than
sions of reality. Artists of the second half of the twentieth cen- their predecessors, Picasso is equally effective in revealing his
tury have arrived at very different self-realizations from their inner self.

predecessors. Painstaking self-examination has been found in Some of the most successful self-portraits bare strong inner
modern photo-realism since the 1970s. Chuck Close's Self- emotion. Caravaggio is credited with being the first to stud) his
Portrait (1968) and Richard Estes's Double Self-Portrait (1976) own sickly mien in his Bacchus malata ( 1 590s). Experiments 111
8oz si I l PORTRAITS I: MEN

physiognomy were continued by Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini, view of Vitebsk (now in Belarus). An angel (deus ex machina?)
who was said to have studied his distorted face for the David flies over the happily cavorting couple and adds to the dream-
(circa 1621) in the Borghese Gallery in Koine, aided by none like atmosphere. The colors are bright and symbolize Chagall's
other than his friend Maffeo Barberini and later by Pope Urban nostalgic longing for his native city, which he was about to
the VIII, who personally held the mirror for this endeavor. revisit in 1917 when he painted this work.
Facial expressions were later codified by French historical The role of the "identification portrait" is under investiga-
painter Charles Le Brun, and the French Academy dictated tion by art history scholars. We now know, for example, that
studies of physiognomy to all its members. The tradition of cer- Michelangelo rendered himself in disguise, both in the Sistine

tain facial features tor anger, surprise, and so on was still influ- Chapel ceiling (1508-15 12) as the severed head of Holofernes,
encing Courbet at the time of his Self-Portrait (The Desperate and in the Last Judgment (1 534-1 541) on the flayed skin of St.
Man) (1843). Bartholomew. Similarly, in Caravaggio's David with the Head
Throughout the centuries painters have continually created of Goliath (circa 1606), the artist gave Goliath's head, held by
personal allegories in their self-portraits. These are all idiosyn- the victorious David, his own features. Contemporary sources
cratic works that rarely effect later artists. Diirer saw himself as tell us that David is a portrait of Caravaggio's young lover,
an imitator of Jesus Christ. Rembrandt, in his Self-Portrait with which gives this canvas a personal erotic meaning. On the other
Saskia (circa 1634-163 6) in Dresden, Germany, chose the for- hand, Johann Zoffany characterized himself in his Self-Portrait

mat of a morality play. He painted himself in the guise of the as David with the Head of Goliath (1756) as "David, the
Prodigal Son squandering his money, using his first wife's fea- Anointed One." Zoffany followed this painting with his Self-
tures — not quite convincingly— for the fast woman in a tavern. Portrait as David, a Giorgione tradition. Although it no longer
In one of his last canvases, Self-Portrait, Laughing (circa 1665) exists, Wenzel Hollar recorded the association in his seven-
in Cologne, Germany, Rembrandt again appears disguised, teenth-century print Giorgione as David Holding the Severed
alluding to the ancient Greek painter Zeuxis, who died laugh- Head of Goliath.
ing over the demands of a vain, old patroness: the canvas in During the seventeenth century, female personifications
front of the aged Rembrandt reveals a wrinkled female profile. were chosen by male artists as their inspirational muses. This
Jan Steen's frequent inclusion of self-portraits in some of his concept has its origin in classical images that compare painting
genre scenes, such as The Dissolute Household (before 1679), to its sister art: the depictions of the poet and his muse. David
has always been recognized as his unique trait. Arnold Klocker-Ehrenstrahl's Self-Portrait (1691), shows two female
Houbraken's eighteenth-century biography of Dutch painters allegorical figures carrying Cesare Ripa's attributes of Painting
De groote schouburgh der Nederlantsche konstschilders en to assist the artist in his studio. Georg Desmarees personalized
schilderessen provides insight into Steen's efforts to compare his Self-Portraitwith Daughter Maria Antonia (1761), with
his art with theater. In his Self-Portrait as Lutist (before 1679) pittura represented by the artist's daughter, Maria Antonia,
Steen cast himself as a comedian. Recently it has been estab- who hands her father palette and brushes.
lished that Steen impersonates a sanguine (or jovial) tempera- Few subjects give artists such free reign to examine and dis-
ment based on Cesare Ripa's description: "... a jovial, laugh- play their outer and inner lives as self-portraits do. In times
ing, fleshy young man strumming on a lute who is clever at . . . past, self-portraits were often included in religious works seek-
all the arts." Steen's casual pose, along with the musical instru- ing divine protection. Later, increasing emphasis was placed on
ment, notebook, and tankard of beer, conjure up the bacchic individuality, from the St. Luke's allegories to the most esoteric
reference also mentioned by Ripa. and narcissistic modern installations and films. An example,
Courbet reached an important crossroads in his career when organized by Independent Curators Incorporated (ICI) in New
he painted The Meeting, or Bonjour M. Courbet (1854). York, was Eye for I (1988) and consisted of the video
titled
Dressed as a pilgrim or journeyman, Courbet is portrayed self-portraits of 14 American and European artists. The self-
meeting his most important art patron near Montpellier, portrait —
for both male and female artists —
has always been an
France. The painting describes in realistic terms the differences important means by which to join a higher station in life.
between the wealthy, bourgeois Jacques-Louis-Alfred Bruyas, Artists of all periods have recorded autobiographical studies
his servant, and the young Courbet. The welcome alludes to that in some way reveal their aspirations, accomplishments, art
similar three-figure illustrations of the Wandering Jew theories, beliefs, and personal philosophies.
Ahasuerus. Courbet was proud of his "Assyrian" beard, which
is typical of his appearance during the 1850s.
See also Artists/Art; Fame
Paul Gauguin in his Self-Portrait with Halo (1889) also aims
at a subjective symbolism. His devilish mask under a halo refers
to the fallen angels, and the inclusion of a snake and an apple
refers to the Fall of Man. Another enigmatic painter, Henri
Selected Works of Art

Rousseau, is less interested in realistically rendering his features Fifteenth Century

than in conveying his private symbolism. The gifted amateur's Eyck, Jan van, Arnolfini Wedding (Portrait of Giovanni
Myself-Portrait-Landscape (1890) shows a multi-flagged sail- Arnolfini and Giovanna Cenami), 1434, London, National
ing vessel docked behind the painter. It refers to Rousseau's ren- Gallery
derings of his imaginary trips into a tropical dream world. Eyck, Jan van, Madonna with Canon George van Der Paele,
Twentieth-century artists follow Gauguin and Rousseau in 1436, Bruges, Belgium, Groeningenmuseum
their conceptual approach. Marc Chagall's Self-Portrait with Ghiberti, Lorenzo, Self-Portrait, on Gates of Paradise, circa
Wineglass shows the artist on his wife's shoulders in front of a 1450, Florence, Italy, Baptistery
 SELF-PORTRAITS I: MEN 803

Diirer, Albrecht, Self-Portrait as a Boy, circa 1484, drawing, Rosa, Salvator, Self-Portrait with Skull, 1659, New York,
Vienna, Austria, Albertina Metropolitan Museum of Art
Rembrandt van Rijn, Self-Portrait at His Easel, 1660, Paris,
Sixteenth Century Louvre
Diirer, Albrecht, Self-Portrait as Christ, 1 500, Munich, Rembrandt van Rijn, Self-Portrait, 1660, London, Kenwood
Germany, Alte Pinakothek House
Michelangelo, Self-Portrait as Head of Holofernes, circa Rembrandt van Rijn, Self-Portrait, Laughing, circa 1665,
1508, Vatican, Sistine Chapel Cologne, Germany, Wallraf-Richartz-Museum
Raphael, School of Athens, 1508-15 10, Vatican, Stanze della Steen, Jan, The Dissolute Household, before 1679, New York,
Segnatura Metropolitan Museum of Art
Raphael, Luke Painting
St. the Virgin, circa 151 1, Rome, St. Steen, Jan, Self-Portrait as Lutist, before 1679, Madrid,
Luke's Academy Spain, Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection
Parmigianino, Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror, 1524, Mignard, Pierre, St. Luke Painting the Virgin, 1695, Troyes,
Vienna, Austria, Kunsthistorsches Museum France, Musee des Beaux-Arts
Cornelisz. van Oostsaanen, Jacob, Self-Portrait Painting His
Wife, 1530, Toledo, Ohio, Toledo Museum of Art Eighteenth Century
Heemskerck, Maerten van, St. Luke Painting the Virgin, Schuppen, Jacques van, Self-Portrait, 17 18, Vienna, Austria,
1532, Haarlem, The Netherlands, Frans Hals Museum Akademie der Bildenden Kunste
Michelangelo, Self-Portrait as Flayed Skin of St. Bartholomew, Schuppen, Jacques van, St. Luke Painting the Virgin, circa
Last Judgment, fresco, 1 534-1 541, Vatican, Sistine 1735, Vienna, Austria, Church of St. Charles Borromeo
Chapel Subleyras, Pierre, The Studio of the Painter, circa 1740,
Mor, Anthonis, Self-Portrait, circa 1560, Florence, Italy, Uffizi Vienna, Austria, Akademie der Bildenden Kunste
Gallery Zoffany, Johann, Self-Portrait as David with the Head of
Titian, Self-Portrait, circa 1560, Berlin, Germany, Kaiser Goliath, 1756, New York, Richard L. Feigen and
Friedrich Museum Company
Bril, Paul, Self-Portrait, circa 1590, Providence, Rhode Island Hogarth, William, Self-Portrait with Palette, 1758, London,
School of Design National Portrait Gallery
Caravaggio, Bacchus malata, 1590s, Rome, Borghese Gallery Desmarees, Georg, Self-Portrait with Daughter Maria
Antonia, 1761, Munich, Germany, Alte Pinakothek
Seventeenth Century West, Benjamin, Self-Portrait with His Wife, circa 1770,
Carracci, Annibale, Self-Portrait on Easel, 1605, Florence, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Museum of Art
Italy, Uffizi Gallery Mengs, Anton Raphael, Self-Portrait, 1773, Florence, Italy,
Caravaggio, David with the Head of Goliath, circa 1606, Uffizi Gallery
Rome, Borghese Gallery Zoffany, Johann, Self-Portrait with Skull, 1776, Florence,
Rubens, Peter Paul, Self-Portrait with Isabella Brant, circa Italy, Uffizi Gallery
1609, Munich, Germany, Alte Pinakothek Copley, John Singleton, The Copley Family, 1780,
Rubens, Peter Paul, Self-Portrait with Justus Lipsius, Jan Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art
Woverius, and His Brother Philip Rubens, circa
1611-1612, Florence, Italy, Palazzo Pitti Nineteenth Century
Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo, David, circa 16 2.1, Rome, Goya, Francisco de, Family of Charles IV, 1800, Madrid,
Borghese Gallery Spain, Prado
Van Dyck, Anthony, Self-Portrait, circa 162.1, Munich, Goya, Francisco de, Self-Portrait with Dr. Arrieta, 1820,
Germany, Alte Pinakothek Minneapolis, Minnesota, Minneapolis Institute of Art
Rubens, Peter Paul, Self-Portrait with Helena Fourment, circa Peale, Charles Wilson, Self-Portrait Showing His Natural
1630, Munich, Germany, Alte Pinakothek Museum, circa 1820,
History Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Rembrandt van Rijn, Self-Portrait with Saskia, circa Academy of Fine Arts
1634-1636, Dresden, Germany, Staatliche Goya, Francisco de, Self-Portrait with Palette, 1826, Madrid,
Kunstsammlungen Spain, Prado
Rembrandt van Rijn, Self-Portrait, 1640, London, National Gericault, Theodore, Self-Portrait, before 1824, Paris, Louvre
Gallery Courbet, Gustave, Self-Portrait (The Desperate Man), 1843,
Vollenhoven, Herman van, Painter in His Studio, circa 1640, private collection
Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Rijksmuseum Courbet, Gustave, The Meeting, or Bonjour M. Courbet,
Gump, Johannes, Self-Portrait with Mirror, 1646, Florence, 1854, Montpellier, France, Musee Fabre
Italy, Uffizi Gallery Courbet, Gustave, The Painter's Studio: A Real Allegory
Poussin, Nicolas, Self-Portrait, 1649, Berlin, Germany, Bode Summing up Seven Years of My Life as an Artist, 1855,
Museum Paris, Louvre
Poussin, Nicolas, Self-Portrait, 1650, Paris, Louvre Whistler, James Abbott McNeill, The Artist in His Studio,
Velazquez, Diego, Las Meninas, 1656, Madrid, Spain, Prado 1864, Chicago, Art Institute
Rembrandt van Rijn, Self-Portrait, 1658, New York, Frick Bocklin, Arnold, Self-Portrait with Death, 1872, Karlsruhe,
Collection Germany, Staatliche Kunsthalle
8o 4 si I I I'OKI K \l IS I: \!l \

Thoma, lans, Self-Portrait with Cupid and Death, 1875

I Bock, Catherine C, "Henri Matisse's Self-Portraits:
Cezanne, Paul, Self-Portrait with Palette and Easel, circa Presentation and Representation," Psychoanalytic
1885, Zurich, Switzerland, E. G. Buhrle Collection Perspectives on Art III (1988)
Gogh, Vincent van, Self-Portrait with Easel, 1888, Bonafoux, Pascal, Portraits of the Artist: The Self-Portrait in
Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Rijksmuseum Vincent Painting, New York: Rizzoli, 1985
van Gogh Brilliant, Richard, Portraiture, Cambridge, Massachusetts:
Gogh, Vincent van, Man with the Bandaged Ear, 1889, Harvard University. Press, 1990
( hicago, collection of Mr. and Mrs. Leigh B. Block Cellini, Pico, "II S. Luca di Raffaello," Bolletino d'Arte 30
Gauguin, Paul, Self-Portrait with Halo, 1889, Washington, (1958)
D.C., National Gallery or Art, Chester Dale Collection Chapman, Howard Perry, Rembrandt's Self-Portraits: A Study
Rousseau, Henri, Myself-Portrait-Landscape, 1890, Merion, in Seventeenth-Century Identity, Princeton, New Jersey:
Pennsylvania, Barnes Collection Princeton University Press, 1990
Corinth, Lovis, Self-Portrait with Skeleton, 1896, Munich, , "Persona and Myth in Houbraken's Life of Jan Steen,"

Germany, Staatliche Galerie im Lenbachhaus The Art Bulletin 75 (1993)

Duthy, Robin, "Lucian Freud: A Ruthless Master,"
Twentieth Century Connoisseur 218 (1988)
Matisse, Henri, Self-Portrait, drawing in charcoal, 1900, Le Gaus, Joachim, "Ingenium und Ars-das Ehepaarbildnis
Cateau, France, Musee Henri Matisse Lavoisier von David und die Ikonographie der

Picasso, Pablo, Self-Portrait, 1901, Paris, Musee Picasso Museninspiration," Wallraf-Richartz Jahrbuch 36 (1974)
Picasso, Pablo, Self-Portrait, 1906, Philadelphia, Goldscheider, Ludwig, Five Hundred Self-Portraits from
Pennsylvania, Museum of Art Antique Times to the Present Day, London: Allen, 1937;

Picasso, Pablo, Self-Portrait, 1907, Prague, Czech Republic, Wilmington, Delaware: International Academics, 1937
National Gallery Grosshans, Rainhold, Maerten van Heemskerck, Berlin:
Chagall, Marc, Self-Portrait with Wineglass, 19 17, Paris, Boettcher, 1980
Musee National d'Art Modern Koerner, Joseph Leo, The Moment of Self-Portraiture in

Ernst, Max, All Friends Together, 1922, Cologne, Germany, German Renaissance Art, Chicago and London: University
Wallraf-Richartz-Museum of Chicago Press, 1993

Ernst, Max, Virgin Chastising the Infant Jesus, 1926, The Painter and His Family, " Burlington
Lee, Jane, "Derain's

Brussels, Belgium, Krebs Collection Magazine 128 (1988)

Beckmann, Max, Self-Portrait with Cigarette, 1927, Makela, Maria, "A Late Self-Portrait by Lovis Corinth,"
Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University, Busch- Museum Studies 16 (1990)
Reisinger Museum Messina, Marcia Grazia, "The Mask in Paul Gaugin's Self-

Hildenbrand, Adolf, Self-Portrait with Death, 1930, Portraits," Ricerche di Storia delVArte 37 (1989)

Karlsruhe, Germany, Staatliche Kunsthalle Moffit, John E, "Goya y los Demonios," Goya 163 (1981)
Matisse, Henri, Self-Portrait, drawing in charcoal, 1937, Paoletti, John, "Michelangelo's Masks," The Art Bulletin 74
Baltimore, Maryland, Museum of Art, Cone Collection (1992.)

Rockwell, Norman, Triple Self-Portrait, i960, for the cover Poch-Kalous, Margarethe, Pierre Subleyras: In der
of the February 13, i960, Saturday Evening Post, Gemaldegalerie der Akademie der Bildenden Kunste,
Stockbridge, Massachusetts, Norman Rockwell Museum Vienna, Austria: Rosenbaum, 1969
Warhol, Andy, A Set of Six Self-Portraits, oil on silk screen on Polleros, Friedrich, "Between Typology and Psychology:
canvas, 1967, San Francisco, California, Museum of Art
The Role of Updating Old
the Identification Portrait in

Close, Chuck, Self-Portrait, 1968, Minneapolis, Minnesota, Testament Representations," Artibus et Historie 24 (1991)

Walker Gallery Pressly, William, "Genius Unveiled: The Self-Portraits of

Estes, Richard, Double Self-Portrait, 1976, New York,

Johan Zoffany," The Art Bulletin 69 (1987)
Museum of Modern Art Raupp, Hans-Joachin, Untersuchungen zum Kunstlerbildnis
und zur Kunstlerdarstellung in den Niederlanded, New
York: Olms, 1984

Further Reading Ray, Man, Self-Portrait, London: Deutsch, 1963; Boston:

Little, Brown, 1988
Adolphs, Volker, Der Kunstler und der Tod: Richard, Anne, "Denis Laget: The Strategy of Self-
Selbstdarstellungen in der Kunst des 19 und zo Portraiture," Opus International 106 (1988)
Jahrhunderts, Cologne, Germany: W. Konig, 1993 Winner, Matthias, "Poussins Selbstbildnis von 1649," in "II se
Birren, Faber, History of Color in Painting: With New rendit en Italic " etudes offertes a Andre Chastel, Rome
Principles of Color Expression, New York: Reinhold, 1965 and Paris, 1987
 SELF-PORTRAITS IK
WOMEN
Fredrika Jacobs

The following periods are covered in the discussion of the theme Self-Portraits II: Women:

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL NINETEENTH CENTURY

MEDIEVAL TWENTIETH CENTURY
RENAISSANCE
SEVENTEENTH AND
EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES

805
806 SELF-PORTRAITS II: WOMI-N
 SELF-PORTRAITS II: WOMEN 807

Artemisia Gentileschi, Self-Portrait as the

Allegory of Painting, circa 1640, England,
Royal Collection. (Courtesy of the Royal
Collection, ©1995, Her Majesty Queen
Elizabeth II)

Over the centuries,

selves in ways
women have chosen to depict them-
that are not necessarily in agreement
More than 25 women have been
during the Renaissance. A
identified as active artists
significant number of them pro-
with their portrayals by male artists. Relying on a referential duced self-portraits. Initially, these self-portraits emphasized
system of accoutrements, which is understood regardless of the social status of the artist as a "lady." While her proficiency
form and style, women documented the
often have visually in music is conveyed, as in Marietta Robusti's (Marietta
conflicts between gendered expectations and professional Tintoretto's) Self-Portrait (circa 1580) in the Uffizi Gallery in
demands that they encounter. These have varied from the good Florence, Italy, and/or her chastity underscored, as in Lavinia
mother images seen in Self-Portrait with Daughter by Marie- Fontana's Self-Portrait with Chaperone (1577) in the Galleria
Louise-Elisabeth Vigee-Lebrun (1789) and Berthe Morisot dell' Accademia di San Luca in Rome, the accoutrements of the

(1885 and 1887) to the many emotionally charged and politi- professional artist (paint, palette, and brushes) are conspicu-
cally laden autobiographical images of Frida Kahlo. Women's ously absent. Although images such as these accord well with
self-portraits include the reflective Self-Portrait Hesitating the prescriptive definitions of the noble lady proffered by an
Between Painting and Music (circa 1794) by Angelica ever-increasingnumber of contemporaneous texts written for
Kauffmann as well as the aggressive assumption of profession- and about women, such as Domenico Bruni's Difese della
al authority in Adelaide Labille-Guiard's Self-Portrait with Two donne (1559) and Lodovico Domenichi's La nobilita delle
of Her Students, Capet and Mile. Carreaux de
Gabrielle donne (1551), they deny (through their refusal to acknowledge)
Rosamond (1785). Women's more recent examinations of self woman's involvement in what the humanist Annibale Caro
as both private individuals and reflections of society may be described in 1559 as the "profession of gentlemen." But the ret-
seen in the work of Marisol (Marisol Escobar) in the 1960s and icence of women artists to assert their professional activities
Cindy Sherman in the 1970s. was short-lived.
According to the Roman writer Pliny the Elder's history of In her portrait of her teacher, Bernardino Campi Painting
ancient art, "Women too have been painters" (Natural History, the Portrait of Sofonisba Anguissola, finished before 1554 and
XXXV, 147-148). Although the earliest depictions of women now in the Pinacoteca Nazionale in Siena, Italy, Anguissola
artists, such as a first-century fresco in the Museo di places herself firmly in the academic tradition. Not only does
Capodimonte Naples, Italy, and a hydria by the Attic she illustrate the reciprocity of her master-pupil relationship
Leningrad Painter in the Torno Collection in Milan, Italy, do with Campi and thereby refute the notion that women learn to
not differ significantly from depictions of male artists, later paint only to acquire one more attribute of the accomplished
illustrations of ancient women artists imply a likeness between lady, but she also asserts the ultimate authority of her gaze over
painting one's face with cosmetics and replicating one's phys- that of Campi. Although Campi was the mentor, it is

iognomy with paint (Boccaccio, De Claris Mulieribus, circa Anguissola, the student, who is the controlling master in and of
1370, Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, MS 12420, folio ioiv). this image. Following this precedent, women continue to the
On the one hand, such images explain a woman's capacity to present day to portray themselves in a manner that proclaims
paint portraits by citing her ability to apply makeup, as Franco their mastery of the medium and the model. In her Self-Portrait
Sacchetti's Trecento Novelle (n. 136, circa 1390) states explic- (1985) in a private collection, Catherine Murphy, using a mir-
itly. On the other hand, makeup as a metaphor appeared in aes- rored image, shows herself standing in front of an easel in the

thetic debates that involved the derision of artifice as "femi- process of painting a nude male — an inversion of the
nine," such as that between the defenders of drawing (Nicolas Pygmalion story. But if many women artists asserted their
Poussin) and partisans of color (Peter Paul Rubens). authority of authorship, others, like Kahlo, showed themselves
During the medieval and early Renaissance periods, self- in deference to an artist husband. Thus, in Portrait of Frida
portraits of women artists most often took the form of a visu- and Diego (19^1) in the San Francisco Museum of Art in

al "signature." With women's involvement in the arts typically California, it is the capacious Diego Rivera and not the diminu-
circumscribed by the confining walls of the convent, these sig- tive Kahlo who holds the palette and brushes. Typically, how-
natures, which included either a bust or a full-length image ever, Kahlo's self-portraits communicate her cultural and polit-

accompanied by either a complete or a partial name, appeared ical identity. In images such as Self-Portrait on the Border
in prayer books, such as the drawing of the scribe "Clarissa" in Between Mexico and the United States (1932), Kahlo's partic-
a late-twelfth-century Psalter in Augsburg, Germany, or the ular form of Mexicanidad expresses her deeply felt nationalism
bas-de-page portrait of Sister Maria Ormani in Breviarium cum through the inclusion of Aztec imagery: skeletons, hearts, and
Calendrium (1483). As women began to assume a more visible Coatlicue.
place in the arts during the sixteenth century, their self-por- Perhaps the most complete statement of woman's authority
traits, like those by their male peers, took a more formal and of authorship is found in Artemisia Gentileschi's Self-Portrait
conventional form. as the Allegory of Painting (circa 1640) in the Royal Collection
808 SELF-PORTRAITS II: WOMEN

in St. James Palace in London. In accordance with literary and work, as in the painting in Burlington House in London. In

visual descriptions of the personification of the art of painting some cases, such as Self-Portrait Hesitating Between Painting
as set forth in works such as Cesare Ripa's Iconologia (1593) and Music (circa 1794) in Nostrell Priory in Yorkshire,
and m keeping with an association implied but not made England, she uses a popular moralizing subject to commemo-
explicit in Felice Antonio Casoni's medal commemorating rate her decision to pursue an artistic rather than musical
Lavinia Fontana (161 t), Gentileschi has presented herself as career.Although not a self-portrait per se, Kauffmann's Zeuxis
both muse and inspired artist. As Giovanni Domenico Cerrini's Selecting Models for His Picture of Helen of Troy (circa 1794)
contemporaneous Allegory of Painting with Self-Portrait, from may be understood as such. By following a well-established tra-
the mid-seventeenth century and now in the Pinacoteca dition in which male artists, such as Giorgio Vasari and Peter
Nazionale in Bologna, Italy, indicates, males could not conflate Paul Rubens, cast themselves as the "New Zeuxis," Kauffmann
and then assume this dual role. not only asserts her position as a legitimate heir to the classical
Although less pointed in their reference to woman as artist tradition established by the fifth century B.C. Greek painter but
and woman as model, Sherman's untitled film stills (1977) con- also gives an interesting twist to a theme that typically epito-
tinue to explore this dualism by visually posing the question mizes the role of the woman as the beautiful object scrutinized
"Who am I (eye)?" In appropriating the identity of media-gen- by the male gaze.
erated female stereotypes, her photographs reverse the terms of Like Kauffmann, Labille-Guiard and Marie-Victorie
art and autobiography. By showing the self as an imaginary con- Lemoine were concerned with the issue of artistic tradition and
struct and refusing to reveal her true self, Sherman not only legitimacy. Whether or not Lemoine's Interior of the Atelier of
exposes the paradox of the photographic medium but also a Woman Painter (1796) in the Metropolitan Museum of Art
exhibits her control of it. Like Sherman, Marisol poses the ques- in New York was painted in defense of Vigee-Lebrun, whose
tion "Who am I?" In Self-Portrait (1961-1962) in the Museum husband was then attempting to secure her safe return to
of Contemporary Art in Chicago, Marisol expands the "I" to France from years in exile, the painting does convey a sense of
include seven different Marisol personalities. Like her sculptures unity among female artists. Although Vigee-Lebrun's junior by
of stereotypic women acting out prescribed female roles, one year, a seated Lemoine studies at the feet of the artist, who
Marisol's Self-Portrait explores the dilemma she and other in 1783 had won admission to the French Royal Academy.

women face when choosing to accept or reject these roles. Acknowledging the status of the female academician while
Although women artists have tended for the most part to asserting solidarity among women artists was no small matter.
grapple in varied and personal ways with definitions of "I," the In opposition to the rules of the French Royal Academy, which
tendency to assert their professional activities visually has been limited the number of female members to four, in 1785 Labille-
pervasive. Thus, for example, Clara Peeters, known for her Guiard exhibited her Self-Portrait with Two of Her Students,
bravura handling of reflective metallic surfaces in "breakfast Gabrielle Capet and Mile. Carreaux de Rosamond, now in the
pieces," painted Self-Portrait with Still-Life (circa 1610) (cur- Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, thereby symboli-
rent whereabouts unknown), and Judith Leyster, initially cally circumventing the quota.
known for her small domestic scenes, advertised her skill in During the nineteenth century, women artists continued to
handling these subjects by including a genre painting set on an define their position in the academic tradition. Frequently, they
easel, on which she is supposedly at work, in Self-Portrait (circa achieved this by depicting themselves in the studio, as in
1635) in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. Adrienne-Marie-Louise Grandpierre-Deverzy's The Studio of
Despite exhortations by moralists such as Jacob Cats, the Abel Pujol in 1822 (1822), now in the Musee Marmottan in
declarations of competency put forth by seventeenth-century Paris, or in the midst of an art family, as in Suzanne Valadon's
women in these and similar self-portraits is reflected both in the Self-Portrait with Her Son Maurice Utrillo, Her Husband
rolls of guild members (Leyster, for example, was enrolled in Andre Utter, and Grand'mere (1912) in the Musee National
Haarlem, The Netherlands, in 1633) and
the painter's guild in d'Art Modern in Paris. Similarly and concurrently, women
and counts collected
in inventories that indicate kings, princes, artists continued to depict themselves in the company of their
and paid impressive sums for works by women. The influence children.
of Enlightenment ideas, combined with an emerging prosper- Unlike Valadon's family group, in which the professional
ous middle class in pursuit of qualities associated with the aspect of the assembled takes precedence over the familial,
"feminine" (artifice, pleasure, and sensation), affected both the Morisot's self-portraits with her daughter Julie (1885 and
number and the status of professional women painters in 1887) are more in keeping with traditional scenes of maternity
Europe during the eighteenth century. while paralleling the unsentimental concept of modern mother-
Not surprisingly, this shift in society and ideology is reflect- hood exposed by the Third Republic. One of the most com-
ed in the way women artists presented themselves. Although pelling images of this kind is Paula Modersohn-Becker's Self-
some, Vigee-Lebrun, opted to portray themselves in accor-
like Portrait (1906), in which she depicts herself half-nude and
dance with the ideals of the happy mother typical of rococo pregnant, even though she was not. In fact, Modersohn-Becker
family conversation pieces, as in Self-Portrait with Daughter portrayed herself in the very role she had at this time rejected
(1789) in the Louvre in Paris, and celebrated by Jean-Jacques in order to pursue her career. In so doing she lays before the
Rousseau in Emile (1762), most emphasized their roles as aca- viewer the quintessential dilemma of how to live one's life as a
demicians world of public art. Thus, for example, begin-
in the woman and as a serious artist. This personal quandary, in con-
ning at age 13, Kauffmann began to produce self-portraits in junction with new and popular concepts of motherhood put
which she is either poised with sketchbook in hand, as in her forth in books known to the artist, such as Johann Jakob
work in the National Portrait Gallery in London, or actively at Bachofen's Das Mutterrecht (1861, reissued 1897), place
 SELF-PORTRAITS II: WOMEN 809

Modersohn-Becker's Self-Portrait in the same category as some Leyster, Judith, Self-Portrait, painting, circa 1635,
of those by Vigee-Lebrun and Morisot. Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art
More recently, the role of motherhood or, more properly, Gentileschi, Artemisia, Self-Portrait as the Allegory of
womanhood has taken the form of a challenge to the tradi- Painting, painting, circa 1640, London, Royal Collection,
tional dichotomies of male/female, reason/nature,and artistic St. James Palace
production/biological reproduction, as demonstrated in Cantofoli, Ginevra, Self-Portrait in the Act of Painting a Self-
Carolee Schneemann's "Interior Scroll" from the performance Portrait, circa 1656, Milan, Italy, Brera
of Women Here &
Now (1975) at ^ ast Hampton, New York. Cerrini, Giovanni Domenico, Allegory of Painting with Self-
Schneemann's extraction of a scroll from her vagina makes Portrait, painting, mid-seventeenth century, Bologna, Italy,
immediately present in a single person the often-conflicting Pinacoteca Nazionale
personae of woman and artist. Some, like Lee Krasner, have Beale, Mary, Self-Portrait, painting, 1666, London, National
turned the association of female with nature to their advan- Portrait Gallery
tage. In her Self-Portrait (circa 1930), Krasner pictures herself, Cheron, Flisabeth-Sophie, Portrait of the Artist, oil on canvas,
brushes in hand, in a verdant woodland setting rather than in circa 1672, Paris, Louvre
the more traditional interior studio. Painted while Krasner was Waser, Anna, Self-Portrait, painting, 1691, Zurich,
an art student, her Self-Portrait conflates two traditions of Switzerland, Kunsthalle Arcangela
self-portraiture: a proclamation of profession and the associa- Carriera, Rosalba, Self-Portrait, Holding Portrait of Her
tion of nature with the female. Thus, this work continues a Sister, 171 5, Florence, Italy, Uffizi Gallery
long-standing tradition: the use of self-portraits by women Lama, Giulia, Self-Portrait, painting, circa 1728, Florence,
artists to present the conflicting roles imposed on them by Italy, Uffizi Gallery
society. Fratellini,Giovanni, Self-Portrait, before 173 1, Florence, Italy,

Uffizi Gallery
Carriera, Rosalba, Self-Portrait, pastel, before 1757, Rovigo,
See also Artists/Art; Self-Portraits I: Men
Italy, Accademia dei Concordi

Kauffmann, Angelica, Self-Portrait, painting, circa

1770-1775, London, National Portrait Gallery
Selected Works of Art
Valdestein, Mariana, Marchesa de Santa Cruz, Self-Portrait,
Ancient and Classical painting, 1772, Florence, Italy, Uffizi Gallery
Leningrad Painter, Woman Artist, Attic hydria, fifth century Labille-Guiard, Adelaide, Self-Portrait, painting, 1782, Paris,
B.C., Milan, Italy, Torno Collection Collection Heritier Monsieur Raymond Flobert
Woman Artist, fresco, first century a.d., Naples, Italy, Museo Labille-Guiard, Adelaide, Self-Portrait with Two of Her
di Capodimonte Students, Gabrielle Capet and Mile. Carreaux de
Rosamond, painting, 1785, New York, Metropolitan
Medieval Museum of Art
Clarissa, from late twelfth-century Psalter, Augsburg, Cosway, Maria, Self -Portrait, 1786, present location
Germany unknown
Marisa, from Boccaccio's De Casibus Virorum lllustrorum, Piattoli, Anna Bacherini, Self-Portrait, painting, before 1788,
illuminated manuscript, circa 1370, Paris, Bibliotheque Florence, Italy, Uffizi Gallery
Nationale Vigee-Lebrun, Marie-Louise-Elisabeth, Self-Portrait with
Portrait of Sister Maria Ormani, bas-de-page portrait, 1483, Daughter, painting, 1789, Paris, Louvre
in Breviarium cum Calendrium Vigee-Lebrun, Marie-Louise-Flisabeth, Self-Portrait, painting,
circa 1790, Ickworth, England, National Trust
Renaissance Kauffmann, Angelica, Self-Portrait Hesitating Between
Hemessen, Katharina van, Self-Portrait, painting, 1548, Basel, Painting and Music, painting, circa 1794, Yorkshire,
Switzerland, Kunstmuseum England, Nostell Priory, collection of Lord St. Oswald
Anguissola, Sofonisba, Self-Portrait, painting, 1
554, Vienna, Kauffmann, Angelica, Self-Portrait, painting, before 1807,
Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum London, Burlington House
Anguissola, Sofonisba, Bernardino Campi Painting the Kauffmann, Angelica, Zeuxis Selecting Models for His Picture
Portrait of Sofonisba Anguissola, painting, before 1554, of Helen of Troy, painting, circa 1794, Providence, Rhode
Siena, Italy, Pinacoteca Nazionale Island, Brown University, Annmary Brown Memorial
Anguissola, Sofonisba, Self-Portrait with a Spinet, painting, Collection
1561, Naples, Italy, Gallerie Nazionale di Capodimonte Lemoine, Marie- Victorie, Interior of the Atelier of a Woman
Fontana, Lavinia, Self-Portrait with Chaperone, painting, Painter, painting, 1796, New York, Metropolitan Museum
1577, Rome, Galleria dell' Accademia di San Luca of Art
Robusti, Marietta (Marietta Tintoretto), Self-Portrait,
painting, circa 1580, Florence, Italy, Uffizi Gallery Nineteenth Century
Grandpierre-Deverzy, Adrienne-Marie-Louise, The Studio of
Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries Abel Pujol in 1822, 1822, Paris, Musee Marmottan
Peeters, Clara, Self-Portrait with Still-Life, painting, circa Haudebourt-Lescot, Antoinette-Cecile-Hortense, Self-Portrait,
1 610, current whereabouts unknown 1825, Paris, Louvre
8lO Mil -PORTRAITS II: WOMEN

Morisot, Berthe, Self-Portrait with Daughter, oil on canvas, Marisol, Self-Portrait, 1961-1962, Chicago, Museum of
i 88 s, private collection Contemporary Art
Morisot, Berthe, Self-Portrait with Her Daughter Julie, pencil Schneemann, Carolee, "Interior Scroll," from performance
on paper, 1887, private collection of Woman Here & Now, 1975, at F- ast Hampton,
Peale, Sarah Miriam, Self-Portrait, painting, circa 1830, New York
Baltimore, Maryland, Peale Museum Sherman, Cindy, Untitled no. 131, photograph, 1983
Sharpies, Rolinda, Rolinda Sharpies and Her Mother, Murphy, Catherine, Self-Portrait, 1985, private collection
painting, before 1838, Bristol, England, City Museum
and Art Gallery
Further Reading
Twentieth Century
London, Tate Gallery Autor itrattati dagli Uffizi da Andrea del Sarto a Chagall,
John, Gwen, Self-Portrait, 1900,
Florence, Italy: Galleria degli Uffizi, 1990
Modersohn-Becker, Paula, Self-Portrait, 1906, Basel,
Switzerland, Kunstmuseum Bonafoux, Pascal, Portraits of the Artist: The Self-Portrait

Valadon, Suzanne, Self-Portrait with Her Son Maurice Utrillo,

in Painting, New York: Rizzoli, 1985

Her Husband Andre Utter, and Grand'mere, 19 12,
Musee National d'Art Modern
Brooks, Romaine, Self-Portrait, 1923, Washington, D.C.,
National Collection of Fine Arts
Krasner, Lee, Self-Portrait, circa 1930, Lee Krasner Estate,
Robert Miller Gallery
Paris, Chadwick, Whitney, Women, Art, and Society, London
and New York: Thames and Hudson, 1990
Crozier, W Ray, and Paul Greenhalgh, "Self-Portraits as
Presentations of Self," Leonardo 21 (1988)
Garrard, Mary DuBose, "Artemisia Gentileschi's Self-
Portrait as the Allegory of Painting," The Art Bulletin

Kahlo, Frida, Portrait of Frida and Diego, 193 1, San 62 (1980)

Francisco, California, San Francisco Museum of Art Gaze, Delia, editor, Dictionary of Women Artists, 2 vols.,

Kahlo, Frida, Self-Portrait on the Border Between Mexico Chicago and London: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997
and the United States, 1932, Manuel Reyero Collection Rose, Barbara, "Self-Portraiture: Theme with a Thousand
Kollwitz, Kathe, Self-Portrait, bronze sculpture, 1936, Faces," Art in America 63 (1975)
Washington, D.C., Hirshhorn Museum Simons, Patricia, "Women in Frames: The Gaze, the Eye,
Carrington, Leonora, Self-Portrait, 1936-1937, private and the Profile in Renaissance Portraiture," History
collection Workshop 25 (1988)
Kahlo, Frida, Self-Portrait with Cropped Hair, painting, Walker, John, Portraits, jooo Years, New York: Abrams,
1940, New York, Museum of Modern Art 1983
 serpent's bite
Sarah S. Gibson

The following motifs and iconographic narratives are covered in the discussion of the theme
Serpent's Bite:

SERPENT BITING ITS TAIL ST. PAUL

DEATH OF EURYDICE MOSES AND THE BRAZEN
SERPENT
DEATH OF LAOCOON
DEATH OF CLEOPATRA OTHER SUBJECTS WITH
SNAKE BITES

8n
8 I z serpent's bi it
 SERPENT S BITE 813

Maerten van Heemskerck, The Brazen Serpent, 1549,

oilon panel, transferred to canvas, Princeton, New
Jersey, Princeton University, The Art Museum, museum
purchase, gift of The Friends of The Art Museum on
the occasion of Allen Rosenbaum's tenth anniversary
as director. (Courtesy of The Art Museum, Princeton
University, Princeton, New Jersey)

he serpent has long been a widely used symbol conveying after a composition by Friedrich Sustris (circa 1595), Time holds
Jl meanings depending on the context in
a multiplicity of in his hand a great circle formed by a serpent.
which it appears. It can be a symbol of life, power, the under-
world, death and the dead, sin, or the devil. Snakes are found
Death of Eurydice
as attributes of Prudence, one of the Virtues; of Athena
(Minerva), the goddess of wisdom; of Asclepius, the god of The story of the death of Eurydice, wife of the mythological
healing who inspired the present-day emblem of the medical Thracian minstrel Orpheus, is told in both Ovid's Metamorphoses
profession; of Ceres, the goddess of agriculture; of Persephone, and Virgil's Georgics. In each version she dies from a snake bite:

the daughter of Ceres and goddess of the underworld; and of in Ovid's version she is attacked while wandering through a
Apollo, the god of music, medicine, and poetry. In Norse leg- grassy field accompanied by other naiads (nymphs); in Virgil's she
end a serpent was said to have once coiled around the Earth, is bitten while fleeing the amorous advances of Aristaneus, a bee-
lurking beneath the seas. The war god Thor killed the serpent keeper and son of Apollo.
but died, poisoned by its venom. There are relatively few renditions of Eurydice's death in the
Perhaps because the mere representation of a snake may be visual arts. Perhaps her thwarted return from the underworld
threatening, there are few works of art that actually depict a provided more scope for dramatic invention. One notable
serpent biting someone or something. Those works that do pre- exception is Titian's Orpheus and Eurydice (circa 15 12), now
sent a prominent serpent bite are usually works on one of the in the Accademia Carrara in Bologna, Italy. Two different
following themes: the death of Eurydice from a snake bite, the scenes in the narrative are shown: in one scene Eurydice flees
death of Laocoon and his sons, the death of Cleopatra from the from the snake (which looks rather like a small dragon), and in
bite of an asp, the story of Moses and the Brazen Serpent, and the other she is lost to Orpheus as he turns to look at her on
the serpent biting his own tail. their journey from the underworld. The allegorical mind of
many sixteenth-century artists no doubt saw in this narrative a
symbol for the precariousness of life.
Serpent Biting Its Tail
More than a century later Peter Paul Rubens designed The
The serpent its own tail is considered a symbol of eterni-
biting Death of Eurydice for the Torre de la Parada hunting lodge of
ty or perfection and has many manifestations. Known to the Philip IV of Spain, a painting actually executed by Erasmus
gnostics as the ouroborus, the symbol was thought to display Quellinus in 163 6-1 63 8. Rubens invented a completely new
the essential ambivalence of the snake: at the same time active scene in which Eurydice, bitten by a snake visible in the left
and passive, constructive and destructive. foreground, dies in the arms of Orpheus.
The snake in one form or another was widely adopted by Continuing interest in this theme is revealed by a later sev-
the humanist Renaissance emblematists and their successors. enteenth-century painting by Richard van Orley, Eurydice
For example, Andrea Alciati used the coiled serpent wrapped Bitten by a Serpent in the Grass (1694) in the Museum Fodor in

about a triton to signify immortality through literary work. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, and by Arthur B. Davies's paint-
Otto van Veen signified amor aeternus (eternal love) by an ing Viper-Stricken Eurydice (1916) in the Hirshhorn Museum
image of a cupid seated within the ouroborus, the coiled snake and Sculpture Garden in Washington, D.C. All of these images
biting its own tail. concentrate on the pathos and drama of the narrative.
After reading the Greek grammarian Horapollo's treatise
Hieroglyphics (fourth or fifth century a.d.), the Renaissance
Death of Laocoon
humanists developed a notion that they were following the
Egyptians in symbolizing eternity or the universe by means of In Greek mythology, Laocoon, a priest of Troy, is killed along
the snake biting its tail or coiled in a circle. The snake biting its with his sons by two huge sea serpents as a consequence of hav-
own was more often represented in northern European art
tail ing warned the Trojans against the wooden horse. In the well-
than Italian and as the symbol of eternity appeared in
in known Hellenistic Laocoon Group sculpture (first century
emblem books, impressions, and was carved on tombstones. a.d.), the Trojan priest and his sons at first appear to be dying
The humanists also thought of Asclepius's snakes as salutary because they are crushed in the coils of the great serpents. Inn
animals and the coiled snake as a circle of perfection. They took a closer investigation reveals that the snakes are also biting
from the Greeks the notion of the snake curled in a circle as a their According to Virgil's version of the myth,
victims.
companion of Cronus, the Titan who ruled the universe before Laocoon had offended the goddess Athena, so the snakes were
he was dethroned by his son Zeus. In Roman times, Cronus sent as a punishment. The snakes, once their destructive work
became Saturn and was associated with Time. Martianus was done, slithered away to her temple and hid beneath her
Capella (fourth-fifth century a.d.) refers to the snake that bites shield. The tale formed part of the repertory of myth and leg-
its tail as an attribute of Time. In an engraving by Jean Sadeler, end from which the Romans drew to decorate the walls of their
S I 4 serpent's bite

Examples of Pompeian wall paintings of The Death of

villas. depicted a flamboyant assemblage of people gathered around
Laocoon can be found in Italy in the Museo Nazionale in the queen moments before her act of self-destruction.
Naples and in Pompeii itself, in the Casa de Menandro. Seemingly insouciant, she holds a small dog in her lap and
Art historian Leopold David Ettlinger proposes that as soon calmly regards the snake around her arm in a painting that
as the statue of Laocoon and his sons was discovered in Rome combines a Giorgionesque treatment of landscape with echoes
in i 506, it served as a moral as well as physical exemplum of Michelangelo's heroic figure style.
doloris (exemplar of pain). The pathos of the scene seems to have appealed strongly to
the Baroque temperament, and nineteenth-century realists and
The creation of the image was one of those inspired acts
orientalists also responded to the theme. Egypt and the East
by which Greek artists gave to the world a psychologi-
had great appeal to the French in the wake of Napoleonic for-
formula
cally valid which assumed ever new signifi-
. . .

ays to that country and the building of, the Suez Canal. Jean-
cance in changing contexts because the agony of body
Andre Rixens's La Mort de Cleopatre (1874), now > n tne
and soul was here expressed in such a manner that the
Musee des Augustins in Toulouse, France, attempts to achieve
"topos" could simply be quoted in order to be under-
authentic detail in costume and furniture while including the
stood immediately. (Ettlinger, p. 123)
conventional glossary of references to the East, such as the
Titian, however, seems not to have been so impressed with the leopard skin on the floor.
sculpture. Caricature of the Laocoon (mid-sixteenth century),
a print by Niccolo Boldrini after a Titian drawing, parodies the
famous statue by substituting apes for the priest and his sons.
Biblical Themes
Perhaps Titian meant not so much to mock the sculpture as to The snake appears fairly often in Christian imagery, as when
indict the contemporary Florentine and Roman artists who the serpent tempts Eve in Paradise or when the Christ Child
overused it. Certainly there were innumerable copies made of treads on a snake or cuts off its head with the cross. In each
it, such as one by Baccio Bandinelli (1 52.0-1 5 25), now in the
instance the reptile is associated with evil or sin but does not
Uffizi Gallery in Florence, Italy, and a bronze cast made for
bite. A somewhat enigmatic exception is the painting Eve, the
Francis I, now in the Louvre in Paris. Art historian Horst W.
Serpent, and Death 1512) by Hans Baldung Grien, now
(circa
Janson proposes a more likely interpretation, that the drawing National Gallery of Canada in Ottawa, Ontario.
in the
may have been a criticism of those who defended Galen, the Following the tradition of the Dance of Death, Death claims
second-century Greek physician, in the wake of an accusation
Eve by laying a hand on her arm, reminding the viewer of the
by Andreas Vesalius, the sixteenth-century Flemish anatomist,
unpredictability and transitoriness of life. The presence of the
that Galen had dissected apes, not humans. The Galenists
snake corresponds with the conventional disguise of the devil
defensively suggested that people had changed since classical
but with an unexpected twist: the serpent is actually biting
times. Boldrini's print can be read as a rebuttal: this is what
Death. Art historian Robert A. Koch suggests at least two pos-
classical bodies of antiquity would have had to look like in
sible interpretations. Death may represent Adam, and the snake
order to conform to the anatomical specifications of Galen
bite may be understood as an effort to restrain Death and pro-
(Janson, pp. 355-364).
tect Eve. Or the scene may be a recondite portrayal of the ori-
Counter-Reformation theologians suggested the Laocoon
gin of Death itself (Koch, p. 29).
Croup as a model for those making images of the suffering of
Another biblical story that involves a snake, but one that
Jesus Christ, the saints, and martyrs. El Greco painted the
found little echo in the visual arts, was that of St. Paul on Malta
death of the priest and his sons in Laocoon (1608-1614), a
(Acts 28:3-6). After being shipwrecked, Paul and his compan-
painting now in the National Gallery of Art in Washington,
ions attempt to light a fire; Paul gathers a bundle of sticks in
D.C. The open mouth of the snake viciously attacking Laocoon
in El Greco's painting adds to the horror of the struggle and
which a snake is hidden. "There came a viper out of the heat,
may be a Christian allegory of the destructive power of evil as
and fastened on his hand. And he shook off the beast into
. . .

personified by the serpents. the fire, and felt no harm." Paul Bitten by a Viper when
It also is possible that the oval
shape of the snake on the left alludes to the humanist notion, Throwing Wood on the Fire (mid-eighteenth century) by
derived from Alciati, of the circle as a sign of immortality. Giovanni Paolo Pannini is now in the Apsley House Collection
of the Duke of Wellington in London.

Death of Cleopatra
Moses and the Brazen Serpent
Artists and found inspiration in the death by
their patrons
snakebite of yet another person, Cleopatra, queen of Egypt and By far the most widely occurring depiction of the serpent is to

mistress of Julius Caesar and Marc Antony. History and legend be found in representations of the Old Testament narrative of
mingle in the life of Cleopatra, who is said to have committed Moses and the Brazen Serpent (Numbers 21:4-9). The story
suicide by holding a deadly asp to her breast. The dramatic and concerns one of the tribulations visited by God upon the
pathetic possibilities of the narrative attracted the attention of Israelites as they wandered in the desert following the
artistsfrom the seventeenth to the nineteenth century. Guido Exodus. The Israelites railed against Moses and God who, as
Reni painted the subject at least four times between 1637 and a punishment and a test of their faith, "sent fiery serpents
1642 and at one point substituted a dagger for the tiny asp, among the people, and they bit the people; and much people
thereby using the same composition he used to portray the sui- of Israel died." The Israelites recognized their sin in doubting
cide of Lucretia, the legendary wife of Lucius Tarquinius God's plan and begged Moses to pray to the Lord to deliver
Collatinus. In The Death of Cleopatra (1653) Jacob Jordaens them.
 serpent's bite 8 I
5

And the Lord said unto Moses, Make thee a fiery ser- Between 1540 and 1545, Agnolo Bronzino decorated the
pent, and set it upon a pole: and it shall come to pass, chapel of Eleonora di Toledo in the Palazzo Vecchio in
that every one that is bitten, when he looketh upon it, Florence. Among the scenes was that of Moses and the Brazen
shall live. And Moses made a serpent of brass, and put it Serpent, which art historian Janet Cox-Rearick suggests may-
upon a pole,and it came to pass, that if a serpent had bit- have added a political level of meaning to the typological doc-
ten any man, when he beheld the serpent of brass, he trinal program. The Israelites are equated with the Florentines,

lived. (Numbers 2.1: 8-9) who will be saved by Duke Cosimo I Medici, a new Moses
divinely inspired. The elaborate allegory may also be interpret-
Beginning in about the twelfth century this Old Testament
ed as a warning to the Florentines against dissent. Finally, a ser-
subject was used pictorially as a typological reference to Christ
pent is again portrayed curling back on its tail, signifying in this
on the cross, who had himself declared, "And as Moses lifted
instance the eternity of Medici rule (Cox-Rearick, 1993, pp.
up the serpent in the wilderness, even so must the Son of man
250-259).
be lifted up: That whosoever believeth in him should not per-
There is at least one image of a death-dealing snake that
ish, but have eternal life" (John 3:14-15). Examples of this
has never been satisfactorily explicated. Nicolas Poussin's
typological motif are to be found in versions of the Biblia
Landscape with a Man Killed by a Snake (1648) in the
Pauperum woodcut (circa 1460), in which the image of the
National Gallery in London depicts a large serpent, a dead
Brazen Serpent flanks the Crucifixion, with the sacrifice of
man, and two horrified onlookers. Whether it is a mythologi-
Abraham on the other side. The Brazen Serpent also begins to
cal or allegorical scene, has an obscure devotional purpose, or
appear on the side panels or shutters of Crucifixion altarpieces
illustrates contemporary event is not clear. This kind of
a
sometime before the As a prefiguration of the
fifteenth century.
ambivalence unusual for an artist who usually strove for clar-
is
Crucifixion, it underscores the theme of deliverance through
ity of meaning and form, so we may hope that eventually its
faith in God's chosen image; it focuses on the sacrifice of
meaning will be elucidated. It does, however, suggest the poly-
Christ, who promises salvation to believers.
valent nature of the biting snake motif.
Iconographer Louis Reau suggests that the double enten-
dre —the serpent of the Fall becomes the serpent of redemp-
tion —contributed to the long popularity of the subject. See also Death; Love and Death
Although its use in a typological sense never disappeared, the
Brazen Serpent enjoyed a resurgence of popularity in the six-

teenth century and in some instances took on new meaning. Selected Works of Art
Both sides of the Reformation controversy interpreted the Death of Enrydice
theme according to their own preferences. By the mid-sixteenth Titian, Orpheus and Enrydice, painting, circa 15 12, Bologna,
century it was often seen in northern Europe as an independent Italy, Accademia Carrara
scene, as in Maerten van Heemskerck's painting The Brazen Quellinus, Erasmus (executed from Peter Paul Rubens's
Serpent (1549). This particular work seems to retain the Brazen designs), The Death of Enrydice, painting for Torre de la
Serpent's traditional typological meaning, although it is also Parada, 1636-1638, Madrid, Spain, Prado
influenced by Michelangelo's treatment of the same topic Orley, Richard van, Enrydice Bitten by a Serpent in the Grass,
(15 11) on the northwest spandrel of the Sistine Chapel, in that painting, 1694, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Museum
it is also an excuse for the virtuoso display of muscular figures. Fodor
The Brazen Serpent was used by Martin Luther as a Scheffer, Ary, Death of Enrydice, oil on canvas, 18 14, Blois,
metaphor for justification by faith alone. Catholics, on the France, Chateau de Blois, Musee des Beaux-Arts
other hand, cited the Brazen Serpent as proof of the legitimacy Roubaud, Francois-Felix, Death of Enrydice, marble sculpture,
of image making, and Pope Leo X compared the Lutherans to 1859-1861, Aix-en-Provence, France, Musee Granet
fiery serpents destroying the faithful with poisonous doctrines. Corot, Jean-Baptiste-Camille, Enrydice Wounded, painting,
Luther made a clear distinction between symbolic revelation circa 1 868-1 870, Minneapolis, Minnesota, Minneapolis
and what to him was idolatry. By choosing an image of the Institute of Arts
same object that afflicted the Israelites, God explicitly shows Davies, Arthur B., Viper-Stricken Enrydice, painting, 1916,
that faith in his Word will heal. There is no possibility that the Washington, D.C., Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
object itself will be interpreted as the source of healing power, Picasso, Pablo, Enrydice, Stung in the Heel by a Serpent, Dies
since it is the exact image of the cause of harm. in the Arms of the Naiads, etching, 1930, illustration for
Later Flemish artists followed the traditional treatment of Ovid's Metamorphoses, 193
the subject but also seemed to mirror the Last Judgment by
dividing the scene into the saved on one side and the damned Death of Laocoon
on the other, as in a print by Michiel Coxie
1533-1534). (circa Laocoon Group, Roman sculpture after Agesandros,
Rubens (circa 1609-1610) and Anthony Van Dyck (circa 1620) Athenodorus, and Polydorus of Rhodes, first century A.D.,
used this two-part composition, but according to art historian Vatican, Vatican Museums
Egbert Haverkamp-Begemann, Rubens emphasized the suffer- Bandinelli, Baccio, Copy of the Laocoon Group, sculpture,
ing of those who questioned God's plan, while Van Dyck seems 520-1 525, Florence, Italy, Uffizi Gallery
1

to emphasize trust in the serpent, and hence trust in God Boldrini, Niccolo (after Titian), Caricature of the Laocoon,
(Haverkamp-Begemann, pp. 296-2.97). Both, however, con- woodcut, mid-sixteenth century
form to the dictates of the Council of Trent to strive for narra- El Greco, Laocoon, painting, 1608-1614, Washington, D.C..
tive clarity in the scene. National Gallerv of Art
8i6 M Kl'l NT S I1ITI

Death of
(
'leopatra Heemskerck, Maerten van, The Brazen Serpent, engraving,
Scorel, fan van, Death of Cleopatra, painting, 1522, circa 540 1

Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Rijksmuseum Heemskerck, Maerten van, The Brazen Serpent, painting, 1 549,
Mignon, Jean, ( 'leopatra Bitten by an Asp, etching, circa Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University, Art Museum
C543" I 545 Heemskerck, Maerten van, The Brazen Serpent, painting,
Fontana, Lavinia, Cleopatra, painting, circa 1593, Cincinnati, 1551, Haarlem, The Netherlands, Frans Hans Museum
Ohio, Cincinnati Art Museum Cock, Hieronymus (after Frans Floris), The Brazen Serpent,
Mignard, Pierre, Death of Cleopatra, painting, 1
63 5 engraving, 1555
England, private collection Rubens, Peter Paul, The Brazen Spirit, painting, circa

Reni, Guido, Cleopatra, painting, [637, Potsdam, Germany, 1 609-1 6 10, London, Courtauld Institute Galleries, The
Sanssouci Bildergalerie Princes Gate Collection
Reni, Guido, Cleopatra, painting, 1638-1639, Florence, Italy, Van Dyck, Anthony, The Brazen Serpent, painting, circa
Pala//o Pitti 1620, Madrid, Prado
Reni, Guido, Cleopatra, 163 9-1 640, London, collection of West, Benjamin, Moses Showing the Brazen Serpent to the
Denis Mahon Israelites, oil on canvas, 1789, Greenville, South Carolina,
Rubens, Peter Paul, Death of Cleopatra, painting, circa 1640, Bob Jones University
Potsdam, Germany, Sanssouci Bildergalerie John, Augustus, Moses and the Brazen Serpent, painting, 1898,
Reni, Guido, Cleopatra, painting, 1 640-1 642, Rome, Galleria London, Slade School of Fine Arts, University College
Capitolina
Jordaens, Jacob, The Death of Cleopatra, painting, 1653, Other Subjects with Snake Bites
Germany, Staatliche Gemaldegalerie
Kassel, Baldung Grien, Hans, Eve, the Serpent, and Death, painting,
Lairesse, Gerard de, Death of Cleopatra, painting, 1686, circa 15 12, Ottawa, Ontario, National Gallery of Canada
Toronto, Ontario, Art Gallery of Ontario Poussin, Nicolas, Landscape with a Man Killed by a Snake,
Pittoni, Francesco, Cleopatra, painting, circa 1714, Udine, painting, 1648, London, National Gallery
Italy, Collection Walter Mio
Mark Anthony and Cleopatra, Staffordshire figurines, colored
earthenware, late eighteenth-early nineteenth century, Further Reading
Boston, Museum of Fine Arts
Lassalle-Bordes, Gustave, Death of Cleopatra, painting, 1845,
Alpers, Sveltana, The Decoration of the Torre de la Parada,

Autun, France, Musee Rolin Brussels, Belgium: Arcade Press, 1971

Rixens, Jean- Andre, La Mort de Cleopatre, painting, 1874, Buendia-Ismael, Jose Rogelio, "Humanismo y simbologia en
Toulouse, France, Musee des Augustins El Greco: el tema de la serpiente," Studies in the History of
Art 13 (1983)
St. Paul Cox-Rearick, Janet, Bronzino's Chapel of Eleonora in the Palazzo
Goltzius, Hendrik (after Stradanus), St. Paul Shipwrecked Vecchio, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993
J.
on Malta Bitten by a Viper, engraving by P. Galle, 1582, , "Bronzino's Crossing of the Red Sea and Moses
no. 33 of a set of 36 Appointing Joshua: Prolegomena to the Chapel of
Valckenborch, Frederick van, St. Paul Is Bitten by a Viper, Eleonora di Toledo," The Art Bulletin 69 (March 1987)

painting, circa 1600, Prague, Czech Republic, Hrad, Egli,Hans, Das Schlangensymbol: Geschichte, Marchen,
Obrazarna Mythos, Olten, Switzerland: Walter- Verlag, 1982
Pannini, Giovanni Paolo, Paul Bitten by a Viper when Throwing Ehresmann, Donald, "The Brazen Serpent: A Reformation
Wood on the Fire, painting, mid-eighteenth century, London, Motif in the Works of Lucas Cranach the Elder and His
Duke of Wellington's Apsley House Collection Workshop," Marysas 13 (1966-1967)
West, Benjamin, Paul Shaking the Viper from His Hand
St. Ettlinger, Leopold David, "Exemplum Doloris: Reflections on

after the Shipwreck, oil on canvas, 1789, Greenwich, the Laocoon Group," in De Artibus Opuscula XL: Essays
England, Royal Naval College, Chapel of St. Peter and in Honor of Erwin Panofsky, edited by Millard Meiss,

St. Paul New York: New York University Press, 1961

Faries, Molly, "A Drawing of the Brazen Serpent," Revue
Moses and the Brazen Serpent Beige d'Archeologie et d'Histoire de I'Art 44 (1975)
Crucifixion Page, woodcut, in Biblia Pauperum, circa 1460 Harrison, Jefferson, "The Brazen Serpent by Maarten van
Michelangelo, The Brazen Serpent, fresco, 1511, Vatican, Heemskerck: Aspects of Its Style and Meaning," Record of
Sistine Chapel the Art Museum at Princeton University 49 (1990)
Cranach, Lucas, the Elder, Allegory of Law and Grace, Haverkamp-Begemann, Egbert, "Van Dyck and the Brazen
painting, 1529, Gotha, Germany, Staatliche Museum Serpent," Master Drawings 28 (Autumn 1990)
Coxie, Michiel, The Brazen Serpent, drawing, circa 153 3-1 5 34, Janson, Horst W., Apes and Ape Lore in the Middle Ages and
Swarthmore, Pennsylvania, Swarthmore College the Renaissance, London: Warburg Institute, 1952
Coxie, Michiel, The Brazen Serpent, engraving, circa Koch, Robert A., Hans Baldung Grien: Eve, the Serpent, and
I533-I534 Death, Ottawa, Ontario: National Gallery of Canada, 1974
( ranach, Lucas, the Elder, Workshop Allegory of Law and
of, Saunders, Eleanor,"A Commentary on Iconoclasm in Several
Grace, painting, 1
539, Prague, Czech Republic, Narodni, Print Series by Maarten van Heemskerck," Simiolus 10
Galeri (1978-1979)
 shepherds/shepherdesses
Sarah S. Gibson

The following forms are covered in the discussion of the theme Shepherds/Shepherdesses:

CLASSICAL PASTORAL

RELIGIOUS PASTORAL
SECULAR PASTORAL

s,-
8 i S sin nil RDS / sin rin kDi ssi s

Pair of Seated Musicians: Bagpiper, Lute Player, English soft-paste porcelain, Chelsea Porcelain
Manufactory, Derby Porcelain Works, circa 1765, Williamstown, Massachusetts, Sterling and Francine
Clark Art Institute. (Courtesy of the Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute)
 SHEPHERDS / SHEPHERDESSES 8 19

he ancient image of the shepherd originated with the pas- L'Aminta (1573) and in Giovanni Battista Guarini's 11 pastor
M. toral, nomadic life of early civilizations. The Judeo- fido (1590). These works would contribute to a sixteenth-cen-
Christian tradition incorporates the concept of the faithful tury revival and elaboration of the pastoral mode in both liter-
shepherd tending his flocks or presenting his animals for sacri- ature and the visual arts, forming the basis for many narrative
fice. In Greek and Roman classical poetry, shepherds and shep- paintings of events involving these bucolic personages.
herdesses are associated with a rustic world of innocence, Greek and Roman pastoral poetry, as exemplified by Idylls
inhabiting an idyllic place called Arcadia, in actuality a of Theocritus and Eclogues of Virgil, created a world inhabit-
province in the Peloponnesus, the peninsula forming the south- ed by herdsmen and herdswomen whose principal activities
ern section of the Greek mainland. Arcadia was older than the were caring for their animals, contemplating life, singing or
moon, according and its inhabitants were there before
to Ovid, playing musical instruments, and pursuing love and romance.
the Flood. Because in the Metamorphoses his Arcadians recall These activities were all to find numerous visual counterparts.
his description of the golden age —
an age of simplicity without Although the literary form of the pastoral seems to predom-
care, want, or fear when people lived in harmony in the inate in classical times, some of its elements are visually present
world — for later generations of writers and artists Arcadia in representations of Apollo, whose various functions included
would be viewed as a world sufficiently remote to be peopled the care of flocks and herds. In this capacity, he bore the epi-
by their imaginations. thet "Nomius" (of the pastures). Banished as a punishment for
Shepherds and shepherdesses were an integral part of pas- killing the Cyclopes who made Zeus's thunderbolts, he was
toral literature, which inspired innumerable visual representa- sent to tend the herds of Admetus. In a conflation of this story
tions. The pastoral mode long retained its popularity, although with a legend from the Homeric Hymn to Hermes, Hermes,
interpretation of the elements comprising it may have changed. messenger of the gods, who was still a child when this event
From antiquity on, pastoral literature was designed for an aris- took place, is shown stealing Admetus's cattle while Apollo is

tocratic taste; indeed, in seventeenth-century France, pastoral supposed to be guarding them. Scenes based on these legends
was the leading literary genre. In the Renaissance, idealized became especially popular in seventeenth-century European art
representations of the ancient shepherd merged with ideals of in the general enthusiasm for works based on classical pastoral
courtly love. The fact that the real life of a shepherd is a hard themes.
and lonely one was usually conveniently ignored. Nostalgia for Many Roman wall paintings depict sacred groves in which
what is presumed to be a golden past is the prevalent emotion. herdsmen and their flocks are scattered among rocks, trees, and
The shepherdess, too, had her beginning in pastoral litera- springs. It has been suggested that landscape views painted on
ture. She appeared as a true peasant figure on occasion; at other the walls of numerous villas emphasize the opposition between
times, she was not constrained to work but engaged in idealized natural simplicity and artifice, or between an idealized, harmo-
pursuits of the pastoral life. nious world and the actual one of conflict, insecurity, and ten-
In Eclogues (circa 42-37 B.C.), Virgil adapted a set of sion. Scenes of groves, with shepherds functioning as attributes
Greek bucolic tales involving shepherds, singing contests, of a specific place, evoke a sense of piety and serve as a
laments for lovers (usually lost), and similar themes couched reminder of the pleasure experienced in that place. A typical
in bantering dialogue. In this genre, he followed Theocritus of Roman landscape with goatherds in a sacred grove was found
Syracuse, who had developed these rustic myths into a branch on the north wall of Cubiculum 16 (circa 90 B.C. -a.d. i) in the
of Greek literature. Tradition later associated them not with Villa of Agrippa Postumus in Boscotrecase, Italy, and is now in
Syracuse, on the island of Sicily, but with Arcadia in mainland the Museo Archeologico Nazionale in Naples, Italy. Similar
Greece. The mythical founder of this branch of poetry was landscapes are described by contemporary writers in terms of
said to be the shepherd Daphnis, who was blinded by a their amoenitas (pleasantness), exemplifying Virgil's locus
nymph (or by Aphrodite, goddess of love) and spent the amoenus (pleasant place); this was to become a topos for later
remainder of his life composing sad songs about his fate. This generations.
Daphnis is not to be confused with a later one, the shepherd
in Longus's pastoral romance Daphnis and Chloe (second or
Religious Pastoral
third century a.d.).
Among the shepherds whose names persist
Virgilian The sheep or calf bearer carrying an animal for sacrifice is an
through were Lycidas, Thyrsis, and Corydon,
later centuries ancient type, dating back to well before the Christian era.
and among the shepherdesses were Phyllis and Amaryllis. For Among the best examples is the marble sculpture The Calf
example, Amaryllis reappears in Torquato Tasso's drama Bearer from the Acropolis in Athens, Greece (circa 570 B.C.).
8iO SIII.I'HI KDS / SHI PHI K1)I SSI S

The ancients also thought of the animal bearer in the role of the the Nativity, which form part of the Christmas Gospel. The
shepherd tending flocks as a general symbol of faithfulness and shepherds pictured in the full-page Annunciation illumination
caring. from the Ottonian Gospel Lectionary of Henry II 1002-1024) (

Christians were quick to adopt those pagan art forms that accept the news with wonder and a certain astonishment;
could easily be related to spiritual texts. The shepherd bearing humility and simplicity are the virtues emphasized. Frequently
a sheep was an especially popular form with the early combined with the Nativity image, by the Renaissance the
Christians with its reference to Jesus Christ as a Good Annunciation had become relegated to the background, as in
Shepherd; it is found more than roo times in the catacombs Stefan Lochner's Nativity (circa 1440-144 5), now in Munich,
outside Rome, as, for example, in the wall painting dated to the Germany, or Titian's The Holy Family and a Shepherd (circa
mid-third century in the Catacomb of Domitilla. The appro- 1 5 10) in the National Gallery in London. Shepherds were

priate biblical text (Luke 15:4) recounts the parable of the portrayed as simple, rough men of the people; shepherdesses
shepherd who searches for his lost sheep. The image also seem not to enter the picture at all until the later fifteenth
encapsulates the notion of sacrifice, as in the "good shepherd century.
giveth his life for the sheep" (John 10:1 1 ). Christ is referred to In Italy, post-thirteenth-century depictions of shepherds at
as a second David with power to preserve his sheep from dan- the Nativity were influenced by Franciscan piety with its
ger and to uphold them even in death: "And I will set up one emphasis on poverty and humility, as seen in the plain men por-
shepherd over them, and he shall feed them, even my servant trayed in a painting attributed to Giorgione, The Adoration of
David; he shall feed them, and he shall be their shepherd" the Shepherds (circa 1505-15 10), in the National Gallery of
(Ezekiel 34:23); or "He shall feed his flock like a shepherd: he Art in Washington, D.C. Shepherds are shown in attitudes of
shall gather the lambs with his arm" (Isaiah 40:11). prayer or adoration, and their offerings are simple ones —
The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, Italy, con- flute, a lamb, and flowers —and their forms are monumental
tains a fifth-century mosaic showing a youthful Apollo-like and generalized.
Christ with six sheep in a landscape of rocks and bushes, prob- A different type of shepherd came to be favored in Flanders,
ably a reference to the pastures of the blessed to which the flock Belgium, and the northern Netherlands; he is more rustic and
has been safely led. The idyllic pastures may hark back to tattered — perhaps more realistic but certainly more individual-
Virgil, but they also recall the Garden of Eden destined to be ized. Hugo van der Goes's shepherds in the Portinari Altarpiece
restored when the time of salvation comes. Another example in (central panel) (circa 1476-1478), now in the Uffizi Gallery in
Ravenna is San Apollinare in
found in Classe, where Christ the Florence, Italy, are the forerunners of rustic, often boisterous
Shepherd is surrounded by 12 sheep, clearly representing the figures who crowd around the Christ Child.
apostles, who in turn stand for the general body of the faithful. By the sixteenth century, shepherds and shepherdesses were
The Gospel story of the Transfiguration is also depicted in San also joined on occasion by a host of undifferentiated common
Apollinare in the apse mosaic, dated to the early sixth century, men and women. Rural gifts of produce or fruits are offered to
in which three sheep represent Peter, James, and John. the Christ Child; the scene becomes increasingly secularized
The figure type of the Good Shepherd seems to have and genrelike. It has been suggested that this type of realistic
descended directly from the classical figure of Apollo and portrayal reflects current trends in Counter-Reformation art.
appears in various media, such as the sculpture Good Both Caravaggio and Jacopo Bassano are linked to the growth
Shepherd, dated to the third century, now in the Cleveland of interest in rustic settings of biblical subjects, but the influ-
Museum of Art in Ohio. The motif was a popular choice for ence of the latter is more prevalent. Rembrandt van Rijn's
decoration on gold-glass goblets and bowls, which were often Adoration of the Shepherds (1646) echoes the themes of humil-
given as wedding presents in the fifth century. It appears also ity and simplicity, but he imparts a transcendent quality to the

on engraved gems, sometimes united with the figure of Jonah. scene by bathing the Child in a flowing light, which serves to
David, the biblical ancestor and antetype of Christ, is some- emphasize the miraculous birth and the wonder of the behold-
times represented as a shepherd boy, as in the illumination from ers who are standing in crepuscular gloom.
Paris Psalter (circa 960), now in the Bibliotheque Nationale in At the same time, humanistic interest in Virgil's Georgics
Paris. In the scene David Composing the Psalms, he is shown prompted a revival of the calendar cycles of the seasons and
surrounded by his animals, seated in a sacred grove reminiscent months north of the Alps and around Venice, Italy. Bassano's
of Roman wall paintings. This image also has affinities with Sleeping Shepherd (circa 1568) in the Szepmuveszeti Muzeum
classical Orpheus figures in which the mythological Thracian in Budapest, Hungary, may represent the month of August.
minstrel tames the animals with song. Other Old Testament Shepherds' chores, if not those of shepherdesses, had always
personages, such as Moses or Jacob, are depicted in scenes been featured in such scenes, which depicted seasonal tasks
underscoring pastoral, nomadic lives. In a Biblia
their with varying degrees of verisimilitude.
Pauperum dating from about 1460 in the British Library in
London, Moses before the burning bush is shown in the guise
Secular Pastoral
of a shepherd encircled by woolly lambs and a shaggy dog. As
a prefiguration of the New Testament, the sheep can be linked Although often present in biblical scenes of the Annunciation
to Christ's sacrifice. and Nativity, shepherds and shepherdesses of a more secular
Other occasions for the portrayal of shepherds in a nature rarely appeared in the art of the Middle Ages. Major
Christian context are the Annunciation to the Shepherds and exceptions are those found in calendar scenes or cycles of the
 SHEPHERDS / SHEPHERDESSES 8zi

months or seasons presented in manuscript illuminations and Gerusalemme Liberata (1581), the scene depicts a peaceful
no way were these works intended for the people
tapestries. In interlude in the tale of adventurewhen Herminia (or Erminia),
who actually performed the tasks depicted, so they helped per- a pagan princess, having retired from the stress of court life, has
petuate the notion of an idyllic, bucolic life, similar to that gone to live with the shepherds. Whereas a pictorial tradition
described by the classical poets. A prime example is the calen- existed for shepherds, there seems to have been little precedent
dar scene Shearing Sheep found in the Hours of jean de for the type of wanton shepherdess that gained such populari-
Mauleon (1524), now in the Walters Art Gallery in Baltimore, ty in The Netherlands in the seventeenth century (Kettering, p.
Maryland. A young woman in rather fanciful attire is shearing 48). The attributes of these shepherdesses include straw hats,
a lamb held lightly on her lap as if it were a small dog; two sim- laced girdles, crooks, houlettes, and flowers. On occasion they
ilarly garbed young men look on, holding shepherd's houlettes offer apples, plums, or pomegranates, all fruits with erotic con-
(staves with shovel-shaped terminals). One leans in a classical- notations. Grapes, a fruit with bacchic associations, occasion-
ly inspired contraposto pose. Clearly, their chore is not onerous ally are proffered. Their flowers can evoke the sense of smell or
and is quite removed from reality. Their pictorial descendants suggest a personification of Spring or of the goddess Flora. The
will be pairs of aristocraticyoung lovers frolicking in well-man- linking of sexuality with flowers might suggest a courtesan. All
icured pastoral landscapes. The courtly society of Europe in all, these figures were capable of suggesting multiple mean-
embraced the shepherd and shepherdess as exemplifying the ings to their viewers. Their decorative aspects as well as their
vita contemplativa (life of tranquillity and ease), as personify- relation to literary tradition apparently appealed to a wide
ing freedom from hardship and worry. audience of aristocrats and urban patricians.
The craze for pastoral literature swept sixteenth-century In contrast, Rembrandt's etchings Flute Player (1642) and
European princely courts and lasted well into the seventeenth SleepingHerdsman (1644) are decidedly earthy. Presenting
century. Giorgione's Fete Champetre (also known as the what appears to be a more realistic view of country life, they
Concert Champetre) (circa 1505-15 10) in the Louvre in Paris are a deliberate departure from the conventions of Dutch pas-
is one of the earliest pastoral paintings. Although its meaning toral painting. Although the scenes are probably still imaginary,
remains enigmatic despite numerous attempts at explication, a note of crudeness helps create the illusion that real human
the shepherds appearing in the right middle ground remind the relationships are being portrayed.
viewer of a lost world of natural innocence as related by the The pastoral portrait in which the sitters are depicted as
poets. In its wake followed a stream of pastoral pictures: clas- idealized shepherds and shepherdesses, or as characters from
sical myths or legends set in remote, idealized landscapes; actu- contemporary achieved widespread popularity
literature,
al illustrations of contemporary plays, poems, and romances; throughout Europe. The vogue was especially strong in
portraits of individuals in shepherd's attire; and, especially in England, where Gerrit van Honthorst is recorded as having
The Netherlands, music-making shepherds and wanton shep- painted King Charles I and Queen Henrietta Maria in shep-
herdesses. herds' costumes in 1628. The paintings are now lost. Quick to
These highly secularized Dutch shepherds and their consorts imitate the sovereign, Philip, Lord Wharton, and Lord George
appear first in the seventeenth century in Utrecht. Ultimately, Stuart commissioned portraits from Anthony Van Dyck in
they took many guises. Art historian Alison M. Kettering has 1632 and 1638, respectively, now in the National Gallery of
divided them into several useful categories: the single half- Art in Washington, D.C., the Andrew W. Mellon Collection,
length, nonnarrative multifigured scenes, narrative subjects and the National Portrait Gallery in London. Arrayed in silk
drawn from poems or dramatic literature, and portraits and velvet garments, they are set against an idyllic landscape;
(Kettering, passim). Paulus Moreelse specialized in half-length only the relative simplicity of the garments and the houlettes
compositions in which the shepherd is presented as a smiling they hold identify them as kin to more rustic types.
and gracious lover; Abraham Bloemaert portrays a contempla- There are a number of charming portraits of children from
tive, withdrawn youth. Dirck van Baburen and Gerrit van the same period, such as Dirck Santvoort's Portrait of Clara
Honthorst's shepherds are linked to the merry company or tav- Alewijn as a Shepherdess and Portrait of Martinus Alewijn in
ern scene derived from Caravaggio. Pastoral Dress (both 1644) in the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam,
In addition, there were numerous narrative representations The Netherlands. Each child is richly attired, holds an houlette,
of scenes from the pastoral literature, such as Pieter Cornelisz. and is accompanied by lambs.
Hooft's Granida (161 5) and Giovanni Battista Guarini's II pas- Those commissioning these portraits, when not of the aris-
tor fido (1590). Certain attributes identify the shepherds and tocracy or royalty, were certainly of the upper classes; only the
shepherdesses, as often they are not accompanied by their wealthy could afford rural retirement and the luxury of leisure-
sheep or goats. They may carry a simple musical instrument, ly simplicity. By assimilating the pictorial attributes of their

such as a bagpipe or a recorder, or the tools of their trade: social superiors, the rising middle class associated themselves
crooks or houlettes. They may wear a mantle of fur draped with a mode of life expressing status and rank.
over a bare shoulder or a straw hat decorated with flowers. Crispijn van de Passe's book of engraved portraits titled Les
Narrative paintings of scenes from contemporary dramas Vrais pourtraits de quelques unes des plus grandes dames de la

or poems were as popular in other countries as in The Chrestiente, deguisees en hergeres (1640, The True Portraits of
Netherlands. A typical example is Claude Lorrain's Herminia Some of the Greatest Ladies of Christendom Dressed up as
and the Shepherds (circa 1666) in the Holkham Hall Collection Shepherdesses) is perhaps revelatory of the patronage for the
of the duke of Leicester in England. Taken from Tasso's La "bergerie" type of portrait. It portrays queens, princesses, and
822 sin PHI RDS / SHEPHERD! SSI S

other members ol the nobility (as well as women from the hut paucity of the belongings. Although it was probably not
chanl "i professional milieu) all dressed in the costumes and 1 andseer's primary intention, the picture has affinities with
with the attributes of shepherdesses. In contemplating these other Victorian depictions of rural poverty.
images, middle-class ladies were thus able to associate them- |can I t.ukois Millet's The Shepherdess: Plains of Barbizon
selves vicariously with their social superiors. (circa 1862) in the Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute in

In contrast, the perfection of Arcadia came to have a Williamstown, Massachusetts, strikes a different note. It is

poignant aspect in which its basic unreality is recognized. Ibis typical of many images that underline the dignity of humble
attitude is in Arcadia ego" (Even
exemplified by the phrase "It labor but do not place undue stress on any of its unpleasant
m Arcadia I |Death| am
which forms the subject of
there), aspects. In this it remains a rural fiction, but the subject of

Nicolas Poussin's painting of the same name. Painted around Millet's work is a monumental, if humble, figure. Painted with

i 655, it is now in the Louvre. This picture has nothing in com- careful attention to detail, away from
she is light-years
mon with the love scenes and frivolities of the courtly, patrician Honthorst and Boucher's carefree protagonists. Other nine-
pastoral tradition. The shepherds focus on the grave, and the teenth-century painters opted for descriptive scenes in which
mood is tranquil but serious. It expresses an elegiac mood, car- the shepherd, shepherdess, and their flocks seem to be appur-
rying with it the notion of a lost Arcadia and the inevitable end tenances to the landscape, as in Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps's
of life. A Shepherd with His Flock on Barren Heath in a Storm 843) ( 1

The courtly and patrician fascination with the pastoral was in the Amsterdam Historische Museum or Jozef Israels's The
end of the eighteenth century. Dutch shepherds
to last until the Shepherd (Their Daily Bread) (1 864) in the Toledo Museum of
and shepherdesses anticipate the erotic hedonism of Francois Art in Ohio.
Boucher. The scent of the barnyard comes nowhere near a The shepherd is used to convey a rather different message
painting such as he Bonheur an Village (1735-1737) in the in William Holman Hunt's The Hireling Shepherd (1852) in

Bayerisches Landesbank, on loan to the Alte Pinakothek in the Tate Gallery in London. Hunt wanted his painting to serve
Munich, Germany. In like manner, Boucher's many "bergerie" as a moral critique, with the shepherd seen as a faithless priest
paintings, such as those in the Wallace Collection in London and his flock as the laity. He was attacking the English clergy
(e.g., Sunmicr Pastoral and Autumn Pastoral), come from a for not providing spiritual guidance to their congregations.
dream world or from a stage scene. However, they may illus- Not all contemporary viewers understood this somewhat
trate the statement by the French statesman Talleyrand that no arcane reading; they criticized the figures as being too rustic
one knew the sweetness of life (douceur de vie) who had not and objected to their idleness. Hunt seemed to be deliberately
lived under the ancien regime. ignoring the conventions of the rustic genre. The idleness of
Before the debacle of the French Revolution, Marie the shepherd conflicted with the contemporary preference for
Antoinette and her ladies-in-waiting seemed to take the shep- landscape genre scenes in which laborers industriously tilled
herdess role to the ultimate as they played at being milkmaids the land and cared for the animals. This popular mode had
in the Petit Hameau at Versailles, France. In her search for the roots in the eighteenth-century revival of interest in Virgil's
simple Marie Antoinette had her portrait painted "in rus-
life, Georgics (the model for rural industry) rather than his
tic costume" by Marie-Louise-Elisabeth Vigee-Lebrun in 1783. Eclogues. Rural poverty and social conflict formed no part of
She sports a straw hat with plumes and a gossamer dress this vision.
adorned with flowers and ribbons in what seems a definite For the English urban classes, rural England served as an
throwback to the ladies at play in medieval tapestries. The tra- ideal of retreat from the stresses of city life. Furthermore,
dition of the "bergerie" was continued in innumerable porce- images of the countryside were now accessible to all classes of
lain figurines, such as one derived from Boucher's Autumn the urban public, not just the rich. Viewers were thus reassured
Pastoral in Vincennes porcelain (circa 1752) in the Musee that all was well in spite of agrarian unrest, in a way very rem-
National de Ceramique in Sevres, France. Perhaps the ulti-
la iniscent of the Roman audience for depictions of the locus
mate debasement of the genre is the Hummel figure. amoenus almost two millennia before.
The revolutions of the late eighteenth and early nine- In the Americanized Arcadia, similar themes were repre-
teenth centuries, combined with industrialization and sented. In synthetic but believable landscapes, innumerable
agrarian change, radically altered visual interpretations of mid-nineteenth-century painters suggest that the pastoral state
shepherds and shepherdesses. The romantic movement (with or without sheep) is the happiest one. For example,
endowed the humblest lives with nobility; the result is often Thomas Cole makes The Pastoral
this explicit in his painting
the appearance of rustic reality, but a reality that is nonethe- State from his series The Course of Empire (1833-1836) in the
less idealized. The eroticized frivolity or artificial simplicity Munson-Williams Proctor Institute in Utica, New York.
of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries seemed to Eventually, American pictures, while retaining the idyllic mood,
belong increasingly to an irrelevant past. In spite of its tended to have more cows than sheep. Perhaps this, too, was a
anthropomorphism and sentimentality, a picture such as rejection of the notion of idleness, in that the sheep or goat
Edwin Landseer's The Old Shepherd's Chief Mourner herdsman seems to have less pressing business than the cattle-
I 837) in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London serves
1
man does.
to bring the Arcadian shepherd down to Earth. Any notion In spite of the decline in popularity of images of shepherds
that Scottish sheepherders are like characters from pastoral and shepherdesses except as minor figures for landscapes, they
poetry is negated by the barrenness of the cottage and the were not altogether abandoned. Paul Gauguin's Breton
 SHEPHERDS / SHEPHERDESSES 823

Shepherdess with Fluck (1886) in the Laing Art Gallery in Bassano, Jacopo, Annunciation to the Shepherds, painting,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England, seems to hark back once more circa 155 5-1 560, Washington, D.C., National Gallery of
to the yearning for bucolic simplicity. Art, Samuel H. Kress Collection
A testimony to the persistence of the shepherd as a theme Wtewael, Joachim Anthonisz., Visit and Adoration of the
is woodcuts Aristide Maillol used to illustrate the
the set of Shepherds, painting, 1598, Utrecht, The Netherlands,
old Daphnis and Chloe. In the illustration of
story of Centraal Museum
—
Daphnis and Chloe (as goatherds the equation of goats and Rembrandt van Rijn, Adoration of the Shepherds, painting,
sheep is a venerable tradition in the pastoral), we are once 1646, Munich, Germany, Alte Pinakothek
again in the Arcadia of docile animals and innocent men and
women. The charm of the pastoral with its nostalgia for the Secular Pastoral
golden age is projected once again by means of the shepherd Giorgione, Fete Champetre (Concert Champetre), painting,
and shepherdess. circa 1505-15 10, Paris, Louvre
Shearing Sheep, manuscript illumination, Hours of Jean de
Mauleon, 1524, Baltimore, Maryland, Walters Art Gallery
See also Harvesting; Hunting/Hunter/Huntress; Peasantry Bordone, Paris, Daphnis and Chloe, painting, 1545-1550,
London, National Gallery
Titian, Nymph and Shepherd, painting, circa 1 570-1 575,
Vienna, Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum
Selected Works of Art
Veronese, Paolo, Shepherd and Sleeping Nymph, painting,
Classical Pastoral 1588, Baron von Hirsch Collection
The Calf-Bearer, marble sculpture, Attic, circa 570 B.C., Guercino, cycle of 12 paintings illustrating Giovanni Battista
Athens, Greece, Acropolis Museum Guarini's II pastor fido, circa 1615-1620, Cento, Italy,

Old Man Carrying a Lamb, marble sculpture, Hellenistic, Villa Giovannina

Rome, Palazzo di Conservatori Rubens, Peter Paul, A Shepherd and His Flock in a Woody
Sacred Grove, wall painting, originally from Villa of Agrippa Landscape, painting, circa 161 5-1622, London, National
Postumus, Boscotrecase, Italy, Cubiculum 16, circa 90 Gallery
b.c.-a.d. 1, now in Naples, Italy, Museo Archeologico Boece a Belswert (after Abraham Bloemaert), The Adoration
Nazionale of the Shepherds, engraving, 161
Honthorst, Gerrit van, Shepherdess, painting, 1622, Utrecht,
Religious Pastoral The Netherlands, Centraal Museum
Christ as the Good Shepherd, wall painting, mid-third Baburen, Dirck van, Granida and Dafilo, painting, circa
century, Rome, Catacomb of Domitilla 1623, Brussels, Belgium, Koninklijke Musea voor Schone
Christ as the Good
Shepherd, mosaic, 425-450, Ravenna, Kunsten
Italy, Mausoleum of Galla Placidia Domenichino, Landscape with Erminia and the Shepherds,
Apse Mosaics, 549, Ravenna, Italy, San Apollinare in Classe painting, circa 1623-1625, Paris, Louvre
David Composing the Psalms, manuscript illumination, Paris Bloemaert, Abraham, Shepherdess Reading a Poem, painting,
Psalter, circa 960, Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale circa 1628, Toledo, Ohio, Toledo Museum of Art
Annunciation to the Shepherds, manuscript illumination, Van Dyck, Anthony, Amarillis Crowning Mirtillo, painting,
Ottoman Gospel Lectionary of Henry II, 1002-1014, circa 1 628-1 629, Pommersfelden, Germany, Schonborn
Munich, Germany, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek Collection
Lochner, Stefan, Nativity, painting, circa 1440-1445, Munich, Van Dyck, Anthony, Philip, Lord Wharton, 1632,
Germany, Alte Pinakothek Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art, Andrew
Goes, Hugo van der. Nativity, central panel, Portinari W Mellon Collection
Altarpiece, painting, circa 1476-1478, Florence, Italy, Rubens, Peter Paul, Shepherds and Shepherdesses in a
Uffizi Gallery Rainbow Landscape, painting, circa 1635, Paris, Louvre
Ghirlandaio, Domenico, Adoration of the Shepherds, Lorrain, Claude, Laiidscape with a Goatherd and Goats,
painting, 1485, Florence, Italy, Santa Trinita painting, circa 1636, London, National Gallery, Sir George
Paumgartner Altarpiece, painting,
Diirer, Albrecht, Nativity, Blumenthal Gift
1503, Munich, Germany, Alte Pinakothek Van Dyck, Anthony, Lord George Stuart, painting, circa
Giorgione, The Adoration of the Shepherds, painting, circa 1638, London, National Portrait Gallery
150S-1510, Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art, Rembrandt van Rijn, Flute Player, etching, 1642
Samuel H. Kress Collection Rembrandt van Rijn, Sleeping Herdsman, etching, 1644
Diirer, Albrecht, Adoration of the Shepherds, woodcut, from Santvoort, Dirck, Portrait of Clara Alewijn as a Shepherdess,
the Small Passion,509 1 painting, 1644, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,
Titian, The Holy Family and a Shepherd, painting, circa Rijksmuseum
1 5 10, London, National Gallery Santvoort, Dirck, Portrait of Martmus Alewijn in Pastoral
Baldung Grien, Hans, Nativity, painting, circa 1520, Munich, Dress, painting, 1644, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,
Germany, Alte Pinakothek Rijksmuseum
824 SHEPHERDS / sill nil RD1 SSES

Poussin, Nicolas, / / in Arcadia Ego, painting, circa [655, Corot, Jean-Baptiste-Camille, The Shepherds of Arcadia,
Paris, Lorn re panning, circa 1872, Baltimore, Maryland, Baltimore
Albani, Francesco, Apollo Guarding the Herds of Admetus, Museum of Art
painting, 1660, Fontainebleau, France, Chateau de I loiner, Winslovv, Shepherdesses of Houghton Farm,
Fontainebleau watercolor, 1878, Williamstown, Massachusetts, Sterling
Claude Lorrain, Heminia and the Shepherds, painting, 1666, and Francine (Mark Art Institute
Holkham I lall, 1 ngland, Collection of the Duke of The Shepherds (Their Daily Bread), painting,
Israels, Jozet,

Leicester 864, Toledo, Ohio, Toledo Museum of Art

1

Boucher, Francois, Bonheur au Village, painting,

1 c Gauguin, Paul, Breton Shepherdess with Hlock, painting,
1735-1737, Munich, Germany, Bayerisches Landesbank, 1886, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England, Laing Art
on loan to the Alte Pinakothek Gallery
Boucher, Francois, Summer Pastoral, painting, 1749, London, Rodin, Auguste, Daphnis and Chloe, plaster sculpture, 1886,
Wallace Collection Paris, Musee Rodin
Boucher, 1 rancois, Autumn Pastoral, painting, 1749, London, Bonnard, Pierre, series of lithographs illustrating Les
Wallace Collection Pastorales de Longus, on Daphnis et Chloe, 1902, Paris
Autumn Pastoral, Vincennes porcelain after Francois Boucher, Maillol, Aristide, series of woodcuts illustrating Les
1752, Sevres, France, Musee National de la Ceramique Pastorales de Longus, on Daphnis et Chloe, 1938, Paris
Lute Player, porcelain statuette, circa 1765, Chelsea Porcelain
Manufactory, Derby Porcelain Works, Williamstown,
Massachusetts, Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute Selected Texts
Bagpiper, porcelain statuette, circa 1765, Chelsea Porcelain
Homeric Hymns, seventh century B.C.
Manufactory, Derby Porcelain Works, Williamstown,
Theocritus, Idylls, third century B.C.
Massachusetts, Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute
Virgil, Eclogues, circa 42-37 B.C.
Boucher, Francois, The Shepherd's Idyll, painting, 1768, New
Ovid, Metamorphoses, a.d. 7
York, Metropolitan Museum of Art
Longus, Daphnis and Chloe, second or third century a.d.
Gainsborough, Thomas, A Pastoral Landscape: Rocky
Sannazaro, Jacopo, Arcadia, 1502
Mountain Valley with Shepherd, Sheep and Goats,
Tasso, Torquato, L'Aminta, 1573
painting, circa 1783, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
Spenser, Edmund, Shepherdes Calendar, 1579
Philadelphia Museum of Art, John H. McFadden
Tasso, Torquato, La Gerusalemme Liberata, 1581
Collection
Guarini, Giovanni Battista, II pastor fido, 1590
Vigee-Lebrun, Marie-Louise-Elisabeth, Queen Marie
Sidney, Philip, The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia, 1590
Antoinette 'en Gaulle', painting, 1783, Wolfsgarten,
Daniel, Samuel, Queene's Arcadia, 1606
collection of S. R. H. Ludwig Prinz van Hessen und bei
Urfe, Honore d', L'Astree, 1 607-1 619
Rhein
Hooft, Pieter Cornelisz., Granida, 161 5
Constable, John, The Cornfield, painting, 1826, London,
National Gallery
Richmond, George, The Shepherd, engraving, 1828, New
Further Reading
Haven, Connecticut, Yale Center for British Art, Paul
Mellon Collection Alpers, P., "What Is Pastoral?" Critical Inquiry 8 (Spring
Palmer, Samuel, Riverside Moonlight: A Landscape with 1982)
Sheep, drawing, circa 1831-1833, London, Tate Gallery Andrews, Malcolm, The Search for the Picturesque:
Cole, Thomas, The Pastoral State, painting, from The Course Landscape Aesthetics and Tourism in Britain, Stanford,
of Empire, 1833-1836, Utica, New York, Munson- California: Stanford University Press, 1989
Williams Proctor Institute Banks, Oliver T, Watteau and the North: Studies in the
Landseer, Fdwin, The Old Shepherd's Chief Mourner, Dutch and Flemish Baroque Influences on French Rococo
painting, 1837,London, Victoria and Albert Museum Painting, New York: Garland, 1977
Decamps, Alexandre-Gabriel, A Shepherd with His Flock on a Barrell, John, The Dark Side of Landscape: The Rural Poor in
Barren Heath in a Storm, painting, [843, Amsterdam, The English Painting, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
Netherlands, Historische Museum 1980
Jacque, Charles, Sheep at a Watering Place, painting, after Blankert, Albert, Nederlandse iye eeuwse Italianiserende
1846, Edinburgh, National Galley of Scotland Landschapschilders: Dutch Seventeenth Century Italianate
Hunt, William Holman, The Hireling Shepherd, painting, Landscape Painters, Soest, The Netherlands: Davaco,
1X52, London, late Gallery 1987
Millet, Jean-Francois, The Shepherdess: Plains of Barbizon, Brink, Peter van den, and Jos de Meyere, editors, Het
painting, circa 1862, Williamstown, Massachusetts, Gedroomde Land: Pastorale Schilderkunst in de Gouden
Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute Eeuw, exhibition The Netherlands,
catalog, Utrecht,
Millet, Jean-Francois, Shepherdess, painting, 1862-1864, Centraal Museum, Zwolle, The Netherlands: Waanders
Paris, Louvre Uitgevers, 1993
 SHEPHERDS / sill i'ill KIM ssi S His

Cafritz, Robert, Laurence Gowing, and David Rosand, Kettering, Alison McNeil, The Dutch Arcadia, Totowa,
editors, Places of Delight: The Pastoral Landscape, New Jersey: Allanheld and Schram, 1983
exhibition catalog, Phillips Collection and National Kriz, Kay Dian, "An English Arcadia Revisited and
Gallery of Art, New York: Foster, 1988 Reassessed: Holman Hunt's The Hireling Shepherd
Egan, Patricia, "Poesia and the Fete Champetre," The Art and the Rural Tradition," Art History 10 (December
Bullet in 41 (1959) 1987)
Emison, "The Concert Champetre and Gilding the
Patricia, Laing, Alastair, "Boucher et le Pastorale Peinte," Revue
Lily," The Burlington Magazine 133 (March 1991) de L'Art 73 (1986)
Frangois Boucher, 1703-1770, exhibition catalog, New York: Panofsky, Erwin, "Et in Arcadia Ego," in Meaning in the

Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1986 Visual Arts, New

York: Doubleday, 1955;
Freedberg, David, Dutch Landscape Prints of the Seventeenth Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1970
Century, London: British Museum, 1980 Passe, Crispijn van de, Les Vrais pourtraits de quelques
Gudlauggson, Sturia Jonasson, "Representations of Granida unes des plus grandes dames de la Chrestiente, deguisees
in Dutch Seventeenth Century Painting," The Burlington en bergeres, Amsterdam, The Netherlands: J. Broersz,
Magazine 90-9 (1948-1949)
r 1640
Held, Julius, "Flora, Goddess and Courtesan," in De Artius Rodee, Howard David, Scenes of Rural and Urban
Opuscula XL: Essays in Honor of Erwin Panofsky, edited Poverty in Victorian Painting and Their Development,
by Millard Meiss, New York: New York University Press, 1850-1890 (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University,
i960 1975)
Hunt, John Dixon, editor, The Pastoral Landscape, Rosenthal, Michael, British Landscape Painting, Oxford
Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art, 1992 and New York: Oxford Univeristy Press, 1982
Ingamells, John, and Keith Laing, "A Hireling Shepherd in a , Constable, the Painter and His Landscape, New
Painting by Claude," The Burlington Magazine 126 Haven, Connecticut, and London: Yale University Press,
(December 1984) 1983
Janssen, Paul Huys, Schilders in Utrecht, Utrecht, The Solkin, David, Richard Wilson: The Landscape of Reaction,
Netherlands: Uitgeverij Matrijs, 1990 exhibition catalog, London: The Tate Gallery, 1982
Joannides, Paul, "Titian's Daphnis and Chloe: A Search for Troyen, Carol, "Retreat to Arcadia: American Landscape
the Subject of a Familiar Masterpiece," Apollo 133 (June and the American Art-Union," The American Art Journal
1991) 23 (1991)
Judson, Jay Richard, Gerrit van Honthorst: A Discussion of Van Gelder, J. G., "Pastor fido-voorstellingen in de
His Position in Dutch Art, The Hague, The Netherlands: Nederlandse kunst van de zeventiende eeuw," Our
Nijhoff, 1959 Holland 92 (1978)
 SHIPWRECK
Alicia Craig Faxon

The following are covered in the discussion of the theme Shipwreck:

ALLEGORY LITERARY THEMES

CLASSICAL THEMES MODERN SECULAR THEMES

CHRISTIAN THEMES

827
8z8 SHIPWRl ( K

Joseph Mallord William Turner, Slave Ship {Slavers Throwing Overboard the Dead and Dying— Typhoon
Coming on), circa 1840, oil on canvas, Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, Henry Lillie Pierce Fund.
(Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston)
 SHIPWRECK 829

nr he term shipwreck alludes to a number of different dis- Resurrection. Early Christians expressed this symbolism in fres-
M. astrous events other than the actual sinking of a boat at coes in Rome in the Catacomb of St. Callixtus and the
sea. It has, at times, been used to connote a termination or Catacomb of SS. Marcellinus and Peter.

loss, as in "the shipwreck of my hopes" or "the shipwreck of In the New Testament, Paul was shipwrecked on several of
a fortune." A shipwreck also stands for the triumph of nature his journeys in his mission to the Gentiles (or non-Jews of the
over human beings, their plans, their skills, and their illusions world). Acts 27 tells of the shipwreck Paul endured when he
of control. The actual wrecking of a ship, usually in a stormy was taken as a prisoner to Rome. Although the ship foundered
sea, is described in terrifying detail in such early sources as day Malta), the crew
off the island of Melita (possibly present
the Old Testament and Homer's Odyssey (circa 720 B.C.). The and prisoners were saved. Paul himself alluded to three ship-
height of the waves, the smallness of the ship and its passen- wrecks he had survived (II Corinthians 11:25), a testimony to
gers, and the vastness of the sea are vividly evoked in such the uncertainty of travel in biblical times.
narratives. The became an important symbol in the early Christian
ship
Emblem books, Dutch seventeenth-century exam-
especially church: the ark of Noah became a vessel on which the faithful
ples such as those of Jacob Cats, used the symbol of the ship- found safety and salvation. The first representations of the ship
wreck to signify inconstancy, the wreck of hope, or even the as a Christian symbol appeared in wall paintings in the cata-
frailty of worldly things. As a nation of marine venturers and combs in Rome where the outlawed sect met, and on the seals
colonizers, the Dutch were especially aware of the loss of for- and lamps of early Christians.
tune and worldly gain that a shipwreck entailed, as a large part Shipwreck was said to be imminent when Jesus Christ
of the capital of the Netherlands was involved in shipping and awakened in a storm-tossed boat on the Sea of Galilee. The
overseas investments. wind, the waves, and the disciples' fears were finally stilled
In classical mythology, shipwreck was a prime element in with Christ's command, "Peace, be still" (Mark 4:36-41). This
tales such as the Odyssey, which tells of Odysseus's struggle to scene is rendered in Rembrandt van Rijn's Christ in the Stor??i
return over the seas from Troy to his native kingdom on the of the Sea of Galilee (1633), in which disciples frantically try to
Greek island of Ithaca. Unfortunately, he had aroused the haul down the sails on a foundering ship awash with water.
wrath of Poseidon, the sea god, and was in constant danger of The haloed figure of Christ on the right is being awakened by
shipwreck. In Book V in the story of Calypso, Odysseus expe- his terrified followers. The subject of shipwreck was also
riences a terrifying shipwreck and is in the sea for several days addressed by Eugene Delacroix in several oil paintings titled
before he reaches shore. He also experiences a near wreck in a Christ on the Lake of Genesareth (1854). The Baltimore,
close call between Scylla and Charybdis in Book XII, giving rise Maryland, version shows disciples hauling in the billowing
to the expression "between Scylla and Charybdis" to describe sails, surrounded by a menacing sky and rough seas, as Christ

being between two difficult choices or menaces. sleeps on the pitching ship.
Shipwreck is used allegorically in the poem Das Shipwrecks also appear in works based on the lives of the
Narrenschiff (1494, The Ship of Fools) by Sebastian Brant. saints, although these are comparatively rare. One example is a
Here the ship is full of life's fools, with every contemporary Dalmatian School painting, Helsinus Saved from Shipwreck, on
type included: drunks, quack doctors, corrupt lawyers, cuck- a predella panel of the Altarpiece of the Virgin Mary. In the
olded husbands, and so on. The original book was illustrated panel, the saint appears in front of a storm-tossed ship while
by a series of woodcuts, some of which may have been done by black demons flit around in the sky. Waves in the foreground
Albrecht Diirer. Ship of Fools (circa 1500), now located in the are represented by a series of abstract circles. The story is taken
Louvre in Paris, was painted by Hieronymus Bosch, a special- from Jacobus de Voragine's Golden Legend, a treasure trove of
ist on the folly and vice of his time. A twentieth-century ren- the miraculous adventures of saints and sinners.
dering of the theme is found in the novel Ship of Fools (1962) A shipwreck is usually an important element of the plot
by Katherine Anne Porter, which showed the lack of awareness when it occurs in literature. In William Shakespeare's The
of many Germans on the eve of World War I. Tempest (1611), for example, the plot hinges on a shipwreck
In Christian literature, the Book of Jonah in the Old involving Prospero's brother, who has usurped Prospero's king-
Testament tells of an averted shipwreck in chapter 1, when dom. The Merchant of Venice 1596) uses the loss of
(circa
Jonah is thrown overboard to keep the ship from sinking and Antonio's fortune in a shipwreck as the motivating element of
is swallowed by a great fish. Jonah's three days in the belly the plot. Because of the shipwreck, Antonio cannot repay his
of the whale and his escape served as a symbolic statement loan on time to the usurer Shylock, and Shylock demands the
of Christ's release from the grave after three days and his pound of Antonio's flesh due him in default. Portia, the wife of
8}0 sinrw RECK

Antonio's friend Bassanio, acting .is judge, agrees that there is Between these two ridges |of the sea] the fire of the sun-

no fault with the contract and that Shylock is entitled to a set tails along the trough of the sea, dyeing it with an
pound of Antonio's flesh, but he cannot shed one drop of blood awful but glorious light, the intense and lurid splendor

in getting the pound ol flesh, an obvious impossibility ("A which burns like gold and bathes it with blood. . . .

Daniel come to judgement"). Shakespeare's Twelfth Night Purple and blue, the lurid shadows of the hollow break-
(circa 1601-1602) begins with a shipwreck that involves Viola ers are cast upon the midst of night, which gathers cold

and her ruin brother Sebastian, which results in a subsequent and low, advancing like the shadow of death upon the
sorting out ot identities and sentiments. guilty ship as itamid the lightnings of the sea, its
labors

Daniel Defoe's novel Robinson Crusoe is the story of a ship- thin masts written upon the sky, in lines of blood, girded
wrecked man on a desert island, and Johan David Wyss's The with condemnation in the fearful hue which signs the sky

Swiss Family Robinson uses the same device to strand a whole with horror, and mixes its flaming flood with the sun-
light, and cast far along the desolate heave of the sepul-
family on an island. In a similar manner, the plot of Alfred,
lord Tennyson's Enoch Arden depends on the shipwreck of the chral waves, incarnadines the multitudinous sea.

main character, his subsequent long exile on a desert island, (Modern Painters, vol. I, part I, sect. V, ch. Ill)

and his eventual rescue. A shipwreck is the subject of Henry Here both artist and critic combine the natural setting of the
Wadsworth Longfellow's poem "The Wreck of the Hesperus" event with its moral dimensions in an unforgettable way.
and Gerard Manly Hopkins's epic "The Wreck of the Turner, a great lover of the sea, painted a number of other
Deutschland" shipwrecks: Fire at Sea in London; A
the Tate Gallery in
The shipwreck became an extremely popular subject with Shipwreck, a mezzotint; and The Wreck of the Minotaur in the
painters, both for the opportunities it provided to realistically Tate Gallery, among others. Caspar David Friedrich's The Polar
portray dramatic emotions and elements and for its symbolic Sea {Wreck of the "Hope") (1824) in the Kunsthalle in
overtones. Many representations of shipwrecks came from Hamburg, Germany, shows a wrecked ship in the Arctic,
descriptions of contemporary disasters, such as Theodore humankind again defeated by the elements. The eerie calm of
Gericault's Raft of the Medusa (1819)
Louvre, which in the the icebound wreck, realistically done in meticulous, cool blues
was based on newspaper accounts and court testimony of sur- and grays, contrasts greatly with the more lurid reds, oranges,
vivors of the French frigate Medusa, which was bound for and yellows of Turner's shipwrecks. The shattered wood of
Senegal, French West Africa, when she ran into a reef. Because Friedrich's ship is painted in distinctly warmer brown, possibly
many of the lifeboats were rotten, a makeshift raft was built the evidence of humankind's conflict with the inhuman, icy sea.
to be towed by the crew, but the rope to it was cut, and 150 Other paintings of polar shipwrecks can be found in the work
people on it were set adrift with no water or food. When of American artist Frederic Edwin Church, such as The
they were finally rescued 10 days later, there were only 15 Icebergs (before 191 5), and of British painter Edwin Landseer.
survivors. Landseer's Man Proposes, God Disposes (1863-1864) is par-
Gericault dramatically portrays the raft angled to the right, ticularly gruesome, as it shows two huge polar bears munching
the lower left cropped to include the viewers of the painting in on the remains of the wreckage.
the drama, as if they, too, are on the raft. In the left and right Several nineteenth-century shipwreck paintings have their
foreground, the dead bodies of two naked male figures pro- origin in literature.Eugene Delacroix's The Shipwreck of Don
trude over the raft, while at the apex of the composition, on [nan (1841) in the is taken from canto II, stanzas 74
Louvre,
the right, a black man dramatically signals a tiny passing ship and 75, of Lord Byron's epic poem Don Juan (1819), which
in the distance. The progression from death to life follows a vividly describes the shipwreck itself in stanzas 40-51. Ford
diagonal line from lower left to upper right, following the Madox Brown's painting Haidee Finding Don Juan After the
thrust of arms and bodies on an upward projectory. Many Shipwreck (1873) portrays the aftermath of the shipwreck
contemporary viewers identified with the shipwreck victims, (canto II, stanzas 110-112), with Don Juan washed up on the
and even saw the painting as an allegory of the foundering beach.
French state. George Morland's painting The Wreckers in the William
Inhumanity is also the subject of Joseph Mallord William Coolidge Collection presents a more sinister type of shipwreck:
Turner's Slave Ship (circa 1840) in the Museum of Fine Arts in those involving cargo vessels that have been deliberately lured
Boston.The full title of the painting was Slavers Throwing onto the rocks by lanterns so that their cargoes might be pil-
—
Overboard the Dead and Dying Typhoon Coming on, and as laged. Winslow Homer's The Gulf Stream (1899), in the
it suggests, the painting dramatizes the account of a ship carry- Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, and After the
ing slaves. The crew is portrayed throwing slaves overboard in Tornado in the Worcester Art Museum, show a wreckage of
the face of an oncoming storm, because insurance would be boats and humans after the devastation of a storm. In The Gulf
paid for any cargo jettisoned in order to save the ship. The Stream, the figure of a black man appears alone on a mastless
"cargo" is, of course, human beings, as the foreground of the ship, while sharks circle the crippled boat. After the Tornado,
painting, with manacled arms and from the waves,
legs rising a watercolor set near Homer's residence in the Bahamas, shows
makes quite clear. The coloring of the ocean and sky reflect a a man face down, washed up on the beach, beside a wrecked
sunset —
on a metaphysical level, the blood of lives lost. As John sailboat. Here, as in earlier paintings, the artist dramatizes the
Ruskm, who once owned the painting, put it, lonely struggle of humans against the dangerous vicissitudes of
 SHIPWRECK 831

the sea. The symbol of the shipwreck finally stands as a warn- Turner, Joseph Mallord William, Wreck of a Transport Ship,
ing of human limitations and frailty, and as a sign of the muta- oil on canvas, circa 18 10, Lisbon, Portugal, Iundac_ao
bility of human life and fortunes. Calouste Gulbenkian
Gericault, Theodore, The Raft of the Medusa, oil, 1 S 1
9,
Paris, Louvre
See also Destruction of City; Misfortune Friedrich,Caspar David, The Polar Sea Wreck of the (

"Hope"), oil, 1824, Hamburg, Germany, Kunsthalle

Turner, Joseph Mallord William, Slave Ship (Slavers Throwing

Selected Works of Art

Overboard the Dead and Dying Typhoon Coming on), —
oil, circa 1840, Boston, Museum of Fine Arts
Allegory Landseer, Edwin, Man Proposes, God Disposes, 1 863-1 864,

The Ship of Fools, woodcuts, 1494

Brant, Sebastian, Egham, Surrey, University of London, Royal Holloway
Bosch, Hieronymus, The Ship of Fools, oil, circa 1500, Paris, College
Louvre Homer, Winslow, The Gulf Stream, oil, 1899, New York,
Metropolitan Museum of Art
Classical Themes Church, Frederic Edwin, The Icebergs, oil, before 191 5,
A Shipwreck, Geometric vase, eighth century B.C., Ischia, Dallas, Texas, Dallas Museum of Fine Arts
Italy, Museum Ernst, Max, The Sinking of the Titanic, oil, 19 12, St. Louis,
Rubens, Peter Paul, The Shipwreck of Aeneas, oil, private collection
1 604-1 605, Berlin, Germany, Gemaldegalerie

Allori, Alessandro, The History of Odysseus, frescoes, circa

1607, Florence, Italy, Palazzo Salviati Further Reading
Fuseli, Henry, Odysseus Shipwrecked on a Raft, oil, circa
Berger, Klaus, and Diane Chalmers Johnson, "Art as
1805, Basel, Switzerland, Richard Dreyfuss Collection
Confrontation: The Black Man in the Work of

ChristianThemes Gericault," The Massachusetts Review 10:2 (Spring

Jonah and the Whale, wall fresco, third century, Rome, 1969)
Catacomb of St. Callixtus Boase, Thomas Sherrer Ross, "Shipwrecks in English

Story of Jonah, marble (three pieces), third century, Romantic Painting," Journal of the Warburg and
Cleveland, Ohio, Museum of Art Courtauld Institutes 22 (1959)
Jonah Sarcophagus, marble relief sculpture, late third century, Byron, Lord, Poetical Works, Oxford and New York: Oxford
Museo Pio Christiano
Vatican, University Press, 1946

Jonah Thrown to the Whale, fresco, fourth century, Rome, Carr, Gerald, Frederic Edwin Church: The Icebergs, Dallas,

Catacomb of SS. Marcellinus and Peter Texas: Dallas Museum of Fine Arts, 1980

Nicholas of Verdun, Jonah and the Whale, from Corbin, Alain, The Lure of the Sea: The Discovery of the
Klosterneuberg Altarpiece, gilt bronze and niello relief, Seaside in the Western World, translated by Jocelyn Phelps,
1 181, Klosterneuberg, Austria, Stiftsmuseum Oxford: Polity, 1994
Dalmatian School, Helsinus Saved from Shipwreck, oil on Cox, E. G., A
Reference Guide to the Literature of Travel,
panel, London, National Gallery Including Voyages, Geographical Descriptions of
—
Giovanni di Paolo, Shipwreck Miracle of St. Nicholas of Adventures, Shipwrecks and Expeditions, 3 volumes,
Bari, tempera on panel, circa 1450, Philadelphia, Seattle: University of Washington 1935-1949
Press,

Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Museum of Art Eitner, Lorenz, "The Open Window and the Storm Tossed
Bril, Jonah and the Whale, oil, before 1626, Brussels,
Paul, Boat," Art Bulletin XXXVII (1955)
Belgium, Musees Royaux des Beaux-Arts Goedde, Lawrence Otto, Tempest and Shipwreck in Dutch
Ryder, Albert Pinkham, Jonah, oil, before 1917, Washington, and Flemish Art, University Park: Pennsylvania Sate
D.C., National Collection of Fine Arts University Press, 1989
Gowing, Lawrence, Turner: Imagination and Reality,
Literary Themes exhibition catalog, New York, Museum of Modern Art,
Delacroix, Eugene, The Shipwreck of Don Juan, oil, 1841, New York: Doubleday, 1996
Paris, Musee d'Orsay Grunfeld, Fredrick, "The Raft of the Medusa," Horizon
Brown, Ford Madox, Haidee Finding Don Juan After the i5 ; i (i973)
Shipwreck, oil, 1873, Paris, Musee d'Orsay Homer, Odyssey, translated by E. V. Rieu, Baltimore,
Maryland, and Harmondsworth, England: Penguin,
Modern Secular Themes 1970
Vernet, Claude-Joseph, A Storm with a Shipwreck, 1754, Huttinger, Edward, "Der Schiffbruch: Deutingen eines
London, Wallace Collection bildmotive in 19 Jahrhunderts," in Stilund Ikonographie,
Turner, Joseph Mallord William, Shipwreck, oil on canvas, edited by Jan Bialostocki, Dresden, Germany: VEB Verlag
1805, London, Tate Gallery der Kunst, 1965
832 SHIPWRECK

Knowlton, )., "Stylistic Origins of Gericault's Raft of the Ruskin, John, The Lamp of Beauty, edited by Joan Evans,
Medusa,'" Marsyas 11 (1942) Ithaca, New York, and London: Cornell University Press,
Mertens, Sabine, Seesturm und Schiffbruck: eine 1980
motivgeschichtliche Studie, Hamburg, Germany: Shakespeare, William, Complete Plays and Poems, edited by
E. Kabel, 1987 William Allen Nelson and Charles Jarvis Hall, Boston and
Nicholson, Benedict, "The 'Raft' from the Point of View of New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1949
Subject Matter," Burlington Magazine XCVI (1954) Vaughan, William, Caspar David Friedrich: Romantic
Rosenblum, Robert, "Friedrich and the Divinity of Landscape Painting in Dresden, London: Tate Gallery,
Landscape," in Modern Painting and the Northern 1972
Romantic Tradition, London and New York: Thames and Jacobus de Voragine, The Golden Legend, translated by
Hudson, 1975 William Caxton, London: Dent, 1928
 sin/sinning
Christine M. Boeckl

The following motifs and iconographic narratives are covered in the discussion of the theme Sin/Sinning:

THE FALL OF MAN SEVEN DEADLY SINS/

TEN COMMANDMENTS
LAST JUDGMENT/HELL
SECULAR WORKS
OTHER RELIGIOUS SUBJECTS

833
S ;4 S ' N ' mnninc;
 SIN / SINNING 835

Albrecht Durer, Adam and Eve, 1504,

engraving. (Courtesy of Foto Marburg/Art
Resource, New York)

Albrecht Durer's engraving Adam and Eve describes the to earlier Christian authors who saw Eve as flesh (sense),
pivotal events surrounding the Fall of Man as described describes in De Trinitate the relationship of the primal parents
in Genesis 3. The print shows the couple in the Garden of Eden as humans equipped with a soul (ratio). Eve represents lower
(a metaphor for innocence) under the Tree of Knowledge. It reason, that is, scientia (knowledge) concerning itself with cor-
conveys the serpent's promise to Eve that man will be godlike. poralia (the body), and Adam represents higher reason, that is,

Eve will succumb to the temptation of the devil and disobey the sapientia, the part of the soul acquainted with spiritualia (tran-
Lord's command. Durer represents Eve's acceptance of the fruit scendent truth). The snake symbolizes animalistic base instincts
from the snake's mouth, and "eating the apple" will cost the and pleasure; and, although Adam and Eve, or even Adam
primal parents God's gift of immortality. Judeo-Christian the- alone, appear in limbo among the just, Eve is forever identified
ology teaches that future generations are burdened by this
all with sin.

which explains the corruption of human

act, the original sin, The
sixteenth century reexamined the Genesis stoiy and
nature. Joseph Campbell writes that in light of this tradition emphasized free will. By establishing free will, humankind is
"every natural impulse is sinful unless it has been circumcised allowed to influence its own destiny. This interpretation also
or baptized" (The Power of Myth, p. 47). declared human sexuality the main culprit for the Fall.

In the Christian worldview, human history began with this Therefore, at times Eve is given the entire fault for the corrup-
single, momentous transgression. The most important topics tion of humanity; on the other hand, in some works Adam
concerning sinners are the Fall and the Last Judgment, which actively participates in obtaining the forbidden fruit. The hier-
will make people accountable for their earthly lives. These two archy of the importance of various sins changed frequently.
subjects are the primary focus of this essay. The dramatic theme Since Pope Gregory I, thedominant view has been that pride,
of the final day of reckoning, rendering the horrors of hell, has Lucifer's transgression, was the mother of all sins. Adam and
inspired some of the greatest artists, from Gislebertus to Eve were disobedient, but they also were accused of several or
Auguste Rodin and from Giotto to Michelangelo. even all the deadly sins, including envy, gluttony, and lust.

Because intricate theological debates are difficult to translate

into images, it is not easy to specify which author's opinion the
Narrative Scenes
artists represented.

After the Middle Ages, the emphasis on sin is less apparent in A brief history of the different visualizations of the first par-
Christian art and is replaced by didactic narratives taken from ents and their eternal guilt will give some insight into the sub-
accounts of Christ's life to indicate a more positive philosophy. ject's iconology. Early Christian art depicted the Fall in a

First, and foremost, his sacrificial death on the cross promises straightforward manner without much narrative detail. In cat-
salvation to a sinful humankind: "Who his own self bore our acomb paintings and on the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus,
sins in his own body on the tree" (I Peter 2:24). Second, the Adam and Eve, separated by tree and serpent, turn away from
knowledge that the Redeemer sought the company of sinners each other and cover their bodies in shame. Nudity must have
affords comfort. The feast in the house of Levi, protecting the been an important issue in the transition from the pagan era to

adulteress from the self-righteous crowd, and converting Mary Christianity. Medieval masterpieces described the events in a
Magdalen to a life of virtue are two of the New Testament sub- very direct narrative. For example, in a panel of the Doors for
jects frequently chosen for portrayal. St. Michel of Hildesheim Cathedral Germany, God points in

The visualization of special human frailties, especially the threateningly at Adam, who immediately
passes the guilt on to
seven deadly sins, is most memorably recorded in Hieronymus his wife, while Eve's gesture accuses the snake. The buck
Bosch's oeuvre. A few examples of lust are now treated in stopped there, but paradise was lost. The next panel shows the
greater detail, as are some moralizing genre paintings alluding —
immediate result of the original sin Adam tilling the field "by
to sin, the Ten Commandments, and allegories from Cesare the sweat of his brow" and Eve "bearing her children in pain"
Ripa's Jronologia as well as political cartoons. Although the (Genesis 3:16-19). The lintel of the penitents' portal of Autun
question of what constitutes sinful behavior changes over time Cathedral in France also refers to the Fall. It represents the first

and with different cultures, the concept of sin is widespread medieval monumental nude — Eve is shown lying down (to
(heaven and hell also exist in Eastern religions) but is by no accommodate the horizontal design). She holds the forbidden
means universal. fruit in one hand and raises the other to her cheek in a gesture
The interpretation of the Fall of Man depends largely on the of shame.
individual roles Adam and Eve play in this fateful event. In rab- In the fifteenth century, two innovative monumental paint-
binical accounts, the command not to eat from the forbidden ings of Adam
and Eve appear almost simultaneously in Italy
tree was given to Adam alone (before Eve was created), absolv- and in the north, emphasizing that the original sin affected all
ing her from the sin of disobedience. St. Augustine, in contrast human endeavors. In Brancacci Chapel in Florence, Italy, Adam
8 U> SIN / sinninc;

and 1 ve arc depicted before and after the Fall. These scenes from the painting) shows a male sinner forced by the devil and
frame a numbe'r of seemingly unrelated stories taken from the Death into the flames of hell. To the back, in a smaller scene,
Acts of the Apostles and put them into perspective. Just about the Fall of Man is shown. Adam and Eve jointly hold the apple
the same time, Jan Van F.yck includes the first parents in the in a deliberately symmetrical composition. In a later version of

grandiose altar that was originally called Altar of Adam and The Old and the New Law, attributed to Hans Holbein the
I re or Triumph of the Lamb, better known as the Ghent Younger, Eve is faulted for the Fall. Peccatum (Sin) is written

Altarpiece. The individual panels support a complex icoiio- above her head, and she stands intimately close to the serpent,
graphic program promising salvation. Important is the inclu- from which Adam seems to shy away.
sion of a deesis, Mary and John interceding for people's sins, Peter Paul Rubens, too, defined the positions of the first par-
Adam and Eve appear on the outside panels of the polyptych, ents very carefully. In an early work (circa 1600), Eve is the
nude bodies with fig leaves: "And
after the Fall, covering their temptress and the culprit; she is a sensuous and seductive nude.
the eyes of them both were opened, and they knew that they Coyly she holds the fruit close to her mouth. Clinging to the
were naked; and they sewed fig leaves together, and made tree with the reptile (the pose is derived from the Raimondi
themselves aprons" (Genesis 3:7). Above Adam, rendered in print), she opposes Adam, who reproaches her vehemently.
Cain and Abel are seen worshiping; above Eve, the
grisaille, Adam propped against another
is tree, indicating no intentions
first fratricide takes place. to disobey God.
Although the iconography of the Fall seems well defined and Rembrandt van Rijn, generally nonjudgmental, produced a
often appears repetitive, an analysis of the relationship of the psychologically penetrating etched version of the Fall. In his
three proponents (Adam, Eve, and the snake) generates greater Fall of Man, the couple are far from being idealized. We are
understanding of the subjects iconology. For this reason, the privileged to observe a domestic squabble. Eve holds the apple
most innovative works of the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- and wants to share it with her husband. However, Rembrandt's
turies are reviewed here together. Adam seems painfully aware of the grave consequences: His
Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling represents the right hand expresses a warning, and he wants to prevent Eve
Temptation, and Expulsion from paradise in a continuous
Fall, from eating the fruit with his left. At the end he must have lost
narrative. The Tree of Life forms the center of the large com- the argument. Rembrandt's tempter in the tree has the shape of
position and reflects an analogy to Christ's Crucifixion, which a dragon (only after the Fall does God command the snake to
will redeem humanity (sin withered the Tree of Life, which, in crawl) and resembles the creature in Diirer's woodcut Christ in
turn, is said to have become the wood of the cross). What dis- Limbo (15 10), a scene in which Adam and Eve appear as a
tinguishes Michelangelo's work from numerous other versions "saved" couple, thereby linking the two subjects.
is Adam's willing participation in the Fall. Standing next to the Sole guilt for the Fall is assigned to Eve in a print by Philip
seated Eve, both reach into the branches of the tree. Adam's Galle (1610), which belongs to a series titled The Fatal Power
action has been dubbed felix culpa, indicating the gift of free of Women. The first of the six circular engravings shows a seat-
will and the responsibility of Christians to search for their own ed Adam passively receiving the fruit from his wife's hand. The
redemption (facilitated by grace). Because the Bible explicitly other illustrations depict Lot's daughters, Jael killing Sisara,
states that Adam had not shown any initiative in getting the Samson betrayed by Delilah, a pagan princess persuading
fruit, few artists followed Michelangelo's design, and Johannes Solomon to worship idols, and Judith decapitating Holofernes.
Fabricius wrote in his treatise Disputatio Theologica qua Historia In Protestant Bibles, the Book of Judith is excluded from the
sacra contra nonnullos pictorum errores vindicatur (1684) that Old Testament, thereby changing her status from heroine to vil-
such depictions were erroneous. lain. Analogous collections of seductive women who had con-
Only a stone's throw away from the Sistine Chapel, Raphael tributed to the destruction of men had been popular since the
worked at the very same time in the Vatican Palace and chose sixteenth century. Similar and related subjects endured over the
a more literal interpretation of the Bible in his ceiling detail for centuries; for example, a beguiling Salome becomes responsible
the Stanza della Segnatura. His Adam and Eve resembles for St. John's death. Gustav Klimt's Salome with the Head of St.
Michelangelo's temptation scene only inasmuch as Raphael John portrays such a femme fatale.
also adopted a dynamic style. True to traditional theology, The artists of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries made
however, it is Eve who energetically plucks the fruit from the few original statements about the Fall. Yet, a twentieth-century
branch. Adam is seated on the other side of the tree to indicate female artist, Judith Lodge, painted a series of large works
his refusal to participate in the act. titled The Walls of Eden. The origin of these paintings was a
In the sixteenth century, artists began to treat Eve as a dream involving the serpent in the earthly paradise. Lodge
temptress no man
resist. Raphael manifests this when he
could views the story from a woman's point of view. Large canvases
gave Eve and the snake the same alluring features. Mareantonio create an environment in which the viewer plays the role of the
Raimondi's engraving after Raphael's Temptation of Man dis- expelled Eve. The artist envisioned a magnificent closed gate to
seminated the master's composition into the north. separate herself from Eden.
In northern Renaissance art, the Fall was treated innumer- A number of artists expanded the iconography of the Fall
able times. In Miinster, Germany, Lucas Cranach the Elder with erudite symbolism. In Diirer's illustration Adam and Eve
adopted a nontraditional pose showing Adam indicating his (mentioned earlier in this essay), the primal parents are seen
sexual desire by embracing Eve. He also included the first par before the Fall. They are nude, and only leaved branches cover
ents in his Reformation picture Rechtfertigung des Sunders their genitals, as if by accident. Their poses recall classical stat-
durch den Glauben (Allegory of the Old and the New Law). uary, such as Apollo of Belvedere in the Vatican Collection and
The symbolic panel (popularized by a woodcut design reversed Venus de Medici in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, Italy. Adam's
 SIN / SINNING 837

and Eve's idealized figures stand in contrast to the dense grove Mary's tree branches hold the image of the crucified Jesus
of a northern landscape. Some of the engraving's enigmatic fea- The juxtaposition of Eve and Mary indicates their roles
Christ.
tures need further explanation. The wooded area is populated in the plan of salvation; Eve's sin will be redeemed by the Virgin
by peacefully resting animals: an ox, a cat, a mouse, a rabbit, through her son, Jesus. (Mary's exemption from the burden of
and an elk. Adam clings to a tree next to the one in the center. original sin is expressed in the dogma of the Immaculate
A tropical parrot, symbolizing the virgin birth of Christ, is Conception.)
perched on a limb right above Adam's shoulder as an antidote From the loss of paradise to the Second Coming of Christ,
against Satan. Eve stands closer to the centralized hybrid of an humankind is condemned to act out a more or less pessimistic

apple-fig tree, the habitat of the snake. future. Along with the Fall of Man, depicting Last Judgment
The sleeping animals in the foreground can be explained by scenes gave artists opportunities to render the punishment of
sixteenth-century northern writings on natural history and rep- sin. The tympanum of Autun Cathedral is a prime example of
resent the four temperaments: sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, a medieval Last Judgment scene: Christ is the dominant pres-
and melancholic. Diirer certainly would have known such ence in the relief while next to him St. Michael weighs souls (a

books, as he used the temperaments as a subtheme in Four concept that can be traced to ancient Egypt). In a frieze below,
Apostles (1526) in the Alte Pinakothek in Munich, Germany. the savedon Christ's right and the sinners on his left await the
According to these writings, the curse of the Fall unleashed the outcome of the trial. Devils, and even disembodied claws, pull
imbalance of the humors or temperaments. Hildegard von the unfortunates into hell while the angels lead the blessed
Bingen explains that if man had remained in paradise, he to God.
"would not have had those noxious fluids [humor] loose in his In the twelfth century, scenes of sinners in hell were preva-
body." The fluids consisted of secretions of the liver: Black gall lent not only in Europe but in Asia as well, although their
prompted the vices of despair and avarice, whereas yellow bile respective spheres of influence have not yet been investigated.
caused melancholy, traditionally depicted as an elk. Choleric In a Cambodian relief titled Heaven and Hell, large demons
humor caused pride and wrath, symbolized in Diirer's "aggres- herd sinners by brute force into hell. The scroll Hell Scene

sive" cat. Phlegm, carried by the lungs, resulted in sloth and (circa 1200) depicts demons with iron rods bashing the heads
gluttony, represented in the phlegmatic ox. Sanguine humor of pitifully small figures of monks in a fiery setting. The monks
was caused by excessively active blood circulation, as seen in have been herded into the western gate of hell because they are
the vice of lust characterized by the fertile rabbit. Until guilty of unkindness to animals —certainly not a reason for
humankind sinned, there was peace in the animal kingdom; cat Western sinners to be condemned to eternal tortures.
and mouse coexisted. Also, "the battle of the sexes" has been The fifteenth century introduced new psychological insight
directly related to the Fall of Man. into the subject of heaven and hell. The novelty in Rogier van
Diirer's student Hans Baldung Grien renders a more nega- der Weyden's Last Judgment Altarpiece, in the otherwise tradi-
tive picture. Eve, the Serpent, and Death/Adam is an idiosyn- tional rendering of the final events, is the lack of the sinners'
cratic variation of the Fall and refers to the debate as to satanic torture. The damned display horrifying grimaces and
whether sexual intercourse existed before the Fall. De originate gestures of despair and "are forced under their own power
peccato —written in 15 18 although not published until 1529 toward their fate. No demons are needed to pull man into infer-
claimed that carnal desire for Eve caused Adam's spiritual no, no angels will rescue him. The damned lead themselves to
death. In Baldung Grien's painting, Adam grabs Eve's wrist their destiny, a pessimistic proclamation that in some respects
with obvious sexual intent while the snake strikes his hand. At anticipates the negative character of humankind later expressed
the same time, Adam's body undergoes a metamorphosis from so vividly by Hieronymus Bosch" (Snyder, p. 133).
life to a putrefied corpse (transi). In the inclusion of Death, In the LastJudgment in Vienna, Austria, Bosch and a col-
Baldung Grien's painting follows earlier prototypes. laborator single out a few sins, such as lust, wrath, and gluttony.
The Salzburg Missal (1481, Austria) shows a similar figure The triptych, according to at least one author, might have been
of Death in the illustration Tree of Death and Life, an allegor- intended as a warning to a young prince. In the left wing, which
ical version of the Fall. The tree in the center not only is loaded traditionally shows the Garden of Eden, God the Father appears
with fruits but also bears communion wafers. Adam is seated in a bright aureole —
yet there is trouble in the cosmos from the
dejectedlyon the ground, expressing his shame. His wife, just start. The fall of the proud rebel angels, characterized as dark,

as in Baldung Grien's painting, is a seductive nude. Lilith, the insectlike creatures, precedes the creation of Adam. The center
snake (a convention taken from Hebrew and Mesopotamian of the triptych depicts the Last Judgment. Christ presides over a

sources), holds an apple in her mouth that Eve touches. holocaust that up three-quarters of the panel. The
takes
Simultaneously, the first mother distributes fruits with her —
humanoid male and female monsters disfigured by spots and
other hand to kneeling burghers dressed in fifteenth-century nodules, skin lesions, and other blemishes —
populate brothels,
garb, thereby indicating that the original sin is passed on to taverns, and bathhouses. This has been interpreted as placing
later generations. Behind the group a grinning Death appears, great emphasis on the danger of venereal diseases, such as the
again not as a skeleton but as a transi. In Baldung Grien's Spanish pox (syphilis), all of which were associated with lack of
panel, as well as in the Salzburg manuscript, Adam is ensnared chastity. Gigantic war machines appear on the right. The third
by the coils of the serpent and holds in his hand the fruit that panel displays hell. God is absent, and the devil reigns supreme.
caused his spiritual death. In the tree above Eve's head hangs a Surprisingly absent also are members of the aristocrac) and the
skull. Opposite her, on the left, Mary, the new Eve, crowned as clergy, which supports the theory that the commission was
queen of heaven, serves eucharistic hosts to a kneeling crowd in intended for Charles, the 15-year-old son of Philip the Fair, on
front of her. Instead of the symbol of death seen on Eve's half. his inspection tour through the Netherlands 111 1515.
8^8 sin / sinninc;

Humanist ideas had originated in Florence in the fourteenth The Old Testament and the Christian Middle Ages consid-
century and characterize Giotto's Last Judgment in the Arena ered an act of sacrilege one of the gravest transgressions a
Chapel in Padua, Italy. Giotto introduces new ideas along with human could commit. Book of Samuel, the two sons
In the First
earlier iconographic traditions by depicting a large Christ an in of the last judge Hophni and Phinehas, were accused of
FJi,

aureole as the focal point in the events of the day of wrath. Also having blasphemed against God when they misappropriated
medieval is the view of the Son of man surrounded by angels the sacrificial meat of the holocaust. Their sin "was very great
and the blessed. To his right, the saved are resurrected from before the Lord: for men abhorred the offering of the Lord" (I
their graves and guided toward heaven. Unprecedented, how- Samuel 2:16-17). The repercussions were severe; God rebuked
ever, is the inclusion of Enrico Scrovegni, the donor of the the old judge and foretold that his male heirs would be killed.
church, who aims to atone for his father's sin of usury. On This prophesy came true in the battle at Ebenezer, where not
Christ's left, hell occupies a quarter of the wall, distinguished only were Eli's sons slain but the Ark of the Covenant was lost
by its fiery red and filled with sadistic devils who torture the to the Philistines. Representations of the sin of Hophni and
damned. The usurers, recognizable by their money bags, were Phinehas, depicting two men at the sacrificial cauldron, appear
singled out as among the worst sinners. The date (circa 1305) only in some medieval manuscripts. The consequences of their
precedes Dante's publication of Inferno, yet it can be assumed shortcomings are illustrated more frequently, for example, in
that Giotto was acquainted with his compatriot's ideas. an illustration in Erhard Altdorfer's Lutheran Bible (1533), The
Michelangelo, in his treatment of the Last Judgment in the Battle of Ebenezer, Eli and the Messenger, and the Fall of
Sistine Chapel more than 200 years later, retained a hierarchi- Dagon, which emphasizes the episode's significance in the
cal structure similar to that described in Giotto's fresco. The transfer of leadership from the rule of the judges to that of the
Renaissance artist also introduced Dantesque themes in his kings.
hell. The mythological ferryman Charon drives the damned As already indicated, scenes from the New Testament
from his boat with an oar, and Minos, a serpent wrapped emphasized different sins, yet above all they featured the possi-
around his powerful body, reigns in hell (divergences from the bility of redemption. The narratives involving Jesus consorting
biblical text got Michelangelo in trouble with the Inquisition). with sinners repeatedly depict Mary Magdalen. She is fre-

The torments have become less physical, yet the sinners' haunt- quently found in the proximity of Christ: anointing his feet in
ing expressions reveal their despair at being severed from their Bethany, pleading for her brother's life at the resurrection of
Maker. Lazarus, under the cross, and (after her Master's resurrection)
Rubens, among many others, emulated Michelangelo's style in noli me tangere (do not touch me) scenes. The reason Jesus
in his Last Judgment yet remained orthodox in his theology. is often found in the company of sinners is contained in Christ's

Rubens also created a variation on the theme in a similar answer "They that be whole need not a physi-
to the Pharisees,
dynamic composition, Fall of the Damned. This subject may cian, but they that are sick" (Matthew 9:12). The case of Paolo
have inspired the majestic vault decorations in Rome's II Gesu, Veronese, who because of Inquisitional interference changed
The Expulsion of the Heretics and Unbelievers from the the name of his Last Supper to Feast in the House of Levi, had
Heavens by Giovanni Battista Baciccia (II Gaulli). The light in a happy ending. In the latter subject, the objectionable "buf-
the Baroque fresco seems to generate from the symbols IHS, foons, drunkards, dwarfs, Germans, and similar vulgarities"
signifying the name of Jesus, which hurtles the sinners into the were quite appropriate.
world of the spectator. Throughout the centuries, the scene of Jesus and the adul-
At the time of the inception of his Gates of Hell, Auguste teress proclaimed the Lord's mercy and made an appeal for tol-
Rodin was an ardent admirer of Michelangelo. The dynamics erance. Rembrandt's Christ and the Woman Taken in Adultery
of his composition are unthinkable without the Renaissance deviates from the customary scene of Christ writing illegible
master's canonical solution. Gates of Hellwas commissioned in words on the ground (as depicted by Pieter Bruegel the Elder,
1880 but never completed; however, the nineteenth-century among others) because the artist moved the action indoors. The
sculptor secularized the subject and introduced Dante's Divine spectacle is placed in the dark, cavernous interior of a large
Comedy as his theme. Eventually, Rodin even replaced the pro- temple. Christ, surrounded by his apostles and bathed in warm
posed figure of Dante with the Thinker to ponder the human light, stands only a few steps above the contrite woman. He is

condition. From the original sinners, only Ugolino and His a commanding and barefoot. Rembrandt
figure yet simply clad
Sons and Paolo and Francesca remained. Later, Charles sees Christ as a spiritual leader about to say, "He that is with-
Baudelaire's Flowers of Evil replaced Dante as a source of out sin among you, let him first cast a stone at her" (John 8:7).
inspiration. Rodin's chaotic design renders the individual fig- The group of accusers is dressed in sumptuous robes and hats.
ures anonymous and has to be experienced as a metaphor of In the background, in semidarkness, appear the ceremonious
dark forces governing human lives. The painting transcends the narra-
high officials of the temple.
Apart from the depictions of the beginning and the end of tiveand becomes a pictorial discussion of the merits of the Old
time, other biblical narratives from the Old and New Testaments versus the New Law. Christ is depicted as very human (possi-
were chosen to render sinners. The most prominent illustration bly seen through the eyes of Mennonite or Socinion sects,
of the murder from the Old Law is Cain slaying Abel
first whose ideology Rembrandt seemed to have favored). On the
(already mentioned in the Ghent Altarpiece), which is frequently other hand, the Orientalist Vasilii Polenov replaced theological
included in larger cycles to show cause and effect. In later cen- concepts with historic accuracy. His Christ and the Woman
turies, the topic was treated independently. For example, Taken Adultery (1907) re-creates an authentic setting in
in
Tintoretto and Rubens gave the subject great drama: Cain bru- front of the temple steps, where Christ is seated among his fol-
tally attacks Abel, who fights desperately and vainly for his life. lowers calmly teaching when a furious, unruly crowd drags a
 SIN / SINNINC, 839

young woman to be stoned. The realism makes us relive the thirteenth century and continued in a strong tradition of type-
event — this is how it could have happened. Emil Nolde's ver- casting the worldliness of sinners.
sion focuses primarily on the two proponents. Christ puts his Hans Makart painted an orgy sometimes called Seven
that is

arm around the woman's shoulder.

protectively Deadly Sins or Plague and an epidemic
in Florence (again sin

Jesus healing a man suffering from palsy with the words are closely associated). The painting may have some moralizing
"Man, thy sins are forgiven thee" (Luke 5:20) gave hope where aspects, although the subject matter and the racy title seem to
medicine was at a loss. The universal appeal of such themes is have been the main reasons the artist created this canvas.
the confirmation that God is willing to forgive all penitent sin- A modern Seven Deadly Sins (1933) appears in the work of
ners. Already in antiquity, disease had been assumed to be a Otto Dix. The date is important because the painting makes a
divine punishment. political statement. It displays Death (Sloth) confronting a

With the appearance of the modern scourge of AIDS, the grotesque procession in which an ugly witch, clutching money
concept of sin seems to be reintroduced into the vocabulary (Avarice), leads the group. A gnomelike child whose mask
of some artists. Because medical science still struggles to find bears Adolf Hitler's features (Envy) rides on her shoulders.
a cure, a regression more medieval sense of guilt
toward a Other horrid creatures represent Wrath, Pride, Lust, and
characterizes the latest art. For example, a Korean designer Gluttony. The latter reveals its debt to Netherlandish tradition
compares bubonic plague with AIDS. The Penalty of God is most conclusively: Gluttony is represented by a child wrapped
written in the center in bold print, and the words "Pest/AIDS" in sausages with a pretzel and a soup kettle that hide his iden-

are placed diagonally in the corners. Alluring lips and rats are tity (Nazi official Hermann Goring?). The symbols are docu-

juxtaposed; they are to blame for the spread of the afflictions mented and preserved in Dix's cartoon for this painting in
lips because the virus is sexually transmitted and rodents which the names of the sins are written next to the individual
because they harbor plague-infested fleas. Russian propaganda figures. On a ruinous wall appears a Friedrich Nietzsche quote:
posters also seem toblame female prostitutes for the spread of "Die Wiiste wachst, Weh dem der Wiisten birgt." (The barren
the disease by showing a lush, rouged mouth with a taxi meter desert groweth, woe unto him, who harbors in himself such a
instead of teeth. This refers to the pecuniary aspects of prosti- wasteland) {Zarathustra). Soon after this painting was com-
tution and the fact that time is running out. American educa- pleted, Dix lost his position as an academy professor and was
tional material advocating preventive measures shows a snake declared one of the "degenerate artists."
coiledaround an apple, camouflaged by lush blossoms; the Political caricature involving sin has had a time-honored
Garden of Eden is lost, and sickness is a reality. tradition.For example, James Gillray's cartoon Sin, Death, and
the Devil shows Queen Charlotte of England as Sin crouching
between Prime Minister William Pitt (Death) and the
The Seven Deadly Sins and the Ten
Chancellor of the Exchequer, Lord Thurlow (the devil). Gillray
Commandments satirized William Hogarth's Satan, Sin, and Death, a scene from
The allegorical prototype for sin appears in Ripa's Iconologia. John Milton's Paradise Lost depicting his "Unholy Trinity."

Peccato is depicted as a dark (impure, without grace), seminude

youth (imprudent youths frequently sin) who stands in a rocky
Human Frailties
landscape. A serpent (symbol of the devil) gnaws on his breast

(seat of the soul that has sinned), eating his heart; an even larger Carnal lust (i.e., human sexuality) is by far the most common-
snake is wrapped around his waist. In the seventeenth-century ly depicted sin. Women were blamed for this evil in the New
editions, sin has his eyes closed; later he is blindfolded, indicat- Testament (Whore of Babylon). A particular form of preoccu-
ing that sin is blind to God's commandments. Ripa also singles pation with sex is found in the witches' trials after a celibate
out individual sins: Pride, Disobedience, Murder, and so on. priesthood issued an encyclopedia of demonology, Witches
One of the earliest symbols manifesting sin is carved on Hammer. Such sadistic fantasies may have influenced the
French cathedrals as 12 Vices (Cathedral of Amiens, among depiction of the "devil's brides," which stood for the antithesis
others), later to be superseded by the ever-popular seven dead- of nuns. Hans Baldung Grien, Salvator Rosa, Alessandro
ly sins. Pride, gluttony, lust, wrath, envy, avarice, and sloth are Magnasco, and Francisco de Goya, among others, depict their
frequently portrayed in late medieval art. According to Pope witchcraft, incantations, and orgies. However, it has not yet
Gregory and Thomas Aquinas, they were the roots of all evil.
I been established whether the artists believed these satanic rites

Bosch's panel Table of the Seven Deadly Sins is arranged to be real and sinful. For one, Goya did not depict his fears; the

around the eye of God and divided into seven genre scenes illus- only sin his witches have committed narrow- is to prolong
trating that daily life is filled with sinful activities. Avarice is mindedness and delay enlightenment in Spain.
represented by a corrupt judge accepting a bribe, gluttony by Lust and avarice are characterized in Ill-Matched Lovers by
the usual excesses of food and drink, wrath by a murder, pride Quentin Massys. The painting represents a "dirty" old man
by a woman looking into a mirror, and so on. His paintings and a young woman who steals his money. The artist empha-
convey late medieval ethics signifying a current concern, sized that man corrupted by sin becomes ugly. Massys's carica-
memento mori. Four small circles in the corner refer to the four tures are intended to teach morality much as Bosch does but
last things. One deathbed scene as a man is given
circle shows a with a significant difference: Massys considers humans to be
another shows
his last rites (as often depicted in ars moriendi), capable of righteous conduct. His hideous characters are a
Christ appearing on Judgment Day, and two others illustrate warning, and they might deter the viewer from committing sim-
the entrances to heaven and hell. Many of these secular exam- ilar transgressions (much like Desidenus Erasmus's Praise of

ples were derived from sertnones vulgares, which started in the Polly).
84O SIN / SINNING

Didactic pictorial traditions remained strong in the north keys — Christ's institution of the papacy). Few depictions of
and resurfaced in a number of seventeenth-century genre these rites found their way into the mainstream of the visual
scenes. However, by then the treatment of these secular moral- arts. A unique work by a fifteenth-century master, Mass of St.
ity lessons had become more subtle. For example, Jan Giles, depicts the saint holding a service in the presence of Holy
Vermeer's The Concert depicts a man with two charming Roman Emperor Charlemagne. An angel bearing a scroll

women making music. The subject of lust is indicated with a miraculously reveals an "unconfessed sin" of the emperor.
sophisticated allusion provided by a picture within the picture: Most of these works address the power struggle between
Duck van Baburen's Procuress hangs above the harpsichord. church and state.

Thomas Couture's The Romans of the Decadence was exhibit- Although many sins can and would be punishable by secu-
ed in Pans along with a quote from the historian Juvenal: lar law, and they always remain
they arc not identical with it,

"Cruder than arms, lust descended upon Rome and avenged in the realm of religious teachings. Sinfulness and repentance-
the conquered world." The artist insinuated in his epic painting are often closely related to the belief in an afterlife or reincar-
that moral decline and sin had caused the fall of the Roman nation and must be viewed with these moral assumptions in
Km pi re. mind. Therefore, with few exceptions, the twentieth century
One of the few biblical scenes of the twentieth century con- avoided the subject of sin altogether.

cerning lust is Mary of Egypt with Sinners (Mary

Emil Nolde's
Egyptica had a colorful past, much like her namesake, Mary
See also Avarice; Envy; Evil Eye; Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale;
Magdalen). Nolde's Mary is living it up with her clients. She
Humors; Luxury; Penitence/Repentance; Vices/Deadly Sins
shows no sign of remorse in this section of the triptych. The
German expressionist, who was deeply religious, emphasizes
the ugliness of the debauched lifestyle by introducing clashing
Selected Works of Art
colors and expressive forms in a moralizing way. Vincent van
Gogh also signaled his intention to express "evil" in his Night The Fall of Man
Cafe (1888, Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, Adam and Eve, fourth century, Rome, Catacomb Sotto la Via
Connecticut) by disharmony in his brilliant hues. Latina
John Bossy observed that the "Reformation brought to con- Adam and Eve, sculpture on the Sarcophagus of Junius
clusion the process of replacing the Seven Deadly Sins by the Bassus, 359, Vatican, Grottos of St. Peter
Ten Commandments as the system of Christian ethics" (Bossy, Adam and Eve Passing the Blame Before God, sculpture,
p. 116). Yet the Ten Commandments are only occasionally 1015, Doors for St. Michel, Hildesheim, Germany,
depicted. One of the few examples preserved is the fifteenth- Cathedral
century woodcut The Ten Commandments, which is divided Gislebertus, Eve, sculpture, 11 20-1 13 2, Autun, France,
into 10 equal quadrangles. Although there is a distinction Musee Rolin
between mortal and venial sins, little emphasis is placed on Masolino, Temptation, circa 1425, Florence, Italy, Brancacci
such theological details in the visual arts. Many of the motives Chapel
originated from the earlier depictions of the seven deadly sins Masaccio, Expulsion from Paradise, circa 1425, Florence,
and the danse macabre (dance of death) because they involve Italy, Brancacci Chapel

characters from all social classes. In all "thou-shalt-not" illus- Van Eyck, Jan, Adam and Eve, 1432, Ghent Altarpiece,
trations, figures of demons hover above the sinners' heads. The Ghent, Belgium, St. Bavo
first commandment shows Moses before a vision of God hold- Furtmeyr, Berthold (workshop of), Tree of Death and Eife,
ing the tablets of the Law; in the background a heretic prays to 1481, Salzburg Missal, Munich, Germany, Bayerisches
a devil. The second scene depicts gamblers at card tables taking Staatsarchiv (Clm 15710 fol. 6ov.)
the Lord's name in vain; Sunday's desecration is represented by Diirer, Albrecht, Adam and Eve, 1504, engraving
farmers working in the field. To show how to honor parents, Raphael, Adam and Eve, 1508-15 n, Vatican, Stanza della
two children wash their father's feet. The fifth commandment Segnatura
illustrates a murder, and the command "thou shalt not steal" Michelangelo, Fall of Man, 15 10, Vatican, Sistine Chapel
shows such an infamous act in progress. Lust is symbolized Raimondi, Marcantonio (after Raphael), Adam and Eve, circa
very traditionally as a couple embracing and singing to a lute. 1520, engraving
The eighth and ninth commandments are represented, respec- Baldung Grien, Hans, Eve, the Serpent, and Death/Adam,
tively, by a man swearing a false oath before a judge and by 1520, Ottawa, Ontario, National Gallery of Canada
"lusting for the neighbor's wife," acted out by a charming lady Cranach, Lucas, the Elder, Adam and Eve, 1 525?, Miinster,
in front of her castle at a clandestine meeting with an equally Germany, Westfalisches Landesmuseum
elegant dandy. The tenth commandment shows envious neigh- Cranach, Lucas, the Younger (?), Eve Tempted by the Serpent,
bors next to a man displaying his wealth. circa 1530, Antwerp, Belgium, Koninklijk Museum voor
Every religion has different ways to grant absolution from Schone Kunsten
sin. The Protestant view differs from the Mosaic law and Tintoretto, Adam and Eve, circa 1550, Venice, Italy,
Catholic theology. Tashlikh is a symbolic ceremony in which Accademia
sins are cast into the water during the Jewish New Year cele- Rubens, Peter Paul, The Fall of Man, circa 1600, Antwerp,
bration. Protestants prefer public confessions. The Catholic Belgium, Rubenshuis
sacrament of penance is customarily administered in private. Galle, Philip, Fall of Man, 1610, from the engraved series The
The clerics reserve the right of absolution (the power of the Fatal Power of Women
 SIN / SINNING 841

Rembrandt van Rijn, Fall of Man, 1638, engraving Seven Deadly Sins/Ten Commandments
Lodge, Judith, Eve at the Walls of Eden, 1977, collection of Virtues and Vices, sculpture, twelfth century. Portal of the
the artist Savior, Amiens, France, Cathedral
Ten Commandments, single woodcut, 460-1 480, Munich, 1

Last Judgment/Hell Germany, Graphische Sammlungen (Sch. 1846)

Last Judgment, fresco, eleventh century, Sant' Angelo in Bosch, Hieronymus (?), Table of the Seven Deadly Sins,
Formis 1480-1485, Madrid, Spain, Prado
Gislebertus, Last Judgment, sculpture, 11 20-1 13 5, Autun, Cranach, Lucas, the Elder (workshop of), Allegory of the Old

France, Cathedral and the New Law, 1529, Gotha, Germany, Schlossmuseum
Heaven and Hell, bas-relief, late twelfth century, Angkor Wat, Holbein, Hans, the Younger (attributed to), Allegory of the
Cambodia Old and the New Law, circa 1535, Edinburgh, National
Jigoku Zoshi, Hell Scene, scroll, circa 12.00, Seattle, Gallery of Scotland
Washington, Art Museum Ripa, Cesare, Peccato, from Iconolgia, 1603, Rome
Giotto, Last Judgment, 1305, Padua, Italy, Arena Chapel Ripa, Cesare, Disobedience (pi. 92), Pride (p. 126), Homicide
Weyden, Rogier van der, Last Judgment Altarpiece, circa (pi. 168), from Iconologia (Hertel Edition), 1758-1760,
1445, Beaune, France, Musee de Hotel Dieu Frankfurt-am-Main, Germany
Bosch, Hieronymus, and collaborator, Last Judgment Makart, Hans, Seven Deadly Sins (Plague in Florence), 1868,
Triptych, 151 5, Vienna, Austria, Akademie der Bildenden Schweinfurt, Germany, Collection Georg Schafer
Kunste Dix, Otto, Seven Deadly Sins, 1933, Karlsruhe, Germany,
Michelangelo, Last Judgment, 153 6-1 541, Vatican, Sistine Staatliche Kunsthalle
Chapel Dix, Otto, Seven Deadly Sins, cartoon, 1933, Stuttgart,
Rubens, Peter Paul, Last Judgment, circa 1615, Munich, Germany, Staatsgalerie
Germany, Alte Pinakothek
Rubens, Peter Paul, Fall of the Damned, 1620s, Munich, Secular Works
Germany, Alte Pinakothek Baldung Grien, Hans, Witches' Sabbath, chiaroscuro
Baciccia, Giovanni Battista (II Gaulli), The Expulsion of the woodcut, 1 510
Heretics and Unbelievers from the Heavens, i6j6, Rome, Massys, Quentin, Ill-Matched Lovers, circa 15 15,
II Gesu Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art
Rodin, Auguste, Gates of Hell, sculpture, 1880-1917, Paris, Vermeer, Jan, The Concert, circa 1660, Boston, Isabella
Rodin Museum Stewart Gardner Museum
Rosa, Salvator, Witches, 1646, Althorp House, England,
Other Religious Subjects Collection Lord Spencer
Brailes, William de, Hophni's and Phinehas's Sin, manuscript
Hogarth, William, Satan, Sin, and Death, 1730s, London,
illumination, twelfth century, Baltimore, Maryland,
Tate Gallery
Walters Art Gallery (Ms. 500, fol. 17V.)
Magnasco, Alessandro, Witches, 1759, Rome, Collection
Master of St. Giles, Mass of St. Giles, 1480-1490, London, Menotti
National Gallery Gillray, James, Sin, Death, and the Devil, engraving, 1792
Altdorfer, Erhard, The Battle of Ebenezer, Eli and the
Goya, Francisco 1794-1795, Madrid, Spain,
de, Witches,
Messenger, and the Fall of Dagon, woodcut, circa 1533,
Ministerio de Gobernacion
la
for Lutheran Bible, Baltimore, Maryland, Walters Art
Couture, Thomas, The Romans of the Decadence, 1847,
Gallery
Paris, Louvre
Tintoretto, Cain Slaying Abel, circa 1550, Venice, Italy,
AIDS Prevention Poster, 1985, Bethesda, Maryland,
Accademia
Collection of the Medical Library of the National
Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, Christ and the Woman Taken in
Institutes of Health (25363)
Adultery, 1565, London, Courtauld Institute Galleries
Hwan Young Gu, Penalty of God, 1989, for AIDS: Images of
Veronese, Paolo, Feast in the House of Levi, 1573, Venice,
Survival, by C. M. Helmken, Washington, D.C., 1989
Italy, Accademia
Kolosov, Andrey, AIDS Poster, circa 1990, Russia, collection
Rubens, Peter Paul, Cain Slaying Abel, circa 1608, London,
of the artist
Courtauld Institute Galleries
Rembrandt van Rijn, Christ and the Woman Taken in

Adultery, 1644, London, National Gallery

Further Reading
Polenov, Vasilii, Christ and Woman
Taken in Adultery,
the
1907, Williamsburg, Virginia, William and Mary College Barasch, Moshe, "The Mask in European Art: Meaning and
Klimt, Gustav, Salome with the Head of St. John, 1909, Function," in Art, the Ape of Nature: Studies of Honor of
Venice, Italy, Museo d'Arte Moderna-Ca' Pesaro H. W. Janson, New York: Abrams, 1981
Nolde, Emil, Mary of Egypt with Sinners, Conversion, Death Bax, Dirk, Hieronymus Bosch and Lucas Cranach: Two I ast
in the Desert, triptych, 1912, Hamburg, Germany, Judgment Triptychs: Description and Exposition, New
Kunsthalle York: North Holland, 1983
Nolde, Emil, Christ and the Woman Taken in Adultery, 1926, Bindman, D., "Hogarth's Satan, Sin, and Death and Its

Bern, Switzerland, Fehr Collection Influence," Burlington Magazine 12 (1970) 1

842. SIN / SINNING

Boeckl, Christine M., "A New Reading of Nicolas Poussin's Jaffe,Michael, "Van Dyck Studies II: La Belle vertueuse &
"
The Miracle of the Ark in the Temple of Dagon, Artibus Huguenotte," Burlington Magazine 126 (1984)
et I listoride 24 (
1
99 1
Lee, Sherman, A History of Ear Eastern Art, Lnglewood
Bossy, John, Christianity in the West, 1400-1700, Cambridge: Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1964
Cambridge University Press, [968 Levy, Janey,"... Kingdom of Heaven: Ecclesiastical
Brown, Christopher, Dutch Genre Painting, London: National Authority and Hierarchy in the Beaune Altarpiece," Art
Gallery, 1976 History 14: 1 ( 199 1

Cummings, Sue Wynne, "Satana gastrocefalico," Commentari Mullins, Edwin, The Painted Witch: How Western Artists
29 (1978) I Viewed the Sexuality of Women, New York: Carroll
Live
Dixon, Laurinda, "Giovanni di Paolo's Cosmology," Art and Graf, 1985; London: Seeker and Warburg, 1985
Bulletin 67:4 (1985) Pagels, Elaine, Adam and Eve and the Serpent: The Evolution
Domenici, Karen, "James Gillray: An English Source for of the Original Sin, New York: Vintage, 1988; London:
David's Les Sabines," Art Bulletin 65 (1983) Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1988
Hieatt, A. K., "Eve as Reason in a Tradition of Allegorical Rule, Jane, "Judith Lodge: Eve at the Walls of Eden,"
Interpretation of the Fall," Journal of the Warburg and Vanguard 6:2. (1977)
Courtauld Institutes 43 ( 1980) Snyder, James, Northern Renaissance Art, New York: Praeger,
Hofmann, Werner, Eva und die Zukunft: das Bild der Frau 1985
seit der franzosichen Revolution, exhibition catalog, Steinberg, Leo, "Eve's Idle Hand," Art Journal 35
Hamburg, Germany: Kunsthalle, 1986 (1975-1976)
 r
sleep/sleeping
Petra ten-Doesschate Chu

The following motifs and periods are covered in the discussion of the theme Sleep/Sleeping:

SLEEP AND DEATH SLEEP AND DREAMS RENAISSANCE

SLEEP AND LOVE MENTAL
SLEEP, REST, PEACE, SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
SLEEP AND THE LOSS OF AND INNOCENCE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
ALERTNESS AND VIRILITY ANCIENT
NINETEENTH CENTURY
SLEEP, SLOTH, AND MEDIEVAL
TWENTIETH CENTURY
DRUNKENNESS

843
844 SLEEP / SI I I PING

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Gustave Courbet, 77;t> Sleeping Spinner, 185^, Montpellier, France, Musee Fabre.
(Courtesy of Musee Fabre, Montpellier, France)
 SLEEP / SLEEPING 845

c
^^k
^-/
leep is defined as a periodic, temporary condition
humans and animals marked by a diminution of physio-
in sixth century a.d.), which was also incorporated into the
Koran, recounts the story of seven young men living in

logical and psychological functions, its purpose being the Ephesus, Turkey, at the time of Emperor Decius. Persecuted for
restoration of bodily and mental powers. Human beings gener- their Christian beliefs, they took refuge in a cave. There they
ally sleep during the night, but short periods of daytime slum- fell and did not wake up until zoo years later, when, dur-
asleep
ber (known as siesta, nap, or doze) are common. ing the reign of Emperor Theodosius, Christianity had become
In Western culture, sleep carries with it a number of impor- the state religion of the Roman Empire. The legend, generally
tant associations that have determined and shaped its iconog- interpreted as a metaphor for resurrection, is represented in
raphy from classical antiquity to the present: death; love; loss Byzantine, medieval, and Islamic art. Throughout history the
of alertness and virility; sloth and drunkenness; dreams and story of the "long sleep" has returned in many variations, both
visions; and rest, mental peace, and innocence. The following religiousand secular. The fairy tale Sleeping Beauty and
sections correspond largely to these six categories of associa- Washington Irving's "Rip Van Winkle" (in The Sketch Book of
tion, although it will become clear that there is, at times, con- Geoffrey Crayon, Gent., 1819-18Z0) are perhaps best known
siderable overlap among them. This discussion of the iconog- among them.
raphy of sleep will touch on images of personifications of sleep During the Renaissance the connection of sleep with death
(gods, allegories, emblems) and on representations of sleeping seems to have influenced several Renaissance representations of
figures. the Madonna with sleeping Christ Child (Giovanni Bellini,

Piero della Francesca, Cosima Tura, Parmigianino). Although

the meaning of these paintings is often complex, in many
Sleep and Death
instances they seem to allude to a meditation, by the Madonna,
The association of sleep with death dates to the beginning of on the future death of her son. As a prototype of the dead
Western culture. Greek mythology (Hesiod's Tbeogony)
In Christ, the sleeping Christ Child, often with skull and instru-
Hypnos (Sleep) and Thanatos (Death) are the twin sons of ments of the Passion, also occurs in Renaissance and Baroque
Night. Homer {Iliad) has them remove the dead body of prints and folk art.
Sarpedon, son of Zeus, king of the gods, from the Trojan bat- Finally, the analogy between sleep and death finds expres-
tlefield. The scene appears on several Greek red-figure vases, sion in funeral monuments in which the deceased is rendered as
such as Euphronios's calyx krater (circa 590-580 B.C.) in the if asleep. This mode of representation of the dead first occurs

Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, on which Hypnos in so-called kline sculptures on Roman sarcophagus lids and

and Thanatos are rendered as two identical winged gods, sepulchral reliefs. It largely disappears in the Middle Ages and
dressed in soldier's garb. In later Greek vase painting, particu- Renaissance but recurs in the nineteenth century, when numer-
larly on some fifth-century B.C. white lekythoi, the brothers are ous grave monuments, particularly of women and children,
more clearly distinguished from one another. On a fifth-century show the deceased lying in bed or on a couch as if in a tempo-
B.C. lekythos in the British Museum in London, for example, rary slumber. Henri Chapus tomb of the Duchess of Orleans in
Thanatos is painted white, whereas Hypnos is black, no doubt the Royal Chapel at Dreux, France (1885), is a particularly
in reference to the darkness of night. moving example.
Hypnos and Thanatos survived in Roman times as Somnus
and Mors. In Metamorphoses Ovid describes in detail the
Sleep and Love
deeply recessed cave where Somnus dwells in the company of a
"host of sons," including Morpheus, Phantasos, and Phobetor. The association of sleep with love and lovemaking is a natural
The river Lethe (root of the words lethargy and lethal), flowing one. In English and many other languages the expression "to
from the depths of Somnus's cave, connects it with the house of sleep together" is a euphemism for copulation. The late

the dead of Pluto, god of the underworld. Slumbering putti, Hellenistic sculpture of the sleeping Hermaphrodite (circa a.d.
spirits of sleep, often appear on Roman sarcophagi, as do rep- 12.0) in the Museo Nazionale Romano in Rome may be seen as
resentations of the sleeping shepherd Endymion (see below, the embodiment of this intimate relation between love and
"Sleep and Love"). sleep. Also from the Hellenistic period are several sleeping fig-

The association between sleep and death remained powerful ures of Eros, the god of love, including a well-preserved bronze
in the Christian era when death was seen as a prolonged sleep Metropolitan Museum of Art (Z50-150 B.C.) of a chub-
in the

and resurrection as the final awakening. The early medieval by male infant asleep on a rock. According to the scholar
legend of the Seven Sleepers (first known versions are from the Magdalene Soldner, such figures probably served as garden
846 SLEEP S) 1 EPING

statuesand must be read in a Dionysian (erotic) context. In
Roman times the meaning of sleeping infants changed: they
were incorporated in sepulchral monuments where they seem
to have represented the spirit of sleep (see above, "Sleep and
Death"). As an allegory of sleep, the slumbering putto returned
111 Italian Baroque sculpture (Alessandro Algardi), but in
(Apuleius, The Golden Ass); Rinaldo and Armida (Torquato
lasso, l.jGerusalemme Liberata); Cephalus and Aurora
(Ovid, Metamorphoses); Somnus visited by Iris (Ovid,
Metamorphoses); and, most importantly, the sleeping shepherd
Endymion visited by Diana, the goddess of the hunt, or her
sev- alter ego, Selene-Luna (Apollodorus, The Library; Lucian,

enteenth-century prints —
with his head resting on a skull
also could serve as an image of death. Indeed, the sleeping
putto, signifier of Hypnos and Eros as well as Thanatos, is
symptomatic of the close connection in Western thought
between sleep, love, and death (see also the discussion of
— he Dialogues of the Gods; and others). The earliest representa-
tions of this theme are found in Roman wall paintings and
sarcophagi such as the Endymion sarcophagus in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art. As the Romans believed that,
after life, the soul traveled to the moon, Endymion visited by

Endymion below). Luna during his eternal sleep was a consoling image of death.
In painting from the Renaissance onward, sleeping female Together with the sleeping Eros figures discussed at the begin-

nudes, often in a landscape, alone, or in the presence of a lover, ning of this section, Endymion is the classic case of the inter-
are commonplace. Most often they appear in the context of a section of sleep, love, and death.
erotically charged classical myth or a later derivative thereof: In Renaissance painting, Endymion appears for the first
Jupiter, the king of the gods, and the mortal Callisto (Ovid, time in a small cassone (coffer) roundel Diana and Endymion
Metamorphoses); Ariadne on Naxos, with or without the wine (late fourteenth century) by Cima da Conegliano, now in the
god Dionysus (Philostratus, Imagines); Amymone (whose Galleria Nazionale in Parma, Italy. The subject subsequently
story is told by Hyginus, Pindar, Apollodorus, and others) became popular in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century painting
found in the woods by a satyr; Cimone and Efegenia in Rome, Florence, and Bologna, Italy. It also enjoyed a certain

(Boccaccio, Giornata); Venus asleep; and a nymph uncovered vogue in the Netherlands during the seventeenth century. But
by a satyr. itwas in France at the end of the eighteenth century that the
Although the motif of the sleeping female nude seems theme of Endymion found its most striking visualization.
to have originated in the late Hellenistic period with such fig- Anne-Louis Girodet-Trioson's Sleeping Endymion (1791) fea-
ures as the Sleeping Ariadne in the Vatican Museum (copy tures an effeminate, life-size sleeping male nude dramatically
of a late Hellenistic original from circa 150 B.C.), it became illuminated by the pale rays of the moon. More than any pre-
especially popular and Baroque painting.
in Renaissance vious work it suggests the close connection between sleep,
According to art historian Millard Meiss, the sleeping nude love, and death.
in a landscape had its origin in Venice, Italy, where Giorgione's

Sleeping Venus from Dresden, Germany (circa 15 10) seems

Sleep and the Loss of Alertness and Virility
to have served as a source of inspiration for many later
renderings of nude female sleepers. Meiss connects the Sleep makes one vulnerable, as it causes the loss of watchful-
subject of the sleeping Venus (which has neither visual nor ness and alertness. In the Bible, Samson (Judges 16:4-22),
literary sources in antiquity) with Francesco Colonna's Sisera (Judges 4:12-24), and Holofernes (Judith 13:1-10) all

Hypnerotomachia Poliphili (1499) in Venice, which includes a become victims of women when they fall asleep because of
description of a wonderful fountain with a sleeping nymph at fondling, exhaustion, or drink. Countless examples of the fates
its nude is represented
center. In Giorgione's painting a female of these three sleepers can be found in the pictorial arts, from
sleeping outdoors with one arm bent around her head, a ges- Medieval manuscripts to nineteenth-century painting. Often
ture of sleep derived from Greco-Roman Art. they are slumped on the ground or on a bed, overcome by
In the wake of Giorgione's Dresden Venus, the sleeping nude fatigue or in a drunken stupor, helpless against their female
became popular in Venice and beyond. The subject survived assailants. Other examples of endangered sleepers appear in
throughout the seventeenth century, in Italian and northern paintings based on classical mythology. The story of the thou-
European painting, and well into the eighteenth century, when sand-eyed watchman Argus, lulled asleep and subsequently-
such rococo painters as Francois Boucher and Jean-Honore killed by Mercury, messenger of the gods (Ovid, Metamorphoses),
Fragonard favored it. is often depicted in seventeenth-century Dutch painting as a
As an object of erotic attraction, the sleeping female nude model of the dangers of distraction.
remains an important topos in nineteenth- and twentieth-centu- Although the above-mentioned sleeping warriors and
ry art. The work of the French realist painter Gustave Courbet watchmen, through their tragic fates, embody a warning
includes several sleeping nudes (both in natural and indoor set- against sleeping at one's post, another class of sleeping warriors
tings), whose sexual availability and defenselessness make them has a more positive meaning. In paintings of the god of war
highly erotic. Sleeping nudes are also found in nineteenth-centu- Mars sleeping in the company of Venus (works by Botticelli,
ry popular prints (Achille Deveria and others) and soft-pornog- Piero di Cosimo, and Ferdinand Bol), the sleeping god signifies
raphy photographs. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth the peace that is brought about by the power of love.
centuries the subject was treated by such well-known artists as Finally, sleeping warriors may also signify men's inability or
Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Pablo Picasso, and Henri Matisse. unwillingness to see God's greatness. In representations of the
Like the sleeping female nude, her male counterpart occurs Resurrection of Christ, the tomb is often flanked by sleeping
in art in different narrative contexts, such as Cupid and Psyche soldiers who are oblivious to the miracle that takes place right
 si III'/ SLEEPING 847

beside them. The subject has perhaps been treated most face down, naked, with his legs parted, a pose that recalls a
poignantly by Piero della Francesca in his fresco Resurrection famous Hellenistic image of a sleeping drunk satyr, the so-
(early 1450s) in Sansepolcro, Italy. called Barberini l: aun (circa 220 B.C.) in Munich. It was a pose
that would recur frequently in images of drunkenness.
In a secular context, their meaning unchanged, sleeping
Sleep, Sloth, and Drunkenness
drunks make their appearance in seventeenth-century Dutch
The association of sleep with sloth and the neglect of religious and Flemish genre painting by artists such as Adriaen Brouwer,
and civic duty has roots in the Bible. The subject of Christ pray- Adriaen van Ostade, and Jan Steen. A print by Hendrik Bary
ing at Gethsemane, in vain begging his three disciples, Peter, (1670) after Jan van Mieris makes their meaning explicit: a
James, and John, to stay awake with him (Matthew 26: 36-46; laughing man who sticks out his tongue places a pot on the
Mark 14: 32-42; Luke 22: 39-46), has frequently been repre- head of a sleeping drunk woman. The caption reads, De Wijn
sented in art since the Middle Ages. Some of the most famous is een Spotter (Wine is a mocker).

examples appear in Italian fifteenth-century paintings by such

artists as Andrea Mantegna and Giovanni Bellini.
Sleep and Dreams
In the story of Christ atGethsemane, sleep constitutes a neg-
ative force that prevents human beings from performing their In Greek mythology, Hypnos is the friend of the Muses
highest religious duty, prayer. Representations of the so-called (Pindar),no doubt because sleep causes dreams, which are con-
Ladder of Virtue found in Romanesque manuscripts (such as nected with fantasy and creativity. The Romans also thought
one in the Biblioteca Vaticana in Rome, Cod. gr. 394) often of Somnus as the dream dispenser. According to Ovid
include a sleeping figure, alternately defined as hypnos or ace- (Metamorphoses), Somnus's sons, Morpheus, Phobetor, and
dia, among the many vices that hinder the virtuous person (usu- Phantasos, could take on the shapes of different humans, ani-
ally monk) from ascending toward heaven. The idea is
a mals, and inanimate objects that entered into people's dreams.
expressed in more down-to-earth form in Hieronymus Bosch's During the fifteenth century, the Neoplatonists developed a
table top with images of the Seven Deadly Sins (1480-1485) in concept of sleep as a state of vacatio, an emptiness of the
the Prado Museum in Madrid, Spain, in which a monk is human soul that made it particularly receptive to communica-
caught napping by a nun; as well as in seventeenth-century tion with the divine. Hence, sleep in the Renaissance is often
paintings by Nicolaes Maes showing praying or Bible-reading seen as a visionary state, a moment of revelation.
figures dozing off. The dreams and visions is discussed in other
subject of
Sleep prevents humans from performing their secular essays, but a few examples of representations of sleepers who
duties as well. In Philip Galle's print Acedia (circa 1600) a are also dreamers deserve mention here. Although such images
sleeping woman signifies apathy. Seventeenth-century Dutch appear in medieval manuscripts and architectural sculpture,
painting is full of figures, mostly female, who are asleep they occur most frequently in Renaissance art in the guise of a
instead of doing their jobs. Jan Vermeer's Sleeping Girl (circa variety of mythological, biblical, and saintly figures. These fig-

1657) in the Metropolitan Museum of Art and Maes's numer- ures include Hecuba, the mother of Paris, who dreams of giv-
ous scenes of sleeping kitchen maids serve as examples. ing birth to a torch that sets the city of Troy aflame (Ovid,
Sleeping women as emblems of slothfulness continue to be Heroide); Jacob, who dreams of a ladder reaching up to heav-
found in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century art, particularly en with angels ascending and descending (Genesis 28:10-19);
in moralizing images of sleeping spinners (Courbet), seam- Constantine, to whom it is revealed, in the sign of the cross,
stresses, and so forth. that he will defeat Maxentius (Eusebius, Life of Constantine);
From the discussion above it would appear that sloth is gen- and Ursula, who is told by an angel that she and her virgins will
erally represented by sleeping women rather than men. Indeed, die as martyrs in Cologne, Germany. Representations of these
men forsaking their duty because of sleep are relatively rare in dreamers may be found in works by Giulio Romano, Raphael,
art. Constantyn Verhout's painting of a student snoozing Piero della Francesca, and Vittore Carpaccio, respectively.
behind a pile of books, in the National Gallery in Stockholm, A special group within the sleep-dream-vision category is
Sweden, may serve as the exception confirming the rule. constituted by images that show magical "operations" on the
A special subcategory of slothful sleepers is formed by indi- body that are performed while the "patient" is asleep. The
viduals who are sleeping off the effects of drink, and in this prime examples of this theme are paintings and reliefs depict-
group males tend to predominate over females. Sleeping drunks ing the creation of Eve out of a sleeping Adam's rib (Lorenzo
are not only portrayed as lazy, they are also portrayed as hav- Ghiberti's Gates of Paradise, Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel
ing lost their sense of propriety. The loss of decorum is an ceiling). Another example of this theme applied to an unrelat-
important subtext of these lazy sleepers made explicit in the ed subject is Fra Angelico's Miracle of the Deacon Justinian

Old Testament story of Noah, whose shameful behavior is (1438-1440), which depicts Deacon Justinian's leg replacement
topped only by that of his son Ham, who laughs at his own during sleep by Saints Cosmas and Damian. These miraculous
father (Genesis 9:20-27). Images of Noah's drunkenness are operations have a counterpart in nineteenth- and twentieth-
common in art from the Middle Ages onward, particularly in century paintings and photographs of operations performed by
series rendering the narrative of Genesis. Michelangelo's the "saints of modern medicine" during the artificial sleep of
fresco of the subject in the Sistine Chapel (1508-1512) is no narcosis, such as Henri Gervex's Before the Operation (1887)
doubt the most famous among them. Noah is represented lying and Thomas Eakins's The Agnew Clinic (1889).
848 SLIM' / SLEEPING

Sleep, Rest, Mental Peace, and Innocence Medieval

The Dream of St. Marc, relief over the central door, thirteenth
Sleep as reward for hard work is a notion that appears to be
century, Venice, Italy, San Marco
associated in particular with physical toil and the work of farm-
ers and laborers. Drowsy figures are frequently found in paint-
Renaissance
ings of harvesting scenes, such as Pieter Bruegel the Elder's
Cima da Conegliano, Diana and Endymion, painting, late
Harvesters in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, or Jules
fourteenth century, Parma, Italy, Galleria Nazionale
Bastien-Lepage's Haymaking (1878) in the Musee d'Orsay in
Angelico, Fra, Miracle of the Deacon Justinian, predella of
Paris.
San Marco Altarpiece, 1438-1440, Florence, Italy, San
Sleep is also the reward of those who have a clean con-
Marco Museum
science and God. Christ on the Lake of Gennesaret (Sea
faith in
Piero della Francesca, Resurrection, fresco, early 1450s,
of Galilee) (Matthew 8:23-27; Mark 4:36-41; Luke 8:23-25) Sansepolcro, Italy, Pinacoteca
is often shown asleep, undisturbed by a storm that rocks the
Piero della Francesca, Dream of Constantine, fresco,
boat. The theme was a favorite of Eugene Delacroix, who
14 5 2-14 57, Arezzo, Italy, San Francesco
painted it at least 10 times.
Mantegna, Andrea, Agony in the Garden, painting, circa
A related theme, particularly popular in romantic art, is
1460, London, National Gallery
the sound sleep of innocents, most often represented by sleep-
Bellini, Giovanni, Agony in the Garden, painting, circa 1460,
ing children. Paul and Virginie sleeping in the forest (for exam- London, National Gallery
ple, the numerous illustrations in nineteenth-century editions Piero della Francesca, Madonna with Sleeping Child and
of the novel Paul et Virginie by Jacques-Henri Bernardin de
Saints, painting,1472-1474, Milan, Italy, Brera Gallery
Saint-Pierre) or sleeping infants watched by their parents
Venus and Mars, painting, circa 1483, London,
Botticelli,
(William Bouguereau, Berthe Morisot) may serve as exam- National Gallery
ples. mention should also be made of the
In this context
Carpaccio, Vittore, Dream of St. Ursula, painting, circa 1495,
"babes in the wood," popular in nineteenth-century painting, Venice, Accademia
Italy,
sculpture, and popular graphics. The subject of an old English
Piero di Cosimo, Mars and Venus, painting, circa 1 500-1 505,
ballad, the babes in the wood bring us back to the beginning Berlin, Germany, Gemaldegalerie
of this article because, although nineteenth-century represen- Michelangelo, Drunkenness of Noah, fresco, 1508-15 12,
tations of the theme, such as Thomas Crawford's The Babes Vatican, Sistine Chapel
in the Wood (1851), show two toddlers peacefully asleep, Michelangelo, Creation of Eve, fresco, 1508-15 12, Vatican,
they did in fact die in each other's arms: "two prettye babes, Sistine Chapel
til deathe did end their grief, in one another's arms they Giorgione, Sleeping Venus, painting, circa 15 10, Dresden,
dyed." Germany, Gemaldegalerie
Raphael, Jacob's Dream, fresco, 1511-1514, Vatican, Stanza
d'Eliodoro
See also Death; Dreams/Visions; Nightmare Titian,Bacchanal of Andrians, painting, circa 1522-1523,
Madrid, Spain, Prado
Pamigianino, Madonna with the Long Neck, painting,
1 5 34-1 540, Florence, Italy, Uffizi Gallery

Selected Works of Art Seventeenth Century

Galle, Philip, Acedia, engraving, from print series Seven
Ancient
Capital Sins, circa 1600
Euphronios, The Removal of Sarpedon's Dead Body from the
Brouwer, Adriaen, Drinking Peasants, painting, before 1638,
Troian Battlefield by Hypnos and Thanatos, red-figure
The Hague, The Netherlands, Mauritshuis
calyx krater, circa 590-580 B.C., New York, Metropolitan
Algardi, Alessandro, Somnus, black marble, before 1654,
Museum of Art
Rome, Borghese Gallery
Thanatos Painter, The Removal of Sarpedon's Dead Body
Rembrandt van Rijn, Jacob's Dream, etching, 1655
from the Troian Battlefield by Hypnos and Thanatos, (Bartsch 36)
white lekythos, fifth century B.C., London, British Museum Vermeer, Jan, Sleeping Girl, painting, circa 1657, New York,
Sleeping Eros, bronze, 250-150 B.C., New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art
Metropolitan Museum of Art Bol, Ferdinand, Venus and Sleeping Mars, painting, circa
Sleeping Satyr (Barberini Faun), marble, circa 220 B.C.,
1660, Braunschweig, Germany, Herzog Anton Ulrich-
Munich, Germany, Staatliche Antikensammlungen und Museum
Glyptothek Guercino (Giovanni Francesco Barbieri), Sleeping Rinaldo in
Sleeping Ariadne, marble, Roman copy after late Hellenistic Armida's Chariot, fresco, before 1666, Rome, Palazzo
original of circa 150 B.C., Vatican, Vatican Museums Costaguti
Sleeping Hermaphrodite, marble, circa no a.d., Rome, Meyer, Conrad, Memento Mori, engraving, 1667, Hamburg,
Museo Nazionale Romano Germany, Museum fur Kunst und Gewerbe
 SLEEP / SLEEPING

Eighteenth Century Further Reading

Girodet-Trioson, Anne-Louis, Sleeping Endymion, painting,
Covin, Michel, Un Esthetique du sommeil, Paris: Beauchesne,
179 1, Paris, Louvre
1990
Schadow, Johann Gottfried, Tomb of Count von der Mark,
Cumont, Franz, Recherches sur le symbolisme funeraire des
marble, 1790, Berlin, Germany, Dorotheenstiidtische
Romains, Paris, 1942
Kirche
Du (entire issue devoted to the theme of Sleep) (December
1990)
Nineteenth Century
Eger, Jean-Claude, Le Sommeil et la mort dans la Grece
Delacroix, Eugene, Christ on the Lake of Gennesaret,
antique, Paris: Editions Sicard, 1966
painting, 1850s, New York, Metropolitan Museum
Firestone, Gizella, "The Sleeping Christ-Child in Italian
of Art
Renaissance Representations of the Madonna," Marsyas 2
Crawford, Thomas, The Babes in the Wood, marble, 1851,
(1942-)
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art
Kultermann, Udo, "Woman Asleep and the Artist," Artibus et
Courbet, Gustave, The Sleeping Spinner, painting, 1853,
Historiae 11:22 (1990)
Montpellier, France, Musee Fabre
Lee, Rensselaer, "Ut Pictura Poesis: The Humanistic Theory
Courbet, Gustave, Two Women Asleep, painting, 1866, Paris,
of Painting," Art Bulletin 22 (1949)
Musee du Petit Palais
Massignon, "Les sept Dormants d'Ephese (Ahl al-Kahf)
L.,
Burne-Jones, Edward Coley, The Sleeping Princess,
en Islam et en Chretiente, receuil documentaire et
1872-1894, Dublin, Ireland, Municipal Gallery of iconographique," Revue des etudes islamiques 22 (1954),
Modern Art
23 (1955), 25 (1957), 26 (1958), 27 (1959), 28 (i960),
Bastien-Lepage, Jules, Haymaking, painting, 1878, Paris,
29 (1961), 30 (1962)
Musee d'Orsay Meiss, Millard, "Sleep in Venice: Ancient Myths and
Pissarro, Camille,The Rest, painting, 1882, Bremen, Renaissance Proclivities," Proceedings of the American
Germany, Kunsthalle Philosophical Society 110:5 (October 1955)
Chapu, Henri, Tomb of the Duchess of Orleans, marble Moller, Liselotte, "Schlaf und Tod. Ueberlegungen zu zwei
sculpture, 1885, Dreux, France, Royal Chapel Liegefiguren des 17. Jahrhunderts," in Festschrift Erich
Gervex, Henri, Before the Operation, painting, 1887, Paris, Meyer, Hamburg, Germany: Hauswedell, 1959
Musee d'Orsay Muller, W, "Zur Schlafenden Ariadne des Vatikans,"
Eakins,Thomas, The Agnew Clinic, painting, 1889, Mitteilungen des Deutsches archaologisches Instituts Rom
Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania School of
53 (1938)
Medicine Pfister-Burkhalter, Margarete, Die Darstellung des Schlafes in
Redon, Odilon, The Sleep of Caliban, circa 1895, Paris, der abendlandischen Kunst, Basel, Switzerland: Chemische
Ari Redon Collection Industrie, 1946
Renoir, Pierre-Auguste, La Source, painting, circa 1895, Potzsch, Regine, Sleep in Art, Basel, Switzerland: Editiones
Merion, Pennsylvania, Barnes Foundation Roche, 1996
Rousseau, Henri, The Sleeping Gipsy, 1897, New York, Salomon, Nanette, Dreamers, Idlers and Other Dozers:
Museum of Modern Art Aspects of Sleep in Dutch Art (Ph.D. diss., New York
Burne-Jones,Edward Coley, The Sleep of King Arthur in University, 1984)
Avalon, 1898 (unfinished), Ponce, Puerto Rico, Museo Schubring, G., "Schlaf und Tod in der griechischen
de Arte Vasenmalerei," Festschrift Paul Schubring, Leipzig,
Germany, 1929
Twentieth Century Soldner, Magdalene, Untersuchungen zu liegenden Eroten in
Picasso, Pablo, Meditation, watercolor and pen, 1904, New der hellenistischen und romischen Kunst, New York: Lang,
York, Collection Bertram Smith 1986
Dali, Salvador, Sleep, oil on canvas, 1937, private collection Tot lering en vermaak, exhibition catalog, Amsterdam, The
Delvaux, Paul, Sleeping Venus, oil on canvas, 1944, London, Netherlands: Rijksmuseum, 1976 (Cat. nos. 33, 65, 69)
Tate Gallery Zoepfel, Fr., "Das Schlafende Jesuskind mit Totenkopf und

Warhol, Andy, Sleep, silk-screened plastic, 1966, New York, Leidenswerkzeugen," Volk und Volkstum; Jahrbuch fiir

Leo Castelli Volkskunde, Munich, Germany, 1936

 \
t
SPORT
Karen Pinkus

The following periods are covered in the discussion of the theme Sport:

ANCIENT
SEVENTEENTH AND
EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES
NINETEENTH CENTURY
TWENTIETH CENTURY

851
852 SPORT
 sport 853

Alexander Archipenko, Struggle (La Lutte), also

called The Boxers and The Fight, 19 14, bronze,
Milwaukee. Wisconsin, Milwaukee Art Museum,
purchase, Virginia Booth Vogel Acquisition
Fund. (Courtesy of the Milwaukee Art Museum
Collection, Purchase, Milwaukee, Wisconsin)

difficult to imagine an aspect of culture that is as univer- The difficulty in identifying the function of ancient sport
Itsal is

as the concept of sport, but we should be careful to dis- representations is exemplified by the Hellenistic Wrestling
tinguish from the game as structurally agonistic. The
this Croup, restored in the eighteenth century and now in the Uffizi

English word sport is a shortened form of the Middle English Gallery in Italy. Two naked men are tensely locked in
Florence,
disporten, meaning to divert or disport. Etymologically, the a focused context. Although one figure appears dominant in
word sport sustains the radical duality of serio ludere (sport as relation to the other, scholars have struggled to interpret this
jest or pleasantry) and an engagement with a series of repeated incomplete sculpture without precise knowledge of the exact
physical motions that exercise an individual body and insert original position of the arms and legs. Wrestling Group might
that body into a team of exercising bodies. Unlike the game, simply represent two athletes in the pankration, or it might
which figures prominently in various representational practices have been sculpted to commemorate a particular victor. Such
as a moment of tension between at least two opposing parties, figure groups, indicating a struggle in progress (and not a final
sport can be considered as pure physical motion outside of con- decision), were often made for exhibition in gymnasiums,
siderations of intersubjective narrative, political or social con- where they served primarily decorative functions.
flict, or cultural exchange in general. In both visual and verbal language, sport can serve as an

The iconography of sport includes representations of the elaborate metaphor for other, more socially "useful" activities.
athlete whose only •'function" is to express the form or shape In Inuit culture, boys take up sports as a way of preparing
of the body engaged in some physical activity. A wide variety of themselves for adult male hunting tasks, and in many forms of
cultures have produced sculptural or painterly representations so-called primitive representation this visual passage from
of figures either in some typical pose (the discus thrower wind- "play" to "reality" should be understood as essential. Unlike
ing up for the throw, the runner in midstride) or holding a typ- games, often dedicated to, for example, a divine being, the
ical attribute (the "football" in pre-Columbian statues) that nonagonistic sporting practice remains distant from specifical-
identifies that individual with the particular activity practiced. ly sacrificial activities but might be closely linked with hero
Generally, then, such figures "represent" a sport in spite of the worship in that the participants, often (although not exclusive-
fact that he or she is necessarily in a static position — a moment ly)male and physically strong, embody certain cultural values
of repose or anticipation of the kinetic activity itself. to an especially high degree. For example, in Iliad (Book 23)
In addition to proximity to the category of the game,
its the account of funeral games held to honor the dead soldier
sport can also be conflated at times with ritual. The famous Patroclus suggests that the human figure being commemorated
Minoan wall paintings from the second millennium B.C. dis- will enjoy a more "heroic" immortality because of the compe-
covered at Knossos include a scene of bull dancing, in which titions; but the presence of the gods intervening in the outcome
a human figure practices what may have been part of a reli- of the games also links this moment with the divine agon. These
gious rite. Early depictions of the hunt, such as a bas-relief games appear in various visual contexts, including the Attic
from the Assyrian Palace of Ashurbanipal, might serve a ritu- black-figure krater known which includes
as the Frangois Vase,
alistic function but also express some forms of heroism that the hunt of the Calydonian boar as well as the funeral games of
serve to bolster the community or strengthen kinship or trib- Patroclus. The compositional limitations of the krater rorm dic-
al bonds. tated that figures in motion (the esprit de corps, so to speak)
To distinguish sport from the game in a strict sense, howev- would essentially stand one behind another along a horizontal
er, sport should be defined as an act of pure motion. Yet in band with minimal interaction.
many cultures, the practice of various sports is inevitably linked A similar composition can be found in various sculptural
with agon, ritual, or pre- or paramilitary activities (in Greek, representations of sport. In a marble relief of a ball game (circa
agon can refer to an athletic competition or a battle to the 510-500 B.C.) in the National Museum in Athens, Greece, male
death). In ancient narrative, sport is often a convenient device; figures are lined up along a horizontal axis, some overlapping
a catalog of competitors may serve the same kind of function others in order to fit in the space. The sculpture is a very low-
as the Homeric catalog of ships in Iliad, that is, as a way of relief and was apparently meant to serve as a base for a con-
keeping track of military divisions and their components. ventional kouros. The scenes include athletes practicing, and
Roman mosaics of boxing and fighting discovered near Gafsa —
something quite rare in Greek art a team ball game with a
in Tunisia exemplify this sort of categorical function. Within player on the left throwing a ball into a playing arena.
these complex narratives, a victor is indicated by a laurel It is fitting that this relief should have been intended as dec-

crown, or arbiters hold out a palm to the figure on top in a oration for the base of a kouros. Indeed, counterparts to these
wrestling contest. Tables filled with prizes to be awarded are narratives of games or sports are the many statues and drawn
depicted in meticulous detail. Whatever else these mosaics or painted figures of the heroic muscular youth that in some
accomplish, they serve as records of an actual cycle of games. sense define classical aesthetics. The standing male (and espe-
*54 SPORl

daily the kouros) was the most common type of statue in the to the winners of various events), signifying the importance of
classical period. Such figures were used principally to represent sport as a safety valve for social tensions rather than a purely
athletes who had won in major games, even if we do not see competitive struggle to eliminate individuals. The palio races in

these figures engaged in sport. The standard size of such figures medieval and Renaissance Italy that are represented, for exam-
was a little less than life-size. Not until the Hellenistic period ple, on the walls of the Schifanoia Palace in Ferrara helped a
did Greeks commission private sculptures for various purposes, community come to terms with its various classes and their
such as to honor family members in games or athletic competi- interactions. Young men of noble distinction always came in
tions (as distinct from cultic statues of deities in similar poses first, and the most marginal social groups (prostitutes and Jews
or sculptural styles). in the Ferrarese work) kept to the rear. The frescoes, painted for
The fifth-century Discobolus, attributed to the sculptor the d'Este family of Renaissance nobility, could not provide a
Myron of Eleutherae, perhaps one of the most famous antique more seamless account of how an entire community is ranked.
statues, not only represents a male body engaging in sport but Pre-Columbian society played pel'ote (similar to jai alai),
also is constitutive of an entirely aesthetic category of sculpture which was seen by Spanish colonizers as occupying an ambigu-
that cannot be separated from a certain image of masculinity. ous position between ritual and sport, a distinction that would
Discus Thrower {Discobolus) shows the athlete in a contrap- not have surfaced within the indigenous culture in such clearly
posto position, about to launch his discus but straining in such oppositional terms. Representations of the ball players were
a way that we see each flexed muscle. Critics have noticed that often carved in bas-relief or statuary with a full frontal, full-

the athlete appears calm — more posed than in "motion." body image holding the ball. A Mayan vase from the Charles
Discus Thrower was probably constructed first as a frontal W. Bowers Museum in Santa Ana, California, is inscribed with
relief so that the back was carved out later. The same procedure a mythological god playing with a hard rubber ball in the
was probably followed in the production of a bronze statue underworld. The focus of the composition is on the body and
(circa 460 B.C.) found off Cape Artemisium, Greece, depicting its musculature and on the playing apparatus itself. No other

either a god or an athlete (again, the difficulty in identification figures are present, implying the importance of sport for the
results from the widespread popularity of the nude male body). exercise of the individual body over the element of competition.
As with Discus Thrower, the Artemisium javelin thrower's It is difficult to say whether such a representation constitutes an

chest displays no muscular response to the action of the arms aesthetic category in the way that the athlete does within Greek
and could thus belong to a quite static figure. culture, and any attempt to define its value as either ritualistic
Another ancient sculpture of importance for a discussion of or merely representational would only repeat the binary struc-
sport is Apoxyomenos, or "man scraping himself." The exist- tures imposed on the culture by its "civilized" observers.
ing work, a marble statue of a life-size nude man with arm In addition to being a social marker, sport can be a marker
extended, is probably a copy of a bronze statue (circa 330 B.C.) of time. During the Middle Ages in the West, pagan traditions
attributed to Lysippus. If complete, the figure would have been from Islam and Rome interacted with events of the Roman
holding a strigil — a long, thin scoop that athletes used to scrape Catholic church calendar for periodic games, including jousts,
themselves off after exercise. Thus although this statue does ball games, bearbaiting or bullbaiting, forms of billiards and
not represent sport per se, it does provide information about bowling, and hunting. Tournaments and other events were orga-
the more mundane attention to the body associated with phys- nized by feudal lords and the clergy, either as aristocratic pas-
ical culture in the ancient world. times or as organized social activities for the general population.
It is difficult to view these canonical classical bodies without But the idea of regularly scheduled calisthenic movement for the
considering the homoeroticism of the entire culture of the gym- masses was still inconceivable until the gradual increase in
nasium —the tutelage of young boys by older men that was so leisure time brought on by the Industrial Revolution. Thus,
central to the organization of social relations in Greece. As the throughout the early modern period, the representation of sport
nude male body tends to disappear over time from Western aes- (often interchangeable with notions of the game) often takes one
thetics, especially with the privileging of oil painting over other of two forms: either a portrait of nobility or a social catalog or,
forms, the classical body becomes amore problematic and per- in the case of a distinctive work like Pieter Bruegel the Elder's
haps disturbing theme. The supernatural powers of the athlete Children's Games, a broad metaphor
which the uselessness of
in

are replaced by a more bourgeois conception of leisure time that games represents moral decrepitude but within the narcologi-
also finds the reclining, inviting, sexualized female body as the cal tradition of the catalog.
object of a male gaze. In some narratives, sport is also a means During the early modern period, sport was often included as
of defining and ordering social groups. Only rich, well-born part of the education of a noble boy, and various manuals
Greeks competed in the early games, setting the cultural para- demonstrate body position or technique. An important fencing
digm for Western representational practices linking status with manual of the sixteenth century, Federico Ghisliero's Regole di
physical well-being. Women also participated in sports in antiq- molti cavagliereschi essercitii, illustrates proper body position
uity, although they were banned from the Olympic Games. The against geometric charts, vectors, and angles. Richly illustrated,
figure of Atalanta, the mythological virgin huntress, was known the treatise follows Aristotelian theoretical principles of move-
for her expert skills as a runner, and she is represented in sculp- ment. Indeed, the tradition of utilizing visual aids for physical
ture, vase painting, and other forms. Nevertheless, the figure of combat dates to the wrestlers at Beni Hasan, Egypt (2050 B.C.).
the athlete is most closely associated with masculine values, Like fencing or boxing, hunting is important to the self-rep-
especially as it is imitated in later, neoclassical art. resentation of the elite classes. A princely hunt scene from a
Sport can be a social equalizer. In Iliad, even the last-place Shiraz manuscript of India shows the central figure (the prince)
charioteer receives a prize (not as prestigious as those bestowed engaged in a duel, wielding his spear from atop a horse. The mul-
 SPORT 855

tifigured scene is typical of representations from a variety of cul- Alexander Archipenko's The Boxers, a bronze cubist sculp-
tures. In the West, the noble on horseback is a subgenre of por- ture, reflects the ancient practice of reducing sport to a repre-
traiture in which both the rider and the horse display common sentation of ideal, harmonious muscular effort. This piece was
aristocratic stances. The upper class also saw itself mirrored in sculpted during Archipenko's "golden section" phase. Along
"leisure" activities of spectatorship: Jean-Leon Gerome's Pollice with other cubists, Archipenko belonged to a movement that
Verso (Thumbs Down), a late-nineteenth-century oil painting, sought a return to the pure and harmonious measurements of
renders a bloody battle of Roman gladiators witnessed by a well- antiquity.As a theme, then, sport transcends the beauty of pure
to-do audience in contemporary dress. There is a clear equation motion and forces the viewer to consider the supremacy of the
made in this work between the "nobility" of upper classes and body in its possible relation with divinity or sublimity.
the antiquity of ancient athletic practices. This notion of sport transcendent is finally codified in the
With the birth of mass and the rise of the middle
leisure heroization of the demiurgic athlete, such as American basket-
classes, sport finally takes on the physiognomy of pastime. To ball star Michael Jordan, with his image emblazoned on a wide
the degree that the bourgeoisie lives as a reflection of (degrad- variety of media, from T-shirts to billboards, which are so dom-
ed) noble values, this is merely an appropriation of long-stand- inant in current visual culture. Called "Air Jordan" for his abil-
ing representational codes by a wide segment of the populace. ity around the basket, Jordan is routinely deified in
to "float"
In particular, gymnastics comes to embody the new body of the print advertisements and commercials that either exaggerate his
middle class. As an aesthetic code, this activity imitates the neo- actual physical capabilities or simply represent his body in
classical, aristocratic, muscled body, but now its lines are not motion as an ideal and associated with a product on the market.
quite so attenuated, nor is it quite so stiff or perfected in its

motions. Then again, this middle-class body, represented in

mass culture in various poses (e.g., skiing, swimming, diving,

See also Hunting/Hunter/Huntress; Naked/Nude
ice-skating, and stretching), will be filtered down into a work-
ing-class ideal, thickened at the waist in fascism, and desexual-
ized. A poster for a diving exhibition from the Soviet Union
includes images of identical, perfect, degendered bodies in a
Selected Works of Art
"totalitarian" formation. But we should add a cautionary note:
These forms of sport in art officially commissioned by modern Ancient
political regimes do not necessarily correspond with working- Lion Hunt, bas-relief, ninth century B.C., Ninevah, Assyria,
class practices themselves. Activities such as pub sports, gam- North Palace of Ashurbanipal
bling, betting on horses, and bowling are not necessarily part of Kleitias, Francois Vase, Attic black-figure krater, circa 575
any artistic canon, nor do they find specific, codified cultural B.C., from Chiusi, Italy, now in Florence, Italy, Museo
paradigms. On the other hand, contemporary mass culture, Archeologico
especially various forms of advertising, abounds with elements Figure of a Running Girl, bronze, circa 550-520 B.C., from
of the sporting body, and this is true over a wide spectrum of Prisrend, Yugoslavia, now in London, British Museum
ethnic and national boundaries. Myron, Discus Thrower {Discobolus), bronze sculpture,
In the context of American painting, George Bellows's Roman copy after Greek original, circa 450 B.C., Rome,
striking fight scene Stag at Sharkey's (1909) takes liberties with Museo Nazionale Romano
realism but captures the savage brutality of the ring. When Apoxyomenos, marble sculpture, Roman copy after Greek
criticized for his loose attention to anatomy and musculature, original, circa 330 B.C., Vatican
Bellows was quoted as saying, "I don't know anything about Wrestling Group, Hellenistic sculpture fragment, Florence,
boxing. I'm just painting two men trying to kill each other." Italy, Uffizi Gallery
Although born in the Midwestern United States, Bellows was Apollonios of Athens, Seated Boxer, bronze, circa 50 B.C.,
trained at the New York School of Art, and this work exempli- Rome, Museo Nazionale Romano
fies rough-minded realism rather than classical ideals of the Mayan Vase, a.d. 550-950, Santa Ana, California, Charles W.
body in motion. Bowers Museum
In modernism, there seems to be an inevitable link between
sports and nationalism that was finally crystallized in fascist Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries
and totalitarian physical education policies. For example, in Velazquez, Diego, Portrait of Gaspar de Guzman (on
countless representations from the 1920s and 1930s, individual horseback), painting, circa 1634, Madrid, Spain, Prado
bodies lose their identities to a formation. Nazi propaganda of
mass rallies, photography of sporting events, and so on enter Nineteenth Century
the mass cultural vocabulary. We might conclude, finally, that Katsushita Hokusai, Wrestlers, sketch, 1814-1815
the modernist and totalitarian revival of the classical body in Gerome, Jean-Leon, Pollice Verso {Thumbs Down), painting,
this context produces a new aesthetic but one that inevitably 1872, Phoenix, Arizona, Phoenix Art Museum
mimics sports from the ancient world and so raises troubling
questions about the centrality of athletic activity to any cohe- Twentieth Century
sive social group (and thus even to a liberal democracy). In Luks, George, The Wrestlers, oil on canvas, 1905, Boston,
Italy, the futurists were very interested in the "pure motion" of Museum of Fine Arts
sport. Works such as Umberto Boccioni's Dynamism of a Bellows, George, Stag at Sharkey's, oil, 1909, Cleveland,
Cyclist capture the athlete in the midst of his activity. Ohio, Cleveland Museum of Art
,X
S 6 M'OKT

Bellows, George, Both Members of This Club, oil on cam. is, Decker, Wolfgang, Die physische Leistung Pharaos, Cologne,
1909, Washington, D.C., National Gallery ot Art Germany: Deutschen Sporthochschute Koln, 1971
Gleizes, Albert, Football Player, oil on canvas, [912-19: }, The Art of Baseball, New York: Harmony,
Dinhofer, Shelly,
Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art 1990
Gill, Eric, Boys Boxing, sculpture, [93 5, London, Tate Gennies, Lilo, Kurzweil und liitterspil, Fssen, Germany: Blaue
Gallery Eule,1986
Archipenko, Alexander, The Boxers, bronze sculpture, 1914, Guttmann, Allen, "Faustian Athletes? Sports as a Theme in

Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Milwaukee Art Museum Modern German Literature," Modern Fiction Studies 33:1
Bellows, George, Dempsey and Firpo, oil on canvas, 1924, (Spring 1987)
New York, Whitney Museum of American Art , Games and Empires: Modern Sports and Cultural
Klutsis, Gustav, Spartakiada Divers, colored paper, collage, Imperialism, New York: Columbia University Press,
photomontage, and gouache on cardboard, Riga, State Art 1995
Museum of Latvia Kennedy Galleries, New York, American Sports and
Young, Mahonn, Middleweight (Enzo Fiermonte), bronze, Sportsmen: Paintings of the Nineteenth and Twentieth
circa 1929, location unknown Centuries, exhibition catalog, New York: Kennedy
Shahn, Ben, Handball, tempera on paper, 1939, New York, Galleries, 1968
Museum of Modern Art Kiihnst, Peter, Sports: A Cultural History in the Mirror of Art,
London: Gordon and Breach, 1996
Montreuil, Thierry, "Sport et Theatre: Histoire de
Further Reading Mimetisme?" Avant-Scene Theatre 824 (February 15,

Achenback-Kosse, Marion, "Die Ringergruppe in Florenz," 1988)

Antike Kunst 32 (1989)
Angelo, Sidney, "Sixteenth-Century Italian Drawings
Federico Ghisliero's Regole di molti cavagliereschi
essercitii," Apollo 140 (November 1994)
Arts Council of Great Britain, British Sporting Painting:
1650-1850, exhibition catalog, London: Arts Council of
Great Britain, 1974
Baillie-Grohman, William Adolph, Sport in Art: An
Iconography of Sport, London: Ballantyne, 1919
Baker, William J., Sports in the Western World, Urbana:
University of Illinois Press, 1988
Briers, Audrey, Sporting Success in Ancient Greece and Rome,
Oxford: Ashmolean Museum, 1995
Carvallo, Jose Deustua, "Soccer and Social Change in Early
Twentieth Century Peru," Studies in Latin American
Popular Culture 3 (1984)
Robinson, Basil William, Persian Paintings in the John
in Rylands Library, London: Southeby Parke Bernet, 1980
Sports et Jeux dans I'art Precolombien du Mexique,
exhibition catalog, Paris: Euros, 1968
Sport in Art from American Museums, exhibition catalog,
New York, 1990
Sport in der Kunst, exhibition catalog, Munich, Germany:
Bruckmann, 1972
Titley,Nora, Sports and Pastimes: Scenes from Turkish,
Persian and Mughal Paintings, London: British Library,
1979
Tyler, Martin, editor, Encyclopaedia of Sports, London and
New York: Marshall Cavendish, 1975
Zingg, Paul J., editor, The Sporting Image: Readings in
American Sport History, Lanham, Maryland: University
Press of America, 1988
 SUBLIME
David D. Nolta

The following genres and periods are covered in the discussion of the theme Sublime:

LANDSCAPE: RENAISSANCE FIGURAL WORKS:

SEVENTEENTH AND
LANDSCAPE: SEVENTEENTH
EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES
AND EIGHTEENTH
CENTURIES FIGURAL WORKS:
NINETEENTH CENTURY
LANDSCAPE: NINETEENTH
CENTURY
FIGURAL WORKS:
RENAISSANCE

857
8sN SUBLIME
 Nil'. LIME 8 59

Gian Lorenzo Bernini, The Ecstasy of

St.Teresa, 1647, sculpture, Rome, S. Maria
della Vittoria, Cornaro Chapel. (Courtesy
of Alinari/Art Resource, New York)

he term sublime most commonly used in the adjectival

is of the eighteenth-century response to the Italian Renaissance
M. man-made wonders of noble
sense to describe natural or and post-Renaissance art so idolized by his countrymen during
or exalted character that arrest the sight of, and inspire awe in, what was the age of "the grand tour."
the viewer. However, to determine and explore an iconography Many of Burke's contemporaries and followers were also
of the sublime, it is also helpful to consider the word's more most notable among
interested in issues of the sublime in art,
technical, scientific connotation: a verb meaning to purify a them being the writer Horace Walpole and the first president of
solid by heating it to its gaseous state, then recondensing the the Royal Academy, Sir Joshua Reynolds. From the writings of
vapor. The following discussion consequently takes into these and others arose a concept of artistic sublimity based
—
account not only sublime art art that is or represents what is upon the physical magnitude of the work, the physical magni-
powerful and awe-inspiring, a highly subjective topic —but the tude of the subject represented, the grandeur of the artist's con-
art —
of the sublime art that deals with the confrontation of the ception, the dramatic richness of the representation, and the
physical world, especially the tangible human body, with the skill in its execution. For example, the monumental works of
spiritual world, with death, and with God, a confrontation Michelangelo, whose virtuosity had long since rendered them
that, whether it results in purification or destruction, inevitably divine in the eyes of his commentators, became perfect speci-
leads to a complete human transformation. mens of the sublime.
The most celebrated discussion of the sublime in ancient Gradually, however, the term sublime came to be used pre-
times is found Greek
in a treatise traditionally ascribed to the dominantly, if not exclusively, in reference to an unofficial
rhetorician and philosopher Longinus, whose origins are vague school of landscape painting, the father and most brilliant
and controversial. Peri Hitpsous (early first century a.d., On exponent of which was Salvator Rosa, a seventeenth-century
the Sublime) deals almost exclusively with locating the sublime painter from the south of Italy whose name became synony-
and identifying those qualities that make the works
in literature mous with the sublime. In any of a large corpus of landscapes
of Homer and the Greek dramatists worthy of the term. For attributed to Rosa, all the properties of the sublime landscape
Longinus, these qualities are summarized as "an eminence and can be seen: dark and threatening skies, windblown and blast-
excellence in language," and an effect of ecstasy rather than ed trees, unquiet seas, ruined castles, jagged rocks, and the
persuasion. Although Longinus's On the Sublime does not gaping black jaws of caves. Above all, these scenes evoke an
specifically address the visual arts, the general ideas of his writ- ever-present sense of danger, whether from the storm clouds,
ings were extracted and applied to the visual arts by consider- from the banditti (bandits) who lurk in the middle ground, or
ably later European, and especially English, writers during the from some source outside the picture frame.
Enlightenment's revival of ancient critical methods and con- Rosa had a great number of copyists and followers in Italy
cerns. It is to these eighteenth-century writers that we owe our and abroad, most of whom followed, without significant vari-
modern conception of the sublime in the visual arts, and of sub- ation, the master's formulas for the sublime landscape. Rosa
limity as a criterion for regarding the visible world. also had a profound influence on later landscape artists of the
What Longinus is to the classical idea of the sublime in lit- highest originality and merit. The true heir to the genius of
erature, Edmund Burke is to the modern idea of the sublime in Rosa, and the culmination of two centuries of sublime land-
art. Like its ancient prototypes, Burke's Philosophical Enquiry scape painting, was the nineteenth-century English artist Joseph
into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful Mallord William Turner, who in fact considered himself the
(1757) is a fairly theoretical text. It contains numerous refer- rival of the great seventeenth-century landscape painters, par-
ences to classical literature, William Shakespeare, and John ticularly Claude Lorrain. In works such as The Slave Ship
Milton. In addition, Burke further isolates and examines indi- (1840), which depicts the barbarism of sailors on board a ship
vidual components of the natural world for instance, light — trapped in a violent storm at sea, Turner captures the inex-
—
and color and their role in producing a sublime vision in the orable rage of nature. Here again are the elements of the tradi-
arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture. For example, gen- tional sublime landscape —
the dark sky and seas, the wind, and
erally speaking, monumentality and shadow increase the sub- the danger —
but utterly transformed into a scene of unprece-
lime element in architecture, as do somber or dark colors and dented magnitude and drama. In numerous depictions of
vast perspectives in painting. The result of these numerous, storms and avalanches, Turner explored the possibilities of the
detailed postulates is not, however, a general formula for the sublime landscape, and he remains the greatest practitioner of
creation of sublime works of art, which ultimately depends the genre in modern times.
upon the presence of genius. Nevertheless, in his attempt to elu- Several of Turner's scenes of natural disasters allude, at least
cidate the differences between the sublime and the beautiful, nominally, to biblical events such as the Flood. This is also true
and in associating the former with magnificence, drama, dark- of the visionary paintings by Turner's fellow Englishman, John
ness, and terror, Burke at once summarized and shaped much Martin. In a work such as Martin's Belshazzar's Feast (1820),
860 SUBLIME

the viewer is confronted with .1 panorama of architecture and Although the illustration of experiences traditionally identified

nature that functions as an active backdrop to a scene of divine as sublime decreases throughout the late nineteenth and twen-
retribution. The Old Testament was especially rich m literary tieth centuries, it is possible to extend our conception of the
images long considered sublime and therefore worthy of trans- sublime in art to include much of the modern art, whether
lation into large-scale paintingsand sculptures. In particular, abstract or surreal, that seeks to address and explore the spiri-
Genesis and the Book of Job provided Burke and numerous tual, the supernatural, and the human relationship to the divine
other writers and artists, most obviously William Blake, with that is the essence of the sublime.
examples of, and inspiration for, visions of the confrontation
between human beings and their maker in the infinite spaces of
the newly created world. (St. John and John Milton were also See also Apocalypse; Ecstasy
natural sources.) Of course, Blake wasn't a landscape painter,
but the absorption of the sublime by the landscape genre was
very much an incomplete eighteenth-century phenomenon.
Selected Works of Art
The most important feature of the art of the sublime, which
is a constant, whether the work is a landscape painting or a Landscape: Renaissance
monumental figural sculpture is the participation of a divine Leonardo da Vinci, Landscape with a Storm in the Alps,

force. The presence of a Creator, acting through, or inter- drawings, circa 1503
changeable with, the powerful forces of nature, is assumed in
the landscapes of the sublime from Rosa to Turner. The con- Landscape: Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries
frontation between human beings and God, whether on a per- Rosa, Salvator, Landscape with the Finding of Moses, circa
sonal or apocalyptic scale, has been one of the great concerns 1650, Cincinnati, Ohio, Art Museum
of Western artists since primitive times, particularly those of the Poussin, Nicolas, Winter, from the Four Seasons, 1 660-1 664,
late Renaissance and Baroque periods. Examples of the sublime Paris, Louvre
in art on the subject in the
prior to the formalization of theories Peeters, Bonaventura, A Shipwreck off the American Coast,
eighteenth century can be found in theworks of such masters circa 1648
as Titian and Correggio. Correggio, in his celebrated mytho- Ruisdael, Jacob van, The Jewish Cemetery, circa 1670,
logical paintings The Rape of Ganymede and Jupiter and lo Dresden, Germany, Gemaldegalerie
(circa 1532.), both now in Vienna, Austria, depicted intimate Ruisdael, Jacob van, The Portuguese-Jewish Cemetery, St.

encounters between gods and mortals. In each case, the emo- Oudekerk, 1 660-1 670, Detroit, Michigan, Detroit
tional reaction of the human being is a complex mixture of fear Institute of Art
and pleasure. In the expression of lo, especially, the artist has Rosa, Salvator, Landscape with Soldiers and Hunters, before
successfully depicted the ecstasy that is, according to Longinus, 1673, Paris, Louvre
the effect of a sublime experience. Wilson, Richard, The Destruction of Niobe's Children, circa
In the Ovidian tale of Jupiter and lo, the maiden lo is ulti- 1 760-1761, Boston, Museum of Fine Arts

mately transformed into a heifer by her union with the king of Wright, Joseph, of Derby, An Eruption of Mount Vesuvius,
the gods, Jupiter. When viewed in this sense, as the destruction Seen from Portici, oil on canvas, 1 774-1 776, Aberystwyth,

or transformation of a human being as a result of an encounter University College of Wales

with the divine, the sublime experience can be understood as Wright, Joseph, of Derby, Eruption of Mount Vesuvius with
life's climactic experience, irrevocably altering both body and the Procession of St. Januarius' Head, circa 1778,
spirit. This is, of course, as much the subject of Turner's The Moscow, Russia, Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts
Slave Ship as it is of Correggio's mythologies. Volaire, Pierre-Jacques, Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in iyyi,
The most interested in, and renowned for, depicting
artist 1779, Rouen, France, Musee des Beaux- Arts
such experiences was the Italian Baroque sculptor Gian
Lorenzo Bernini. The Ecstasy of St. Teresa (1647), and even Landscape: Nineteenth Century
more subtly The Death of the Blessed Ludovica Albertoni Vanderlyn, John, View of Niagara Falls, 1803, Albany, New
(1674), combine all the elements of the sublime: from the York, Albany Institute of History and Art
encounter of a mortal creature with God present by proxy in — Turner, Joseph Mallord William, The Shipwreck, 1805,
the angel of The Ecstasy, and invisible but unmistakable in the London, Tate Gallery
facial expression and electrified draperies of the dying Koch, Joseph Anton, Schmamadribach, 1808-1811, Leipzig,
—
Ludovica to the seeming infinitude of space and time in which Germany, Museum der Bildenden Kunste
the mystical events occur. Bernini'swork can be seen as the Turner, Joseph Mallord William, Snow Storm: Hannibal
culmination of the art of the sublime, insofar as it both suc- Crossing the Alps, 18 12, London, Tate Gallery
cessfully portrays human beings immersed in sublime experi- Willis, George B., Niagara, 18 16, Toronto, Ontario, Royal
ences and reproduces the sublimity of the vision or interaction Ontario Museum
for the external observer. Turner, Joseph Mallord William, The Field of Waterloo, 1818,
Like Rosa's monumental works of nature, or the paintings London, Tate Gallery
of later artists in which natural wonders are represented, the Martin, John, Belshazzar's Feast, 1820, Hartford,
effect of Bernini's sculptures is, toborrow from Longinus on Connecticut, Wadsworth Atheneum
the speeches of the great orators, "like a lightning flash" that Caspar David, Arctic Shipwreck, 1824, Hamburg,
Friedrich,
reveals "at a stroke and in its entirety" the genius of the artist. Germany, Kunsthalle
 SUBLIME 86l

Cole, Thomas, Landscape Composition, Saint John in the Blake, William, illustrations for Book of Job, pen and
Wilderness, 1827, Hartford, Connecticut, Wadsworth watercolor, circa 1 805-1 806
Atheneum Friedrich, Caspar David, Monk by the Sea, 1809, Berlin,
Pratt,Henry Cheever, Moses on the Mount, 1 828-1 829, Germany, Staatliche Schlosser, Garten und Seen
Shelburne, Vermont, Shelburne Museum Blake, William, illustrations for Dante's Divine Comedy,
Cole Thomas, The Subsiding of the Waters of the Deluge, chalk, pencil, pen, and watercolor, 1 824-1 827
1829, Washington, D.C., National Museum of American Briullov, Karl Pavlovic, The Last Day of Pompeii, oil on
Art canvas, 1830-183 3, St. Petersburg, Russia, Russian
Turner, Joseph Mallord William, The Slave Ship, 1840, Museum
Boston, Massachusetts, Museum of Fine Arts Brown, Ford Madox, Manfred on the Jungfrau, 1839-1840,
Martin, John, The Great Day of His Wrath, 1 851-1854, Oxford, Ashmolean Museum
London, Tate Gallery
Hamilton, James, Last Days of Pompeii, 1864, New York,
Brooklyn Museum
Innes, George, Niagara Falls, 1893, Washington, D.C., Further Reading
Hirshhorn Museum Burke, Edmund, A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin
of our Ideas of the Sublime and the Beautiful, Oxford
Figural Works: Renaissance
and New York: Oxford University Press, 1990
Correggio, Jupiter and Io, circa 1532, Vienna, Austria,
Crowther, Paul, The Kantian Sublime: From Morality
Kunsthistorisches Museum
to Art, Oxford and New York: Oxford University
Michelangelo, The Last Judgment, 153 5-1 538, Vatican,
Press, 1989
Sistine Chapel
de Bolla, Peter, The Discourse of the Sublime: Readings in
History, Aesthetics and the Subject, Oxford: Blackwell,
Figural Works: Seventeenthand Eighteenth Centuries
1989
Caravaggio, The Conversion of St. Paul, 1601, Rome, S.
Manwaring, Elizabeth Wheeler, Italian Landscape in
Maria del Popolo
Eighteenth Century England, Oxford and New York:
Lanfranco, Giovanni, The Ecstasy of St. Margaret of Cortona,
Oxford University Press, 1925
circa 161 8-1620, Florence, Italy, Palazzo Pitti
McKinsey, Elizabeth, Niagara Falls: Icon of the American
Rosa, Salvator, The Temptation of St. Anthony, circa
Sublime, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1 645-1 649, Florence, Italy, Palazzo Pitti

Bernini, Gian Lorenzo, The Ecstasy of St. Teresa, sculpture, 1985

The Empire of the Eye, Ithaca, New York,
Miller, Angela,
1647, Rome, S. Maria della Vittoria, Cornaro Chapel
Bernini, Gian Lorenzo, The Death of the Blessed Ludovica and London: Cornell University Press, 1993
Albertoni, 1674 Monk, Samuel Holt, The Sublime, New York: Modern
Jones, Thomas, The Bard, 1774, Cardiff, National Museum Language Association of America, 1935
of Wales Paley,Morton D., The Apocalyptic Sublime, New
Loutherbourg, Philip James de, Visitor to an Ancient Haven, Connecticut, and London: Yale University
Churchyard, 1790, New Haven, Connecticut, Yale Center Press, 1986
for British Art Prickard, Arthur Octabius, translator, Longinus on the
Blake, William, illustrations for Urizen, color printed relief Sublime, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1930
etching, finished in watercolor, 1794-circa 1795 Salerno, Luigi, Salvator Rosa, Milan, 1963
Weiskel, Thomas, The Romantic Sublime, Baltimore,
Figural Works: Nineteenth Century Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976
Blake, William, illustrations for Jerusalem, line engraving, Wilton, Andrew, Turner and the Sublime, Chicago and
circa 1804-18 20 London: University of Chicago Press, 1980
 TEMPTATION
Alicia Craig Faxon

The following iconographic narratives are covered in the discussion of the theme Temptation:

ODYSSEUS TEMPTATION OF CHRIST LITERARY THEMES

AENEAS TEMPTATION OF SECULAR TEMPTATION

ADAM AND EVE ST. ANTHONY
TEMPTATION TO RICHES
DAVID AND BATHSHEBA

863
864 " MFTATION
 II NUTATION 865

Martin Schongauer, St. Anthony Battling

with Demons, late fifteenth century,

engraving, Boston, Museum of Fine Arts,

Gift of Mrs. W. Scott Fitz and Duplicate
Print Fund. (Courtesy Museum of Fine
Arts, Boston)

emptation is that which tempts or tries a person's desires for it as part of the Oedipus complex (the prohibition of the
Jl and character. We see the crux of the matter in the immor- father to the son against annexing the mother) and as a projec-
tal words of Oscar Wilde: "I can resist everything except temp- tion of a person's desires onto the object desired, thereby blam-
tation. ..." (Lady Windermere's Fan, act II). One person's ing the object as temptation rather than one's own desires.
temptation might be another's salvation. Everyone's temptation The temptation in Genesis has provided innumerable artists

is different, but there are major temptations we all share, such with an important visual theme, among them Albrecht Diirer in
as those to power, wealth, acceptance, sensuality, knowledge, an engraving of Adam and Eve; Michelangelo on the Sistine
control, and pride. Chapel ceiling in the Vatican; Lucas Cranach in the Isabella
In classical literature, the temptation is often love or ease. Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston; Titian in the Prado in
The heroes are tempted to give up their larger mission. This, of Madrid, Spain; Peter Paul Rubens in the Mauritshuis in The
course, is very male oriented. The battle, the voyage, or the mis- Hague, The Netherlands; and countless illustrations for the
sion is all-important, and this is appropriate for a society dom- Bible.
inated by the masculine values that created such sagas as Iliad, In 1 504, Diirer made an engraving of the first man and
Odyssey, and Aeneid. In Odyssey, temptation is presented in woman in Eden before the Fall. Both were intended to show the
the form of the beautiful nymph Calypso, with whom Odysseus acme of God's creation: Adam, standing on the left, modeled
dallies until recalled by Athena, the goddess of wisdom, to his after Apollo Belvedere, the most esteemed example of classical
mission (Odyssey, Book V). In a similar manner, his men are male grace from antiquity, and Eve, facing him in profile on the
tempted to a life of slothful ease and pleasure in the land of the right, intended as an example of perfect female-figure propor-
lotus-eaters until Odysseus recalls them to their duty (Odyssey, tions. The serpent, wound around the tree in the center of the
Book IX). Circe as temptress lures men by their sensual composition that divides the pair, gives an apple to Eve while
appetites and then turns them into swine in Book X of Adam holds a partially eaten fruit. Around the pair four ani-
Odyssey, until Odysseus forces her to return them to their mals — a cat, an and an ox, symbols of the four
elk, a hare,
rightful forms so they can get on with their voyage. The temp- humors or temperaments of humanity indicate that all of —
tation to give up a mission or take the easy way out was one Adam and Eve's descendants are implicated in the temptation
that a male-dominated society could not tolerate. A similar and Fall. This version of temptation contrasts with Diirer's two
temptation occurs in Book IV of Virgil's Aeneid when Aeneas oil panels of Adam and Eve, painted four years later. Here,

wants to stay in Carthage with Dido, but Zeus, the king of the both figures are shown frontally, the serpent and tree on Eve's
gods, calls him to his duty to found Rome (stanza 35), leaving side on the far right and Adam holding an untouched apple on
Dido to immolate herself on a funeral pyre. a branch. This pair indicates a change in Diirer's ideal of per-
The earliest biblical temptation story precedes the Fall of fect human proportions, as they are more slender than the
Adam and Eve in Here Eve is tempted by the serpent
Genesis 3. engraved figures, with a ratio of around nine heads to body
to eat the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge (traditionally an apple length instead of the earlier eight. The later Adam and Eve have
but not named as such in the account) and to pass the fruit on more Germanic features and coloring and seem to float rather
to Adam. After they have eaten, they realize that they are than stand firmly on the ground, as in the earlier engraving.
naked, so they make aprons of leaves and hide when God The overall effect seems more Gothic than Italian Renaissance,
appears in the garden. Their disobedience is recognized when perhaps even protomannerist. Placing the serpent on Eve's side
Adam says that they hid because they were naked, and God seems to reflect blame on her for temptation rather than on
replies, "Who told thee that thou wast naked? Hast thou eaten both, as implied in the earlier version.
of the tree, whereof I commanded thee that thou shouldest not Other occasions of temptation in the Old Testament and
eat?" (Genesis 3:11). Adam then blames Eve, who in turn says Apocrypha present women as temptresses, as in the episode of
that the serpent made
her do it, a scene perfectly embodied in Joseph and Potiphar's wife, painted by Rembrandt van Kijn
on the relief of the bronze doors of Bishop
early Christian art and other artists. In the account of Susanna and the Elders in
Bernward on the Church of St. Michael's in Hildesheim, the Apocrypha, Susanna, although clearly a victim, represents
Germany (1015), where God points accusingly at Adam, who Temptation, as does Bathsheba, the wife of Uriah the Hittite,

points at Eve, who points down to the serpent. whom David sees bathing on the roof. As told in II Samuel 1

A twelfth-century relief of Eve by Gislebertus at the Cathedral and tempted by seeing the unaware Bathsheba,
12, David,
of Autun in France shows Eve undulating through foliage like a sends for her. When she becomes pregnant by him, he tries to
serpent,making her the tempter, not the serpent. The blaming of recall her husband Uriah home from the war. However, Uriah
woman as a symbol of the flesh responsible for the world's ills is does not cohabit with Bathsheba and is returned to the thick of
not exclusive to Christianity; it occurs also in Buddhism, battle, where he is killed. David then takes Bathsheba as one of
Hinduism, and other religions. Psychological literature accounts his many wives.
866 TEMPTATION

The tempting figure of Bathsheba bathing appears in vari- they shall bear thee up, any time thou dash thy foot
lest at

ous compositions and interpretations. The mannerist painting "Thou shalt not tempt the
against a stone," but Jesus replies,
of Cornelisz. van Haarlem, Bathsheba in the Bath (1694), Lord thy God" by compelling him to perform a miracle to
ignores the text and sets the scene in a landscape. The nude show his own power (Matthew 4:6-7). Finally, the devil shows
Bathsheba appears in three-quarter view on the right, contrast- Jesus all the kingdoms of the world that will be his if he will
ing with a black female nude next to her and the back view of worship the devil. Jesus replies,"Get thee hence, Satan: for it is
another nude on the left, all seated at a tiled pool. Here, the written, Thou shalt worship the Lord thy God, and him only
biblical story served only as a pretext to show contrasting shalt thou serve" (Matthew 4:10).
female nude figures and poses. Rubens's treatment painted in Luke two temptations, which seems a more
reverses the last
1636 shows a semidraped blonde woman at a fountain; a correct account, as temptation to worldly wealth and power
Moorish page brings her David's message on the right. In might be less than the temptation to prove divinity. In art, the

Rembrandt's Bathsheba (1654), the letter is the focal point of
the scene. Bathsheba, shown nude in three-quarter view on the
right, is having her feet washed by a kneeling maid on the left
as she meditates on the letter that has just arrived; her expres-
sion is thoughtful and melancholy. At least two of Rembrandt's
followers essayed this theme from very different perspectives.
Willem Drost's Bathsheba (1654) depicts a half-length, partial-
ly draped nude looking out at the viewer with a distinctly
seductive gaze. Nicolaes Maes's Bathsheba (circa 1655) shows
the woman in a landscape, next to a fountain rather than on a
roof (as in the biblical account) and nude from the rear and
reading the letter from David. A tree behind appears to bear
fruit —a possible reference to the temptation in the Garden of
Eden.
Artemisia Gentileschi's David and
Bathsheba (circa
1 640-1 64 5) presents a completely different pose and setting.
temptation of Christ appears in the eighth-century Book of
Kells in the Trinity College Library in Dublin, Ireland, and in
works by Duccio (a totally black devil framed against a gold
background in the Frick Collection in New York), Botticelli
(Sistine Chapel in the Vatican), and Tintoretto (Scuola di S.
Rocco in Venice, Italy), among others. The contrast between
the Duccio Temptation and that of Tintoretto is extreme.
Duccio's Temptation, part of the Maesta Altarpiece in the
Cathedral in Siena, Italy, is in an iconic Sienese style and shows
Christ on the right above a stylized landscape, flanked by
angels, sternly pointing to a retreating black devil on the left.
Tintoretto, on the other hand, playing with extreme lights and
darks, shows the devil as a crouching, insidious tempter in the
dark shadows.
Another temptation of Christian tradition is the temptation
of St. Anthony. Anthony was a rich young Egyptian of the

Here, the partially draped Bathsheba is shown frontally in fourth century who gave up his life of wealth and ease to live
three-quarter pose, slightly to the right of center in the fore- in the desert as a hermit. Fed by a raven that brought a loaf of
ground, before a balustrade. A kneeling maid on the left holds bread every day, Anthony resisted multiple temptations by dev-
a silver basin with water as Bathsheba turns to the right to look ils. The temptations of a holy man by demons excited artists'

at the necklace her maid is displaying. In the distant back- imaginations, inspiring them to portray all types of devilish
ground David watches Bathsheba from the balcony of a
left, forms. An astounding engraving by Martin Schongauer in the
classical palace while a maid behind and to the left of late fifteenth century has the saint being lifted into the sky by
Bathsheba prepares to hand her his letter. The right back- grotesque demons who pull his hair, robe, and hands and beat
ground, an elegant park, is the work of Domenico Gargiolo; him with cudgels. The demons have strange animal faces, and
the background architecture is the work of Viviano Codazzi. —
many have insectlike bodies the northern imagination repre-
Gentileschi reserved her talent for the main figural work. As sented in its darker aspects. The hallucinatory quality of the
this is a daytime scene, bright light accentuates the figure of saint's ordeal externalizes his inner demons and possibly echoes
Bathsheba, the back of the kneeling maid, and the figure of the the reptilian and insect life of the desert.
maid on the right, who is dressed in elegant gold and light blue. A similar grotesque rendering of St. Anthony tempted by

The figures are more slender than in Gentileschi's early work, multiple demons appears on a wing of Matthias Griinewald's
with small heads in proportion to body length and more classi- Isenheim Altarpiece in the Musee Unterlinden in Colmar,
cal restraint of emotions. Here, we see the setting for tempta- France, with an added element of brilliant, discordant color.
tion before Bathsheba is even aware of David's intentions, her The Temptation Anthony that Gustave Flaubert saw at
of St.

seminude body vulnerable as well as beautiful. She is clearly the Palazzo Balbi inspired him to write his Temptation of St.
not an obvious temptress but more of a victim of events over Anthony between 1845 an d 1872. In turn, Flaubert's book
which she has no control. inspired a number of artists to give their own version of the
In the New Testament, the account of Christ's temptation in subject, among them Felicien Rops, in the Bibliotheque Albert
the wilderness appears in Matthew 4:1-11, Mark 1:13, and rer in Brussels, Belgium; Fernand Khnopff in a private collec-
Luke 4:1-13. Here, the devil presents three classic temptations tion in Brussels; and Odilon Redon, who produced three print
to Christ, who is fasting 40 days and 40 nights in the desert. cycles. The young Paul Cezanne painted The Temptation of St.
First, the devil asked Christ to prove he was really the son of Anthony (circa 1870) in the Foundation E. H. Burle Collection
God by transforming stones into bread for food a real temp- — in Zurich, Switzerland, in which the saint in the background is
tation to Jesus, who was hungry. Jesus answers, "It is written, almost invisible among the nude women who tempt him (per-
man shall not live by bread alone, but by every word that pro- haps more a portrait of Cezanne's temptations than St.
ceedeth out of the mouth of God" (Matthew 4:4). Second, the Anthony's). By the nineteenth century, temptation by women
deviltook him up to the pinnacle of the temple and said, "If had replaced the horrific demons of the Gothic imagination.
thou be the Son of God, cast thyself down: for it is written, He Another temptation mentioned in the Bible is the temptation
shall give his angels charge concerning thee: and in their hands of riches. It occurs in the gospels of Matthew (19:20-24) and
 TEMPTATION 867

Luke (18:21-25), who tell the story of the rich young ruler who painting, unlike the quiet interiors of his later scenes, is influ-

could not give up his wealth when Jesus asked him to sell all he enced by the low-life subject matter of the Utrecht School, of
had and follow him. George Frederic Watts beautifully realized which Dirck van Baburen was member. Vermeer was an art
a
the storybefore 1904 in a painting in the Watts Gallery in and must have owned the
dealer as well as an artist in later life

Compton, England, that shows an opulently dressed young man van Baburen Procuress, which appears on the wall in Vermeer's
turning away sorrowfully, "For he had great possessions" Concert (circa 1670).

(Matthew 19:22). Jesus went on to point out in Matthew 19:23 Sexual temptation is the motivating force in Nathaniel
and Luke 1 8:25, "It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of Hawthorne's novel The Scarlet Letter. The temptation lies in

a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God." the minister's relationship with Hester Prynne, although it is

This theme is continued in Timothy 6:7-10: "For we

I she who wears the scarlet letter of adultery. The temptation to
brought nothing into this world, and it is certain we can carry avarice on the part of the miser dominates George Eliot's novel
nothing out. And having food and raiment let us be therewith Silas Marner. In the twentieth century, Nikos Kazanzakis's
content. But they that will be rich fall into temptation and a novel The Last Temptation provides a new interpretation of the
snare, and into many foolish and hurtful lusts, which drown temptation of Christ. Obviously, there is no end to temptation.
men in destruction and perdition. For the love of money is the
root of all evil."

theme of temptation has been prominent,

In literature, the See also Adultery; Choice/Choosing; Sin/Sinning
from The Confessions of St. Augustine to the present. William
Shakespeare made it a motivating force in Measure for
Measure, when the Duke's deputy Angelo is tempted to lust by
Selected Works of Art
the pleas of Isabella to save the life of her brother Claudio,
imprisoned for fornication. It is especially ironic that the very Odysseus
sin thatAngelo condemns in Claudio becomes his own tempta- Lairesse,Gerard de, Odysseus and Calypso, oil, circa 1690,
tion in act II, scene II, and in act II, scene IV, when Isabella Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Rijksmuseum
returns the next day to plead for her brother's life. Angelo says Bocklin, Arnold, Odysseus and Calypso, oil, 1869, private
he will remit the sentence if Isabella, a novice in a convent, will collection
yield her body to his desires. Here, an element in the nature of
temptation is revealed to suggest that we repress consciously or Aeneas
unconsciously in ourselves the temptations we most condemn Sienese School, The Story of Dido, oil, fifteenth century,
in others, or as T S. Eliot, paraphrasing Charles Baudelaire's Avignon, France, Musee du Petit Palais
preface to Les Fleurs du Mai, puts it in The Wasteland, "You! Francesco di Giorgio Martini, The Meeting of Dido and
Hypocrite lecteur! — mon semblable— mon frere!" (1. 76). (You! Aeneas, oil, circa 1480, Portland, Oregon, Portland
Hypocrite reader — my mirror image — my brother!). William Museum of Art
Holman Hunt's Claudio and Isabella (1850-153)
painting Claude Lorrain, Dido Showing Aeneas Carthage, oil, 1676,
depicts Claudio's temptation to save his life at the expense of Hamburg, Germany, Kunsthalle
his sister's chastity in Measure for Measure. Here, the options Turner, Joseph Mallord William, Dido and Aeneas, oil, 18 14,
and temptations are clearly spelled out. Claudio, in chains on London, Clore Gallery
the left, stands before a window opening to a sunny landscape,
a symbol of life and freedom. His sister, in nun's white robes on Adam and Eve
the right, reacts with grief and horror to his plea to sacrifice Adam and Eve, bronze door, 1015, Hildesheim, Germany,
herself for his life, her hands on his chest as he moodily fingers Church of St. Michael
his manacles. Gislebertus, Eve, relief, twelfth century, Autun, France,
Shakespeare uses Othello's temptation to jealousy by lago as Cathedral
Succumbing to this
the motivating element of his play Othello. Masolino, Temptation, circa 1425, Florence, Italy, Sta. Maria
temptation, Othello kills Desdemona and then commits suicide, del Carmine, Brancacci Chapel
destroyed by suspicion from within and by temptation from Delia Quercia, Jacopo, Temptation, marble bas-relief,
without. 1425-1438, Bologna, Italy, S. Petronio
Another secular temptation appears in seventeenth-century Diirer, Albrecht, Adam and Eve, 1504, engraving
Dutch art in representations of the procuress, or brothel pro- Michelangelo, Temptation and Expulsion, ceiling fresco,
prietor. Here, the image of sexual temptation is very clear, as in 1 508-1 5 1 2, Vatican, Sistine Chapel
Dirck van Baburen's Procuress (1622) in which a jolly and Titian, The Man, oil, 565—1 570, Madrid, Spam,
Fall of 1

obviously available lady plays a lute on the left as the cavalier Prado
in the center looks longingly at her and an old hag on the right Rubens, Peter Paul, Adam and Eve, oil, circa 1620, The
holds out her palm, insisting on a Jan Vermeer's early work
fee. Hague, The Netherlands, Mauritshuis
The Procuress (1654) is a little more subtle, with a fully clothed
and bonneted lady on the right being fondled by an admirer David and Bathsheha
with a hat askew who hands her a coin while the procuress in Rubens, Peter Paul, Bathsheha, 1636, Dresden, Germany,
black on his right looks on eagerly. An elegant gentleman with Staatliche, Gemaldegalerie
slashed jacket and lace collar on the far left looks at the view- Gentileschi, Artemisia, David and Bathsheba, circa
er knowingly, as if to invite us to enjoy the spectacle. Vermeer's 1 640-1 645, Columbus, Ohio, Art Museum
s<,s TEMPTATION

Drost, Willem, Batksbeba, 1654, Paris, Louvre Secular Temptation

Rembrandt van Rijn, Bathsheba, 1654, Paris, Louvre Baburen, Dirck van, The Procuress, 1622, Boston, Museum
Maes, Nicolaes, Bathsheba, circa 1655, Amsterdam, The of Fine Arts
Netherlands, Douves Brothers Vermeer, Jan, The Procuress, 1654, Dresden, Germany,
Cornelisz. van Haarlem, Bathsheba in the Bath, 1694, Staatliche Gemaldegalerie

Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Rijksmuseum

Temptation of Christ Further Reading

The Temptation of Christ in the Book of Kells, manuscript
Baker, Kenneth, "Temptation," Art Forum 29:2 (October
illumination, eighth century, Dublin, Ireland, Trinity
1990)
College Library
Campbell, Joseph, The Hero with a Thousand Faces, second
Duccio, The Temptation of Christ, oil and tempera on panel,
ed., Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press,
circa 1 308-1 3 11, New York, Frick Collection
1968
Botticelli, The Temptation of Christ, fresco, 1481-1482,
Carter, David, Rembrandt and His Pupils, Raleigh: North
Vatican, Sistine Chapel
Carolina Museum of Art,
1956
Tintoretto, The Temptation of Christ, oil, 1 577-1 581, Venice, Clark, M., "The Many-Layered Imagery of Max Beckmann's
Italy, S. Rocco
Scuola di
Temptation Triptych," Art Quarterly N. S. 1 (1978)
Magnasco, Alessandro (Lissandrino), Christ Tempted by the Comer, C, "David Teniers' Temptation of St. Anthony
Devil, oil on canvas, circa 171
Paintings," Allen Memorial Art Museum Bulletin 33
Kokoschka, Oskar, The Temptation of Christ, oil, (1975-1976)
1911-1912, Vienna, Austria, Osterreichische Galerie Daniel, Howard, Fncyclopedia of Themes and Subjects in
Painting, New
York: Abrams, 1974
Temptation of St. Anthony Eisenman, Stephen, The Temptation of St. Redon: Biography,
Schongauer, Martin, St. Anthony Battling with Demons, Ideology,and Style in the Noirs of Odilon Redon, Chicago
engraving, late fifteenth century, Boston, Museum of and London: University of Chicago Press, 1992
Fine Arts Garrard, Mary DuBose, Artemisia Gentileschi, Princeton,
Griinewald, Matthias, The Temptation of St. Anthony, from New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1989
Isenbeim Altarpiece, oil on panel, circa 15 15, Colmar, Gerson, Horst, The Art of Rembrandt, Boston: Little, Brown,
France,Musee Unterlinden 1966
Cezanne, Paul, The Temptation of St. Anthony, oil, circa Harris,Ann Sutherland, and Linda Nochlin, Women Artists,
1870, Zurich, Switzerland, Foundation E. H. Biirle
1550-1950, New York: Knopf, 1976
Collection Homer, Odyssey, translated by E. V Rieu, Baltimore,
Covert, John R., Temptation of St. Anthony, oil on canvas, Maryland, and Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1970
19 1 6, New Haven, Connecticut, Yale University, Art Malraux, Andre, The Temptation of the West, translated by
Gallery Robert Hollander, New York: Praeger, 1961
Ernst,Max, The Temptation of St. Anthony, oil, 1945, Oakes, Wayne Edward, Temptation: A Biblical and
Duisburg, Germany, Wilhelm Lehmbrick Museum Psychological Approach, Louisville, Kentucky:
Dali, Salvador, Temptation of Saint Anthony, oil on canvas, Westminster, 1991
1946, Brussels, Belgium, Musee Royaux des Beaux-Arts Panofsky, Erwin, The Life and Art of Albrecht Durer,
de Belgique Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1971
Somogy, 1991
Pierre, Jose, L'Univers Symboliste, Paris:
Temptation to Riches Slatkes,Leonard Joseph, Dirck van Baburen, Utrecht, The
Watts, George Frederic, The Rich Young Ruler or "For He Netherlands: Haentjens, Dekker and Grumbert, 1965
Had Great Possessions," oil, before 1904, Compton, Vermeer and His Contemporaries, New York:
,

England, Watts Gallery Abbeville, 1981

Trapp, Joseph Burney, "The Iconography of the Fall of Man,"
Literary Themes in Approaches to "Paradise Lost," edited by C. A.
Hunt, William Holman, Claudio and Isabella (from William Patrides, London: Edward Arnold, 1968
Shakespeare's Measure for Measure) oil, 1850-18 5 3, de Vries, Ary, and Rene Huyghe, Dans la lumiere de Vermeer,
London, Tate Gallery Paris: P. Tisne, 1948
 TOILET SCENES
Diane Apostolos-Cappadona

The following periods and iconographic narratives are covered in the discussion of the theme
Toilet Scenes:

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL NINETEENTH AND

TWENTIETH CENTURIES
RENAISSANCE
BATHSHEBA AT THE BATH
SEVENTEENTH AND
EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES SUSANNA AT THE BATH

869
 870 TOILET SCENES

_
z^n n 11

p£££fc& \\fr
^ 7^ j\
4
as
It. ! 'V**

"." - - -^

Tbife* of Queen Kawit, Eighteenth Dynasty, bas-relief from the Queen's

Burial Chamber in the Funerary
Temple of Monthuhotep-Nebhepaire, Deir el Bahri, Thebes, Egypt, Cairo, Egyptian Museum.
(Courtesy of Max Hirmer)
 TOILET SCENES 87 I

he topos of the lady's toilet (or found throughout

toilette), (2.000-1786 an elaborately decorated mirror was a nec-
B.C.),

M. from the classical theme

the history of Western art, derives essary part of a woman's funeral dowry as a central element in
of the hieros gamos (sacred marriage), which was a common the ritual toilet of Hathor (and thereby of the newly dead
aspect of all world mythologies. The sacred marriage of the pri- woman's initiation, if not preparation, for her new life). In a
mordial earth mother to the sky father, or that between the similar vein, Celtic women prized their personal mirrors and
gods and goddesses of the mythological pantheon, is a prefigu- were regularly buried with them.
ration of the earthly marriage of men and women. The pri- Hair is a controversial and multivalent symbol. At its most
mordial hieros gamos of the earth mother and the sky father common level, hair signified life force, strength, and energy.
explained the creation of the fertility of the Earth and, thereby, Loose, flowing hair on a woman represented virginity and
its sustenance of human life. The classical prototype of the toi- was a common attribute of virgin saints and brides.
let scene evolved from the Egyptian toilet of Hathor. As the Throughout the mythologies of world religions (from the
Egyptian goddess of love and joy, Hathor protected women and Egyptian goddess of procreation and birth Isis, to Cybele the
presided as deity over the bridal toilet. goddess of nature of Asia Minor, to the Hebrew female
The common elements found in the topos of toilet scenes in demon Lilith, to the destructive Hindu earth mother Kali),
Western iconography are a beautiful young woman, usually there are consistent references to the ritual of the binding or
partially nude, with long flowing hair (possibly being combed unbinding of a goddess's or heroine's hair as an activation of
or dressed either by the woman herself or by her maidservant), cosmic forces of creation or destruction. Folk traditions have
a mirror, hairdressing implements, ointment jars and perfume maintained the aura of hair combing or dressing as a way of
bottles, jewelry, cosmetic jars and brushes, flowers and/or —
"making magic" even attributing it to a control of the
fruits, a little dog or cat, and a maidservant. All of the toilet weather. The tradition of hair as the repository of the soul
scenes with these elements have a direct relationship to Western supported the lovers' practice of giving a lock of hair as a love
cultural interpretations of being female and to the initiation of token. In Egyptian mythology, Isis's hair restored Osiris to life

a virginal young girl into womanhood, especially in the theme and protected her children from illness and evil. Similarly, the
of the bridal toilet. hair of mother goddesses was believed to be a talisman of
The depiction of a physically beautiful young woman, espe- protection, resurrection, and/or reincarnation. On the other
cially in a state of partial nudity, suggests the female generative hand, the disheveled tresses of witches were believed to be a
powers and the cycle of human procreation. Most often, the source of magical incantations and negative energies. Thus, a
young woman is seated either looking at her reflection in the woman's act of combing or dressing her hair before a mirror
mirror, combing her hair, or arranging her jewels, flowers, or carries multivalent messages.
makeup. She is "lost in her thoughts," signifying, if this is a The hair-dressing implements refer to the symbolic proper-
bridal toilet, her preoccupation with her impending initiation ties of hair and to the sexual interpretations of this larger topos.
into womanhood through sexual intercourse or, if this is simply In classical Mediterranean culture, courtesans elegantly coiffed
a woman at her toilet, her anticipations of sexual pleasure their hair into elaborate designs with decorative elements such
and/or the conception of a child. as jewels, flowers, and gold ornaments. Modest matrons cov-
All of the aforementioned common attributes of the toilet ered their heads in public places, leaving the beauty and texture
scene have symbolic values, the most significant of which are of their hair for their husband's personal pleasure, while youth-
the mirror and hair. Like all symbols, the mirror has ambigu- ful virgins wore and flowing. Toilet scenes that
their hair loose
ous properties. It can signify the absolute or "naked" truth, present a woman is about to be
with loose, flowing hair that
thus leading to the classical adage that the mirror does not lie. (or is in the act of being) combed or dressed curiously combines
In Mediterranean mythology, the mirror was an
classical the categories of virgin and courtesan.
attribute of prudence as a sign of self-knowledge. As an artifi- The presence of a variety of jars and bottles for ointments,
cial organ of sight, the mirror can be identified with the five cosmetics, and perfumes heightens the sexual symbolism, for
human senses; as an instrument of self-absorption, as in the these varied fluids will presumably cover the woman's body as
myth of Narcissus, it can signify the vices of pride, vanity, and she caresses it, an implication of the desire for her lover's touch.
lust. The mirror is also a universal symbol for the reflection of Following the Egyptian interpretation, the jar as an attribute of
one's soul, thus leading to the superstition of mirrors as "soul Isis — a fountain of living waters —was a fertility symbol. From
catchers." A common element in the burial chambers of most a Jungian perspective, jars and bottles as receivers and contain-
Egyptians (not simply women) was a mirror placed in close ers signify the feminine sexual nature.
proximity to the head, a sign of solar power, especially in terms The jewelry that rests on the toilet table or with which the
of the reproduction of life (the Egyptian word was
for "mirror" woman is adorning herself, is an embodiment of spiritual qual-

the same as the word for "life"). By the Middle Kingdom ities. Amulets that ward off evil and illness or aid in sexual
872 rOILEl SCENES

pleasure and the conception of a male child might be found comb, and flowers. The sexual implications of the toilet are
among the jewelry of a Mediterranean woman's toiler. Pearl heightened by the symbolism of the garden setting.
earrings signified Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty, Bathsheba, said to have been espied by King David as she
whereas coral or turquoise stones warded off evil. The presence bathed, was ostensibly partaking of a mikveh (ritual bath) fol-

of flowers or fruits signified the fecundity of the Earth and, by lowing the end of her monthly menstrual flow. As the mikveh
analogy, the fecundity of woman. is also a ritual bath for a bride and signifies her entry into wom-
As a symbol of fidelity and a companion of Artemis, a little anhood (and by extension her preparation for the conception
dog represented fidelity in love and marriage, while a cat as of a child), the sexual symbolism of the toilet is clear. Artistic

companion to Isis signified goddess worship (and by extension depictions of this scene, including those by Rembrandt van Rijn
the adoration of woman). The maidservant engaged in the act in the seventeenth century, emphasize the toilet as an enhance-
of assisting her mistress at the toilet may be read as a sign of ment of a woman's natural beauty, such as the dressing of her
wealth and social position, a sign of the cultural practice of hair or a pedicure. In these two scriptural themes of Susanna
having a protectress chaperon an unsuspecting virgin, and may and Bathsheba, the motif of the toilet scene is represented by its

signify the role of the procuress, especially in the later, secular- identifiable iconographic elements, such as a mirror, perfume
ized depictions of the toilet of Venus (Aphrodite) or eighteenth- bottles, ointment jars, brushes, flowers, etc., and is expanded
century boudoir scenes. In the most positive of readings of the with the implication of ritual bathing of the body in prepara-
toilet topos, the natural beauty of woman exceeds the radiance These ritual baths are a referent to
tion for sexual intercourse.
and value of the implements of the toilet from her cosmetic — the bathing of Aphrodite by which she restores her youthful
brushes to her perfume bottles to her jewelry and flowers the — beauty and virginity.
scene becomes a meditation on beauty, woman, sexuality, and A scriptural variant of the toilet scene is the conversion of
fecundity. the Magdalen. In these renderings, the Magdalen is depicted as
The classical mythological paradigm for the topos of the a beautiful young woman with long, flowing hair who is seat-
lady's toilet is the toilet of Hathor. A very popular ritual during ed before a mirror and the other iconographic elements of the
Egypt's Middle Kingdom, the toilet of Hathor was the source toilet— including ointment and perfume bottles, jewelry, and
of the theme of a lady's toilet both in daily lifeand in funerary hair brushes —
scattered on the table and the floor. These tradi-
monuments. Given the popular persistence of the toilet of tional iconographic elements are enhanced, however, by the
Hathor in Egyptian culture, it must have had indigenous prece- addition of vanitas (vanity) elements such as a skull or book
dents in folk traditions. The iconography of Aphrodite washing that signifies her recognition of the transitory nature of human
her hair can be read as a Greek variant of the toilet of Hathor existence (and physical beauty) and the salvation afforded by
and the indigenous folk tradition. Christianity. Caravaggio's Repentant Magdalene (1590s) is an
Originally an eastern Mediterranean deity, Aphrodite example of this Christian variant of the toilet.
brought female nudity into Greek art as the visual and physical The medieval transformation of the toilet resulted in the
symbol of the powers of generation and fertility, as well as love secular representations of the bridal toilet such as Jan van
and beauty. The sacred prostitute became an integral element in Eyck's lost painting Toilet Scene, which is believed to have
the worship of Aphrodite, and the ritual toilet of the young vir- been a pendant to famed Arnolfini Wedding (Portrait of
his
gins and holy women was a religious act signifying the sacred Giovanni Arnolfini and Giovanna Cenami) (1434). From the
power of sexual intercourse as a terrestrial equivalent of the presence of the necessary implements for the toilet, including
hieros gamos. In her representations as Kore, Aphrodite the mirror, jugs, maidservant, and small dog, to the modest
became one of mother goddess along
the three elements of the gesture of the female bather in covering her genitals in the
with Hera, the wife of the king of the gods, and Athena, the manner of the Venus Pudica, the secularization of the sacred
goddess of wisdom. In this triumvirate Hera signified mother- scene is complete.
hood and domesticity and Aphrodite as Kore eternal virginity During the Renaissance, the toilet topos returned to its

by means of her ritual baths. As the toilet of Hathor was trans- mythological origins as the toilet of Venus once again became
formed into the toilet of Aphrodite (or Venus), it became a popular theme. The master of this new Renaissance iconog-
humanized into the ritual of the bridal toilet. raphy was Titian, who created a new variant of this theme by
The scriptural prototypes for the toilet are the images of adding the previously implied male lover, as in his Venus and
Susanna at the Bath and Bathsheba at the Bath. The innocent the Lute Player 562-1 565). During the Reformation, this
(1
matron Susanna is said to have walked one afternoon in what motif was included in the iconography of the morality prints of
she believedwas the privacy of her husband's garden to bathe. evil seductresses, which included Delilah, who betrayed
Sending her maid for her bathing and toilet items, Susanna con- Samson to the Philistines, and Judith, who saved the Jews by
templated the solitude of the garden. Once her maidservant killing Holofernes. In the contemporary Spanish art of Diego
returned with the necessary accoutrements, Susanna began her Velazquez, however, the Renaissance revival of the toilet of
bath ritual in and privacy of the enclosed garden.
the quiet Venus is taken to a new dimension in Toilet of Venus (The
Suddenly, the unsuspecting Susanna was accosted by two elders Rokeby Venus) 657-1658) with the innovative use of mirror
( 1

who threatened her with an unjust accusation of adultery reflection and Venus's body postures.
unless she agreed to have sexual intercourse with them. In In the rococo period, this theme was again transformed into
many of the artistic interpretations of Susanna at the Bath, such the secular in the boudoir paintings made famous by Jean-
as those by Tintoretto and Paolo Veronese, there is a visual Honore Fragonard. All the necessary iconographic elements are
emphasis on her beauty ritual, including the objects of the toi- present in these works, from the mirror to the cosmetic imple-
let, such as perfume ]ars, ointment bottles, jewelry, a mirror, a ments to the little dog, as a beautiful young woman is "lost in
 TOILET SCENES 873

her thoughts." This iconography influenced and helped to pop- Titian, Venus of Urhino, oil on canvas, 1538, Florence, Italy,

ularize similar prints and engravings in antebellum American Uffizi Gallery

ladies' magazines and annuals and eventually found its way Titian, Venus with a Mirror, oil on canvas, circa 1
555,
into the late nineteenth-century American motifs of the languid Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art
ladies of leisure and the theme of young love. In the twentieth Titian, Venus and the Lute Player, oil on canvas, circa
century, the lady's toilet as a meditation upon female beauty 1 562-1 565, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art
and fecundity is renewed in Pablo Picasso's Girl Before a Clouet, Francois, Diane de Poitiers in Her Bath,
on oil

Mirror (1932). wood, circa 1571, Washington, D.C., National Gallery

In the transformations and evolution of the topos of the toi- of Art
let from its sacred and ritual nature to secularized boudoir and School of Fontainebleau, The Lady at Her Toilet, circa 1 590,
love scenes, the unifying element remained the homage to Dijon, France, Musee des Beaux-Arts
female beauty. Like one of its central icons, the mirror, this School of Fontainebleau, The Lady at Her Toilet, sixteenth
topos has displayed the ambiguity of sacredness and seculariry, century, Worcester, England, Worcester Art Museum
sexuality and sensuality, reality and illusion, and vanity and Caravaggio, Repentant Magdalene, 1590s, Rome, Galleria
contemplation. Doria Pamphili

Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries

See also Bath/Bathing; Female Beauty and Adornment; Dubreuil, Toussaint, The Lever and Toilet of a Lady, circa
Hair/Haircutting; Marriage/Betrothal; Mirror/Reflection; 1600, Paris, Louvre
Vanity/Vanitas Fontana, Lavinia, Minerva at Her Toilet, oil on canvas, 161 },

Rome, Borghese Gallery

Gheyn, Jacob de, the Elder, Vanity, engraving, seventeenth
century, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art
Selected Works of Art
Franco, Giacomo, Courtesan Being Groomed by a
Ancient and Classical Maidservant, engraving, from Habiti delle donne
Toilet of Queen Kawit, bas-relief from the Queen's Burial Ventiane, seventeenth century, Venice, Italy, Biblioteca
Chamber, Funerary Temple of Monthuhotep-Nebhepaire, de Civico Museo Correr
Deir el Bahri, Eighteenth Dynasty, now in Cairo, Egyptian Rubens, Peter Paul, Woman with a Mirror, oil on canvas,
Museum 1640, Kassel, Germany, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen
Mirror of Queen Kawit, silver disk with obsidian handle with Mieris, van, Woman at Her Toilet, oil on wood, seventeenth
gold and electrum fittings, from the Queen's Burial century, Paris, Louvre
Chamber, Funerary Temple of Monthuhotep-Nebhepaire, Velazquez, Diego, Toilet of Venus (The Rokeby Venus), oil on
Deir el Bahri, Eighteenth Dynasty, now in Cairo, Egyptian canvas, 1657-1658, London, National Gallery
Museum The Morning
Steen, Jan, Toilet, before 1679, London,
Funerary Chest of Khai and Merit, painted wood chest, from Buckingham Palace
Deir el Medinah, Eighteenth Dynasty, now in Turin, Italy, Boucher, Francois, Toilet of Venus, 175 1, New York,
Museo Egizio Metropolitan Museum of Art
Turin Papyrus, illustration of a young girl with lotus blossom
on her head, painting her lips, Twentieth Dynasty, Turin, Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries
Italy, Museo Egizio Courbet, Gustave, Portrait of Jo, the Beautiful Irish Girl,
Aphrodite of Melos, Parian marble, circa 160-140 B.C., Paris, oil on canvas, 1865?, New York, Metropolitan Museum

Louvre of Art
Aldohrandini Wedding, fresco, circa 29 b.c.-a.d. 20, Vatican, Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, Lady Lilith, oil on canvas, 1868,
Biblioteca Apostolica Wilmington, Delaware Art Museum
Bridal Casket of Secundus and Projecta, chased silver, partly Degas, Edgar, Standing Nude at Her Toilette, lithograph, circa
gilded, circa a.d. 380, London, British Museum 1890-1892
Picasso, Pablo, Girl Before a Mirror, oil on canvas, March
Renaissance 14, 1932, New York, Museum of Modern Art
The Love Spell, oil on wood, northern Renaissance, circa
450-1 500, Leipzig, Germany, Museum der Bildenden
1 Bathsheba at the Bath
Kiinste Memling, Hans, Bathsheba at the Bath, oil on wood, fifteenth
Eyck, Jan van (copy after), Woman at Her Toilet, fifteenth century, Stuttgart, Germany, Staatsgalerie
century, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University, Gentileschi, Artemisia, David and Bathsheba, early 1640s,
Fogg Art Museum Columbus, Ohio, Columbus Museum of Art
Titian, Woman on wood, 1512-1515,
with Mirror, oil Rembrandt van Rijn, The Toilet of Bathsheba, oil on wood,
Munich, Germany, Alte Pinakothek 1643, New York, Metropolitan Museum of An
Titian, Young Woman at Her Toilet, oil on canvas, 15 15, Rembrandt van Rijn, Bathsheba at the Bath, oil on canvas,
Paris, Louvre r6 54, Paris, Louvre
Bellini, Giovanni, Young Woman at Her Toilet, circa 151 5, Briullov, Karl, Bathsheba, oil on canvas, 1832, Moscow,
Vienna, Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum Russia, Tetyakov Gallery
874 TOILET SCENES

Susanna at the Bath Mid-Atlantic Region of the American Academy of

Tintoretto, Susanna, oil on canvas, early 1560s, Vienna, Religion, February 1992
Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum Dijkstra,Bram, Idols of Perversity: Fantasies of Feminine Evil
Tintoretto, Susanna, oil on canvas, circa 1575, Washington, in Fin-de-Siecle Culture,Oxford and New York: Oxford
D.C., National Gallery of Art University Press, 1986
Jacopo da Empoli (Jacopo Chimenti), Susanna at her Goodman-Soellner, Elise, "Poetic Interpretations of the 'Lady
Bath, oil on canvas, circa 1600, Vienna, Austria, at her Toilette' Theme in Sixteenth-Century Painting," The
Kunsthistorisches Museum Sixteenth Century Journal 14:4 (1983)
Rubens, Peter Paul, Susanna at the Bath, oil on wood, circa Jones, Elizabeth, "Jan van Eyck's Woman at Her Toilet:

1636-1640, Munich, Germany, Alte Pinakothek Proposals Concerning Its Subject and Context," Fogg Art

Rembrandt van Rijn, Susanna at the Bath, oil on panel, 1637, Museum Annual Report, 1974-1975, 1975-1976,
The Hague, The Netherlands, Mauritshuis Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1976
Rembrandt van Rijn, Susanna and the Elders, oil on wood, Lawner, Lynn, Lives of the Courtesans: Portraits of the
Renaissance, New York: Rizzoli, 1987
1647, Berlin-Dahlem, Germany, Gemaldegalerie
Moon, Beverly, editor, An Encyclopedia of Archetypal
Symbolism, Volume One, Boston and London: Shambhala,
Further Reading 1991
Mullins, Edwin, The Painted Witch: How Western Artists
Allen, Virginia M., The Femme Fatale: Erotic Icon, Troy, Have Viewed the Sexuality of Women, New York: Carroll
New York: Whitson, 1983 and Graf, 1985
Apostolos-Cappadona, Diane, "'Susanna went into her Neumann, Erick, The Great Mother, Princeton, New Jersey:
husband's garden to walk': Reading the Gesture and Pose Princeton University Press, 1965
of the Female Body in Christian Art," unpublished Onians, Richard, The Origins of European Thought,
manuscript presented at the annual meeting of the Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1954
 UPSIDE DOWN
Janice McCullogh

The following periods are covered in the discussion of rhe theme Upside Down:

MEDIEVAL NINETEENTH CENTURY

RENAISSANCE TWENTIETH CENTURY
SEVENTEENTH AND
EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES

875
876 UPSIDE DOWN
 UPSIDE DOWN 877

Marc Chagall, Half Past Three (The Poet),

1911, oil on canvas, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia Museum of Art, the Louise and
Walter Arensberg Collection. (Courtesy of the
Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania)

Ours
we
is not a topsy-turvy world.
quickly acknowledge in the
One of
human
the constants
experience is
Greek iconography holds few occasions for upside-down
imagery. The sea goddess Thetis dips her son Achilles upside
that from very early on we are vertically oriented in a gravi- down in the River Styx while holding his heel. The Cercopes
ty-controlled environment. Knowledge about the world is are slung upside down on a pole and carried away by Hercules.
carried into expectations of imagery. The representation of Such figures are inverted within the scene as the narrative
people with their feet down and a ground line has a foothold required.
in the dimension firmly rooted in the way we
pictorial More recently, Western European culture has a tradition of
perceive. Depictions of an inverted world create a sense of the notion of a realm of Antipodes, a region directly opposite
disorientation. To be upside down, an awareness of the rep- the Earth where our world is mirrored. Antipodeans, meaning
resented form as an inverted image must take place. With that "opposite footed," were thought to live at the bottom of the
recognition, the viewer may incorporate a feeling of disequi- world, and they had to walk upside down. Christians generally
librium. Artists appreciate this basic law of perception and opposed such a notion as either geographically impossible or
have explored it. theologically unsound. St. Augustine denied that Antipodeans
The notion of upside down can be conceived of from vari- could The revered Lactantius, whom Constantine chose to
exist.

ous points of view. As a form of inversion, it is a principle tutor his son, asked, "Can any one be so foolish, as to believe
found in many contexts. Literary, anthropological, and even that there are men whose feet are higher than their heads, or
musical ideas of the upside down carry meaning parallel to its places where things may be hanging downwards, trees growing
expression in the visual arts. Upside down is defined here as a backwards, or rain falling upwards?" (Boorstin, p. 107). The
retinal disorientation of a top/bottom reversal, a literal inver- idea of Antipodeans appears in art and literature.

sion, or a rotationally symmetrical inversion of all or part of

The topos of Mundus inversus is an ancient and wide-
an image. Visually related themes, such as falling, floating, and
spread one, found very extensively in popular art and lit-
acrobats, are linked to this definition of the upside down.
erature throughout Europe from classical times. It was a
Upside down implies the opposite: right side up.
favorite subject for popular engravings: remarkably sim-
Oppositions are sometimes viewed as reaching the point of
ilar sets of illustrations of the world upside down
contrast at a focal point where they are inverted, like rays of
appeared in England, France, Italy, Russia, Scandinavia,
light. The letter X stands as a symbol of the principle of inver-
the Netherlands and elsewhere over a period of many
sion. This structure reflects the process of seeing itself.
centuries.The most common image in these illustrations
Historical studies of optical science suggest that, as early as the
is that of a global man, standing precariously on his
tenth century, Arab scholars might have recognized that the eye
head, and sometimes attended by a couple of jesters.
receives an inverted image like that revealed by the camera
(Donaldson, pp. 21-22)
obscura. Current studies in perception probe the scientific
aspect of the process of perception through orientation studies, This tradition represents role reversals between animals and
such as the use of reversing prisms (Dolezal). Upside-down men, men and women, or adults and children more often than
imagery can be understood readily, but expectations require the figures that are literally upside down. The theme as expressed
viewer to first recognize the convention of uprightedness and in broadsheets has been studied by David Kunzle in "World
then to visually reorient the information, forcing a deliberate Upside Down: The Iconography of a European Broadsheet
awareness of the process of perception. Type." He "examined about sixty distinct broadsheets span-
Understanding the upside down as negative in connotation ning three centuries, from seven countries, nearly all of them
may go back farther than the inverted image itself. In ancient carrying in the title the term World Upside Down, or its equiv-
Egyptian texts that deal with the passage through death to alent in other languages: Mundus Perversus, Mondo alia

resurrection, there are spells such as "Spell in order not to go Rovescia, Monde a l'envers, Mundo al Reves, Verkehrte Welt,
upside down in the realm of the dead" (Zandee, p. 72). Verkeerde Wereld" (Babcock, pp. 39-94).
Ancient texts suggest that the Egyptian concept of the realm In the theatrical tradition, the comic play The Antipodes
of the dead was as a domain on the underside of the disk of (1638) by Richard Brome was based on the idea that on the
the Earth, where people walked with their feet against the southern side of the globe manners and morals are exactly
ceiling. Going upside down belongs to the terrors of the West opposite. This play is considered possibly the first to present
and was part of a whole complex of conceptions, "according this Antipodean world as topsy-turvy. Subsequent examples
to which one has not the normal use of the parts of one's suggest that Antipodeans not only walk upside down but, as
body" (Zandee, p. 74). In contrast to going upside down is geographic opposites, were also moral opposites (Donaldson).
going on one's feet. Because this was the positive orientation, The world upside down often occurs in English tragedy, bal-
upside-down figures were not typically shown in art. lads, complaints, and satire, as in Ben Jonson's Time
878 ui'sini now n

Vindicated to Himself and to I lis Honours, where the revelers viewer then sees the upside-down painted surface as design
proclaim: rather than subject. This mental distance is a kind of "forget-
ting" of the representational aspect and a fresh understanding
Let's have the giddy world turn'd the heeles upward,
of the painting as an abstraction.
And sing a rare blacke Sanctus, on his head.
This practice is given historic credence by Wassily
Of all thing out of order.
Kandinsky's recollection of the development of his own art

Of the 2i principal tarot cards, two relate to the upside-
down theme. These cards, whose origins go back to the four-
teenth century, display The Hanged Man, a figure upside down,
and the Wheel of Fortune. The Wheel of Fortune, the tenth
enigma of the tarot pack, expresses the "equilibrium of the con-
trary forces of contraction and expansion the principle of
toward elimination of the object from painting:
I was enchanted on one occasion by an unexpected spec-
tacle thatconfronted me in my studio. It was the hour
when dusk draws in. I returned home with my painting
box having finished a study, still drearny and absorbed in
— the work had completed, and suddenly saw an inde-
I

polarity. The wheel is set on the ocean of chaos. The two halves
scribably beautiful picture, pervaded by an inner glow.
symbolize the constructive and destructive forces of existence"
At first, I stopped short and then quickly approached this
(Held). In the Wheel of Fortune, the image suggests that the fig-
mysterious picture, on which I could discern only forms
ure of success is on top, "at the height of his power." The fig-
and colors and whose content was incomprehensible. At
ure of misfortune or poverty is not only on the bottom but also
once, I discovered the key to the puzzle: it was a picture
upside down.
I had painted, standing on its side against the wall. . . .

In Christian from heaven, and the

iconography, angels fall
Now I could see clearly that objects harmed my pictures.
inversion suggests the disorientation of moving from the order-
(Lindsay and Vergo, "Reminiscences," pp. 369-370)
ly world of heaven to the chaos of the damned. Rebel angels

often fall headlong into hell. Citizens who fall from the towers Kandinsky's now nearly mythic moment in the history of mod-
of a destroyed city or sinners, such as the embodiment of pride, ern art underlines the skirting relationship that the state of
also fall in positions, which indicate their fallen
inverted being upside down has with abstract art. What Kandinsky
nature. In the late Middle Ages in Italian cities, members of experienced was a delayed recognition that allowed him to
opposing factions were painted "hanging on the gallows or view the painting first as a play of color and form. This expe-
hanging head downwards and to add to the perpetual insult, rience of gradual identification is similar to the experience he
their coats of arms were turned upside down" (Kris, p. 193). wished to re-create in his paintings of 191 1-1912. using "veiled
The most notable case of a Christian upside down is the apos- imagery." In his earliest "abstract" works, he often maintained
tle Peter at his crucifixion. He considered himself unworthy of a landscape conception, that is, a defined horizon. It was not
being crucified in the same manner as Jesus Christ. Therefore, until later, during the Bauhaus years (and then relatively rarely)
at his own request and out of humility, he was crucified upside that his nonobjective works might be seen as lacking definite
down. St. Phillip and St. Bartholomew also are sometimes con- vertical/horizontal orientation.Kandinsky was still often con-
sidered to have been crucified upside down. cerned with the meaning of the orientation of the abstract ele-
The upside-down experience can be found ritually enacted ments. Contemporary artists continue to pursue Kandinsky's
during a carnival or at the circus. On such occasions, the rules exploration of nonobjective form. They seek also to expand the
of the world are inverted and gravity is defied. Fools' festivals parameters of abstract concepts such as gravitational force and
and other such sanctioned rituals create an arena where acro- the power of horizontal and vertical orientation in the realm of
bats and clowns become the embodiments of disorder, often geometric abstraction.
comically turning somersaults, hanging, or walking upside The generation of German expressionists influenced by
down. Art often fulfills the role of visual circus. Edward Lear's saw gravity as an ultimate force to be
Friedrich Nietzsche often
Nonsense Botany (1871) presents an image of "Manypeeplia overcome. Thus, acrobats and dancers were important subjects
Upsidedownia." The experience of the inverted image is one in for those who heeded Nietzsche's invocation against gravity in

which recognition involves mental gymnastics. It takes a Thus Spoke Zarathustra:

moment for the mind to do a somersault and accept the over-
Lift up your hearts, my brothers, high, higher! And do
turned world.
not forget your legs either. Lift up your legs too, you
The state of looking at art upside down belongs most firm-
good dancers; and better yet, stand on your heads!
ly to the tradition of modernism. It has developed in parallel
with abstraction and as part of the self-referential tendency of Paul Klee responded by painting several works around the
modern art. By the early romantic period, critics noted that edges of the frame, for example, Night Flowers (191 8),
some paintings of the period had a tenuous relation to any Landscape with Yellow Birds (192.3-1932), and Ad Marginium
object and that they could just as easily be looked at upside (1930). Figures and forms are shown grounded on all four
down. Stories of artistic upside downs abound in modern art. edges of the image so that some are sideways and those at the
At a posthumous auction, Paul Gauguin's Breton Village in the top "hang" upside down. In a sense, the composition becomes
Snow was displayed upside down with the title Niagara Falls a mandala. Figures are upside down from a traditional point of
and sold for seven francs (Le Pichon, p. 193). view, but Klee plays with the idea of freeing the viewer from the
The pedagogical practice of modern art incorporates the power of gravity and making the viewer aware of the center of
notion of the upside-down image. Teachers often turn a paint- the composition as a pivot. Klee saw nature from a metaphysi-
ing on its head to distance the student from the subject and cal point of view. These works might be interpreted as an
force a strict view of the work as a formal composition. The expression of a "yearning to free ourselves from earthly bonds"
 UPSIDE DOWN 8 79

(Klee, p. 66). In Accident (1939/LM iS), Klee shows the and the earth at the bottom is only a convention, but we don't
"exchange of the dimensions that govern our natural sense of have to believe it ." {George Baselitz, p. 29). Motifs take on
. .

up and down" (Klee, p. 40). a detached distance when they are upside down. The figure is
No discussion of the upside down in modern art can omit acknowledged abstractly, as the self-consciousness of looking
the works of Marc Chagall. Chagall's imaginative paintings, and the self-parody implied with an inversion makes the view-
such as The Poet (19 11), invite us into a world where levitation er acutely aware of the "text as text."
and heads put upside down on figures express a joyous immu- Following Baselitz's lead, other contemporary artists have
nity from rules. Chagall's is a fantasy world of gravity con- explored the power of the upside down. Bruce Nauman's
quered, and the artist's freedom from traditional orientation is Perfect Balance (1989) and Bill Viola's The Arc of Ascent
suggested by this statement: (1992, a video-sound installation) remind us that we walk with
our feet on the ground. In Viola's large-scale video projected in
If, in a picture, I have cut off a cow's head and put it on
a darkened room, a clothed figure is seen as if in free-fall: The
upside down, or occasionally even painted the whole pic-
figure is "projected as an inverted image so that descent
I have not done so in order to make lit-
ture topsy-turvy,
becomes ascent. The body seems to defy gravity moving
erature. want to introduce into my picture a psychic
I
upward, when the image on the screen passes up and out of the
shock, which always operates through pictorial factors,
room" {Documenta IX, p. 577).
in other words to introduce a fourth dimension.
Inversions of orientation have been perceived as disorder or
Therefore let people cease talking about fairy tales, of the
freedom, as negative or positive. Until gravity-defying space
fantastic, of Chagall the flying painter, when they speak
travel becomes common, the disorientation of the upside down
of me. I am a painter who is unconsciously conscious.
will continue to have power.
{My Life, in Sorrell, p. 143)

Although his paintings often depicted traditional subjects,

Chagall expressed a modernist attitude when he said, See also Artists/Art; Damned Souls; Hanging;
"Recognizable or unrecognizable what does it matter? Let's Margins/Outsiders
have an exhibition where all the pictures are upside down, and
then we'll see."
World War I, Dada, as a movement, represents an aes-
After
Selected Works of Art
thetic inversion whereby the world was perceived as so irra-
tional that the only way to respond was with an acceptance of Medieval
the irrational. During this period of drastic social upheaval, Honnecourt, Villard de, Wheel of Fortune, drawing, circa
chance, irony, black humor, satire, and questioning the mean- 1240, Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale
ing of words were all responses to a world turned upside down.
From this period, the film Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, with a plot Renaissance
of dreams and psychological reversals, gave birth to Limbourg Brothers, Fall of the Rebel Angels, illuminated
"Caligarisme," meaning the world turned upside down. Artist manuscript from Tres Riches Heures du Due de Berr, circa
Max Beckmann numerous works, such as
inverted figures in 141 5, Chantilly, France, Musee Conde (Ms. 65, fol. 65V)
Gallerie Umberto and Meeting in the Night (1928).
(192.5) Masaccio, The Martyrdom of St. Peter, predella panel, 1426,
Modern art may seem a world overturned to many, and Berlin, Germany, Staatliche Museen, Gemaldegalerie
some artists have played the role of jugglers of the visual realm. Eyck, Jan van, Last Judgment, circa 1440, New York,
M. C. Escher raised the art of visual order as confusion to a Metropolitan Museum of Art
high art in his works. Many are visual inversions of a type, and Bouts, Dirck, the Elder, Descent into Hell, before 1475, Lille,

in works such as Autre Monde (1947), the viewer seems to France, Musee des Beaux-Arts
somersault in an attempt to become oriented to the view. One Raphael, St. Michael Vanquishing the Demon, oil on canvas,
seems to look both up and down at a scene simultaneously. The 1 518, Paris, Louvre
image itself is not upside down, but our visual orientation to Perino del Vaga, Fall of the Giants, fresco, circa 1529, Genoa,
the spatial illusion is inverted as the eye scans the image. Italy, Palazzo del Principe

One of the most talented of the neoexpressionist artists is Michelangelo, Crucifixion of St. Peter, fresco, 1 545—1 550,
the German Georg Baselitz, who after 1969 painted and pre- Vatican, Pauline Chapel
sented paintings with the imagery "upside down." In viewing a Tintoretto, St. Mark Freeing a Christian Slave, oil on canvas,
on recognizing the sub-
Baselitz painting, one's initial response, 1548, Venice, Italy, Accademia
ject, is that the work has been hung upside down. Critical com-

ment and personal observation suggest that the fascination Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries
with his topsy-turvy world goes beyond the seemingly simple Rubens, Peter Paul, The Damned, before 1640, Munich,
"trick" of representing people on their heads. Baselitz's presen- Germany, Alte Pinakothek
tation of upside-down imagery reminds us that it is artists who Lairesse, Gerard de, Thetis Dipping the Infant Achilles into
often appreciate the disorder of things inverted. The "alien- the River Styx, before 1711, Potsdam, Germany, Sansouci,
ation effect" he said he wanted to achieve is there. Forms and Bildegalerie
figures hang suspended in brutal disregard of expectation. It is, Tiepolo, Giovanni Domenico, Scene of Contemporary Life:
after all, a painting. The viewer is forced to see the work in a The Acrobats, drawing, circa 1791, New York,
new way. Baselitz reminds the viewer "that the sky at the top Metropolitan Museum of Art
88o UPSIDE DOWN

Nineteenth Century Further Reading

Vernet, Horace, Mazeppa, oil on canvas, 1826, Avignon,
Babcock, Barbara A., editor, The Reversible World: Symbolic
France, Prefecture, on loan to Musee Calvet
Inversion in Art and Society, Ithaca, New York, and
Lear, Edward, The Complete Nonsense of Edward Lear,
London: Cornell University Press, 1978
collected and introduced by Holbrok Jackson, New York:
The Discoverers, New York: Vintage,
Boorstin, Daniel,
Dover, 1951
1983
Lear,Edward, Nonsense Botany, 1871
Calvocoressi, Richard, "A Source for the Inverted Imagery
Lear,Edward, Manypeeplia Upsidedownia, from Nonsense
in Georg Baselitz's Painting," Burlington Magazine 127
Songs London, 1871
. . . ,

(October 1985)

Twentieth Century
Chagall, Marc, My Life, translated by Elisabeth Abbott,

Chagall, Marc, Half Past Three (The Poet), oil on canvas, New York: Orion, i960

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Museum of

Documenta IX, catalog, Stuttgart, Germany: Edition Cantz,
191 1,

Art, Louise and Walter Arensberg Collection 1992

Klee, Paul, Night Flowers, 1918, Essen, Germany Donaldson, The World Upside-Down: Comedy from
Ian,

Landscape with Yellow Birds, watercolor and Jonson Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970
to Fielding,
Klee, Paul,
Dolezal, Hubert, Living in a World Transformed: Perceptual
gouache on paper, 1923-1932, Switzerland, private
collection
and Performatory Adaptation to Visual Distortion, New
Lachaise, Gaston, Acrobat [Upside Down Figure), bronze York: Academic Press, 1982

sculpture, 1927, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard George Baselitz, Cologne, Germany: Benedikt Taschen
University, Fogg Art Museum Verlag, 1990
Beckmann, Max, Meeting in the Night, pastel on black paper, Held, Julius S., "Gravity and Art," in Twenty-five Essays

1928, England, private collection in Memory of Milton S. Fox (1904-1971), New York:
Klee, Paul, Ad Marginium, watercolor and ink on card, 1930, Abrams, 1975
Basel, Switzerland, Kunstmuseum Kris, Ernst, Psychoanalytic Explorations in Art, New
Klee, Paul, Accident, tempera and crayon on white York and London: International Universities Press,

underpainting, 1939/LM 18 1952

Escher, M. C, Autre Monde, woodcut, 1947 Le Pichon, Yann, Gauguin: Life, Art and Inspiration,
Jones, Allen, Figure Falling, on canvas, 1964, Cologne,
oil translated by I. Mark, New
York: Abrams, 1987
Germany, Collection Ludwig Lindsay, Kenneth Clement, and Peter Vergo, Kandinsky:
Brown, Roger, Silly Savages We Will Sell No Painting Before
(
Complete Writings on Art, Boston: Hall, 1982
It's Dry), oil on canvas, 1983, New York, Malcolm Lear, Edward, The Complete Nonsense of Edward Lear,
Holzman collected and introduced by Holbrok Jackson, New York:
Baselitz, —
Georg, Churches Right and Left Jorg {Painters Dover, 195
Cycle), 1987, Mary Boone and Michael Werner Gallery Sorrell, Walter, The Duality of Vision, New York: Bobbs-
Georg, Edvard, 1987-1988,
Baselitz, Mary Boone and Merrill
Michael Werner Gallery Ways of Studying Nature in Paul Klee:
Spiller, Jorg, editor,

Nauman, Bruce, Perfect Balance, Pink Andrew with plug The Thinking Eye, Notebooks of Paul Klee, London and
hanging with T.V., 1989, Frankfurt, Germany, Museum fur New York: Lund Humphries, 1961
Moderne Kunst Zandee, Jan, Death as an Enemy According to Ancient
Viola, Bill, The Arc of Ascent, video-sound installation for a Egyptian Conceptions, Chicago: University of Chicago
3x7 meter projection screen, 1992 Press, i960
 BBWif!

vanity/vanitas
Liana De Girolami Cheney

The following motifs are covered in the discussion of the theme Vanity/Vanitas:

ARS MORIENDI TOILET SCENES AS VANITAS STILL-LIFE VANITAS

SYMBOLS
SKULL OR SKELETON AS FAME ACHIEVED THROUGH
VANITAS SYMBOL MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS AS DEATH
VANITAS SYMBOLS
BUBBLES AS VANITAS EMBLEMS AND MEDALS
SYMBOL PORTRAITS WITH VANITAS RELATING TO VANITAS
FLOWERS AS VANITAS SYMBOLS
SYMBOLS

<S8i
882 VANITY / VANITAS
 VANITY / VANITAS 883

Hendrik Goltzius, Young Man Holding

a Skull and a Tulip, drawing, 1614,
New York, Pierpont Morgan Library.
(Courtesy of the Pierpont Morgan
Library)

Over the centuries the ephemeral nature of

rience has been expressed in many
human expe-
different artistic
(usually connected to a skeleton) are those
the totentanz (or danse macabre), the ars moriendi,
known variously as
and the
forms through the use of specific iconographic symbols: dance, Dance of Death, usually seen as a response to the mass death
hair, mirrors,and skulls or skeletons. In visual art, literature, scenes of the Black Death, or bubonic plagues, of the fourteenth
and music, artists have celebrated the momentariness of life century. These illustrations portrayed the medieval idea that all

and the consequent compelling need to enjoy its pleasures with are equal before death. In the Dance of Death, individual skele-
images, words, and specific musical notations. At the same tons are paired with their victims. The concept of pairing living

time, whether fearful or accepting of a hedonistic emphasis on figures with Death continued throughout the sixteenth century
a joie de vivre — a violation of Christian tradition — artists con- and into the seventeenth century.
sistently added memento mori (a symbolism with a didactic, There is a clear difference between the ars moriendi and
moralistic, or damnatory message) to their representations, totentanz (danse macabre). Ars moriendi (the art of dying) is
thereby imbuing them with diaphanous meanings. Centuries related to a medieval collection of texts that were used by cler-
later these ambiguous meanings still intrigue viewers, readers, gy attending the dying. The totentanz (danse macabre) differs
and listeners and contribute to the continued fascination with from both ars moriendi and the Dance of Death described
their study. above. During the medieval period it was believed that the dead
Vanitas (emptiness), or vanity, considered to be a moral
is arose from their tombs at midnight and performed a dance in
vice, one that alludes to the warning omnia vanitas (all
biblical a graveyard before setting off to claim fresh victims from
is vanity; Ecclesiastes 1:2). Vanity was initially conveyed in art among the living.
by richness and wealth and through objects such as jewels, gold In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries these themes, ars
coins, purses, books, butterflies, exotic animals, flowers, hour- moriendi, totentanz (danse macabre), and the Dance of Death,
glasses, wine glasses or pitchers, candles, crowns or scepters, along with texts that described contests of angels and demons
clocks, swords, terrestrial globes, shells, and figures of death in over the human became fused through the tradition of
soul,
the form of skeletons or skulls. The educated viewer knows woodcut Examples of this fusion include Master
illustration.
that the sure sign a vanitas theme underlies a still life is the S. I.'s Ars moriendi (1464), from a Netherlandish Latin text

presence of a skull, the memento mori reminding us that we
must die.
In medieval and Renaissance art the personification of van-
ity took on a human form, usually that of a nude woman, seat-
ed or recumbent, at her toilet, combing her hair, looking at
the mirror, and adorning her hair and body with jewels and
flowers. Dutch and Flemish painters of the seventeenth century
glorified this subject in their still-life paintings, conveying a
specifically Christian meaning through the use of objects, most-
ly familiar and everyday, as a disguised symbolism.
Medieval allegories representing the hierarchical order of
the universe and personifications of philosophical concepts,
virtues, the arts, the planets, and the estates or humors of the
individual were available to northern European artists
through printed books (such as Petrarch's Triumphs, Ovide
moralise), emblem books (by artists such as Andrea Alciati,
Hadrianus Junius, Roemer Visscher, and Jacob Cats), prints
of antiquities (such as those of classical monuments, sculp-
tures, and playing cards (tarot). This medieval
coins),
encyclopedia of images and meanings was an aspect of the
humanist atmosphere of Renaissance art: the literary and
scholastic revivals of antiquity provoked a fusion of symbols
with various interpretations.
This study will analyze the visual sources and emblematic
meanings for the depiction of the skull in sixteenth-
seventeenth-century Dutch portraits: group, allegorical, and indi-
vidual. Among the earliest representations of the skull in art
now in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris, and Michael
Wolgenut's Dance of Death (1493) from the Nuremberg
Chronicle. Hans Holbein the Younger recorded many painted
walls of cloisters and graveyards of the later Middle Ages in
his engravings with representations of the totentanz (danse
macabre). The illustrations usually show a procession march-
ing or dancing to a grave, a row of figures from all social ranks
organized in a hierarchical ladder of importance: the pope, the
emperor, the cardinals, lesser ecclesiastics, persons of various
occupations and ages, and finally peasants, all accompanied
by Death.
Additional examples of ars moriendi can be found in six-
teenth-century sculpture andemblem books, such as the anony-
mous northern European ivory sculpture Death (1547) in the
Musee des Arts Decoratifs of Paris, in which a seated skeleton
rests on its tomb with an hourglass, time having just passed
away. Concurrently, Andrea Aldan's emblem Sepulchrum
—
(1550) represents Death with a skull rather than a skeleton
placed on a sarcophagus (Alciati and Daly).
During the sixteenth century, with few exceptions, complex
representations of ars moriendi, totentanz (danse macabre),
and the Dance of Death merged and transformed into a single
image, the skull. Beginning at this time, the skull began to make
solo appearances as a memento mori or vanitas symbol, direct-
and ing the viewer's thoughts to the end of life and away from its
vanities. The skull is an attribute of hermetic or penitent saints
such as St. Francis of Assisi, St. Romuald, St. Mary Magdalen,
884 VANITY / VANITAS

and particularly St. Jerome, a reminder of the transitory nature bol; for example, Dirk Jacobsz's Portrait of Pompeius Occo
oi thislife as opposed to the eternal life of the spirit. (1531) in the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. In

Joos van Cleve produced two paintings of St. Jerome the portrait a wealthy banker holds a carnation, symbol of
(1521), one which is located in a private collection and the humility and hope for eternal life, and rests his other hand on

other in the Fogg Art Museum of Harvard University in a skull, a sign of meditation and a symbol of mortality.
Cambridge, Massachusetts. St. Jerome, one of the four Latin An interesting variation on this theme occurs when the
fathers of the Church in the West, was known as Eusehius figure holds a book or- a scroll, with or without inscriptions, as
Hieronymus Sophronius in his early life. Born in about 347 at a memento mori, such as in the portrait Kathryn Berake

Stridon in Dalmatia, he was sent to Rome as a child and there (circa 1580) in the National Gallery of Wales. Adrien van

studied Creek and Latin and became a reader of ancient litera- Cronenburg's Woman and Child 1 587) in the Prado in Madrid,
(

ture. In }86 St. Jerome went to the Holy Land and settled in Spain, is a group portrait that includes a depiction of a skull
Bethlehem, where he learned Hebrew and translated the Bible and flower along with an Italian inscription in the post of
into a Latin version known as the Vulgate. He also wrote many the sepulchral niche, Nascendo/Morendo (Live and Die),
commentaries, displaying a scholarship unsurpassed in
biblical reminding us of the ephemeral nature of life and earthly
the Roman Catholic Church, and kept an active correspon- pleasures. The inscription in the niche may also allude to the
dence with other Christians. Going to the Holy Land and the relationship between mother and daughter: the mother's life
desert, he became a hermit. The skull, therefore, alludes to this continued through the birth of her daughter, a loving bond
intellectual and penitential life (Cross, 1984). Its position in the established until death. The clasped hands of mother and
foreground of van Cleve's paintings testifies to St. Jerome's life daughter next to the skull allude to love's bonds, marriages,
of penitence, contemplation, and study as a preparation for and wedding anniversaries. Dutch marriage medals traditional-
death and eternal life. In this kind of religious imagery the skull ly contained incisions of a handshake encircled by a heart and

is imbued with great meaning as a receptacle for life and skull with a motto alluding to love and faithfulness until death.
thought. For this reason the skull often appears with books, A Frisian marriage medal from the seventeenth century clearly
representing the vehicle for transcendent ideas, from divine illustrates this Dutch marital convention. Unfortunately, little is

omniscience to human thought, and for transmutation of known about this particular commission. Adrien van
human life. Cronenburg's painting is inventive, as the depiction of a
The pointing gesture of Jerome has a similar moralizing
St. woman displaying a skull is rare in Dutch paintings, with the
meaning. A was viewed in connec-
finger pointing to the skull exception of religious paintings of Mary Magdalene probably —
tion with a soap bubble. An inscription on the arch above the its derivation. Conventionally, the skull rested most often in

niche, homo bulla (man is like a bubble), reinforces the meaning
of the pointing gesture and reminds one of the transitoriness of
life, as noted in the emblematic tradition. The symbolism of the
floating bubbles derives from engravings and emblematic books
from this period. Hadrianus Junius's emblem Et Tutto
Abbraccio, Et Nulla Stringo (1565, I Embrace Everything, and
male hands. As an aside, in comparing Kathryn Berake and
Woman and Child compositionally and stylistically, it could be
argued that the portrait Kathryn Berake should be attributed to
van Cronenburg.
The skull's memento mori appearance in portraits and still
lifes created two special genres called the vanitas portrait and

Hold Nothing) shows many children trying to capture and vanitas still life, which were especially popular in seventeenth-
hold floating bubbles. Hendrik Goltzius's engraving Quis century Dutch art. Still life derives from the Dutch word
Evadet/Nemo (1594, Who Escapes, No Man) also carries the stilleven, which the Dutch began to use in 1650. Before that
message that humans are as fragile as a bubble. time they referred to such paintings as stilstaende dingen (still

A century later, in Gerrit Dou's

Jerome (1660) in the
St. standing objects) or merely labeled their subject as ontbijt
Gemaldegalerie Alte Meister, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen in (breakfast). This essay will only focus on the vanitas portraits.
Dresden, Germany, the penitent saint contemplates a skull While the was the most obvious reminder of mortality
skull
while an hourglass counts down his mortality. In this version in vanitas portraits and still lifes, other symbols, such as mir-
the skull is also a symbol of self-denial and contemplation rors, musical instruments, butterflies, flowers, insects, or a
proper to a hermit. snuffed-out candle also testified to the omnipresence of death.
The drama of penitence is also represented by Mary Dutch painter and biographer Carel van Mander notes how, in
Magdalene as a reformed sinner holding a skull as she ponders became pop-
the early seventeenth century, the vanitas portraits
death and her past life. Jan de Bray, in The Penitent Magdalene ular with the Amsterdam collectors Jacques Rozet and Reynier
(1670) in a private collection, depicts such a scene in extreme Antonisses, patrons of memento mori portraits such as the
contrasts of light and shadow. The attributes of mortification engraving after Abraham Bloemaert's Death's Dead (1600),
(the cross, the books) appear with the young and fresh saint as now in a private collection, and Jacob de Gheyn II's Vanitas
she holds a skull, symbol of age, death, and decay. A large, dark (1603) in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. Such
brown area with a few pieces of vine silhouetted against a small vanitas portrait include biblical symbols of mortality, derived
section of sky suggests the interior of a cave, where according from Ecclesiastes 1:2, Vanitatumet omnia vanitas (Vanity of
to legend the Magdalene spent her later life as a hermit. vanities; all is vanity). In The Golden Age (1984), art historian
In the Netherlands, during the sixteenth and seventeenth Bob Haak demonstrated how this biblical source helps to deci-
centuries, the representation of a skull not only retained a reli- pher the clavis interpretandi (key to interpreting) of vanitas
gious association with saints but also expanded into secular painting.
depictions such as portraiture. Individual and group portraits In the middle of the seventeenth century other vanitas sym-
appear with the skull as a memento mori image or vanitas sym- bols joined the skull: crucifixes, clocks, candles, purses, coins,
 VANITY / VANITAS 885

pipes, oil lamps, fruits, and hourglasses. Additional inscrip- present and can be seen in numerous portraits painted in the
tions expanded the moral messages reminding the viewer of Netherlands in the seventeenth century, ranging from miniature
the brevity of life: "Today me, tomorrow you." Along with to life-size, from individual to group portraits, and from indoor
the memento mori, pipes, skulls, and such emblems of vain to outdoor settings. In sixteenth-century portraiture some sym-
folly as shells, timepieces, and the guttering of spent candles bols of mortality were traditionally added to the composition
signified the transitoriness and emptiness of the material life. a skull, a candle, a carnation, bubbles — as emblems to suggest
These paintings were often painted in somber colors to sug- hope for eternal life. The artist could express this hope by por-

gest an apocalyptic message and often incorporated bubbles traying the sitter with skull and objects or by portraying on the
(suggesting fraud, illusion) and smoking or a pipe (pipe verso of the portrait another painting with a skull and other
dreams). The presence of insects, specifically flies, together transitory emblems.
with flowers, in these representations also reinforces the van- In vanitas portrait paintings, still-life objects make didac-
itas symbolism. Musical instruments and glassware were also tic points, because the objects were in daily use or were con-
used for emblematic purposes, indicating the brevity of life, as sumed by members of Dutch society. The Netherland's grow-
in Roemer Sinnepoppen (1614) and Cats's Sinne-
Visscher's ing empire, with its constant mercantile navigation to the East
en-Minnebeelden (1627, Sense and Love Emblems). Cesare and the West Indies, accounts for the frequent presence of
Ripa, in Iconologia (1593), refers to "human's hopes as frag- exotic seashells, fruits, and flowers in these paintings.
ile as glass." Horticulture, particularly the cultivation of tulips, became a
This preoccupation with the meaning of life seen in vanitas national mania. In The Embarrassment of Riches (1987),
portrait paintings was recognized by art historian and iconog- Simon Schama states that "the incorrigible habits of material
rapher Eric de Jongh as a tendency to moralize, common to self-indulgence that were ingrained intoDutch commercial
seventeenth-century mentality. In using realism, Dutch artists life prompted all those warning judgments. This moral
encouraged virtue and reminded the viewer of the transitori- pulling and pushing might have made for the inconsistence"
ness of life in contrast with death. The combination of the sin- in the general modus vivendi. Apparently, the vanitas milieu
gle portrait paired off with the vanitas still life became quite imposed an opposite value system as a desideratum for Dutch
popular with Dutch artists. This theme of vanitas in portrai- society and gave the Dutch artist room to maneuver between
ture parallels that of vanitas in still life painting. As a mani- the sacred and the profane.
festation of the popularity of this theme, vanitas portraits were The Haarlem and Leiden schools became very well known
as costly as history paintings, about five guilders, whereas van- for portrait and vanitas paintings. The Haarlem school was
itas still life paintings varied in price from six to seven guilders renowned for its vanitas still life paintings, namely by William,
(Segal, 1989). Heda, and Pieter Claesz. The Leiden school was also known
From the early part of the seventeenth century, Dutch sensi- for its vanitas painters, namely David Bailly and Jacob de
bilities veered toward an elaboration of the intricate details of Gheyn II. In Haarlem, Jan Molenaer, who specialized in genre
objects and accessories. The davis Dutch por-
interpretandi of scenes, was one of the first painters of the new
traits in vanitas paintings depends
on emblematicin part Commonwealth of the United Provinces. His group portrait
sources. Dutch seventeenth-century prose, poetry, drama, and painting Family Making Music (1660) in the Frans Hals
emblematic literature were employed in allegorical fashion, Museum in Haarlem depicts the Molenaer family, his wife
where the moralizing meaning was implied, as Gerard Lairesse Judy Leyster, also a painter, portrayed in front of a virginal.
has stated, "to promote virtue and shun evil." Visscher's first The entire picture is filled with hints of mortality, from the
sinnepoppen (emblem) was "Nothing is empty or meaning- skull seen in the ancestral portrait in the background to the
less," emphasizing the symbolic meaning in simple objects or bubbles blown by the boy in the foreground. (The concern for
situations. The double entendre of many Dutch paintings can ancestral recognition has been known since Roman times; for
often be interpreted with the help of emblematic sources, example, the sculpture A Roman Patricia): with Busts of his
particularly Cats's Sinne-en-Minnebeelden, a source of com- Ancestors, late first century B.C., at the Capitoline Museum in
mentaries and moralistic explanations for the contemporary art Rome.) The boy blowing bubbles in the painting parallels the
historian. A Dutch artist could ensure that his audience under- young boy's action in Adriaen Poirters's engraving Vanitas
stood these paintings by adding an explanatory text to the (1649). In this work the personification Justice, a simulated
painting, as can be seen in vanitas paintings of the day. sculpture standing in the niche behind the boy, contrasts puz-
Common moralistic inscriptions included, but were not limited zlingly with the lighthearted musical party that he attends.
to, Vanitas vanitatnm (Vanity, vanity, all is vanity), Memento Does Justice refer to the occupational role of the standing mil-
mori, Sic transit gloria mnndi (So passes away the glory of the itant figure, alluding to the legal turmoils of the family, or does
world), and so on. Justice with the scales allude to the harmony of music por-
Another way for artists to clarify the moralistic intentions of trayed in the painting, reinforcing the ideal notion of the har-
their works was to incorporate, in the background of their mony of a happy family?
paintings, the image of another painting with a message they The Leiden school developed a strong tradition of vanitas
intended. A third way for artists to reveal the clavis interpre- painting probably because of the theological ideas current at
tandi in their paintings was to include certain objects that the university. In the Leiden school vanitas paintings, the focus
served as clues to the "disguised symbolism," as did the skull in is often on the justice of death. For example, Jacob de Gheyn
Dutch vanitas portraits (Keyszlitz, 1957). Throughout the rise IPs engraving Mors spectra ligonibus aequat shows skeletons
in popularity of Dutch portraiture, no matter what size or com- surrounded by vanitas symbols. The power of the crown is
positional mode one looks at, this "disguised symbolism" is weighed against the peasant, but, as in the ast judgment scene, 1
886 VANITY / VANITAS

death evens out any inadequacy of material existence; there- Life). Ripa's emblem book was a readily available source in the
fore, death is equal to all. Vincent van der Vinne's Vanitas with Netherlands in the early seventeenth century, one which pro-
Portrait of Charles I (1600) in the Louvre in Paris comments on posed that objects represent the ephemeral pleasure of success;
the vulnerability of power and royalty. The inscriptions gener- only faith, tradition, or ancestorship can provide eternity.
ally imply "Things can change." Specifically, next to the skull Hendrick Hondius's engraving The End Crowns the Work
an inscription states "Think about the end." (1626), suggests that even an artist can achieve fame and
An interesting transformation takes place in the early seven- immortality only through death.
teenth century, from portraits in which the sitter, holding a Molenaer's Woman at Her Toilet, or Allegory of Vanity
skull or surrounded by memento mori, dominates the compo- (1633), in the Art Museum in Toledo, Ohio, is yet another
sition to compositions that eliminate the sitter entirely and sub- example of an allegorical vanitas portrait. The painting shows
stitute only the skull with other vanitas symbols. In the middle a young woman gazing into her mirror while a young boy
and late seventeenth century, the portrait of the sitter returned, blows bubbles. Innocence, contrasted with the spectrum of
included as part of an allegory of vanitas. —
worldly knowledge flirtations, innuendo, ambiguity, and light
Bailly's Vanitas with a Portrait of a Young Painter (1651) —
moral guidance is reflected in this vanitas painting. An
in the Municipal Museum de Lakenhal in Leiden, The engraving by Adrien Poirters (1649) parallels the young boy's
Netherlands, typifies seventeenth-century Dutch vanitas por- action in Molenaer's painting and recalls Cats's moralizing
traits. This type of portrait (a self-portrait) combines elements poem: "Attend to the child that blows bubbles, / And see how
derived from group portraiture (with the inclusion of ances- much he is amazed, / That so much blown up froth and slob-
tors) with allegorical portraiture and the fusion of vanitas still- ber, / Endures but so brief a phase." In The Embarrassment of

life elements. The young artist pays homage to his ancestors by Riches Schama associates the floating bubbles with the concept
holding a portrait of his father and displays an inventory of of speculum fallax (the bubble speculation), a philosophical
vanitas — books, a candle, coins, a mirror, a pipe,
emblems wilt- reference to the world's deceit as "the empty reality of the
ed flowers, glass objects, an hourglass, jewelry, sculpture, ephemeral orb." In Molenaer's painting, the youth of the child
drawings, paintings, and musical instruments — within the com- iscompared to the beauty of the young woman. Their ephemer-
position. The skull at the feet of the statue of the flagellated al and careless natures are paralleled by the attributes they hold
Christ provides the vanitas motto and three floating bubbles (the scallop-shell bubble catcher and the mirror), and by their
allude to the brevity of life. actions (the child's levity and the woman's reflection in the mir-
The symbolism of the floating bubbles derives from ror). They are surrounded by several objects that symbolize the
emblematic books and engravings of this period such as sin of superbia (pride): the comb, the long hair, the mirror (used
Goltzius's Quis Evadet/Nemo (1594, Who Escapes/No Man) similarly in Hieronymus Bosch's Superbia, circa 1500). The
and Crispijn de Passe's Vanitas (early seventeenth century). reflection of the mirror and the gazing at the mirror by the
Engravings after Maerten de Vos, such as de Passe's Vanitas, beautiful woman are narcissistic aspects of youth. The action of
also echoed the message that man is as fragile as a bubble. combing hair alludes to Visscher's emblem Purgo et Ornat (It
Bailly's particular depiction of the bubbles is similar to a por- Cleans and It Beautifies) and suggests the incorrigible fickleness
trayal by Cornelis Ketel in Portrait of a Man (1574) in the of youth, as the comb itself reinforces the symbolism of the mir-
Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam. The tondo recto of this painting ror: vanity. Traditionally, a depiction of unbound hair suggests
shows a portrait of the sitter holding a pocket watch; on the a woman of easy virtue, which recalls Mary Magdalen. Finally,
verso a putto blows bubbles and an inscription in Greek reads the musical instruments displayed on the wall allude to the
"Man is a soap bubble." Similarly, in Bailly's drawing Vanitas sweetness of music evocative of the sweetness of lovemaking.
(1624) in the Royal Library in The Hague, The Netherlands, a Cats's moralizing poem and emblem also clearly make this
skull is accompanied by an hourglass and a pipe. The skull point: the easiness of lovemaking and music playing is as tem-
alludes to the motto "Today me, tomorrow you," and the porary as the nature of beauty and youth.
smoking pipe suggests the "ashes to ashes" of the biblical A more intimate variation on the theme of a woman at her
warning "For my days are consumed like smoke" (Psalm toilet appears in Jan Steen's Morning Toilet (1663) in the Royal

102:3), as ls noted in Visscher's Sinnepoppen. Collection in London, signed and dated on the columns it por-
Flowers are another vanitas symbol included in composi- trays. Mixing the comic with morality, Steen provides a combi-
tions to attest to the brevity of human existence as defined in nation of insightful allusions. The richness of the colors and the
Job 14:1-2. Art historian Susan Kuretsky notes that tulips attractiveness of the young woman are contrasted with the
became a favorite emblem of human mortality in vanitas still- memento mori strewn on the threshold, a disarrayed decor that
life paintings, such as Jacob de Gheyn IPs Vanitas (1603) in the conveys a message opposite that of Johan de Brune's emblem
Metropolitan Museum of Art. Vanitas portrait paintings also The Marriage Bed Should Be Unstained from Emblemata of
assimilated the memento mori symbolism of tulips, as illustrat- zinnewerk (1614). The brevity of casual love is inherently par-
ed in Goltzius's Young Man Holding a Skull and a Tulip alleled by the brevity of youth and beauty. A musical instru-
(1614). This reading is supported by the emblematic tradition ment associated with love and musical songs hides a crowned
of Cats's Houwelijck (1658) and Visscher's Sinnepoppen, in skull. Urs Graf's engraving Vanitas (circa 1525) similarly com-
which an emblem of a tulip with the motto "A fool and his bines riotous living with musical instruments. A skull placed at
money are soon parted" uses a typical association of the tulip the bottom of the scene and surrounded by mottoes reminds
with worldly folly. Similarly, roses and petals with drops of dew the viewer of the transitoriness of life. Like Molenaer's Woman
are symbols of short-livedness, also attesting to human frailty, at Her Toilet (Allegory of Vanity), Steen's Morning Toilet is
as described by Ripa in his Iconologia under Vita Breve (Brief very much a vanitas portrait: a portrayal of a woman in an
 VANITY / VANITAS 887

interior setting, a boudoir, symbolically implying an environ- or vanitas were painted displaying the skull. In the seventeenth
ment of dubious propriety and providing a moral comment century the symbolism of the memento mori expanded to
upon domestic life. include many emblematic objects in addition to the skull.
However, individual vanitas portraits may or may not be Sometimes a portrait of the deceased was actually replaced by
allegorical. Judith Leyster's or Frans Hals's Young Man with a a skull as a new kind of painting emerged: vanitas still life

Skull 1 626-1628) in the National Gallery in London repre-

( paintings. theme expanded, the figure (portrait) reen-
As this

sents a youthful sitter displaying a skull. Is he a poet or an tered vanitas painting, and entire scenes became allegories on
actor? The identification of the painted man and the attribution the transitoriness of human existence. Simultaneously, howev-
of this painting are still under evaluation. The Caravaggesque er, the image of the skull assumed a dual role: a symbol of

young man, dramatically gesturing and wearing a red hat with occupation defining the professional status of the sitter, and as
a huge plume, contrasts with the emblem of vanitas, the skull. a traditional vanitas icon with all its attendant symbolism.
Goltzius's drawing Young Man Holding a Skull and a Tulip This twofold meaning of the skull continues to intrigue art
similarly presents an elegantly dressed young man wearing a historians.
fanciful hat with plumes. Dutch art in the seventeenth century In same symbols of vanity-
the nineteenth century, these
was saturated with such accessories, attributes or clues to a were still somewhat sentimentalized form.
used, although in a
symbolism that contains profoundly moralistic connotations. For example, Lily Martin Spencer's We Both Must Fade
Many artists included crowns, seals, documents, leaves, and (1869) depicts a beautiful young woman in a ball gown, hold-
plumes as ephemeral objects of natural life. Goltzius's figure ing a flower, and gazing into a full-length mirror. The fading
holds a skull and a tulip to remind viewers of the transitoriness of the flower may be more suggestive of the fading of beauty
of human existence and the certainty of death. Behind him an than of death, but the underlying vanitas associations are still

hourglass keeps count of the passage of time. Another similar at work. Arnold Bocklin's Self-Portrait with Death Playing
vanitas is Joos van Craesbeeck's A Man Holding a Skull and a the Fiddle (1872) is a more direct appropriation of the vani-
Pipe (circa 1630), in a private collection, a painting that alludes tas symbolism: the artist goes about his daily work, but Death
to the biblical warning "For my days are consumed like is playing the tune.
smoke" (Psalm 102:3) and recalls Bailly's vanitas drawing and
Visscher's emblem on the same subject.
Another type of portraiture developed in the middle of the See also Death; Excess; Pointing/Indicating; Toilet Scenes

seventeenth century: professional portraiture typically depict-

ing a doctor or physician. Such portraits include Pieter Nason's
Portrait of a Doctor in Medicine (1665) in the Dulwich Picture Selected Works of Art
Gallery in London. These portraits —also usually including
Ars Moriendi
skulls —do not simply depict concepts of vanitas and transitory Master S. I., Ars Moriendi, woodcut, 1464, from
life but also allude to the profession of the sitter. These artists
Netherlandish Latin text
were likely influenced by several sources: the anatomical
Totentanz, woodcut, 1492, printed by J. Meydenback,
engravings of Andreas Vesalius, particularly his skull engrav-
ings; the annual anatomy lesson given by the chief surgeon of
Germany
Heidelberg,
Wolgenut, Michael, Dance of Death, woodcut, 1493, from
the Surgeons' Guild, as illustrated in Thomas de Keyser's The
Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Sebastiaen Egbertsz de Vrij (1619), in
Nuremberg Chronicle
the Historisch Museum in Amsterdam; and the anatomy lesson Death, ivory, 1547, Paris, Musee des Arts Decoratifs

paintings from the school of Amsterdam. The emblematic

moralistic implication of memento mori is in these portraits Skull or Skeleton as Vanitas Symbol
somewhat overshadowed and metamorphosed by the sitter's Cleve, Joos van, St. Jerome, 1521, private collection
profession. Hals's Portrait of a Man (1611), a pendant portrait Cleve, Joos van, St. Jerome, 1521, Cambridge, Massachusetts,
in The Barber Institute of Fine Arts at the University of Fogg Art Museum
Birmingham, England, with its unidentified coat of arms in the Alciati, Andrea, Sepulchrum, 1550, Emblem CDVII,
upper right flanked by the inscription Ita mori/aetat suae 60, engraving, from Emblemata
may The attire of the sitter resembles a doc-
depict a physician. Gheyn, Jacob de, II, Vanitas, oil on panel, 1603, New York,
tor's outfit from contemporaneous anatomy lesson paintings. Metropolitan Museum of Art
Although double family portraits were common in Dutch soci- Heem, Jan Davidsz. de, Vanitas Still Life, circa 162S,

ety, it was rare to commission a pendant vanitas portrait with Pommersfelden, Germany, Shonborn Gallery
a wife and husband holding a skull. Does the skull held by Rosa, Salvator, Humana Fragilitas, oil on canvas, circa 1650,

Hals's sitter then allude to his medical profession, or is it to be Cambridge, Cambridge University, Fitzwilliam Museum
interpreted in the traditional vanitas context? Dou, Gerrit, St. Jerome, 1660, Dresden, Germany,
summary, the skeleton as a memento mori symbol
In Gemaldegalerie Alte Meister, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen
appeared first in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance associ- Bray, Jan de, The Penitent Magdalene, 1670, private
ated with figures in northern European representations of the collection
ars moriendi. Dance of Death, or totentanz {danse macabre).
In the sixteenth century the depiction of the skeleton as a sym- Bubbles as Vanitas Symbol
bol of death evolved and was reduced to a skull. Individual Junius, Hadrianus, Et Tutto Abbraccio, Et Nulla Stringo,
and group portraits alluding to the concept of memento mori 1565, Emblem XVI, engraving, from Emblemata
S S S \ \ \ in / VANITAS

Goltzius, I [endrik, Quis I vadet/Nemo, engraving, i

594, Rosa, Salvator, Vanitas, oil on panel, before 167^,
Berlin, Kupferstichkabinett, Staatliche Museen Aberdeenshire, Scotland, I laddo 1 louse. ( ollection

Passe, ( rispijn (fe, Vanitas, engraving after Maerten de Vos, Major Da\ id c Jordon
earl) seventeenth century, private collection
Molenaer, fan, Woman at Her Toilet (Allegory of Vanity), Fame Achieved Through Death
[633, Ibledo, Ohio. An Museum Goltzius, Hendrik,lama ami Historia, engraving, 1586
Poirters, Adriaen, Vanitas, engraving, r.649 Hondius, Hendrick, he ml Crowns the Work, engraving,
I I

i6z6
Flowers as Vanitas Symbols
Goltzius, I [endrik, Young Man Holding a Skull and a Tulip, Emblems and Medals Relating to Vanitas
drawing, 1614, New York, Pierpont Morgan ibrarj 1
Marriage Viedal, Frisian, seventeenth century, private
Spencer, 1 ily Mamn, We Both Must Fade, C869, Washington, collection
D.C., National Collection of Fine Arts Visscher, Roemer, Notl.'/ug Is I nifty or Meaningless, 1614,
first emblem from Sinnepoppen
Toilet Scenes as Vanitas Symbols Visscher, Roemer, Man Smoking, 1614, emblem from
Stcen, I.111. Morning Toilet, 1 <><-.;, London, Royal Collection Sinnepoppen
Visscher, Roemer, Tulip, 1614, emblem from Sinnepoppen
Musical Instruments as Vanitas Symbols Visscher, Roemer, Purgo et Ornat, 1614, emblem from
("rat, Urs, Vanitas, engraving, circa 1 \is
Sinnepoppen
Brune, Johan de, The Wantage Bed Should Be Unstained,
Portraits with Vanitas Symbols
1614, emblem from mblemata of zmneirerk, 1614
/

Jacobs/., Dirk, Portrait of Pompeius Occo, [531, Amsterdam,

Cats, Jacob, Widow, 1658, emblem from Houwelijck
The Netherlands, Rijksmuseum
Cats, Jacob, Music, 1658, emblem from Houwelijck
Ketel, t ornelis. Portrait of a Man, tondo, 1574, Amsterdam,
The Netherlands, Rijksmuseum
Cronenburg, Adrien van (?), Kathryn Berake, circa 1580,
Cardiff, National Gallery of Wales
Further Reading
Cronenburg, Adrien van, Woman and Child, 587, Madrid, 1
Alciati, Andrea (Andreas Alciatus), The Latin Emblems:
Spam, Prado Indexes ami Lists, edited by Peter M. Daly, Toronto,
Hals, Irans, Portrait of a Man, im i, Birmingham, Ontario: LJniversity of Toronto Press, 1985
England, University of Birmingham, Barber Institute The Art Chicago and
Alpers, Svetlana, of Describing,
of Fine Arts ondon: University of Chicago
1 Press,1983
kewr, Thomas de, The Anatomy I esson of Dr. Sebastiaen Aries, Philippe, Images Man and Death, Cambridge,
of
I gbertsz de Vrij, [619, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1985
Historisch Museum
Bergstrom, Ingvar, Still-Lifes of the Golden Ages,
1 Judith, or brans Hals, Young Man with a Shall,
e\ ster,
Washington, D.( National Gallerj oi Washington,
.:

1626-1628, London, National Galler)

[989
Craesbeeck, Joos van, A Man Holding a Skull ami a Pipe,
Bliss, Douglas Percy, A History of Wood Engraving,
circa ih;o, private collection
London: Spring, 1964
Bailly, David, Vanitas with a Portrait of a Young Painter,
Boase, ttiomas Sherrer Ross, Death in the Middle Ages:
16S i, Leiden, The Netherlands, Municipal Museum de
Judgment and Remembrance, New York:
Mortality,
1 akenhal
McGraw-Hill, \<-)~i; London: Thames and Hudson,
Molenaer, Jan. Family Making Music, 1 (->(-> o, Haarlem, The
E972
Netherlands, brans Hals Museum
Boeckl, Christine M., Triumph of Death (Ph.D. diss.,
N.iMin, Pieter, Portrait of a Doctor in Medicine, 166s,
London, Dulwich Picture Gallery Columbia University, 1991)

Bocklin, Arnold, Self-Portrait with Death Playing the Cats, Jacob, Sinne-en-Minnebeelden, Amsterdam, The
Piddle,
oil on canvas, [872, Berlin, Staatliche Museen
Netherlands, [627
Clark, James Midgley, The Dance of Death in the Middle
Still-Life Vanitas Ago and Renaissance, Glasgow, Scotland: Jackson,
Bailly, David, Vanitas, drawing, 1624, The Hague, The 1 9 50
Netherlands, Royal Library Cross, brank 1 eslie, The Oxford Dictionary of the
Nieulandr. Adriaen van, Vanitas Still Life, oil on panel, Christian Church, Oxford and New York: Oxford
[636, Haarlem, The Netherlands, brans Hals Museum University Press, 1984
Steenwyck, Harmen, Vanitas Still life, oil on panel, before Fischer, P., "Music in Painting of the Low Countries in

circa [656, Leiden, The Netherlands, Municipal Museum the Sixteenth and Seventeenth C enturies," Sonomum
de Lakenhal Speculum 50/5 1972) 1 (

Steenwyck, Harmen, An
Allegory of the Vanities of Human Haak, Bob, The Golden Age, New York: Ahrams, 1984
Life, oil on panel, before circa [656, ondon, National 1 Hind, Arthur, A History of Woodcut, New York: Ahrams,
Gallerv [984
 VANITY / VANITAS 889

Hofrichter, Prima Fox,"Games People Play: Judith Leyster's Ripa, Cesare, Iconologia, New York and London: Garland,
A Game of Trick-Trac," Journal of the Worcester Art 1976
Museum 7 (1983) Rosenberg, Jakob, et al., Dutch Art and Architecture,
,
Judith Leyster, Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Davco, Baltimore, Maryland, and Harmondsworth, England:
1990 Penguin, 972 1

Janson, Horst W., "Putto and Death," Art Bulletin (1937) Schama, Simon, The Embarrassment 0/ Riches, New York:
Jongh, Eric de, "Einleitung," Die Sprache der Bilde, Knopf, 1987
Braunschweig, Germany: Aco Druck GMBH, 1978 Segal, Sam. A Prosperous Past: The Sumptuous Still-Life in
Keyszlitz, Robert, De Clavis interpretandi in der the Netherlands, 1600-1700, Cambridge, Massachusetts:
hollandischen Maleriei des 17. Jahrhunderts, Munich, Harvard University Press, 1989
Germany, 1957 Slive, Seymour, Prans Hals, London: Royal Academy of Arts,

Klessmann, Rudiger, Die Sprache der Bilder, Braunschweig, 1989

Germany: Aco Druck GMBH, 1978 "Depiction of Mythological Themes," in
Sluijter, P.ric J.,

Koozin, Kristine, The Vanitas Still I.ifes of Harmen Gads, Saints and Heroes: Dutch Painting in the Age
Steenwyck: Metaphoric Realism, Lewiston, England: of Rembrandt, Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of
Mellen, 1990 Art, 1980
Kuretsky, Susan, "D. Hetschilderen van bl'men in de 17 de Smith, David R., "Irony and Civility: Notes on the
eeuw," Flora et Pictura, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Convergence of Genre and Portraiture in Seventeenth
1987 Century Dutch Painting," Art Bulletin (1987)
Marlier, G., "Un du XVIe Siecle: Anna au
Portraitiste Prison Stechow, Wolfgang, "Homo Bulla," Art Bulletin (1938)
Adriaen van Cronenburch," Oud
Holland 51 (1934) Sutton, Peter, Masters of Seventeenth Century Dutch Genre,
Mosby, Dewey, Gods, Saints and Heroes, Washington, D.C.: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Philadelphia Museum ol Art.
National Gallery of Art, 1980 1984
Nash, John Malcolm, The Age of Rembrandt and Vermeer, Veca, Alberto, Vanitas, Bergamo, Italy: Galleria I.orenzelli,

New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972; Oxford: 1 9X1

Phaidon, 1972 Visscher, Roemer, Sinnepoppen, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,
Iconography of Virtues and
O'Reilly, Jennifer, Studies in the 1614
Vices in the Middle Ages, New York: Garland, 1988 Welu, James, Seventeenth Century Dutch Painting, Worcester:
Price, J. L., The Dutch Republic During the Seventeenth Worcester Art Museum, 1979
Century, New York: Scribner's, 1974; London: Batsford, Wright, Christopher, The Dutch Painters, New York:
1974 Barron's, 1978
 vices/deadly sins
Liana De Girolami Cheney

The following periods are covered in the discussion of the theme Vices/Deadly Sins:

MEDIEVAL
RENAISSANCE
MODERN

Smi
(92 VICES / DEADLY SINS

Hieronymus Bosch, The Seven Capital Sins, tabletop, 1475-1485, Madrid, Spain, Prado.
(Courtesy of Giraudon/Art Resource, New York)
 VICES / DEADLY SINS 893

Although the concepts of vice and sin have gained their its essence and vice by its effects (Male). The virtues, sculpted
principal elaboration in the theology of Christianity, the in bas-relief, are motionless, majestic seated women, and the
roots of the concepts lay in the ancient world. The Mithraic vices are represented by dramatic scenes of action in roundels
religion of the Romans, looking back to Persian beneath each virtue. For example, a husband beating his wife

Zoroastrianism, which had embraced the mystical significance represents discord, and a figure praying before an idol repre-
of the number seven, imagined the soul rising through seven sents unbelief. Although the representations of the vices and
planetary spheres, each of which was associated with a vice. virtues had an important place in French Romanesque and
The sun was associated with pride, the moon with envy, Mars Gothic sculpture, these images are rare in Italy before the four-

with anger, Mercury with greed, Jupiter with ambition, Venus teenth century (Tuve).
with lust, and Saturn with sloth. The soul was purified of the Cardinal, or deadly, sins are usually personified in the visu-
accompanying vice as it passed through each sphere (Turner, al arts by ugly persons; the number, assortment, and attribut-
p. 36). es of the figures vary, as can be seen in the illustrations of vices
The medieval world took the idea of seven vices and paired and seven deadly sins depicted as demons in Hans Baldung
them with an equal number of virtues. The conflict between Grien's Pomegranate Book (151 1). The most important are
good and evil, also a heritage from Mithraism, was a popular the following: Pride, a crowned woman with a bat's wing;
theme in the medieval period, especially when portrayed as an Envy, a woman riding a dog with a bone in its mouth;
actual combat between particular virtues and vices. The New Gluttony, a woman riding a fox with a goose in its mouth;
Testament's repeated warning and promise that the Christian Covetousness (or Avarice or Greed), a man sitting on a money
life is a perpetual conflict waged to gain "the peace of God, chest, often with a badger; Sloth, a man sleeping on a donkey;
which passeth all understanding" (Philippians 4:7), the con- Anger, a man tearing his garments or two men dueling with
stant death unto sin, inspired many of the dominant themes in swords; Lust, a woman riding a pig or goat or a Siren holding
medieval literature and art (O'Reilly). both of her fishtails in her hands; Unbelief (or Idolatry), a per-
This conflict between actual characters representing the son before an idol; Despair, a man hanging himself, as Judas;
virtues and vices first appeared in Psychomachia (Battle for the Folly, a man biting stones;and Cowardice, a man fleeing a
Soul), by the fourth-century Spanish poet Prudentius, and it hare. In the Baroque period, Envy (Invidia) was also portrayed
pervaded Christian imagery during the Middle Ages. In a pic- as a bare-bosomed woman strangling herself. Blame (or
turesque form, Prudentius describes a series of combats Slander) as the Greek god Momus with a club, and Deceit
between personifications of virtues and vices: Faith against (Fraus) as a snake with a human head and scorpion tails.
Idolatry, Chastity against Lust, Humility against Pride, The cardinal and theological virtues as a septimal group
Patience against Wrath, Charity against Avarice, Hope against came to be set in opposition to the seven vices or deadly sins:
Despair, and Harmony against Discord. The work was popu- impurity or lust, gluttony, avarice, sloth, wrath, envy, and pride
lar in the Middle Ages; about 20 illuminated copies are extant, (the names sometimes vary). The two traditions of virtues and
dating from the ninth through thirteenth centuries (Woodruff). vices developed independently, however, so their pairing is con-
Illustrations of the vices also appeared in many other manu- fusing (O'Reilly; Holtausen).
script illuminations, such as Somme le Roi (1279, MS 192, A new type of Western mythology grew out of the tradi-
Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge, England) and Jean tional dualism of good and evil, or God and the devil, in
Pucelle's The Belleville Breviary (circa 10483,
1325, MS Lat. Europe during the and sixteenth centuries. The Sitnia
fifteenth
Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris). The vices and virtues were Dei, or the devil, depicted in Hieronymus Bosch's paintings
depicted on the portals of French Romanesque cathedrals, expresses this new mythology. The Roman Catholic Church,
such as avarice represented by the hanging of Judas on the under the influence of the Dominican friars, aimed at persecut-
portal of Ste. Conques. A didactic program of 12 vices
Foy in ing and controlling heresy and witchcraft. The Dominican fri-
and virtues was on the west facade of Notre Dame in
initiated ars saw themselves as worshipers of God and their enemies as
Paris at the beginning of the thirteenth century and copied at worshipers of the devil. Thus, the devil became for the Roman
Chartres and Amiens. Catholic Church the Sitnia Dei, that is, the ape or the imitator
During the Romanesque period, artists had illustrated the of God (Michelet). The Roman Catholic Church's mission
Psychomachia of Prudentius with the opposing virtues and became to root out sin and the worshipers of the devil.
vices in combat. However, in the thirteenth century, the com- In December 1484, Pope Innocent VIII issued a bull con-
batants no longer occupy the same space. The vices and virtues demning witchcraft in Europe, especially in Germany, and
are designated in an entirely new style, with virtue depicted in established a committee to destroy this spread of maleficence.
894 VICES / DEADLY SINS

The committee was governed by the two sons of the pope: the image and literary manifestos such as Visiu Tundali and
Dominican friar and inquisitor Heinrich Institor (Kramer) and —
Malleus Maleficarum inadvertently encouraged and glori-
Jakob Sprenger. Two years after the papal bull, the inquisitors fied the fantastic qualities of the witchcraze movement of this
printed an encyclopedia of demonology, Malleus Maleficarum period.
(The Hammer of Witches): These paintings of infernal scenes were commissioned by
such wealthy and erudite patrons as Philip the Good, Philip the
We may say that the devil can possess a man ... we may
Handsome of Burgundy, Philip II of Spain, and the Spanish
say that since a man is by any mortal sin brought into
Brotherhood of Our Lady. Therefore, the iconography of these
the devil provides suggestion of sin
devil's service . . .

either to the senses or to the imagination, to that event

works —that is, the program depicted in these paintings —was
probably stated by the patrons and their spiritual advisors.
the devil is said to inhabit in man. . . . (Malleus
Although the interpretation of these works may puzzle viewers
Maleficarum)
today, surely their meaning was clearly understood by their
These two events — the papal
1484 and the publishing of
bull of original audience.
the results of the investigations in i486 were the sources for — In 1475, Bosch painted a round tabletop. In the corners are
a new Western mythology. That is, a systematic demonology four tondos representing the final experience of the soul: death,
was established on the basis of the fusion of social fears, popu- Last Judgment, paradise, and/or hell. In the center of the table-
lar superstitious, intellectual cosmology, and tales from folklore top is God's eye with the inscription "Be Aware, For God Sees
(Guazzo). All." Seven allegorical scenes surround the eye of God, repre-
It is interesting to note that the means employed by the senting the seven deadly sins: vanity, lust, sloth, anger, gluttony,
Roman Catholic Church to eliminate heresy and witchcraft envy, and covetousness. Above and below these allegories are
contributed to the expansion of witchcraft in Europe. scrolls containing inscriptions commenting on the predicament
Witchcraft (or "witchcraze") was used by individuals for per- of the individual if he or she proceeds in any of these types of

sonal gain and employed as a political tool to destroy enemies. sinful life. The inscriptions are taken from the Bible. The scroll
The witchcraze movement achieved momentum in Spain, the at the top reads, "For they are a nation void of counsel, neither
Netherlands, and Germany during Bosch's lifetime in the late is there any understanding in them. O that they are wise, that
fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. they understood this, would consider their latter
that they
Owing to a lack of information about Bosch's personal, artis- end!" (Deuteronomy 32:28-29). The bottom scroll states, "I
tic, and intellectual life, the interpretation of his paintings is will hide my face from them, will see what their end shall be"
I

both fascinating and problematic for the art historian (Charles (Deuteronomy 32:20). A moral and didactic message is issued,
de Tolnay, 1966; Walter Gibson, 1973; James Snyder, 1973; warning people of the calamities to come if they persist in com-
Laurinda Dixon, 1980; Wilhelm Fraenger, 1983). In explaining mitting sins.
his works, many theorists have suggested such influences as In the tondo of hell, the inferno is painted as a fantastic
alchemy and astrology, biblical texts, Netherlandish and landscape with red tonalities. The brown tones of the dry land
German folktales and proverbs, secret religious practices (devo- contrast with a few hills transformed into burning ovens or
tio moderna), and of course witchcraft (C. A. Burland, 1968; H. mouths and flames. The red is especially dra-
that spit fumes
A. Kelly, 1968). The seven deadly sins (anger, avarice, envy, glut- matic in the background. In this infernal land, seven deadly
tony, lust, pride, and the devil, or Simla dei, are clear-
and sloth) sins receive their punishment: Anger is the man pierced with a
ly illustrated in the right wings of Bosch's triptychs representing sword on the torturer's bench, Avarice is the miser being
hell in the paintings Hay Warn and Garden of Earthly Delights stewed in a cauldron, and Pride is a devil holding a mirror up
(both 1485-1505) in the Prado in Madrid, Spain; Last to a proud woman. A toad is seated on the lap of the woman
Judgment (1490-15 10) in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in (the toad is a symbol of a maleficent spirit). Lust is lovers
Vienna, Austria; and the tondo of hell from his Seven Capital being held down on a bed while a monster crawls around
Sins tabletop (1475-1485) in the Prado. them, and a giant amphibian sits at the edge of the bed that
Bosch's early representations of hell are closely related to his harbors the adulterers (Frantz). Eventually, the lovers will be
depiction of vices, namely, the seven deadly sins; the later ver- dragged into an icy river. The sea, rivers, and water are asso-
become Bosch's visions of a phantasmagoric infer-
sions of hell ciated with works of magic. Sloth is an indolent man being
no. Here, devils ordemons control, castigate, torture, and ulti- hammered on an anvil, Gluttony is a person being served a
mately destroy those who have sinned through superstition and meal of toads and lizards, and Envy is a man being eaten and
the practice of magic and witchcraft. torn to pieces by dogs.
Bosch successfully associates hell with human beings' com- Stylistically, the representations of hell in Bosch's paintings
bat with vice and eroticism and with the practices of alchemy follow the traditions of a Netherlandish book of illuminations,
and witchcraze. In the paintings, one sees diabolical instru- contemporary German engravings, and Flemish paintings. In
ments, devices, musical instruments, tortures, the activities of 1484, engravings for the book The Art of Dying (Ars Moriendi
demons, and the transformation of people into hybrid forms. of Verard) were published; these prints were linked to the pop-
From these observations, one may assume that Bosch is par- ular Danses Macabres (Dances of Death). The Art of Dying
alleling in painting the efforts of the Roman Catholic Church dealt with the relatively new fourteenth-century obsession with
to destroy witchcraft. However, Bosch and the Roman dying and the paraphernalia associated with death and dissolu-
Catholic Church, through their respective means pictorial — tion (Boase). As this mania for death persisted, the modern art
 VICES / 1)1 ADI -i SINS 895

of healing began to develop, and popular books were written on is condemned; and in the Last Judgment triptych and the tondo
this topic. These books included information from medical texts of hell, where figures allegorically representing all seven dead-

and treatises concerning herbal remedies for sickness as well as ly sins are castigated.
astrology manuals providing guidance for better living (Arano). Bosch's paintings are an amalgam of two kinds of meaning:
Iconographically, contemporary literary works such as iconographic and stylistic. His symbols are visual metaphors
Grand Calendrier des Bergers (1493, Paris) describe a number that he invented to convey his understanding of the artistic and
of punishments for the seven deadly sins, especially lust, sloth, literary tradition of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
pride, and covetousness. Bosch's infernal paintings were also Bosch's paintings of hell guide us to the study of iconography,
influenced by the tarot cards (Hamilton), which had become that is, to the study of the attitudes of his society. Bosch estab-
very popular at this time, along with poetry books {Sterfboek), lishes in his demonology
paintings of hell a dictionary of
alchemy manuals, medieval bestiaries (Physiologus), folk based, first, on
symbolism of the seven deadly sins; second,
the
songs, theatrical settings and the theater, and last but not least on the way in which these sins are committed by individuals
Visio Tundali, which during the Middle Ages became an through the senses, eroticism, alchemy, and witchcraft; and,
important treatise that explained the forces of the devil and finally, on the Roman Catholic Church's punishment for sacri-

offered a vision of hell. In this text, Satan, who had been legious attitudes. Pictorially, Bosch supports the Roman
depicted as an angel, becomes a type of demon, the Prince of Catholic Church's position and compliments the erudition of
Darkness (i.e., the devil, or Simia Dei), and devours greedy his patrons by drawing from contemporary literary sources.
sinners, unchaste clergymen, and unbelievers (Ferguson). Bosch's depictions also continue the ancient tradition of
Furthermore, this text expounds an organization of hell con- attributing animal characteristics to both gods and demons.
sisting of three worlds: vegetable, mineral, and animal. Hybrid The Assyrians and the Babylonians depicted the devil with
forms are spirits between the three worlds. The book also the head of a lion and the feet of an eagle. Sometimes the
explains the coloration of hell and puts forward the idea that Egyptians represented the devil as a baboon. Medieval
it is a forge where individuals end up when they commit one Christian representations of the devil portray him as a dragon,
of the seven deadly sins. goat, wolf, cat, owl, or half-human form. Bosch's representa-
Visio Tundali elaborates on the description of the seven tions are based on these literary and visual assimilations as
deadly sins that lead man to damnation. Three of the deadly well as on images from the Bible expressed in St. Augustine's
sins are emphasized (lust, avarice, and gluttony), and these City of God, Thomas Aquinas's Summa Theologia, Visio
vices are presented as the main branches of the tree of sin. Tundali, and Malleus Maleficarum. Just as the Inquisition
These sins were especially condemned because they are monas- enlarged fifteenth-century concerns with the devil, representa-
tic vices. Visio Tundali was a popular eschatological work of tions of demons were used promote religious and political
to
the Middle Ages and was used by the Roman Catholic Church issues. For example, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the
in combating the witchcraze of the fifteenth and sixteenth cen- devil appeared in literary works and in pictures in human dis-
turies. The Roman Catholic Church hoped to expose the evil of guise as a monk, a learned professor in robes, or a man with
magic and to debunk superstitions, divine spirits, idolatry, claws, horns, or bat's wings. The devil is a force of evil in the
demonic doctrine, and false knowledge so that the followers of world and rules the underworld. The devil consumes the body
witches would be intimidated and return to the true faith: or the soul of a person. It demands one's life or virtue, as seen
Christianity. Bosch was undoubtedly familiar with Visio in Bosch's paintings of hell.

Tundali because the Dutch version was published in Antwerp, According to Matthew and the Book of Enoch, evil is asso-
Belgium, in 1484 and two years later was reprinted in 's ciated with hell and fire deriving from the transformation of
Hertogenbosh, The Netherlands, Bosch's hometown. Clearly, fallen angels into devils. The rebel angel Lucifer, whose sin of
Bosch's paintings of hell demonstrate his knowledge of this pride caused his from the heavens into the abyss (hell),
fall

source. caused the creation of hell and the underworld. The linking of
Bosch's tondo of hell is the prototype for the right-wing trip- hell to fire comes from the legend of Vulcan, the god of fire in

tychs of his middle- and later-period paintings that depict pagan mythology. The worship of Vulcan and the secret cults
scenes of hell, such as Hay Wain, Garden of Earthly Delights, of evil powers later become associated with Lucifer and the
and Last Judgment. As stated earlier, Bosch's works are didac- underworld. Like a pagan god, the devil in hell is ruler of the
tic and moralistic, although they expose the sins of men in an underworld. The devil is god of hell, the instigator of sin, and
erotic, torturous, seductive, and fantastic manner. Like the then juror and punisher for the sinner's deeds. In Bosch's paint-
Malleus Maleficarum, the antisatanist book on sexual offenses, ings, the images of hell are associated with fire and water this —
his works tend to emphasize the individual's tendency to weak- association relates to alchemist practices of the time. The musi-
ness of flesh and mind. The satanic imagery is influenced by cal instruments symbolize eroticism and the sin of lust, where-
Bosch's knowledge of alchemy and concerns about heresy. Like as torture devices and hybrid forms are used to imply punish-
the judges of the Inquisition, Bosch also judges, using torturous ment and castigation.
devices to castigate his creations. In Bosch's view, one fears The exterior of the Hay Wain triptych depicts a vagabond
death because of the Last Judgment, as illustrated in the vari- or a pilgrim of life and clearly illustrates the infernal punish-
ous triptychs. This concept appears in the Hay Wain triptych, ment for committing one of the deadly sins: avarice. Bosch's
where judgment and punishment are imposed for the sin of vagabond was tempted and has fallen in sin, and he is depicted
avarice; in the Garden of Earthly Delights triptych, where lust as a depraved alcoholic. His fall is noted in his attire, glance,
896 VICES / Dl AD1 Y SINS

and gaze; objects he carries, such as the spoon, allude to the sin The Last Judgment triptych combines the medieval themes
of lust, and his torn clothes symbolize unchastity. In the exteri- with the fantastic elements of the apocalypse, all seen in a
or of the triptych, Bosch portrays the vagabond crossing a chaotic jungle of fires. The Earth, in the central panel, is given
bridge and walking toward the right of the painting. When the over to the infernal monsters. The background is full of hor-
triptych is opened, the viewer sees Bosch's intention regarding rors, pits, flaming houses, and towers. Hell rushes out angrily,
the direction the vagabond walks: As he crosses the bridge people are burned alive or hanged, millstones of agonies occur,
(exterior panel), he approaches another bridge leading to the devils fly, and water tortures are seen in the depths of the
gates of hell (interior right panel). Bosch paints the vagabond rivers Erebos and Avernus. Evil is loosed on the world, and the
moving away from paradise, the left panel in the triptych. At picture of retribution found in the hell in the tondo of Seven
the top of the paradise panel, the viewer sees fallen angels; at Deadly Sins, in the hell of the Hay Wain triptych, or in the hell
the bottom of the panels, Adam and Eve occupy the Garden of in Garden of Earthly Delights is tame compared to the Last
Eden. In the center of the triptych, the sin of avarice is allegor- judgment triptych. Here, Earth is infested with the power of
ically depicted. This scene reminds the viewer of the Bible and evil. The seven deadly sins are again depicted, and their pun-

the Netherlandish proverb "The world is a haystack from ishment is described. Further castigation of individuals for
which one plucks as much as he can." Therefore, the hay cart their sins spreads not only on their final day the day of the —
is an allegory for perishableness on Earth. Other sins such as Last —
Judgment but also continuously through their daily
greed, sloth, lust, and covetousness are also illustrated in the lives, as life on earth is infernal. In these paintings of hell,

center of the triptych. Elaboration of the pictorial description Bosch, faithful to Visio Tundali and Malleus Maleficarum, has
of on the right wing, suggests the proper punishment for
hell, described the powers of Satan and their manifestations: Satan
these and the vagabond's sins. For example, a woman has a is the architect, creator, and ruler of the underworld just as

toad on her lap (the sin of pride), and dogs (the sin of envy) God is the designer of the world. Satan is the Simia Dei.
attack a man. A man being devoured by a monster depicts glut-
As divine wisdom permits certain evil to be done by bad,
tony. A warrior enters the mouth of hell on an ox, symbol of a
Angels or men, for the sake of the good that God draws,
sacrilege committed. On the bridge, souls are pushed by the
therefrom, so also the good Angels do not altogether,
devil into infernal towers or alchemists' ovens. At the top, the
prevent wicked men or devils from doing evil. (Malleus
devils build more infernal towers.
Maleficarum)
On the exterior, the triptych Garden of Earthly Delights
depicts a world in the state of formation —the separation of In 1560, Pieter Bruegel the Elder engraved a series depicting
the waters and earth is taking place. In the interior, again, a both the vices and the virtues. Within the medieval and
scene from paradise is seen on the left panel. In the center, the Renaissance traditions, the vices are represented by jewels
sin of lust is allegorically depicted. According to Netherlandish (pride, vanity), pronk goblets (pride, avarice), mirrors (pride,
folklore and literature, especially the book of poetry vanity), bottles with perfumed water (vanity), money and
Styevoort, "the world is for plucking of flowers and fruits." money boxes (avarice), roasted game (gluttony), mussels (lust),
This proverb euphemism for sexual desires in humans.
is a and snails (sloth). These attributes were supplemented by later
Incubus and succubus demons descend on humans in the night examples from Cesare Ripa's Iconologia (1603).
to perform perverted sexual acts. These demons were identi- During the thirteenth century in Italy, Giotto painted a
fied by Aquinas in Summa Theologia and by St. Augustine in virtue and vice cycle in fresco in the Arena Chapel in Padua,
City of God, and condemnation of them is found in Malleus Italy. Giotto, following the medieval iconographic tradition,
Malcficarum. The incubus devils have male forms and attack focused on the pairing of cardinal and theological virtues with
females, whereas the succubus demons are female and attack vices. Charity, for example, was paired with envy. Neither
males. In the right wing of the triptych is the depiction of hell. Bruegel nor Giotto, in these representations of vice, was led by
In the book of Revelation of St. John, hell is described as an the impact of witchcraft that is illustrated in Bosch's vices
eschatological world where Satan (Belphegor) is seated on a depicted in the Prado tabletop.
stool presiding over the underworld (Moeller). In this version The up a medieval pat-
Italian Renaissance, reluctant to give
of hell, a large number of musical instruments are punishing up the virtues and vices, although they now
tern of ideas, took
the individual. The musical instruments symbolize sexual assumed the shapes of pagan gods and goddesses, and their mes-
appetites and represent the genitals of men and women. The sage tended to reflect courtly rather than clerical values. The
musical tools are also symbols of the sin of lust. This repre- humanists who devised these pictorial programs were following
sentation of hell is more fantastic, but never as phantas- the medieval tradition. Parida da Ceresara, one of the principal
magoric, as the depiction of hell from the Last Judgment trip- humanists and advisers in the court of Isabella d'Este, designed
tych. It is a continuation of the northern Renaissance tradition the program for her private rooms in the Ducal Palace at
in art. The deadly and eschatological themes of death,
sins Mantua, Italy. Perugino's Battle of Love and Chastity (1504),
hell, and judgment are clearly combined in the Garden of now in the Louvre in Paris, and Andrea Mantegna's Wisdom
Earthly Delights triptych. It is a world of folly narrated in bib- Overcoming Vice (1502), also currently in the Louvre, were
lical texts, parables, and Netherlandish songs and proverbs in painted to illustrate Ceresara's program. Late Baroque sculptur-
which moral implications are allegorically stated. Bosch's al groups often portray the Stations of the Cross as individual
imagery in these infernal paintings inculcates a moral system scenes in which Jesus Christ atones for specific vices or sins of
and castigates sin. humanity.
 VICES / DEADLY SINS 897

Contemporary artists have largely forgotten the theme of Boase, Thomas Sherrer Rose, Death in the Middle Ages:
the vices or seven deadly sins. However, there is at least one Morality, Judgment and Remembrance, New York:
horrific exception: the Seven Deadly Sins by Paul Cadmus McGraw-Hill, 1972
(1945-1949). Seven separate panels Lust, Pride, Sloth, Anger, Burland, Cottie Arthur, The Arts of the Alchemists,
—
Envy, Avarice, and Gluttony provide bisexual personifica- New York: Macmillan, 1968; London: Widenfeld and
tions of the venal sins in harsh colors and ugly forms. In fact, Nicolson, 1968
they are so genuinely disgusting and repulsive that they are de Tolnay, Charles, Hieronymus Bosch, New York: Reynal,
rarely exhibited. 1966; London: Methuen, 1966
Dixon, Laurinda, Alchemical Imagery in Bosch's "Garden
of Delights" Triptych, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan
See also Avarice; Damned Souls; Envy; Excess; Sin/Sinning; Press, 1980
Virtue/Virtues; Witchcraft/Sorcery Eliasoph, Philip, "Paul Cadmas at Ninety: The Virtues of
Depicting Sin," American Arts Quarterly XIL2 (Spring
1995)
Ferguson, Everett, Demonology of Early Christian World,
Selected Works of Art
New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1984
Medieval Fraenger, Wilhelm, Hieronymus Bosch, New York: Putnam,
Prudentius, Psychomachia (Battle for the Soul), manuscript, 1983
fourth century; French, ninth century, Leiden, The Frantz, David O., Festum Voluptatis: A Study of Renaissance
Netherlands, Bibliotheek der Rijksuniversiteit (Cod. Erotica, Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1989
Vossianus Lat. Oct. 15); South German or Swiss, first Gibson, Walter S., Hieronymous Bosch, London and New

half of tenth century, Bern, Switzerland, Statdtbibliothek York: Thames and Hudson, 1973
(Ms. 2.64); French, tenth century, Paris, Bibliotheque Guazzo, Francesco Maria, Cojnpendium Maleficarum,
Nationale (Ms. Lat. 8318) Toronto, Ontario: General Publishing, 1988
The Vice of Idolatry, relief on central portal, west front, Hamilton, Jean, Playing Cards, London: Victoria and Albert
after 1220, Amiens, France, Cathedral Museum, 1988
Faith and Idolatry, relief, left inner pier on west side, south Holtausen, Ferdinand, editor, Book of Vices and Virtues:
transept porch, circa 1220-1230, Chartres, France, Being a Soul's Confession of Its Sins, London: N. Trubner,
Cathedral 1888
Jacobowitz, Ellen S., and Stephanie Loeb Stepanek, The
Renaissance Prints of Lucas van Leyden, Washington, D.C.: National
Giotto, Virtues and Vices, fresco, after 1305, Padua, Italy, Gallery of Art, 1983
Arena Chapel Kelly, Henry Ansgar, The Devil, Demonology and Witchcraft,
Bosch, Hieronymus, The Seven Capital Sins, tabletop, New York: Doubleday, 1968
1475-1485, Madrid, Spain, Prado Male, Emile, Religious Art, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton
Bosch, Hieronymus, Hay Wain, 1485-1505, Madrid, Spain, University Press, 1977
Prado Michelet, Jules, Satanism and Witchcraft: A Study in Medieval
Bosch, Hieronymus, Garden of Earthly Delights, 1485-1505, Superstition, New York: Citadel, 1970
Madrid, Spain, Prado Moeller, Charles, editor, Satan, New York: Sheed and Ward,
Bosch, Hieronymus, Last Judgment, 1490-15 10, Vienna,
1952
Austria, Kunsthistorisches Museum Nordstrom, E, "Virtue and Vices on the Fourteenth Century
Mantegna, Andrea, Wisdom Overcoming Vice, 1502, Paris,
Corbels of the Choir of Uppsala Cathedral," Figura 7
Louvre
(1956)
Perugino, Battle of Love and Chastity, 1504, Paris, Louvre
O'Reilly, Jennifer, Studies in the Iconography of the Virtues
Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, Virtues and Vices, series of
and Vices in the Middle Ages, New York: Garland, 1988
engravings, 1560
Snyder, James, editor, Bosch in Perspective, Englewood Cliffs,

New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1973

Modern
Stettiner, Richard, Die Illustierten Prudentiushandscnften,
Cadmus, Paul, The Seven Deadly Sins: Lust, Pride, Sloth,
Berlin: Grote, 1905
Anger, Envy, Avarice, Gluttony, egg tempera on
Tuve, Rosemund, "Notes on the Virtues and Vices," Journal
seven pressed wood panels, 194 5-1 949, New York,
of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes XXVI (1963);
Metropolitan Museum of Art
XXVII (1964)
The History of Hell, New York and London:
Turner, Alice K.,
Harcourt, 1993
Further Reading
Woodruff, Helen, The Illustrated Manuscripts of Prudentius,
Arano, Luisa Cogliati, The Medieval Health Handbook, New Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press,
York: Braziller, 1976 1930
 virgin/virginity
Diane Apostolos-Cappadona

The following iconographic narratives are covered in the discussion of the theme Virgin/Virginity:

aphrodite/venus VIRGIN MARY VIRGIN BIRTH: ATHENA

ATHENA IMMACULATE CONCEPTION VIRGIN BIRTH: NATIVITY

VIRGIN GODDESSES VIRGIN SAINTS AND MARTYRS ELIZABETH I

899
 t)00 VIRGIN / VIRGINITY

Ludovisi Throne (Throne of Venus), Parian marble relief, 480-450 B.C., Rome, Museo Nazionale
Romano delle Terme. (Courtesy of Max Hirmer)
 VIRGIN /VIRGINITY 901

Etymologically, neither the word virgin nor the concept of term virgin was applied as an honor that indicated a state of
virginity originally referred to a physical state. Although sanctity or ritual purity.
the Latin word virgo and the Greek word partbenos are com- The sacred virgins of the classical world fell into two cate-
monly translated as "maiden" or "virgin," the root meaning of gories: virgin goddesses or the priestesses (and devotees) of vir-
the words virgo and partbenos is the condition of being unmar- gin goddesses. Virgin goddesses were women associated with
ried. Virgo can be interpreted as meaning "a woman without a awesome creative power and nature. From earliest human his-

man" and partbenos as "belonging-to-no-man." Since the tory, virgin goddesses were defined as either maiden or mother.
changes in sexual conventions during the nineteenth century, Maidens signified powerful forces of renewal and regeneration,
virgin and virginity have denoted a state of physical ignorance and in this mirrored the cyclical character of nature. Mothers,
of the opposite sex. (Throughout this essay, a cautionary divi- on the other hand, provided the sustaining and nutrient powers
sion between sex and gender is maintained. Sex is a physical of life, and in this paralleled the enduring power of the Earth.
reality and is identified by specific bodily, predominately geni- On a secular level, this divine dichotomy of maiden and moth-
parts. Gender, on the other hand, is a socially conditioned
tal, er was translated into that of virgin and wife. This translation
form of behavior that may or may not be related to sexual iden- became a major social distinction with the advent of a patriar-
tification or preference.) chal and patrilineal society in classical culture.
Virginity was neither sex-specific nor a permanent state of The advent of a patriarchal society most probably paralleled
being in the classical, pre-Christian Western world. A transi- the development of the religious concept of central divinity
tional or temporary stage in a person's life, virginity could be a —
from mother goddess to that of father god as well as the eco-
temporary state of sexual renunciation, a spiritual cleansing in nomic movement from country to city. For a patriarchal soci-
an effort to incur ritual purity, or simply the stage of life that ety to operate, it is necessary to control and protect female sex-
ended with marriage. In this classical definition of virginity, the uality. In the ancient world, women and young girls were

virgin was understood to be neither male nor female, but a restricted in their activities and companions. Sexual activity
mediator between the human sexes and between heaven and had to be both monogamous and confined to marriage, and
Earth. Virginity was a state of primordial innocence that premarital sex was forbidden. Communal as well as familial
implied inviolable purity and thereby a closer and more direct honor was subject to critique, if not failure, should a bride
contact with nature. Unspoiled by sexual tension, the virgin prove not to be a virgin. Elaborate wedding night rituals were
belonged to her or himself and was true to nature and to nat- established to ensure the virginity of the bride, such as the
ural instinct. In this state between childhood and adulthood, bride's mother's public parade of the bridal bed sheet (appro-
masculinity and femininity, the virgin existed in ambiguity. priately stained with blood) on the morning following the wed-
Belonging to both the male and the female worlds, the virgin ding night. Such actions certified the paternity of a husband's
was an intermediary figure capable of mediating between the children, especially his eldest son.
human and the sacred. Therefore, in preparation for participa- Virgin goddesses, their priestesses, and their female servants,
tion in a religious rite, an otherwise sexually mature man or were not subject to such indignities. They were never fully sub-
woman would enter into a period of sexual abstinence in order ordinated to either a god or a human. Virgin goddesses were
to obtain the ritual purity of the virgin. not always innocent of sexuality or sexual experiences. They
In the classical, pre-Christian Western world, then, the con- were virgins simply by virtue of being unmarried, and thereby
cept of virginity and of the virgin indicated both the physical "one-in-herself." For these goddesses, and by extension for
condition of sexual innocence and the social condition of being their priestesses, being virginal signified both limitations and
an unmarried person. Being mature meant that sexuality had independence within the patriarchal social order. They were
been defined through physical experience, ostensibly with a —
granted access to the wilderness place of animals, nature, and
marriage partner, and therefore an individual was identified as —
freedom from the restrictions of the city and by extension
being a man or a woman. By implication, one who elected to granted the right to experience their individual natural and bes-
live in a state of perpetual virginity was considered to be in the tial instincts, such as uncontrolled sexual passion. Such activi-

same social order as a child. Thus, the original concept of vir- —

ties from contact with the wildness of nature to experiences
ginity conveyed an identifiable status in the social order, not a —
of personal passions were inappropriate in a wife.
state of sexual activity. Even throughout Christian history there In the classical Greek pantheon, there were five goddesses
is a remnant of this original understanding, especially in the who were defined and respected as virgin goddesses: Hestia,
identification of certain saintly or holy women who were wid- Aphrodite, Athena, Artemis, and Hera. As the goddess of the
owed or had renounced a previous life of sexual promiscuity as domestic and communal hearth, Hestia exemplified the virtues
"virgins." In such cases, such as the woman whom the Western of trustworthiness, domesticity, and continuity. Her virginity
Christian tradition came to identify as Mary Magdalen, the was deliberately chosen, as she shunned all opportunities for
902 VIRGIN / VIRGINITY

sexual .id vent lues Her cult renewed the

or entanglements. nous body, posture, gesture, and clothing. For example, the
ancient bonds among women. She symbolized
matrilin,eal long flowing feminine peplos contrasted with the armor that
maternal love for all children, especially for orphans. Imagined protected her torso, and the thickening of her body signified
and revered as an older, previously married woman who had nor a postmenopausal female form, but the more muscular
returned to a state of "belonging-to-no-man," I lestia was dis- solidity of a male warrior.
tinguished from her Roman counterpart Vesta, who remained Artemis (the Roman Diana), as goddess of the moon, wild
a virgin from childhood. places, childbirth,and women, governed the sacredness of the
There were three elements (or natures) inherent to the "margins" from hunting to child-rearing, from confinement to
indigenous mother goddess m
Greek culture: mother-
classical battle. As kourotrophos (rearer of the young), she guided

ing and domestic matriarchy was exhibited by Hera as the
mother of Olympus; wisdom was personified by Athena; and
eternal virginity was personified by Aphrodite as Kore.
Although Aphrodite enjoyed the male privilege of sexual free-
dom (in this respect, she was the most male [read: free] of all
the goddesses) and reveled in her sex adventures, her sexuality
was specifically one of transformative power, as opposed to the
human experience of sexuality as a matter of possession. As
Kore, Aphrodite was revered for her virginity as both a physi-
cality and a mode-of-being. Her regular participation in ritual
baths, mimicking her birth from the sea, renewed her virginity,
as can be seen in the Ludovisi Throne (or Throne of Venus)
marble (480-450 B.C.) in Rome. The iconography of the
relief
Venus Pudica, or Venus of Modesty, in which the nude goddess
attempted to cover her breasts with her right arm and her gen-
itals with her left arm, was an appropriate visual example of
both her restored virginity and her sexuality. The pose and ges-
tures of the Venus Pudica call attention to her beautiful body
and sexual nature as well as her virginal modesty and shyness,
as exemplified by the marble Medici Venus (third century B.C.).
Even as Kore, Aphrodite was a virgin only in the sense of being
humanity from the embryo to puberty to physical maturity in
childbirth and child-rearing. As patropess of these human rites
of passage and initiation, Artemis embodied the waxing and
waning properties of the moon. In classical art, she was depict-
ed as a masculinized, androgynous huntress clad in a short
tunic with a bow and quiver slung over her shoulder and a cres-
cent moon resting in her hair. She was accompanied by her
faithful canine companions as she hunted wild animals. Like
Athena, this so-called "mistress of the wild beasts" embodied
both masculine and feminine traits.
As a mother goddess, Hera was a fully sexual woman who
had married, experienced female sexual identity, and borne
children. She was the symbol of universal fecundity and the
fullness of female experience. Hera served as an example that
at all ages a woman belonged primarily to herself — both her
virginity and her sexuality were hers, not something she gave to
another to control. Her marital (read: sacramental) union with
Zeus signified the hieros gamos that brought fertility to the
Earth. On a regular basis, Hera took a ritual bath in the spring
Canthus (Canathos) in Nauplion to regain her physical virgin-
ity as a preparation for her mating with Zeus. This ritual vir-

independent of the control of a patriarchal marriage, not as a ginity denoted that sexuality was a transformative power, not a
nonsexual woman. matter of physical, emotional, or intellectual possession. Hera
As the symbol of wisdom and reasoned behavior, Athena signified that the sexually and intellectually mature woman was
was characterized by her descriptives: pallas, meaning "maid- a virgin in the sense of being independent from patriarchal mar-
en," and parthenos, meaning "belonging-to-no-man." She was riage. As the mother goddess of Olympus, Hera was imagined
the goddess of the masculine art of war and the feminine arts as a physically mature matron whose body acknowledged her
of pottery, weaving, and healing. Thus, she stood on the mar- transitions through the full female experience, as well as signi-
gin between man and woman, masculinity and femininity, fied the androgyny of the virgin marginalized between male
destruction and creation. Her virginity, or maidenhood, per- and female roles.
mitted her the privilege of consorting with men, especially war- On the general societal level, virginity was signified either by
riors, as an equal, and the privilege of engaging in the mascu- the dress and hairstyles of individual young women as a mode
line pursuit same time, she
of battle and military victory. At the of public identification that they were unmarried, or by the
was empowered by the feminine ability to heal and to create. priestesses (female religious functionaries) of virgin goddesses.
For example, as the patroness of weaving, Athena was simulta- Best known among this latter category were the vestal virgins
neously capable of the multiple meanings of weaving: creation who served the Roman goddess Vesta (the Greek Hestia). These
of cloth (garments, covers, wall tapestries), gestation of a child, women were consecrated from puberty to a 30-year term of
and gestation of an idea. She was singular among goddesses in service to the goddess. This term consisted of 10 years of train-
her association with the city, and thereby a transformer of the ing tobecome a vestal, 10 years of actual service as a vestal,
feminine alliance with nature (including instinct and intuition), and 10 years to train new vestals. During this entire 30-year
which was signified by her epithet "tamer of horses." In her period, however, these women were required to remain sexual-
symbolic and physical virginity, Athena stood as a mediator ly inactive and chaste. There were strict and severe civil penal-
between men and women, nature and city, war and civilization, ties for those men who "tainted" a vestal. The chief obligations
physicality and intellect. Her "virgin" birth as a fully grown of the vestals were to protect the fire in the Temple of Vesta
woman dressed in peplos, armor, and helmet and holding a (thereby protecting the domestic hearths of Rome), to bring
spear and shield, from the forehead of her father, Zeus, king of water from the sacred spring, and to prepare salt from that
the gods, denoted from her beginning her special status sacred water for ritual use. The vestals lived in the in-between
between the sacred and secular worlds. The priestesses of world of everyday life: they dressed and had the legal rights of
Athena were required to maintain chaste, nonsexual existences. married women but were treated like unmarried brides; they
Artistic representations of Athena, such as Phidias's sculpture had male characteristics as an aspect of their public androgyny
Athena Parthenos (fifth century B.C.), emphasized an androgy- (sexual inactivity) and were thereby ambiguous in their social
 VIRGIN / VIRGINITY 903

status (being neither male or female, adult or child). L.ike Mary." Thus it was the Nicene Creed that established the spir-
brides, they were on the brink between the states of being mar- itual, devotional, and iconographic importance of Mary's vir-
ried and unmarried. ginity as both an ideal and a model for Christian women.
The common visual characteristics associated with virginity The Roman emperor Constantine's edicts tolerating
world were long, loose flowing hair; loose flow-
in the classical Christianity, as well as his later declaration of Christianity as the
ing white garments; an androgynous body; and any of the fol- official religion of the Roman empire, helped shift Christian
lowing icons: a crescent moon, white flowers, a clear glass interpretations of virginity far away from the classical ideal of a
jar/bottle, or a companion animal, most frequently a little dog. woman "belonging-to-no-man" to one of a life of self-denial

These elements, found in depictions of both virgin goddesses and ascetic renunciation of the flesh aimed at overcoming
and virgins of the human order (from vestal virgins to ordinary woman's decadent and depraved nature (as inherited from Eve).
unmarried young women), influenced both the concept and the Constantine's abolition of the persecution of Christians, espe-
iconography of virginity in Christian art and culture. cially his ban on crucifixion, resulted in a new definition for
For the early Roman Catholic Church fathers, the virginal Christian martyrdom. As the "red" martyrdom of human blood
life reduced a woman's special penalties from the Fall and faded away within a generation, the "white" martyrdom of
thereby made her holy. The virgin's physical body a mirror of — female virginity and male celibacy became pivotal to the cultur-
—
her spiritual body was understood to be an image of whole- al meaning of virginity: now to be virginal was to be ascetic,

ness (implying both physical wholeness and spiritual holiness): self-denying, dedicated to God, and a martyr. The Christian vir-
saved from the ravages of sexual lust, sexual intercourse, mar- gin subjugated her physical body to the pain and ordeals of
riage, pregnancy, and childbirth. Before the fourth century, the ascetic discipline (including starvation and self-flagellation) as a

majority of virgin martyrs suffered and died for their faith in mode of attaining spiritual sanctity. Leading Church fathers of
the Roman arena as a way of protecting the chastity of their the fourth and early fifth century, wrote lengthy and oftentimes
physical bodies; the secondary cause of their condemnation to vivid descriptions of the behavior appropriate for a Christian
death was their refusal to burn offerings of incense to the martyrdom. From St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan's Instructions
Roman emperor. Among these earliest Christian virgin martyrs of a Virgin to St. Jerome's famed Letter to Eustochium, young
were Felicitas, Perpetua, Agatha, Apollonia, Catherine of Christian women were advised on modes of dress and hair-
Alexandria, and Euphemia. These Christian virgins were iden- styles, proper texts to read, and methods of spiritual meditation
tified as women who sought an early form of imitatio
holy as a form of sexual renunciation. These varied documents fused
Cbristi as a means of reversing the division of humanity into with the devotional and pious legends of the early Christian vir-

sexually active men and women after the Fall. They wanted to gin martyrs. A cultural ethos was created in which the iconog-
be "like men," at least in the physical and spiritual image of raphy of virginity denoted a state of physical perfection
their bodies —not like the classical virgin goddesses who through sexual innocence and Along with strict ascetic
chastity.
sought sexual identity without the restrictions of marriage discipline and physical suffering, this became the proper path
and followed the early Christian theology of Jesus Christ as to salvation for Christian women and girls. A virgin's body
the vehicle (and thereby his malebody as the vessel) of salva- would then be categorized as pristine, whole, natural, and
tion. To be saved meant to be male, and there is a corre- integral; probably it would take the form of an androgynous,
sponding emphasis in early Christian and Byzantine art in the nonsexual being.
representation of male body forms (genitalia excluded) for With the additional decree of the Council of Ephesus (a.d.
these virgin martyrs. 431), which declared the Virgin Mary as Theotokos (God-bear-
These "Holy Women" taught catechisms, assisted pres- er) and outlined the appropriate modes of veneration and

byters as deaconesses, and covered their heads (I Corinthians iconography for this honor, visual depictions of Christian vir-
11). In seeking to overcome sexual differences and to live in a gins began to follow an idealized model of Mary's "disembod-
chaste, paradisiacal state, they established the model for the ied" bodiliness. Christian virgins were depicted resembling
later development of female monasticism. Like the vestal vir- either St. Thecla (or Tecla) or the Virgin Mary. Depicted like St.
gins, these holy women officiated at rituals, were models of Thecla, they would appear nude to reveal an androgynous, if
faith, lived in a chaste community, and existed ambiguously as not male, body; or dressed as a man with short cropped hair,

neither male nor female, married nor unmarried. The classical like a man's; and show physical signs of suffering. Depicted like
—
iconography of virginity androgynous body shapes, long the Virgin Mary, they would appear in a loosely flowing gar-
flowing hair, long flowing white garments, white flowers, a ment that revealed less a sense of body than of ephemerality,
clear glass jar/bottle, and other attributes such as a little ani- and with an idealized and sentimentalized face and long flow-
mal —were assimilated into the Christian iconography of these ing hair. As Mariology (including Marian devotions and
virgin martyrs, all of whom
became saints. The one consistent iconography) increased over the next 10 centuries of Christian
additional attribute was
palm of martyrdom.
the and legendary epithets associated with
history, the scriptural
—
The fourth century one of the most pivotal periods in the Mary's perpetual virginity, from Ezekiel's shut gate to
history of Christianity —
saw critical developments in the con- Solomon's sealed fountain to the legendary rose without
cepts of virginity and martyrdom, as well as in the role of art in thorns, entered into the iconography of the Virgin Mary and of
the Church and the iconography of Christian virgins. The Christian virgins such as Barbara, Ursula, and Dorothea.
Council of Nicaea (a.d. 325), which issued the famed Nicene Whatever was visually appropriate for the model became nec-
Creed that standardized the definition of who was a Christian essary for the devotees and practitioners.
and the nature of Jesus as the Christ, also declared, "If there- Additional iconic motifs reemphasizing Mary's perpetual
fore a girl wants to be called a virgin, she should resemble virginity were established in the medieval and Baroque periods.
904 VIRGIN / VIRGINITY

Most significant among these were the icons introduced as mul- the modes of the Virgin Mary and Christian female monastics,
tiple elements- of a single scene, such as the window through and finally to its socialization as the attributes of the secular
which the dove of the I [oly Spirit enters Mary's bedroom with- bride.
out shattering the glass in representations of the Annunciation. Two variants on the theme of virginity influenced the artis-
The introduction of the motif of Mary kneeling before her new- tic traditions of Western culture. The first of these variants was
born son in northern medieval depictions of the Nativity even- the iconography of virginity renewed or reborn, as established
tually resulted in the development of the iconography of the in the iconography and mythology of Hera and Aphrodite,
Adoration of the Child. This motif of Mary kneeling was both of whom had their virginity renewed through ritual
derived from the Revelations of St. Bridget of Sweden (four- bathing. This classical ritual bathing was paralleled both nar-
teenth century), in which the saint recounted her vision of the rativelyand iconographically in Western Christian art in repre-
Nativity as an affirmation of Mary's perpetual virginity and the sentations of newly baptized Christian women such as Mary of
Immaculate Conception, for the birth mother suffered no pain Egypt, who previously had led a life of sexual activity (whether
as prescribed for the descendants of Eve in the Old Testament. as wives, courtesans, or prostitutes) and were now "restored"
Rather, according to St. Bridget, Mary merely knelt to meditate to physical perfection by a new life in Christ, as well as in rep-
upon God's mysteries in the stable in Bethlehem, and when she resentations of Mary Magdalen and the iconographic motif of
finished her prayers she opened her eyes to find herself fully her tears, which signified her repentance and sorrow and there-
delivered of a healthy son. According to James's apocryphal by restored her. By the fourth century Mary Magdalen was a
Protoevangelium, the midwife Salome doubted the virginity of conflation of at least five women from the New Testament and
examine the Virgin, whereupon she expe-
the birth and tried to was identified by the honorific term virgin in ecclesiastical
rienced a searing pain in her hand, which shriveled upon her prayers, hymns, and other texts.
touch. Only when she recanted her doubts and placed her hand The other variant on the theme of virginity was that of vir-
on the Child was she cured. According to the modern critic gin birth. In this case the classical model was the legend and
Marina Warner, Robert Campin's The Nativity (before 1444) iconography of the birth of Erichthonius, the first king of
in Dijon, France, depicts this scene, while others, such as Piero Athens, Greece. Hephaestus, son of Zeus and Hera and the
della Francesca's The Nativity (before 1492) in the National God of fire, in a thwarted effort to possess the virgin goddess,
Gallery in London, were influenced by St. Bridget's visions. The Athena, watched as his ejaculated sperm fell from her leg and
narrative and imagery was banned by the Council of Trent onto the ground (Mother Earth). Mother Earth soon gave birth
(1545-1565) and do not appear after that date. to Erichthonius, assisted in the delivery by Athena. Visual par-
Other medieval legends and devotions of the Virgin Mary allels can easily be drawn between Hellenistic renderings of the
led to the initiation of iconographies of the Assumption spray of Hephaestus's sperm falling from Athena's thigh to the
(declared dogma by Rome in 1950) and the Immaculate ground and renderings of the rays of light that surround the
Conception (declared dogma by Rome in 1854). These two descent of the dove (the Holy Spirit) onto the Virgin Mary's
motifs were further developed by Baroque artists who sought womb (or ear, head, or heart, depending upon the artistic and
to defend Mary's uniqueness against the attacks of the theological intent).
Protestant reformers. The iconography of the Dormition of The signs and symbols of virginity from both the classical
Mary (later misidentified in Western Christian art as the Death and the Christian world were borrowed self-consciously in the
of the Virgin) developed from the Byzantine iconography of the iconography of the sixteenth-century portraits of Elizabeth I,

Koimesis (Falling Asleep), and reached a zenith in Baroque art Queen of England. In order to emphasize her independence
as a further visual defense of Mary's singularity and perpetual from foreign entanglements, particularly the courts of France
virginity. Just as she was exempt from "the curse of Eve" in and Spain who sought her hand in marriage, Elizabeth blatant-
childbirth by grace of the Immaculate Conception (which also ly portrayed her status, in both text and image, as a virgin, a

freed her from the limitation of human lust), so too was Mary woman "belonging-to-no-man." Queen Elizabeth I (circa
freed from "the sting of death." Medieval devotions and devo- 1580) by an unknown, probably Italian school painter, now in
tional images of the Dormition, for example, emphasized both the Pinacoteca Nazionale in Siena, Italy, depicts her holding a
her perpetual virginity and freedom from physical death by sieve, said to be her favorite device (Gaunt, p. 40). It refers to
including the leitmotif of the dropping of her girdle upon the Pliny's (the Elder or the Younger?) story of Tuccia, the Roman
head of the Apostle Thomas (also known as Thomas the vestal virgin who proved her chastity by carrying water in a
Doubter). Works of art depicting the various stages of the sieve from the Tiber back to the Temple of Vesta (Natural
Virgin Mary's life are treated elsewhere in this encyclopedia History, 28:12). In the same portrait she also wears a con-
(see the Index of Judeao-Christian Personages, Place and spicuous brooch with a pendant pearl. The pendant pearl, like
Concepts under Mary/Virgin/Madonna). the rose —
also used by Elizabeth —
was a symbol associated
By the Renaissance, the traditional iconographic elements of with the Virgin, but one that had the advantage of avoiding the
virginity — long flowing hair, long white dress, veil, white flow- implication of Mariolatry in Protestant England, as it had other
ers, and child attendants (the medieval Christian alternative to associations as well. In Queen Elizabeth I (The "Ermine"
little animal companions) —
became the symbols of the bride. Portrait) (late sixteenth century) attributed to Nicholas
Such a secularization of the previously sacred iconography and Hilliard, an ermine (a kind of weasel), an animal whose white
understanding of virginity reflected its complete transformation winter coat was associated with the spotlessness of virginity,
in Western culture from the initial classical model of a woman adorns her arm. According to legend, an ermine would die if its
"lxlonging-to-no-man," to the patriarchal cultural require- whiteness were soiled. An attribute of chastity, the ermine also
ment tor the paternity of children, to Christian martyrdom, to graced the cloaks of virgin saints, particularly St. Ursula, as
 VIRGIN / VIRGINITY 90S

well as the robes of royalty. By using these and other classical Lippi, Filippo, The Annunciation, oil on wood, after

and Christian symbols of virginity, Elizabeth I advertised her 1440, Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art
all-encompassing chastity and purity among women, as well as Campin, Robert, follower of, Madonna and Child with
her uniqueness as an impenetrable monarch of the English Saints in the Enclosed Garden, oil on wood, circa
nation. 1440-1460, Washington, D.C., National Gallery
of Art

See also Annunciation; Bath/Bathing; Birth/Childbirth; Giovanni di Paolo, The Annunciation, oil on wood, circa

Hermaphrodite/Androgyne; Margins/Outsiders; 1445, Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art

Marriage/Betrothal; Whiteness Tura, Cosimo, Allegory of Spring, oil on panel, 1460-1463,

London, National Gallery

Master of the St. Lucy Legend, Mary, Queen of Heaven,
Selected Works of Art oil on wood, circa 1485-1500, Washington, D.C.,

National Gallery of Art

Aphrodite/Venus
Sittow, Michel, The Assumption of the Virgin, oil on
Aphrodite on a Goose, terra-cotta statuette, fifth century B.C.
wood, circa 1500, Washington, D.C., National Gallery
Paris, Louvre
of Art
Aphrodite, terra-cotta vessel, 480-470 B.C., London, British
Juan de Flandes, The Annunciation, oil on wood, circa
Museum
1 5 10, Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art
Ludovisi Throne {Throne of Venus), Parian marble relief,
Girolamo da Carpi, The Apparition of the Virgin, oil on
480-450 B.C., Rome, Museo Nazionale Romano delle
Terme wood, circa 1530-1540, Washington, D.C., National
Medici Venus, marble, third century B.C., Florence, Italy,
Gallery of Art

Uffizi Gallery Rubens, Peter Paul, The Assumption of the Virgin, oil on
wood, circa 1626, Washington, D.C., National Gallery
Athena of Art
Phidias, Athena Parthenos, fifth century B.C., Athens, Greece, Rubens, Peter Paul, Virgin of the Immaculate Conception,
Parthenon Museum 1628-1629, Madrid, Spain, Prado
Mourning Athena, fifth century B.C., Athens, Greece, Poussin, Nicholas, The Assumption of the Virgin, oil on
Acropolis canvas, circa 1626, Washington, D.C., National Gallery
Athena, terra-cotta vessel, 480-470 B.C., Munich, Germany, of Art
Museum Antiker Kleinkiinst Van Dyck, Anthony, The Assumption of the Virgin, oil on
Athena, gilt bronze relief plaque, circa 500 B.C., Athens, canvas, 1628-163 2, Washington, D.C., National Gallery
Greece, National Archaeological Museum of Art
Athena, Roman copy after Phidias, fourth century B.C.,
Naples, Italy, Museo Nazionale Immaculate Conception
Giotto, Meeting at the Golden Gate, fresco, 1305, Padua,
Virgin Goddesses Italy, Arena Chapel
Pandora Rising from the Earth, terra-cotta vessel, 500-475 Tibaldi, Pellegrino, Embrace at the Golden Gate, fresco,
B.C., Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale before 1596, El Escorial, Spain
Young Goddess (Demeter Kore or Hecate), relief, fourth
Velazquez, Diego, The Immaculate Conception, circa
century B.C., Athens, Greece, National Art Museum 1618, London, National Gallery
Kore, terra-cotta vessel, Berlin, Staatliche Museum
Rubens, Peter Paul, Virgin of the Immaculate Conception,
Goddess Rising from the Earth, terra-cotta vessel, circa fourth
1 628-1 629, Madrid, spain, Prado
century B.C., Brussels, Belgium, Musees Royaux d'Art et
Zurbaran, Francisco de, The Blessed Virgin Immaculately
d'Histoire
Conceived, with Saint Anne and Saint Joachim, circa
Vestal Virgin, bronze statue, circa second century a.d., Paris,
1630-1640, Edinburgh, National Gallery of Scotland
Louvre
Reni, Guido, Virgin of the Immaculate Conception,
Neroccio di Bartolomeo de' Landi, and Master of the Griselda
Legend, Claudia Quintet, oil on wood, circa 1494,
before 1642, New York, Metropolitan Museum
of Art
Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art
Murillo, Bartolome, Virgin of the Immaculate Conception

Virgin Mary with Six Figures, 1662-1665, Paris, Louvre

Giotto, Madonna and Child, oil on wood, circa 1 320-1 3 30,
Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art Virgin Saints and Martyrs

Paolo di Giovanni Fei, The Assumption of the Virgin, oil on Roundel of Saint Thecla in the Lion's Den, fifth century,
wood, circa 1385, Washington, D.C., National Gallery Kansas City, Missouri, Nelson-Atkins Museum
of Art Procession of Virgin Martyrs, mosaic, sixth century,
Eyck, Jan van, The Annunciation, oil on canvas transferred Ravenna, Italy, San Apollinare Nuovo
from wood, circa 1434-1436, Washington, D.C., National Saint Barbara, wood statue, tenth century, Ravelo, Italy,
Gallery of Art Cathedral
906 VIRGIN / VIRGINITY

Reliquary of Saint Foy, tenth century, Conques, Treasury, Further Reading

Cathedral of St. Foy
ARAS Photo Archives, Carl Gustav Jung Center, New
Sassetta (attributed to), Saint Apollonia. oil on wood, circa
York City
1435, Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art
Christ, Carol P. "Virgin Goddesses," Encyclopedia of
(workshop of), Saint Apollonia,
Piero della Francesca oil on
Religion, edited by Mircea Eliade, New York: Macmillan,
wood, before 1470, Washington, D.C., National Gallery
1987; London: Collier, 1987
of Art
Clark, Kenneth, The Nude: A Study in Ideal Form, Princeton,
El Greco, Madonna and Child with Saint Martina and Saint
New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1956
Agnes, oil on canvas, 1 579-1 599, Washington, D.C.,
Downing, Christine, Goddess: Mythological Images of the
National Gallery of Art
Feminine, New York: Crossroad, 1981
Flandrin, Hippolyte-Jean, Procession of Virgins, fresco,
Drijvers, Hans W., "Virginity," Encyclopedia of Religion,
J.
before 1864, Nimes, France, St. Paul
edited by Mircea Eliade, New York: Macmillan, 1987;
London: Collier, 1987
Virgin Birth: Athena
Friedrich, Paul, The Meanings of Aphrodite, Chicago:
Birth of Erichthonius, red-figured stamnos, circa 465-460 University of Chicago Press, 1973
B.C., Munich, Germany, Museum Antiker Kleinkunst
Gaunt, William, Court Painting England from Tudor to
in
Birth of Erichthonius, red-figured hydria, circa 460-450 B.C.,
Victorian Times, London: Constable, 1980
London, British Museum Graves, Robert, The White Goddess, New York: Farrar,
Raphael, The Birth of Erichthonius, fresco, 15 16, Vatican,
Straus and Giroux, 1982
Stufetta del Cardinal Bibbiena
Hackett, Helen, Virgin Mother, Maiden Queen: Elizabeth I
Rubens, Peter Paul, The Daughters of Cecrops Discovering and the Cult of the Virgin Mary, London and New York:
Erichthonius, circa 161 5, Vaduz, Liechtenstein, Macmillan, 1995
Liechtenstein Collection
Hall, Nor, The Moon and the Virgin: Reflections on the
Jordaens, Jacob, The Daughters of Cecrops Finding the Archetypal Feminine, New York: Harper, 1980
Child Erichthonius, 163 5-1 640, Vienna, Austria, Miles, Margaret Ruth, Carnal Knowing: Female Nakedness
Kunsthistorisches Museum and Religious Meaning in the Christian West, New York:
Vintage, 1991; Tunbridge Wells, England: Burns and
Virgin Birth: Nativity Oates, 199Z
Duccio di Buoninsegna, Nativity with the Prophets Isaiah Neumann, Erich, The Great Mother, Princeton, New Jersey:
and Ezekiel, oil on wood, circa 1308-13 n, Washington, Princeton University Press, 1955
D.C., National Gallery of Art Olsen, Carl, editor, The Book of the Goddess: Past and
Martino di Bartolomeo, Five Scenes from the Life of St. Present, New York: Crossroad, 1983
Bridget, panels, before 1434, Berlin, Staatliche Museen, Onians, Richard Broxton, The Origins of European Thought,
Gemaldegalerie Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1954
Campin, Robert, The Nativity, before 1444, Dijon, France, Segal, Muriel, Virgins: Reluctant, Dubious and Avowed,
Musee New York: Macmillan, 1977
Christus, Petrus, The Nativity, oil on wood, circa 1450, Sissa, Guila, Greek Virginity, translated by Arthur
Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art Goldhammer, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard
Piero della Francesca, The Nativity, oil on panel, before University Press, 1990
149Z, London, National Gallery Stratton, Suzanne L., The Immaculate Conception in Spanish
Art, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994
Elizabeth I Strong, Roy Colin, Portraits of Queen Elizabeth I, Oxford:
Queen Elizabeth I, probably Italian school, circa 1580, Siena, Clarendon, 1963; New York: Thames and Hudson, 1987
Italy, Pinacoteca Nazionale Tannahill, Reay, Sex in History, New York: Stein and Day,
Hilliard, Nicolas (attributed to), Queen Elizabeth I {The 1980
"Ermine" Portrait), late sixteenth century, Hatfield House, Warner, Marina, Alone of All Her Sex: The Myth and the
Marquis of Salisbury Collection Cult of the Virgin Mary, New York: Vintage, 1976
 virtue/virtues
Liana De Girolami Cheney

The following motifs are covered in the discussion of the theme Virtue/Virtues:

VIRTUES IN SERIES JUSTICE HOPE

TEMPERANCE CHARITY FELICITY

PRUDENCE (INCLUDING faith (including NEOCLASSIC AND GENRE

WISDOM) religion) PAINTING

courage/fortitude

907
908 VIRTUE / VIRTUES

Giorgio Vasari, Prudence, 1545, fresco
painting from the Refectory of Sant' Anna
dei Lombardi, Naples, Italy. (Courtesy of
Foto F. Rigamonti)
he concept of virtue (Latin virtus, meaning "manliness")
M. parallels the concept of excellence (Greek arete), an ethical
signification with implications of strength, courage,
achievement. An honorable individual is a virtuous person
lives in accord with certain moral standards and acts with
power, and success. Aristotle made the distinction
efficacy,
between intellectual and moral virtues, relating the former to the
theoretical life and the latter to the practical life. For Aristotle,
moral virtue requires the development of habits leading to the
choice of the mean between extremes in human conduct.
In the Middle Ages, Christian moralists spoke of the seven
virtues, adding the theological virtues (hope, faith, and charity)
to St. Ambrose's cardinal virtues (justice, prudence, fortitude,
and temperance). Their action was based on Plato's classifica-
tion in the writings of Cicero and on Thomas Aquinas's writ-
ings. Since antiquity, the development of the concept of virtue
was associated with its opposite: vice. Theological and philo-
sophical analysis of good and evil, right and wrong, and value
and disvalue continued in the Middle Ages, culminating with
Prudentius's Psychomachia (O'Reilly, 1983).
In Psychomachia, Prudentius classifies the four classical, or
cardinal, virtues as justice, prudence, temperance, and fortitude
(St. Ambrose, in Lucan V, 62, and De paradiso III). Each of the
cardinal virtues had a life in art independent of the other three.
In antiquity, justice and wisdom (prudence) were most often
represented in coinage. In the Middle Ages and Renaissance,
certain aspects of temperance, such as pudicitia (chastity) and
sobrietas (moderation), were emphasized in iconographic
cycles, as seen in the representations of Petrarch's trionfi (tri-
umphs) in Italian hope chests (cassoni). The personification of
these virtues in art is the subject of this essay.
Although there were individual examples of the cardinal
iconography is not estab-
virtues in late antiquity, their proper
lished until the Carolingian period. A poem by Theodulf of
Orleans describing the images on a plaque in the Palace at
Aachen sets the stage for the iconography of the moral virtues.
The plaque depicts a tree rooted in a globe with branches car-
rying the personifications of the cardinal virtues as well as the
liberal arts. The virtues are portrayed with a set of attributes:
Prudence with a book; Fortitude with a dagger, shield, and hel-
met; Justice with a sword, a palm-branch, a set of balances, and
a crow; and Temperance with a bridle and a scourge (O'Reilly).
In the ninth century, the cardinal virtues, with less elaborate
attributes, are usually depicted in title pages of Gospel books or
other liturgical texts. They decorate the four corners of the
page, usually enclosed in medallion form, while the center of
the page represents a Frankish king or biblical ruler, often King
David. The association of the cardinal virtues with the ruler
implies that good government or a good ruler must be
with these moral virtues or must aspire to achieve them to reign
well. For example, the Vivian Bible (843-851) depicts all four
virtues as half-figures (two male and two female) holding palm
VIRTUE / VIRTUES 909
branches and extending their hands toward the central figure,
King David. During the ninth century, the portrayal of the
and cardinal virtues is static, contrasting with the fifth-century rep-
who resentations based on Prudentius's Psychomachia, which are
portrayed in combat with vices. In the eleventh and twelfth cen-
turies, changes occurred that led to the cardinal virtues being
illustrated in devotional and theological treatises, deluxe
Gospel books, sacramentaries, and lectionaries as well as on
small objects of devotion, such as portable altars, shrines, reli-
quaries, and candlesticks (Katzenellenbogen, 1964).
fonts,
During the Gothic period, the cardinal virtues are accompanied
not only by their traditional attributes but also by specific ani-
mals associated with their personifications. For example.
Prudence is accompanied by a serpent or dove, Fortitude tears
apart the jaws of a lion, Justice carries a plumb line or a set
square while holding a sword, and Temperance holds flowers
or a sheathed sword and most often two vessels in which she
mixes water and wine, a symbol of moderation. In the proto-
Renaissance period, Giotto revived and popularized the moral
virtues and vices in the fresco cycle of the Scrovegni or Arena
Chapel in Padua, Italy (1305).
The from antiquity to the Middle Ages
literary tradition
greatly influenced the interest, development, and emblematic
interpretation of the moral virtues in the Renaissance and
Baroque periods. To the Platonic virtues (justice, prudence, for-
titude, and temperance) and the Pauline virtues (faith, hope,
and charity), Vincent of Beauvais's Speculum morale and
Aquinas's Summa Theologia added Augustinian gift virtues of
the Holy Spirit in the twelfth century.
The most influential book during the thirteenth century was
Somme le Roi, commissioned by King Philip of France in 1295.
This profusely illustrated manuscript depicted Temperance as a
woman at a table refusing an offered goblet of wine. The visu-
al tradition in French manuscripts is to represent Temperance
as a woman with a pitcher from which she pours water into a
bowl. With the impact of Prudentius's Psychomachia in the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, numerous reliefs appeared
on the portals of French Gothic cathedrals, such as those in
Amiens, Chartres, Paris, and Reims (Katzenellenbogen, 1964).
Mosaic decorations in Italy also reflected this influence. The
mosaic pavements in Pavia and Cremona; the choir mosaics of
San Savino in Piacenza (1 107), where Temperance is represent-
ed in a scene of festivity; and the mosaics in the Cupola of the
Ascension in St. Mark's (1200) in Venice are examples from the
Italian Romanesque period. The implication of the symbolism
of Temperance varies according to the placement in the icono-
graphic cycle. Sometimes the personification of chastity substi-
tutes for Temperance according to the Ciceronian tradition
gifted (Tuve, 1963). At other times, as in the proto-Renaissance peri-
od, Giotto represents the virtue of Temperance as Moderation,
with an unusual attribute of the sheathed sword. Temperance is
contrasted with the vice of Wrath tearing her garments in the
9IO VIRTUE / VIRTUES

Scrovegni or Arena Chapel in Padua (i ^05) as well as in the tified as Fortitude and Judith, Susanna, or Joseph as Chastity or
north porch of Notre Dame Cathedral at Chartres. The impact Temperance; Epicurus is defeated by Temperance; and Prudence
of Giotto's art gave the cardinal virtues a new expression in may triumph over Sardanapalus, Justice over Nero, and
Italian art of the fourteenth century. Examples may be seen in Fortitude over Holofernes. The Christian paganism of these car-
the iconographic decoration of Andrea da Firenze in the fresco dinal virtues in the Renaissance was due to the fusion of histor-
of the Triumph of St. Thomas in the Spanish Chapel in Santa ical ascription with the civic humanistic implication producing
Maria Novella in Florence as well as in Andrea Pisano's pulpits their secularization. Further examples are clearly represented in
in Pisa, Pistoria, and Siena; the baptisteries of Florence, Francesco Pesellino's in Birmingham,
panels (1460), now
Bergamo, and I'isa; Giotto's bell tower in Florence with Alabama, showing Solon, Solomon, Samson, and Scipio
Pisano's representations of the virtues, along with the liberal Africanus sitting at the feet of the personifications of Prudence,
arts, mechanical and sacraments; the tabernacles of Or
arts, Justice, Fortitude, and Temperance, .respectively (Norton,
San Michele in Florence; and the tombs of St. Peter Martyr in 1973). hi r he Collegio del Cambio in Perugia, Italy, Perugino
Milan and St. Augustine in Pavia. depicted a complex iconography correlating Greek and Roman
During the Italian Renaissance, the symbolism of the cardi- rulers with the moral virtues: Justice is associated with Camillus,
nal virtues as secular and civic examples of humanism was Pittacus, and Trajan; Prudence with Quintus Fabius Maximus,
revived from the classical concept of aretai poltikai (Norton, Socrates, and Numa Pompilius; Fortitude with Lucius,
1973). This classical revival occurred in Florence, as this Sicinnius, Leonidas, and Horatius Codes; and Temperance with
Medicean city-state aimed to emulate the prosperous city-state Scipio Africanus, Pericles, and Cincinnatus.
of Athens, Greece, during the fifth century B.C. In Florence, for Inspired by the ancient tradition (Aristotle, the Neoplatonists,
example, the decoration in the Loggia dei Lanzi, the seven pan- Plutarch, Pliny the Elder) medieval and Renaissance artists
els paintedAntonio Pollaiuolo and Botticelli for the
by and writers included and associated animals with the personifi-
Mercanzia (now in the Uffizi Gallery), and Giotto's frescoes of cations of virtues and vices in treatises such as the Bestiary,
the personification of the Commune in the Palace of the Physiologus, and Somme le Roi. A dove, for example, accompa-
Podesta reflected this revival. In Venice, the columns of the nied Chastity, Peace, or Temperance; a serpent, Prudence; and a
Doges' Palace and the Porta della Carta, with the flanked stat- lion, Fortitude.

ues of Fortitude, Temperance, Justice, and Charity, and in
Perugia, the Collegio del Cambio, represented the cardinal
virtues in a secular environment. In Siena,
Pubblico, the Lorenzetti brothers represented
Government with these Virtues; it is important to note that in
the Good Government fresco, Temperance holds an hourglass
(a pun on tempus), as in the earliest tradition.
had main-
In the northern Renaissance, the cardinal virtues
tained the iconography of the Middle Ages,
traditional
although fewer examples were seen in France and England. In
the Low Countries, the emphasis was on the depictions of
Fortitude, Prudence, and Temperance with changeable attribut-
es while Justice maintained the traditional motif. For example,
the column of Samson as a symbol of strength is associated
with Fortitude; Prudence holds a mirror with a coiled serpent
and Janus head to denote past and future or three heads to
imply the wisdom of experience — past, present,
Temperance is portrayed with a bridle, a sheathed sword, or an
hourglass. The personification of Temperance experiences the
greatest mutability. At times, she alludes to chastity, and there-
The heraldic and emblematic tradition of the sixteenth
through the eighteenth centuries augmented and further elabo-
in the Palazzo rated on the iconography of the cardinal virtues. A collection of
Good and Bad books and compendia of emblems that gave impetus to a new
and complex visual iconology in art appeared in the press in
Venice during the early sixteenth century. The earliest and most
translated emblem book of the sixteenth century was Andrea
Alciati's Emblematum libellus cum commentariis (1531), influ-
enced by the epigrams of the Greek Anthology, Francesco
Colonna's Hypnertomachia Poliphili (The Dream of Poliphilo
or The Soul of Love), printed in Venice in 1499, and
Horapollo's Hieroglyphica, first published in Venice in 1505.
Alciati was followed by Piero Valeriano's Hieroglyphica sive
De sacris Aegyptorum, first published in 1556, and Vincenzo
Cartari's hnagini delli dei degV Antichi, printed in Venice in
1557. Attesting to the impact of this emblematic tradition are
and future; and the following: the decorative cycles executed between 1518 and
1 519 by Correggio in the Camera di San Paolo in Parma, Italy
(Panofsky, 195 1), and by Giorgio Vasari for his houses in
Arezzo, Italy (1 542-1 548), and Florence (1 562-1 564); for the

fore the ancient Venus Pudica is represented, as in the Giovanni Sala dei Cento Giorni in the Palazzo della Cancelleria (1546) in
Pisano pulpit ( 1 301 ) in the Duomo of Pisa, or at other times to Rome; and, as the culmination, the decoration of the Palazzo
Diana, as in the tomb of Pope Pius II (1473) in San Andrea Vecchio (1565-1572) in Florence. This encyclopedic emblem-
della Valle in Rome. atic approach culminated in the publication of Cesare Ripa's
In the sixteenth century, French artists, under the influence Iconologia (1593). This work first appeared without illustra-

of Italian painters and sculptors, began to incorporate the car- tions and later was published in Rome (1603) with over 400
dinal virtues in their funerary art, as seen in Michel
Colombe's woodcuts by Giuseppe Cesari, also known as Cavalier
tombs of the Duke of Brittany in Nantes (1 507) and the cardi- d'Arpino, illustrating the text (Mandownsky, 1934). Under the
nals d'Amboise in Rouen (151 5). However, some variations proliferation of meanings, the cardinal virtues also expand
occur in their attributes of the personifications, such as the their repertoire of attributes: An ostrich is associated with
addition of a compass and mirror to Prudence, a tower and Justice because of its even feathers, a deer is paired with
dragon to Fortitude, scales and swords to Justice, and a clock Prudence because it ponders like a sage, a diamond is paired
and Temperance (Tuve, 1963).
bridle to with Fortitude for its hardness, and a pair of red-hot tongs and
In antiquity, mythical and historical figures were linked to a bowl of water are paired with Temperance for moderation. In
particular virtue, and this tradition continued into the Middle the visual arts, Ripa's Iconologia has assisted artists in the
Ages as well as the Renaissance. For example, Samson was iden- creation of personifications since its conception.
 VIRTUE / VIRTUES M I I

Neoclassical artists of the eighteenth and early nineteenth France, 1549). Emblem 18, Prudentes, describes the pictura
centuries and genre painters of the nineteenth century were (image) in the epigram as follows:
greatly concerned with issues of virtue and morality. However,
Janus, you who have been provided with two faces, you
instead of using personifications of the virtues (as described in
know the past and the future; and since you see what is
this essay), these artists tended to depict exemplary virtuous
offered to you, you can mock what has happened. Why
actions. These were taken from antiquity and history in the
have you been depicted with so many faces? Is it perhaps
case of neoclassical paintings and from instances of everyday
because a strong and wise man should be such that at the
life in the case of genre painting (Rosenblum, chap. 2; Wood).
same time can see the present and the future?
In the canon of the cardinal virtues, Temperance (Greek
Sophrosyne, Latin temperantia) alluded to moderation, self- Titian's painting Prudence, with its three human and three ani-

knowledge, and self-restraint. According to Cicero, the word mal heads facing in different directions, clearly illustrates
sophroysne derives from the Homeric adjective sophron, mean- Alciati's emblem. Alciati's Emblem 19, Prudens magis quam
ing of sound mind and describing a person or deity who acts loquax (The prudent man without eloquence), describes the
appropriately and according to the laws of nature. The Delphic pictura in the epigram as follows:
—
code "Know thyself," "Nothing in excess," and "Think
—
moral thoughts" expresses the implications of temperance.
For
Athena
arms Athens has an owl depicted, which loved by
its

(Pallas) as the most prudent of birds signifies the

Temperance is the classical virtue of moderation, self-
restraint, and control of one's appetites. Most representations
man who is wise but not eloquent. It happened that it
supplanted the insolent and garrulous crow. And it
depict a figure pouring liquid from one container into another,
suggesting proportion. The flowing liquid is the water of life,
shows that knowledge of men does not consist of fine
speeches.
pouring into the container of each separate physical body.
Sometimes Temperance is the Angel of Time because the bal- Alciati's Emblem 20, Maturandum (The wise decisions should
ancing of one liquid with another alludes to the flowing or be implemented at the right time), is explained in the epigram
passing of time from past to future. Time, like Temperance, is as follows:
an equalizer of life and death.
Pieter Bruegel the Elder's print Temperance (1560) depicts a
That in all our undertakings we should be quick to work
central figure holding a rein in his mouth, meaning to restrain. and slow to talk. The fish wrapped around the arrow
Behind him, people are using measuring instruments; to the indicates that it can stop a ship in very strong winds.

right, a bookkeeper is busy counting. An inscription states, May these increase our prudence, oh you who are keen
"We must see to it that we do not give ourselves over to a life on examining closely. The one is slow, the other is swift.
of lust, extravagance and waste, and that we not, because of Thus things that are deliberated with such maturity will
miserly greed, behave despicable or meanly." The inscription be well dealt with.
alludes to the group of actors and musicians who stand behind
Temperance.
The Renaissance popularity of this emblem —an anchor and a
dolphin coupled with the motto Festina lente (Make haste
In 1614 Torrentius, also known as Johannes van der Beeck, slowly) —was linked to the writings and descriptions of hiero-
painted Temperance, now in the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, glyphics by Colonna in Hypnerotomachi Poliphili (1499), a
The Netherlands. It alludes to Erasmus's motto "Not too
book published by the Venetian printer Aldus Manutius, who
much," which was later appropriated in Roemer Visscher's and
in turn used this motto as a seal for his press. In antiquity, this
Jacob Cats's proverbs "Too much is unhealthy," "Not how
motto had also been praised and used by the Roman emperor
much but how noble," and "Whoever exceeds the measure is
Octavian, and the emblem had appeared on coins in the reign
lost." All these proverbs obviously allude to moderation in the
of Titus. Alciati's Emblem 22, Custodiendas virgines (Virgins
areas of drinking, eating, talking, and lovemaking. In the sev-
must be protected well), is explained in the epigram as follows:
enteenth century, the virtue of temperance was contrasted with
vanitas (vanity), the vice of pride (Segal, p. 36). What you the image of unwed Athena (Pallas);
see here is

The moral virtue Prudence symbolized wise conduct. In and dragon is hers; and because to it is
this depicted

Christian art, this personification is usually depicted as a given the guard and protection of things, it makes its
woman with a double or triple head and holding a mirror, ser- dwelling the woods and temples. Here it shows us that
Solomon at her feet. Sometimes Prudence is
pent, or sieve with because bold Eros (Amor) sets his snares to catch virgins,
portrayed carrying a compass as a sign of her measured judg- one must place great protection over them. The shield
ment or a book alluding to the Scriptures. She is occasionally with the head of the Medusa and the dragon allude to
accompanied by a stag to suggest the elusion of evil pursuers; defense and protection.
sometimes a dragon is substituted for the serpent. Her Janus
According to Macrobius's Saturnalia (I, Chap. XX, Lyon 1556)
head suggests her ability to see at once past and present and
and Pausanias's Graeciae descriptio (I, 24, 7), Phidias carved a
alludes to her perspicacity. Proto-Renaissance examples of
dragon as a symbol of vigilance and protection at the feet of
Prudence can be found in the Scrovegni or Arena Chapel in
Pallas Athena. Another aspect of prudent behavior is recorded
Padua, where Giotto portrays Prudence with two heads
in Alciati's Emblem 23, Vino prudentiam augeri (Prudence aug-
(1305), and in the pulpit of the Baptistery in Pisa by Nicola
ments with wine), and the epigram reads as follows:
Pisano ( 1 3 10).
Of all the virtues, prudence was the dearest to the Athena and Bacchus, learned offspring of Jupiter,
(Pallas)
Renaissance humanists, so much so that Alciati included 10 share this sacredaltar. He came into the world from the
emblems on this virtue in his book Emblematum liber (Lyons, thigh and she was born from the head. Athena found the
912 VIRTUE / VIRTUES

olive, Bacchus wine. Therefore, they are joined here and a dispenser of wisdom. Alciati, in F.mblematum libellus

together to show that he who abstains completely from ( 1 542.), also incorporates these two attributes 8 on — Emblem 1

wine will never find favor with the goddess. The emblem the Janus head and Emblem 22 on "The serpent
the serpent:
depicts both gods in a temple because both gods are per- protects the virgins." The word serpent derives from the Latin
sonifications of divine gifts, Pallas Athena as the goddess serpens "because the animal creeps by secret approaches and
of arts and sciences represents the prudent intellect, as not by open steps."
the inventor of the olive tree, provides the light for the The personification of Fortitude alludes to two aspects of
intellect, whereas Bacchus as the creator of wine restores courage: physical and mental. In Christian art, this personifica-
and stimulates the intellect. tion refers to the pagan goddess Athena (Minerva) and is usu-
ally depicted as a woman warrior, wearing a helmet and armor
Under the influence of the emblematic tradition, sixteenth-cen-
and holding a shield, spear, or sword- In Gothic sculpture, her
tury painters incorporated in their paintings new images and
opposing vice is Cowardice (Ignavia), a knight who flees in ter-
meanings that provided enigmas for the learned viewer. Vasari's
ror from a hare; in the Renaissance, she is more often opposed
image of Prudence is a stylistic fusion of the two images of
by Inconstancy, who loses her balance on a wheel. Some attrib-
Prudence and Providence in the Refectory of Monteoliveto in
utes of Fortitude in the Renaissance and later are derived from
Naples, Italy, and the figure of Providence in the Sala dei Cento
the heroes of the Bible and myth. From Samson she has a pil-
Giorni in Rome. Vasari described the invenzione of Prudence as
lar, perhaps broken, whereas in Baroque painting she may be
"to hold serpents and the keys of Janus." In his Aretine
carried by putti. A club and a lion's skin are taken from
Prudence, missing are the serpent, relating to Matthew ro:i6,
Hercules. The lion, itself a symbol of courage, is a common
"Be prudentes (wise) as serpents," and the mirror, an Italian
attribute. Fortitude may fight a lion, forcing its jaws apart,
Renaissance conception, whereas they are present in the
which is the archetypal image of the god or hero performing a
Neapolitan image. Instead, the Aretine allegorical figure has a
feat of strengthand courage, as seen in Renaissance tarot cards.
Janus head and holds the key to the Janus temple. The Janus Although the image in Vasari's Aretine house is unclear,
head implies that Prudence must look to the past as well as the comparison with a similar painting from the Refectory reveals
future before making a decision Prevedere e Prouedere, and her its proper attributes and identification as Fortitude (Courage).
key issymbol of peace (Alciati, Emblemata XVIII, Prudentes
a The Aretine Fortitude is depicted as an armed woman with a
Problema,i 577). Stephenus (1976) described Janus as the most Herculean body who wears a helmet and carries a sword and a
ancient king of Italy, supposedly the wisest of all the monarchs shield. Later, Ripa's Iconologia described this type of figure as
of his age, knowing the past and foreseeing the future, which is an armed woman with a helmet, a sword, and a shield and with
why he is shown with two faces. When he died, he was put a lion's head. However, Vasari's shield shows the head of the
among the gods and had a temple at Rome that was opened in Medusa with lionlike qualities. The attributes of Fortitude
times of war and closed in times of peace. symbolize bodily strength and the generosity of the soul. She
Iconographically, Vasari's Aretine Prudence combines attrib- represents a Christian, cardinal virtue. In the treatment of
utes from the Prudentia and Proindenza. As stated, the Aretine this figure, Vasari was probably concerned to illustrate
figure can be identified as Prudence because she has not only Valeriano's saying Fortezza d'animo, e di corpo (Fortitude of
the attribute of the key but also the head of Janus. Also, she can soul and body).
be identified as Providence and good Fortune because she holds Perhaps Fortitude also personifies Sagacity or Reason. The
a cornucopia and rests her foot on a globe. Comparing the implication of the symbolism of Fortitude varies according to
Aretine image of Prudence with Providence in the Sala die its placement in the iconographic cycle. Sometimes the person-
Cento Giorni reveals The Aretine image of
a globe at her feet. ification of Courage substitutes Sagacity according to the
the globe is unclear because of heavy restoration. The cornu- Ciceronian tradition (Tuve, 1963). Vasari described Sagacity
copia is a symbol of plenitude, the globe that of ubiquity. (Sagacita) as a "Pallas with a shield with a Medusa and a
When the attribute of the key is seen to be associated with lance." Vasari may also be referring to Alciati's Emblem 22,
Providence, it expresses a relation to the attribute of Cybele, Custodiendas vergines. The depiction of the book at the feet of
the Earth goddess. Then the key symbolizes the guidance need- Fortitude in the Aretine imagery and in the Monteoliveto coun-
ed to open the door to success and thereby rise above the diffi- terpart is a symbol of the mental effort necessary for the acqui-
culties of life. Vasari represented this image, with its dual sition of knowledge. The horn seen in the Monteoliveto figure
nature, to emphasize the difficulties encountered by a person in is no longer recognizable in the Aretine image. Perhaps
this Earth's trials. Human beings must be prudent to achieve Fortitude symbolized for Vasari the moral, mental, and physi-
success in life. cal efforts required of a person to live a good life.

The Monteolivetan Prudence, surrounded with all her Plato and Aristotle best explain the meaning and implication
attributes of practical and speculative wisdom mirror, ser- — of the word justice, from the Latin jus (right or law). Plato held
pent, key, and Janus head —
attends to her toilet. Her engaging justice to be of two kinds: natural and conventional. In an ideal
attitude denotes her existence in the present. A superb drawing city, justice regulates the actions of the citizens with the other
by Vasari on the allegory of Prudence can be found in the cardinal virtues (Republic 4:427 ff). Aristotle also held justice to
Collection E Lugt of the Institut Neerlandais in Paris (inv. be of two kinds: distributive and retributive. During the Middle
7777); another drawing of Prudence (13650F) is at the Uffizi Ages, Aquinas integrated the ancient analyses on justice by con-
Gallery in Florence. Vasari's disegno differs from his painted sidering two aspects of justice: natural and rational, both dis-
image. The drawing illustrates an elaborate holder for the mir- cernible through the exercise of reason. In the medieval and
ror and includes objects (e.g., vanity table, comb, and brush) Renaissance periods, Justice, the leader of the cardinal virtues, is

not seen in the painting; it also includes the serpent as a caution represented in public buildings wherever the law is administered
 VIRTUI. / VIRTUES 9 I
3

(Palazzo Pubblico in Siena, Macrobius's Commentary on

Italy). dess of justice. Under her protection thrives all that is noble,
Cicero's Somnium and Petrarch's Africa, texts con-
scipiunis beautiful, and good. According to Eratosthenes, Aratus, and
cerned with the concept of justice, assumed that justice was a Hyginus, she was one of the nebulous heavenly beings who coex-
primary virtue that ought to accompany the life of a hero. The isted on Earth with mortals and was the last god/goddess to leave

emblems associated with justice are the sword (symbol of the Earth. She was supposed to have lived on Earth during the
power) and the scales. The scales of justice represent balance, Golden Age, retired to the mountains in the Silver Age, and final-
equality, and harmony. The symbol of the scale is of ancient ly, during the corruption, wickedness, and impiety of humankind

origin. The Greek Themis used it as a symbol of law, order, and during the Bronze and Iron Ages and the end of innocence, was
truth, and the Romans employed it as a symbol of impartiality driven to heaven, where she was placed among the constellations
(Cooper, p. 145). In Renaissance art, Justice is often depicted of the zodiac under the name Virgo, or Starry Maiden. Astraea 's
blindfolded, alluding to her fairness and honesty. In representa- Roman myth parallels and in part is assimilated by the Greek
tions of the Last Judgment, Justice may have an angel in each myth of Dike (Dice), the goddess of justice, which she protected
scale pan, one crowning the virtuous and the other executing a and wisely administered. She was an attendant and counselor of
malefactor (Hall, p. 183). The scale, as an attribute of impar- her father, Zeus, and one of the three Horae (Hours/Seasons), the
tiality, is also the emblem of the Archangel Michael. In the other two being Eirene (Irene), goddess of peace, and Eunomia,
seventeenth century, artists replaced the scales with fasces, the goddess of wise legislation and order. Dike's assistant was Poena,
Roman symbol of authority. Other attributes associated with the personification of retaliation, and her daughter Hesychia per-
Justice are the globe, a symbol of power, and set squares, sonified tranquillity. As goddesses of the seasons, they produced
compasses, and other measuring instruments, symbols of impar- order in both nature and society. They were the daughters of
tiality. The zodiacal sign of Libra holds the scales as a symbol Zeus and Themis (Apollonius, Iliad 5; Pausanias 5.18.2; Pindar,
of Justice. During the Silver Age, in the Ages of the World, Pythian Odes, 8.1) or of Astraeus and Eos (Eratosthenes, Star
Justice ruled. Placements, 9).

In his Vita, Vasari describes his invenzione of Justice for The depiction of Justice is associated by some with
cardinal Alessandro Farnese: Liberality to emphasize the generous aspect of imparting order,
law,and good behavior. Cesari painted The Allegory of Justice
(In 1543) It was shown by (Paolo) Giovio and Bindo
and The Allegory of Liberality (both 1 595-1600) using oils on
(Altovito) to cardinal Farnese. For this prelate I did a
copper. From a comparative analysis of their composition,
painting eight braccia by four, of Justice embracing an
these two paintings appear to be companion pieces. Both com-
ostrich laden with the twelve tables, holding a scepter with
positions represent three allegorical figures with attributes in a
a swan at the end and wearing a helmet of iron and gold
pyramidal space. Also, the central figure in both is portrayed as
with three feathers of divers colors, the device of the just
an enthroned woman with the same physiognomy. The differ-
judge. She was naked from the middle upwards. At her gir-
ence is in the type of background: The Allegory of Liberality is
dle were the seven Vices in golden chains, Corruption,
placed in an exterior setting and The Allegory of Justice in an
Ignorance, Cruelty, Fear; Treason, Falsehood, and Slander.
interior setting. This complementary space structure supports
They carry on their bare backs a naked Truth, offered to
their complementary purpose. Iconographically, the central fig-
Time by Justice, with two doves, representing Innocence.
ure represents a virtue or an allegory of positive behavior, and
Justice is putting an oaken crown, representing Fortitude,
the two figures framing her in the foreground symbolize vices
on the head of Truth. I put all my powers into this work.
or allegories of negative behavior. When compared with each
(Frey, I, pp. 1 21-122)
other, these vices manifest corresponding attitudes of the same
Obviously, the discrepancies between Vasari's description of the negative human dimensions.
invenzione and the finished painting suggest that the descrip- Using Ripa's figurazioni (emblems) from Iconologia to
tion refers to an early conception or a preparatory drawing for identify these allegorical figures, with their respective attribut-
the painting. At this point, one may ask the following ques- es, will aid in understanding the meaning of the painting and
tions: What are the sources for Vasari's complex iconography? elucidate the visual collaboration of both artists in the images
How did he assimilate them? and What are the connections of the Iconologia. When analyzing The Allegory of Justice, one
between the text (word) and the image for the creation of the observes that the central figure is an enthroned female holding

conceit of Justice? a pair of balanced scales, branches of palms, and gathered

Vasari emphasizes in his writings, especially in the prefaces flowers. A crown adorns her hair, and a medallion with a
of Vite, that an allegory (emblem) must assimilate, visually and painted eye decorates the neckline of her robe. Under a royal
verbally, its ancient sources. Such emblematic sources provided canopy, the enthroned figure sits erect and looks at the viewer
Vasari with an extensive repertoire of images that he collected kindly with wide-open eyes. The visual imagery of Cesari's fig-
and used in the iconography of his early paintings, such as ure parallels Ripa's description of the figurazione of Justice (or
Justice (1543) in the Neapolitan Museum of Capodimonte. He Impartiality or Equality). In the description of Justice, Ripa
repeated many of these images while expanding his visual comments on Plato's views on this virtue: "Justice sees every-
repertoire in such later commissions as the paintings of the thing." For this reason, the ancient priests called her Seer of
Palazzo Vecchio in Florence (Vasari and Milanesi, VIII, pp. All Things.
102-124; Draper). At the feet of Justice, the figure of Injustice (or Partiality)
Inspired by ancient myths recounted in Ovid's sitson the ground with her eyes partially closed and her attrib-
Metamorphoses (1.150), Hesiod's Theogony (901), and utes of the unbalanced scales, a resting sword, a closed book,
Hyginus's Poetic Astronomy (2.25), Vasari's Justice can be seen and a sheep or lamb at her feet. Injustice's general disposition
as a portrayal of Astraea, The Starry Maiden — the Roman god- of carelessness and passivity contrasts strongly with the violent
9>4 VIRTUE / VIRTUES

expression ot the arduous and ferocious standing male figure mercy (see, e.g., the Baroque painter Caravaggio's Works of
next to her who represents Impetus (or Terror). His attributes Mercy, 1605, for the church of Pio Monte della Misericordia
are an avenging sword and a violent animal, such as a boar or in Naples).
wolf. When comparing these foreground allegorical figures in The term caritas is applied also to the common religious meal
terms of action and attributes, especially the associated animal that was used in the early church in conjunction with the
and handling of the sword, it is obvious that an opposite Eucharist (I Corinthians 11:17-34). In Christian art, Charity is

image of human dimension is represented. Sluggish Injustice depicted as a woman either surrounded by children or, more
sits with the lamb or sheep beside her and the sword resting on commonly, nursing a child or suckling it. Sometimes Charity is

her lap. Impetus energetically draws his sword while the standing, holding, or nursing one child while the others sur-
accompanying animal parallels his master's aggressive behav- round her, as seen in the paintings of Andrea del Sarto,
ior. Ripa comments on the depiction of Mars as Terror in Ovid Francesco Salviati, and Vasari. In other instances, Charity is

moralise (Bruges, Belgium, 1480), where the figure of an seated and nursing her children, as in the paintings of Abraham
angered Mars is traditionally accompanied by a wolf, a sym- Bloemaert, Guercino Dayton, Ohio), and Guido Reni. In
(in

bol of terrible force. The visage of Impetus suggests the reac- Roman Maximus, in De pietate in parentes (4:4),
times, Valerius
tion of an angry lion. tells us of Pera, a young mother who had nursed her aged father,

According to Ripa, Impetus and Injustice are figurazioni of Cimon, at her breast while he was in prison awaiting execution,
vices, or negative aspects of the human dimension. They are thus saving him from dying of thirst. Her act was referred to as
manifestations of weak characters and negative responses in Caritas humana or Caritas rotnana (Biedermann). In antiquity,
human behavior; they cannot govern or rule because they lack this type of charity alluded to filial piety (James Hall, p. 64).

vitality, impartiality, equality, and balance. Justice is the oppo- This subject was popularized by Italian and Netherlandish
site of these vices, and it represents a type of virtue in a human painters in the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries, as
dimension. She also symbolizes an ultimate good to be emulat- seen in Caravaggio's Works of Mercy. Other symbols of
ed by all human beings. Thus, The Allegory of justice combines Charity's love are the flaming heart that she holds in one hand
an example of a good human dimension (Justice) with negative or a bowl with fruit. She may carry an open purse and clothes
human dimensions (Injustice and Impetus), with a quality of to distribute alms to the poor. Further attributes associated with
judgment, a natural phenomenon that rules the universe. In Charity include such animals as the dove, lamb, or pelican feed-
The Allegory of justice, Cesari has visually quoted Ripa's ver- ing its young from its own blood.

bal descriptions for these figures and assimilated his didactic During the Middle Ages, love of one's neighbor, or amor
and ethical spirit. proximi, was often depicted as a person receiving or nursing
Throughout the Middle Ages, Christian moralists such as children or represented by Christ's seamless robe. In Gothic art
Aquinas spoke of the seven virtues: the cardinal virtues of tem- especially, it is represented by the figure of a woman perform-
perance, prudence, fortitude, and justice (previously discussed) ing the sixworks of mercy (Matthew 25:35-37): tending the
and the theological virtues of faith, hope, and charity, and love. hungry, the thirsty, the stranger, the naked, the sick, and the
Paul the Apostle had proclaimed these latter virtues as central imprisoned. These became abbreviated into the representation
to the Christian life. of one act only: clothing the naked (e.g., a beggar putting a
The Latin word caritas (Greek agape) means love, according shirt over his head beside the figure of Charity, who perhaps
to Aquinas in Summa Theologia (Ha., Ilae, Q XXIIIa.5). For holds a bundle of clothes). In the thirteenth century, St.

the Greeks there were two types of love: eras and agape. Bonaventura developed the concept of the love of God into
According to Plato, eras meant the love or desire of the indi- that of light or fire, a rhetorical metaphor readily depicted in
vidual for the divine, whereas agape referred to contemplation visual terms.
for the attainment of the Good (Plato, Symposium 210A-E). In Henceforward in Italian art, the figure of Charity came to be
the New Testament, the two Platonic aspects of love were fused represented either with a flame, customarily emerging from
into one agape, which means God's love, His generous love (I some type of vase that she holds in her hand, or with a candle.
John 4:8). Charity is the greatest of the three theological From the fourteenth century, she may hold a flaming heart as if

virtues —
faith, hope, and charity —
but their connection is still she were offering it to God. This sometimes came to be com-
problematic for many scholars. For St. Paul, charity represent- bined with attributes suggesting earthly charity, such as the cor-
ed the highest virtue one could attain, a Christian attitude nucopia or bowl of fruit. In Giotto's fresco cycle at Padua
toward one's neighbor, and (rarely) the love of God (Romans (1305), the cardinal and theological virtues face their contraries
8:28; Corinthians 2:9, 8:3, and 13: "And now abideth faith,
1 on the opposite wall of the Scrovegni or Arena Chapel. There,
hope, charity, these three: but the greatest of these is charity"). Giotto's representation of Charity is a young, garlanded
However, from the time of St. Augustine, charity has signified woman demonstrating the twofold nature of her love —that is,

God's love of human beings as well as their love of God. the love of God and the love of her neighbors — by offering up
Ultimately, the church taught that charity was both love of her heart and holding a basket or bowl of fruit and flowers, a
God, amor dei, and love of one's neighbor, amor proximi, and sack of corn, and coins at her feet, ready for distribution to the
that the second was of no real worth without the first. Charity needy. The vice opposed to Charity in the Middle Ages was
is directed primarily toward God but is also owed to us and our Avarice, depicted with money bags, a purse, or a filled coffer. A
neighbors as the objects of God's love. Its antithesis is hatred Renaissance tradition derived from Giotto substituted Envy
(envy, cruelty, or avarice), which may also take the negative (Invidia) for Avarice. This vice was shown gnawing a heart and
form of indifference. Because brotherly love could be expressed perhaps embraced by a snake. In Italy in the first half of the
through the relief of distress, charity acquired the meaning of fourteenth century, there appears a new type of Charity, possi-
"almsgiving" or "clothing the naked," one of the works of bly derived from the earlier image of the Virgo lactans, a
 VIRTUE / VIRTUES 915

woman suckling two infants (see Tino da Camaino's marble Decalogue at her feet. The open book of the Decalogue repre-
statue Charity, 1320, in the Museo Bardini in Florence). At first sents the Old and New Testaments, the source of learning and
combined with the older motifs of the flaming heart (suggest- maintaining faith. The helmet that Faith wears protects her
ing the utmost religious fervor) and the candle, it gradually pre- head, indicating that her mind is protected against the injuries
dominated until, by the sixteenth century, it became the stan- and dangers of false doctrines. The lighted candle alludes to the
dard type of representation in European art. The opposing vice illumination of the mind brought about by Faith. According to
for this type of Charity, sometimes represented in fourteenth- St. Paul (I Corinthians 13:13), who extolled the theological
century Italian painting, is Cruelty (Crudelitas), shown attack- virtues, the two main elements of Christian faith are the belief

ing a child. In later versions, three or four infants cluster in Christ crucified and the miracle of the sacraments, which are
around the mother figure. One of these infants is customarily symbolized by the attributes of the cross and the chalice with
at the breast, thus paralleling the motif of the pelican feeding or without the host.
its young with its own blood. These various aspects of Charity Faith, Hope, and Charity are also saints. During the second
are frequently portrayed in art. century, these three Roman martyrs were the daughters of
In the sixteenth century, Vasari's Charity became the para- Sophia (Greek for wisdom). Their Greek names were Pistis

digm for the visual depiction and meaning of Charity. (Faith), Elpis (Hope), and Agape (Charity). All four women
According to Liana Cheney, in the Chamber of Fortune (his were put to death during the reign of Emperor Hadrian
study) of his house in Arezzo, Italy, Vasari painted a bare- (1 17-138) and buried on the Aurelian Way. Similarly, four

breasted, standing, and statuesque Charity who holds a nursing martyrs with similar Latin names Sapientia (Wisdom), Spes
child in one arm while two other children stand next to her. (Hope), Fides (Faith), and Caritas (Charity) were buried on —
The three children symbolize the three aspects of charity, that the Appian Way catacomb of St. Callistus.
in the

is, the theological virtues of faith, hope, and love (charity). In the biblical writings of the Old and New Testaments, the
The female figure represents union of these three virtues in concept of faith was interrelated with hope and charity and
Ripa's Iconologia (1603). The figure of Charity personifies reli- focused on the Platonic concept of love (Symposium 210A-E).
gion because she symbolizes the three theological virtues given Recognizing this fusion, St. Paul explained the concept of faith
to human beings by the love of God (amor dei). Her qualities in terms of the individual response to God (Romans 8:28; I

of generosityand love for humankind, which are emulated by Corinthians 2:9, 8:3; Ephesians 6:24). In the writings of the
good Christians (amor proximi), are also important to her role church fathers and in the Middle Ages (St. Ambrose in
as the personification of religion. Stylistically, the Aretine Abraham, cap II, Vol. II; St. Augustine in Enchridion, Chap.
Charity represents a visual derivation from Vasari's early depic- cxvii, 3; and Aquinas in Summa Theologia, II— II, q. 2, a. r), faith
tion of Charity in the Refectory of Monteoliveto. Vasari made is a will to believe in God. Credo ut intelligam (I believe in order

a fine preparatory drawing for this image, now located in the to understand) is a principle stated by St. Augustine and then
Pinacoteca of Bologna, Italy. Thematically, Vasari used a simi- accepted by St. Anselm). Faith is a virtue of the intellect given as
lar image in the Sala dei Cento Giorni. In Iconologia, Ripa a gift of grace by God to an individual who responds to God.
assimilates Vasari'simage into an emblem of Charity as Virgo This attitude of belief goes beyond the available evidence and is

lactams and has transformed the strands of her hair into a flam- essential for eternal salvation. During the Middle Ages, Faith is

ing fire symbolizing Christ's love. Furthermore, Ripa employs represented in a place of honor next to Christ.
the image of flaming fire for his representation of religion's Following the medieval theories, Alciati also places great
emblem, which shows a veiled woman holding flames of fire, emphasis on the virtue of faith; however, he moves away from
symbolic of ardent and continuous love, in her left hand. the medieval discussion of the theological and cardinal virtues to
Although the Counter-Reformation continued to uphold the focus on the classical interpretation of arete or virtus. In

dual aspect of amor, this strictly human image of Charity Emblematum liber (Paris, 1536), Alciati interprets faith in the
remained the accepted form. For example, the Baroque spirit of Renaissance humanism. For Alciati, faith is the first

Bolognese painter Guido Reni, in his Charity (1630), depicts virtueand a symbol of fidelity, as seen in Emblem iX, Fidei
a beautiful, statuesque woman with three infants surrounding symbolum. The epigram explains the pictura (image) as follows:
her for nourishment, personifying Virgo lactans. Reni employs
Let Honor, dressed in purple cloak, hold hands with
gradations of pink to represent the degree of nourishment
naked Truth (Veritas). In the middle stands Eros (Amor),
consumed by the three children of love, who represent the
holy and sincere, his locks enwreathed in a garland of
incorporated virtues of faith, hope, and love. In addition to the
roses. This is Faith (Fidelity) who sustains Honor and
aforementioned works of art, various depictions of Charity can
gives birth to Truth, and nurtures Love.
be seen in Andrea Del Sarto (Charity, 15 18, at
the paintings of
the Louvre in Paris) and Cosimo Tura (Charity, 1490, in the For Alciati, honor is that quality acquired freely and voluntar-
Museo Poldi Pezzoli in Milan) and the sculptures of ily; an individual received this merit by his virtue. Alciati's pre-
Giambologna (Charity, 1585, in the Grimaldi Chapel in sentation of Truth (Veritas) as nuda Veritas derives from his
Genoa, Italy) and Pietro Bernini (Charity, 1600, in the church readings of Horace (Odes I, 24, 7) on the subject as a symbol
of Monte di Pieta in Naples). of simplicity, sincerity, and essence of life.

Faith (Greek pistis, Latin fides, meaning "to trust") is one of By contrast with Alciati, Ripa focuses on the symbolism of
the three theological virtues (the others hope and charity) and faith as a divine gift rather than a human attainment. He dif-
is from the natural, or cardinal, virtues of prudence,
distinct ferentiated several types of faith in Iconologia: Christian faith.
temperance, fortitude, and justice. Faith is usually represented Catholic faith, friendship faith, and marital faith. The first two
as a woman with her respective attributes of chalice, cross, can- types of faith are religious and represented with similar attrib-
dle, and font. Sometimes she wears a helmet and has the utes: a young woman dressed in white, wearing a helmet and
916 VIRTUE / VIRTUES

carrying a heart or a candle and a book or Decalogue. Ripa Epistle to the Hebrews (11:17) ar>d elaborated by St. James
refers to Protagoras's commentary: Blindness is the
and Virgil's (2:21-3). Prudentius, in Psychomachia, describes the image of
unfaithfulness and illumination of faith. Other types of faith Abraham as the faithful patriarch who first showed the way
are secular and associated with fidelity. For example, friendship of believing and whose faith was justified and made perfect by
faith is represented by a veiled, older woman with extended his works.
arms. Old age symbolizes wisdom and experience. In marital Another example of the application of Christian faith is
faith, the emblem is represented by a young woman dressed in Vasari's drawing Abraham and the Three Angels, in which the
white and holding a ring, symbol of matrimony. G. Ronchetti, background includes a rustic, wooden home, and the supper is
in Dictionary of Symbols (1922), explains that the ring was taking place outdoors. The figures, dressed in simple garments,
used by men in antiquity as a sign of freedom. Moreover, to gesticulate in aprofound manner. The faithful Abraham imme-
convalidate a legal document, the seal of a ring was required to diately responds to the miraculous intervention by kneeling and
witness the contract as an act of faith. receiving the divine messengers with open arms; Sarah, howev-
Faith is a personification that is frequently used by Vasari. er, seated against the door, skeptically observes the visitors
Her combine the personification of religion as well as
attributes while Hagar, carrying Ishmael in her arms, curiously rushes
and the Host. Redemption and salvation
faith: cross, chalice, with the other servants out of the house to see the divine
can be achieved through acts of faith. Vasari had employed this The presence of divine intervention is experienced
apparition.
idea in his earlier decorative cycles, especially the ceiling of the Old Testament scene with the apparition of the angels to
in the

Cornaro Palace (Venice, 540-1 542), the Chambers of

1 Abraham and Abraham's forthright response. The scene alludes
Abraham and Fortune house (Arezzo, 1 542-1 548), the
in his to the acceptance of the covenant made with God at Mamre
Refectory of Monteoliveto (Naples, 1545), the Sala dei Cento and the theological virtue of faith. Abraham's faith implies a
Giorni in the Palazzo della Cancelleria (Rome, 1546), and the hope to achieve a covenant with God, and it is by virtue of
rooms of the Palazzo Vecchio (Florence, 1 565-1 572). In some Abraham's charitable offering of a meal to the three angels that
of these cycles, Vasari depicts the emblem or the image of faith God grants the covenant to Abraham and his people.
with all the pertinent attributes, as in the Cornaro Palace and The depiction of religion in art is strongly interrelated with
Refectory of Monteoliveto. At other times, Vasari represents the theological virtue of faith. During the Middle Ages and the
the expression of having faith, as in the Chamber of Abraham. Renaissance, the attributes of faith are similar to religion, usu-
In this room, Vasari painted many personal conceits assembled ally represented as a woman with her respective attributes of
by assimilating numerous literary and stylistic sources. The and font. Sometimes she also wears
chalice, cross, candle, a hel-
theme of this ceiling draws on the story of Abraham and Isaac; met and has the Decalogue at her feet.
in contrast with traditional quattrocento and cinquecento In 1545, Vasari painted the personification of Religion on
depictions of the sacrifice of Isaac, Vasari, in the tondo, por- the ceiling near the altar of the Refectory of Monteoliveto in
trays God the Father blessing the seed of Abraham. This bless- Naples. She floats on a bundle of wheat with her attributes: the
ing occurs after God has tested Abraham's willingness to sacri- keys of St. Peter, the four gospels, and the veil. She dramatical-
fice Isaac. (God is described in Genesis 22:17 as saying, "I will ly turns her head to receive divine inspiration from the Holy
bless you abundantly and greatly multiply your descendants Spirit. A rose bush with thorns behind her recalls the sacrificial
until they are numerous as the stars in the sky and the grains of redemption. Religion represents the Christianization of the
sand on the seashore.") This theme is a Vasarian invention. classical tradition (Ripa, 161 1).

Vasari's depiction of Isaac is most unusual. He is shown as an According to Aquinas (Summa Theologia, II, part II, quest
infant, and his innocence is exposed by a look of candidness. LXXII, art. VII and quest. LXXXIV, art. II), religion is that
As he is blessed by God, Isaac demonstrates his astonishment moral virtue through which Christians dedicate all their honor
and his acceptance of God's will by pointing to himself. to God with all their heart, soul, and body. Aristotle differenti-
Among the works of Vasari's predecessors, Giulio Romano's ates humans from beasts in nature for their ability to reason,
ceiling of the Vatican Loggia and Baldassare Peruzzi's ceiling in which enables them to reach and comprehend the divine. Ripa's
the Stanza di Eliodoro most resemble the ceiling of the figurazione (image of Religion) is veiled, reflecting St. Paul's
Chamber of Abraham. In the Albertina of Vienna, Austria, statement per speculum in aenigmate (for a dark mirror), which
there is a drawing attributed to Raphael and Perino del Vaga alludes to the mysteriousness of rites, ceremonies, and religious
for the fresco painting by Romano in the Vatican Loggia, God events. Other attributes accompanying religion are a book, a
Appearing to Isaac or God Blessing Isaac. Marcantonio fire, and a cross. The book alludes to the Holy Scriptures, rev-

Raimondi also engraved a print after the drawing. However, elations, and religious conventions. The fire that she holds on
Giulio's scene depicts God blessing only Isaac, who is portrayed her hand suggests pure and sincere devotion to God. The cross
not as an infant but as a young boy. Rather than pointing to symbolizes Christ and his Christian doctrine. Sometimes an ele-
himself, Isaac indicates his father, who sits apart from him. phant guards her, alluding to Pliny's explanation about the
Peruzzi's representation emphasizes Abraham's closeness to good nature of this animal (Natural History, Book VII, chap.
Isaac by having them embrace as a floating figure of God, who I). Pliny tells us that this animal is prudent, charitable, and a

extends His arms, appears before Sarah and the group. Instead
of portraying the complete sacrificial scene, Vasari suggests
by portraying bucrania, garlands, and mask motifs around the
tondo scene. These motifs and other stylistic qualities found in
the tondo scene are quotations from Michelangelo's and
Titian's works. In the Old Testament, Abraham's sacrifice of
Isaac is one of the great examples of faith as enumerated in the
lover of equanimity. In Hierogliphica, Valeriano recounts how
it the elephant is depicted in the hieroglyphics, and for this rea-
son Pliny explains that the elephant worships the sun and the
starsand kneels in front of the moon for reverence. On a full
moon, he seeks water to bathe his body in preparation for wor-
shiping the moon, expressing his qualities of prudence, justice,
and humility.

Other illustrations of Religion in Ripa's Iconologia focus on
her clothing, with white linen alluding to her purity and chasti-
ty.According to Plutarch's book on the Egyptian gods Isis and
Osiris, the religious customs of the Egyptians were such that no
wool object could be found inside the temples or tombs; this is
why the deceased was mummified in linen garments. In Ripa's
emblem on the institutionalization of religion, the personifica-
tion portrays Religion as a woman covered by a veil and
accompanied by a dove, symbol of the Holy Spirit. The woman
sits on a square stone bench, symbol of a sacrificial altar as well
as the foundation of the church by Christ in Peter (stone). Next
to the personification of Religion stands a young boy with
Moses' tablets, alluding to the Old Testament law. The keys
held by Religion symbolize the New Testament, as does the
depiction of the four evangelists. The whole composition
emphasizes divine intervention through the Holy Spirit or reli-
gion with charity, faith, and hope.
Hope (Latin spes) forms part of the theological virtue three-
some (Daly, pp. 209-212). Hope's attributes imply safety,
and good luck. Her most conventional
security, steadfastness,
attributes of the hourglass and anchor represent safety and
security. The hourglass, usually an attribute of Temperance,
symbolizes the passage of life as well as the recurrence of life
and death, the heavens, and the Earth (Ferugson, pp. 45, 50).
The depiction of the anchor recalls St. Paul's comments in
Hebrews (6:18-19): "Hope is like an anchor for our lives . .
it enters in through the veil" (Hall, p. 156; Cheney, pp.
92-98). The symbolism of the anchor, together with the dol-
—
phin the anchor is slowness, and the dolphin alludes to
—
speed refers to the motto of the happy medium, "Hasten
slowly," or "festina lente." In Christianity, it is a true symbol
of salvation and faith. In early Christian art, the anchor was
used as a disguised form of the cross as hope a symbol of —
Christ on the Cross (the dolphin and the anchor). The anchor
is also the emblem of SS. Clement and Nicholas of Myra. In
Gothic imagery, Hope is depicted gazing up into the heavens
and reaching out for a crown, the hope of future glory. This
allusion suggests that hope is considered a spiritual as well as
a secular virtue. Examples of Hope with the representations of
the theological virtues can be found in fourteenth-century
paintings such as Ambrogio Lorenzetti's Maesta (circa 1330),
in which Hope holds lilies and a church tower and gazes up to
the crown. Bartolomeo di Bartoli's manuscript in Chantilly,
France, La canzone delle virtu e delle scienze, shows Hope
(Spes) sitting enthroned over Judas desperatus with his hang-
rope. Giotto's fresco cycle for the Arena Chapel in Padua
(1305) dramatically represents the contrast between the
hanging figure of Despair and the winged, ascending figure
of Hope.
Other virtues cherished during the Middle Ages and
expanded in the Renaissance were those associated with the
Holy Spirit. During the Middle Ages, they even surpassed the
popularity of the seven virtues. These virtues are grouped in
two categories: the gifts of the Holy Spirit (wisdom, under-
standing, counsel, strength, knowledge, piety, and fear of the
Lord) and the fruits of the Holy Spirit (charity, joy, peace,
patience, benignity, goodness, longanimity, mildness, faith,
modesty, continence, and chastity). The gifts of the Holy Spirit
were ascribed to Isaiah's prophecy (1 1:1-2), and in medieval
iconography they are associated with the Incarnation and the
Passion (O'Reilly and Tuve). In the Middle Ages, they were
VIRTUE / VIRTUES 9 I
7
considered the antidotes to the Deadly Sins. In art of this peri-
od, the formal wheel diagrams showed the seven beatitudes,
gift virtues, and and petitions of the Pater Noster opposed
gifts
to the seven deadly sins. The seven gift virtues were associated
also with medicinal powers; the seven beatitudes were medici-
nal preparations, whereas the seven gift virtues restored health.
These seven virtues also were associated with the seven works
of corporal and spiritual mercy, the seven joys and sorrows of
the Virgin, the seven last words, and the seven penitential
psalms as discussed in the Somme le Roi and Psychomachia
(O'Reilly and Tuve). In his commentary of Peter Lombard's
Sententiate, St. Bonaventure associated the gift virtues with the
cardinal and theological virtues because in Isaiah's text the Tree
of Jesse contained the gifts of the Holy Spirit, as illustrated in
the late medieval Biblia Pauperum.
The fruits of the Holy Spirit were discussed in a very influ-
ential twelfth-century manuscript, De fructibus, by pseudo-
Hugo (O'Reilly), in which the Tree of Jesse is replaced by the
Tree of Virtues. They were also depicted in another popular
manuscript from the end of the Middle Ages, Tree and Twelve
Frutes of the Holy Goost (Fitzwilliam ms. McClean 132).
Vasari represented this subject in 1545 in the Refectory of
Monteoliveto in the Church of Santa Anna dei Lambert in
Naples (Cheney).
Knowledge, counsel, and understanding are all aspects of
. wisdom, the meaning of which derives from the Greek term
sophia, which originally referred to the practical arts and then
to knowledge and reason. Plato understood wisdom to be one
of the four chief virtues. Wisdom was the faculty required for
both scientific knowledge and practical experience. Aristotle
distinguished between speculative and practical wisdom, that
is, between sophta (wisdom) and phronesis (prudence).
Whereas practical wisdom relates to the conduct of life, behav-
ior, and moral conduct, speculative wisdom requires elements
of intuitive reason and rigorous knowledge, as needed in theol-
ogy, philosophy, and metaphysics. Aquinas followed Aristotle's
distinction between speculative and practical wisdom while
finding speculative wisdom not in metaphysics but in sacred
doctrine or revealed theology. Nicholas de Cusa defined wis-
dom as "learned ignorance." Later discussions on wisdom dur-
ing the Renaissance and Baroque periods, such as those by the
philosopher Baruch Spinoza, distinguish between ratio, or rea-
son, interpreted as knowledge of scientific law, and scientia
intuitiva, or intuitive knowledge, by which one sees the univer-
sal in all the particulars of existence. The virtue Wisdom, then,
is identified with the latter and interpreted as living under the
aspect of eternity or divine laws.
In antiquity, the image of Athena or Minerva, with her
attribute of the olive branch or tree, alluded to the personifica-
tion of wisdom. The legend of her birth from the head of Zeus
or Jupiter referred to her ability to understand and advise the
gods and humans on the mysteries of life. Usually dressed in a
helmet and cuirass, Athena or Minerva alludes to her sagacity
and intellectual strength. The shield with the head of the
Medusa symbolizes the ability to distinguish between bad and
good and behaviors that wisdom provides to
habits, actions,
individuals. Wisdom teaches people to distinguish between
ignorance and knowledge and to learn through experience.
According to Virgil, the olive branch is a symbol of interior and
exterior peace that can be acquired or learned only through
knowledge or wisdom. This plant was carried by the Trojan
91 8 VIRTUE / VIKI Ul s

leader Aeneas when he visited the Elysian camps, alluding to depicted by Artemis of Fphesus as a personification of nature,
his search for 'peace through wisdom. are both significant aspects in a person's life. Knowledge, simi-

The Renaissance, assimilating the ideas of antiquity, repre- lar and fortitude, requires perseverance,
to patience, justice,

sented the fusion of the personification of wisdom with the strength, and stability, whereas felicity, prudence (providence),
medieval personification of prudence in art. A case in point is and liberality vacillate according to the wheel of fortune.
the well-known painting by Botticelli, Minerva and the Centaur In the Renaissance, the tendency to Christianize pagan

(1480), at the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, representing the per- iconography creates two levels of meaning in the interpretation
sonification of wisdom in a mythological setting. According to of the personifications. The personification of virtue is complex
some scholars, the subject matter of the painting has political, because it may combine both religious and secular ideas. If it is
poetic, and moral-philosophical meanings. Although an element religious, the allusion to virtue is associated with chastity (Latin
of symbolism is encountered in the painting, it is overshadowed castitas, meaning "purity of spirit"), with attributes such as a
by the painting's connotations. Most interpretations focus on veil (symbol of modesty), a palm (martyrdom), or a shield with
Lorenzo de Medici's triumph over the Neapolitan court a phoenix (spiritual search). If the allusion is secular, the virtue
intrigues or over the conspiracy of the Piazzes and other domes- of chastity focuses on the abstention from sexual relations as
tic enemies. The figures in the painting may symbolize the way one of the Christian virtues (the others poverty and obedience)
Lorenzo achieved a balance of power in the Florentine govern- that are associated with monastic vows of religious orders. This
ment and used his diplomatic skills in fostering peace after the association is seen in Franciscan art, such as Giotto's fresco
Piazze rebellion. In addition, as an illustration of one of Angelo cycle in the Lower Church of Assisi, Italy. In this instance, the

Poliziano's poems, it emphasizes Lorenzo's wisdom and his virtue of chastity is symbolized by a woman praying in a tower.
desire for good government (Cheney, 1993; Wittkower, 1977). The symbolism of the tower also alludes to the legends of St.
Other interpretations emphasize the philosophical signifi- Barbara and Danae (Hall). Another aspect of the secular allu-
cance of the painting. That is, Minerva and the Centaur repre- sion to chastity as purity of the flesh is the relation to love.
sents two moral allegories. First, it symbolizes Marsilio Ficino's Mythological references to the goddess Diana or the nymph
Neoplatonic concept of reason (Minerva) through wisdom Daphne and their transformations involve the yearning for
(Mens intellectus) controlling ignorance (centaur). Therefore, chastity in the face of desire. Other myths associated with
Lorenzo (Minerva), through his intellect, resolves the struggles chastity and physical love are the blindness of Cupid, the com-
of political diplomacy by subjugating foolishness (centaur). The bat of Love, the Lady of the Unicorn, and the Three Graces
painting can also be viewed in the light of quattrocento (Castitas, Pulchritudo, Amor or Aglaia, Euphrosyne, and
Neoplatonism, representing a person's physical and metaphys- Thalia, respectively, as described in Seneca's De Beneficiis
ical realms. Because a person's human made up of
soul is 1.3:2).
instinct and reason (natural world/centaur) and wisdom is part In the Chamber of Abraham at his house in Arezzo, Vasari
of the intellect (supernatural world/Minerva/Me;zs), the paint- portrayed Virtue with her companions Peace, Modesty, and
ing suggests that Lorenzo is trying to subjugate his basic Concord (1548). It appears that, following in the Renaissance
instincts (centaur) through reason to obtain wisdom. The rec- Neoplatonic tradition, he fused pagan symbols with Christian
onciliation of wisdom and instinct is achieved within Lorenzo's motifs in his religious symbolism. For example, Virtue is por-
human soul. That is, Lorenzo must control his own
in politics, trayed with objects (rose, lily, myrtle, and vase) with different
ambitions for the benefit of his beloved Firenze and good associations in the classical and Christian cultures.
government. The dual reference in the allegorical rendering of Virtue, evi-
In the Renaissance, the fusion between the personifications denced by the diversity of attributes she holds, seems to denote
of prudence and wisdom is common. However, in the Chamber the Renaissance Neoplatonic conception of the Venus/Virgo or
of Fortune of his house in Arezzo (1548), Vasari portrays the Love/Chastity. This dual conception is based on Virgil's Aeneid
personifications of wisdom and prudence separately. Under the and was applied by the Renaissance Neoplatonists to the
spell of the emblematic tradition of Alciati and Valeriano, for Christian doctrine of chastity and love. Virgil relates that Venus
Vasari Wisdom
(Sapienza) is an iconographic fusion of disguised herself as Diana, a virgin goddess, to appear as a
Cognizione and Intelligenze. The Aretine wisdom anticipates "devotee of chastity." The medal of Giovanna degli Albizzi,
iconographically Ripa's Cognizione and Intelligenze, who is with the Latin inscription from Virgil, for example, alludes to
winged, as a symbol of solicitude, and holds a burning torch, a the Venus/Virgo concept: Virginis os habitumque gerens et vir-
sphere, and a book. The book suggests her quest for knowl- ginis arma (Virgil I, 315). According to Jean Seznec, the six-
edge. The flame of the torch signifies the mind's ability to see teenth century also adopted the Ciceronian parallel between
the light of reason and to understand intellectual matters. The Diana and the Virgin Mary. In Vasari's Chastity, one sees, on
sphere alludes to Wisdom's attempt to comprehend in human the breastplate of her dress, a female figure standing (perhaps)
terms the abstract laws of the universe. This is also why one of on a shell and holding a bow and arrow. She may be Diana, a
her feet is suspended in midair, a suggestion of detachment in personification of chastity, or Diana disguised as Venus stand-
her intellectual pursuits from earthly goods.Wisdom rests com- ing on a shell, a personification of love. The lack of detail in the
fortably and stably in her niche. Wisdom appears to be sitting painting makes a more precise identification impossible.
on a cube, whereas Felicity or Fortune rests on a circular form, Vasari's Chastity also displays other Christian and pagan
the wheel in Cartari's depiction of Bonus Eventus (felicity) and motifs associated with the Venus/Virgo or Love/Chastity. She
Ripa's depiction of Cognizione. holds a classical vase with its base designed in the shape of a
Here, perhaps, Vasari has suggested that the acquisition of scallop shell, which is commonly associated with the birth of
knowledge and the desire to comprehend the laws of nature Venus, as seen in Botticelli's Birth of Venus (1485) at the Uffizi
(wisdom), contrasting with the given laws of nature usually Gallery (Cheney, 1993; Lightbown); it was also used in
 VIRTUE / VIRTUES 919

Christian art as a symbol of the resurrection and of pilgrimage, human crimes, she appears with wings in a chariot drawn by
as in the depictions of SS. James and Roch. and with a sword or whip
griffins in her hand (Bianchi).
In both the quattrocento and the cinquecento, several writ- According to common accounts, the Roman Tyche, the god-
ers, including Alciati in Emblematum libellus cum commen- dess of good fortune, was the daughter of Oceanus and
tariis (1531), Vincenzo Cartari in Imagini delli dei degl' Antichi Tethys. Tyche, as the author of evil as well as good fortune,
(1557), Piero Valeriano in Hieroglypbica sive De sacris was regarded as the source of all that is unexpected in human
Aegyptorum (1556), and Ripa in Iconologia (1603), associated life. Servius Tullius was said to have introduced into Rome
Venus with chastity or virginity. Vasari's allegorical figure of the worship of Fortuna. He erected a temple to her under the
Chastity likewise has attributes associated with chastity and name of Fors Fortuna and made June 24 the common festival
virginity, as she holds in one hand wilted white roses. In ancient of the goddess. Later, her worship became still more exten-
Rome, the rose was a traditional symbol of victory, pride, and sive. Under various surnames, some of which referred to the

love. It was the flower of Venus, goddess of love. In Christian state of Fortuna populi Romani and others to every descrip-
symbolism, the white rose is a symbol of purity. According to tion of private affairs, she had a great number of temples
St. Ambrose's legend, the Virgin Mary is called the "rose with- (chapels) erected in her honor in Antium and Praeneste.
out thorns" because she was exempt from original sin Ancient artists endowed this goddess with various attributes,
(d'Ancona and Reau). The lily is also a symbol of purity, and the most important of which was the rudder, which she held
in scenes of the Annunciation it is a Christian attribute of the in her hand as a symbol of her power to control the fortunes

virginity of Mary (Reau, 1955-1959, I; Panofsky, 1961). of human beings. She also carried a scepter for the same pur-
According to the Bible, flowers are a signal of spring, and pose and a horn of plenty as the giver of good fortune. The
because of their fragrance and beauty they are a sign of the later conception of an impartial goddess of fate is apparent in
Messianic kingdom (Isaiah 35:1). The death of flowers is sym- those monuments that depict her standing on a globe, ball, or
bolic of the transitoriness of life (Jacob 14:1; James 1:10) circle. In the Vatican, the statue Tyche, by Eutychides of
(Haig; Koch). In Roman mythology, myrtle was considered Sicyon (formerly exhibited in Antioch, Turkey) (Bianchi,
sacred Venus and a symbol of grace, sanity, victory
to 1877), shows the goddess wearing a laurel crown on her head
(Valeriano, 1602), and love (Cicero, Somniun Scipionis), as the tutelary deity of towns and holding a sheaf of corn in
whereas in Christian iconography myrtle alludes to the Gentiles her right hand. Besides Tyche or Fortuna, the Romans hon-
who were converted by Christ (Zachariah 1:8). In Christian ored a deity called Felicitas (Felicity) as the goddess of posi-
iconography, the vase or vessel is associated with one of the tivegood fortune. Lucullus is said to have erected a temple to
seven virtues: temperance. Stylistically, Vasari's vase refers to her in Rome that was adorned with the works brought by
the cinquecento interpretation of antique vases, as it is deco- Mummius from the spoils of Corinth, Greece (Bianchi, 1877).
rated with garlands, a mask, and a skull motif. Furthermore, The emblematic tradition of the Renaissance and Baroque
this vase contains myrtle leaves. In the Renaissance, a vase con- periods focused on the Roman conception of Tyche. Ripa's
taining plants or flowers was emblematic of virtue or grace Iconologia describes three types of felicity: eternal (or divine),
(Wind, 1968). Therefore, all these attributes may attest to the ephemeral (or human), and public. Eternal felicity is personi-
goddess of love, Venus, or to a Christian virtue, perhaps chasti- fied by a nude young woman with golden tresses and a laurel
ty (purity or virginity), as ascribed to the Virgin Mary. crown. She is seated in the heavenly stars, and her beauty radi-
Benignity and joy are components of The word felic-
felicity. ates as she holds a palm and flaming torch. The personification
ity alludes to the Greek term eudaimonia, meaning good luck of eternal felicity holds attributes similar to those of eternal
or to be prosperous, well off, or happy. Aristotle's view of hap- happiness, health, and well-being. She is depicted nude because
piness is associated with the evaluation of fulfillment of the there is no need to hide her earthly goods or her spiritual gifts.
individual's life, the sum of pleasures needed to be. Aquinas Her golden tresses allude to the period that the ancient poets
elaborates on this theory by defining happiness in terms of called the Golden Age, meaning a period of peace and joy when
pleasure with prudence, thus adding a theological dimension. laws were not corrupted or contaminated by human actions.
In the Renaissance, the personification of felicity fuses the The heavenly sky with stars suggests that only in the heavens
ancient and medieval views of happiness and joy as one of the can happiness or felicity be achieved because there are no
Holy Spirit's gifts of virtues (O'Reilly, 1983). human and astral interferences. The crown of laurel with the
The ancient Greeks and Romans believed that people were palm refers to St. Paul's statement that individual coronation
accompanied from birth by daemones or genii (invisible coun- can occur only after valiant and sufficient struggles. The flam-
selors) who assisted them through all the stages of life with ing torch symbolizes the love for God. Only through this love
advice and comfort. To these spirits they offered wine, can eternal and complete joy, happiness, or felicity be achieved
incense, and garlands on their birthdays. In antiquity (Ripa, 161 1 ).
Nemesis, Tyche, and Agathodaemon were considered as one Ripa's Human Felicity or Brief or Ephemeral Felicity alludes
invisible counselor. These three deities were incorporated in to Alciati's Emblem 124, In momentaneum felicitatem (brief
the goddess of equality, who watched over the equilibrium of felicity), in his Emblematum libellus cum cotnmentariis (1551).
moral university and saw that happiness and misfortune were The epigram explains the pictura (image) in which a gourd
allotted to humans according to their merits. The Romans dif- grew to such a height that it surpassed the tip of a pine tree. As
ferentiated among them. Nemesis was a kindly and gentle it entwined its branches this way and that, proudly above all
goddess, who dispensed what is just. In Roman art, she usu- valuation, the pine tree laughed at the gourd and spoke:
ally is portrayed as a young woman of grave and thoughtful
aspect, holding in her hand the instruments of measurement, Your glory is brief, because as soon the winter comes,
such as the cubit, bridle, and rudder. As the stern judge of accompanied by snow and ice all your vigor will be com-
92.0 VIRTUE / VIRTUES

pletely extinguished. This comment also applies to those Martino di Bartolommeo, Virtues, ceiling fresco, circa 1330,
arrogant, vain, and superficial individuals who focus Siena, Italy, Palazzo Pubblico, Sala di Balia
their happiness on the vanities of life. Pisano, Andrea, Cardinal Virtues, reliefs, 1336, Florence,
Italy, Baptistery, South Door
Rip.fs Public iclicity alludes to Cartari's Bonus Eventus m
Lorenzetti, Ambrogio, Good Government, fresco, 1 338-1 339,
Imagini delli dei degl' Antichi (
1 557), thus including all aspects
Siena, Italy, Palazzo Pubblico
of felicity, happiness, and joy, as illustrated in Julia Mamea's
Perugino, Pietro, Uomini famosi and Virtues, fresco,
medal with the inscription Foelicitas Publica. A young woman
1470-1475, Perugia, Italy, Collegio del Cambio
is seated on a throne, holding a caduceus as a symbol of peace
Lucas van Leyden, and Jacob Cornelisz. van Oostsanen,
and wisdom and a cornucopia with fruits and flowers, alluding
Sibyls (with Virtues and Vices), woodcuts in series,
to the fruitful achievements after hard work and labor. The
1 5 28- 530, Veste Coburg, Germany,
1

flowers in particular imply happiness; the caduceus symbolizes

Kunstsammlungender
virtue and the cornucopia richness. These elements allude to
Vasari, Giorgio, The Fruits of the Holy Spirit (Virtues),
temporal and spiritual wealth and abundance, which can be
fresco painting, 1545, Naples, Italy, Sant' Anna dei
achieved only through physical and mental labor.
Lombardi, Refectory of Monteoliveto
Felicity (Felicita Publica), or Bonus Eventus, sits on a wheel
holding a caduceus and a cornucopia in Vasari's house in
Temperance
Arezzo (1548). In this depiction, Vasari illustrated Vincenzo
Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, Temperance, print, 1 560,
Cartari's Imagini delli dei degl' Antichi description of the image
Rotterdam, The Netherlands, Museum Boymans
of Felicity, or Bonus Eventus (de Tervarent, 1944 and Ripa,
Roemer, Nothing Is Empty or Meaningless,
Visscher, first
161 1). Vasari described this image as "Felicita, a clothed
emblem from Sinnepoppen, 1614
woman with a horn of plenty held with the left hand and the Torrentius, Jan Symoonisz (Johannes Symoonisz. van der
caduceus of Mercury on the right." The caduceus and the cor- Beeck), Temperance, painting, 1614, Amsterdam, The
nucopia are attributes symbolizing the elements needed for Netherlands, Rijksmuseum
happiness, as the caduceus is a symbol of peace and industry,
and the cornucopia contains the products of hard work. Prudence (Including Wisdom)
Felicity sits precariously on the wheel of fortune, a symbol of
Pisano, Giovanni, Prudence, sculpture from the Pisa Pulpit,
authority and good fortune (Ripa, 161 1). For the Romans as 300s, Pisa, Italy, Duomo
1
well as for Vasari, Felicity was a personification of happiness, Vasari, Giorgio, Prudence, fresco painting, 1545, Naples,
as she "symbolized a fortunate event and the happy issue of an Italy, Sant' Anna dei Lombardi, Refectory of
enterprise" (de Tervarent). Another interpretation of Felicity is
Monteoliveto
as an early Christian martyr who died in a.d. 165. She is one Vasari, Giorgio, Prudence, drawing, 1545, Paris, Institut
of seven martyrs named in the Depositio Martyrum of the Neerlandais, Collection F. Lugt (Inv. 7777)
Liberian Catalogue on July 10. Her legend derives from the Vasari, Giorgio, Wisdom, fresco painting, 1545, Naples, Italy,
story of seven Jewish brothers (II Maccabees 7) that describes Sant' Anna dei Lombardi, Refectory of Monteoliveto
her as a wealthy Roman matron with seven Christian children. Perino del Vaga, Prudence, drawing, 1546, New York,
She witnessed the execution of her children because of their Metropolitan Museum of Art
faith and herself was beheaded or thrown into boiling oil (Hall, Vasari, Giorgio, Wisdom, oil painting, 1548, Arezzo, Italy,
p. 121). In Italian Renaissance painting, she is depicted with Casa Vasari
her seven sons holding palms for their martyrdom. A second St. Vasari, Giorgio, Prudence, oil painting, 1548, Arezzo, Italy,
Felicitywas an African martyr who died in a.d. 203. This saint Casa Vasari
is usually accompanied by St. Perpetua, with whom she was Titian, Allegory of Wisdom, 1559, Venice, Italy, Biblioteca
martyred. Her feast day is March 7. Sansovino
Titian,An Allegory of Prudence, oil on canvas, before 1576,
See also Abundance; Honor/Honoring; Vices/Deadly Sins London, National Gallery
Sacchi, Andrea, Divina Sapienza (Allegory of Divine
Wisdom), fresco, 1629-163 1, Rome, Galleria Nazionale
d'Arte Antica
Selected Works of Art
Van Dyck, Anthony, Lady Digby as Prudence, 1633, London,
Virtues in Series National Portrait Gallery
Thee and Twelve Eautes of the Holy Goost (Fitzwilliam Ms.
McCleary, 1,2) Cou rageIE o rtitude
Virtue and Vices, stone reliefs, circa 12 10, Paris, Notre Dame, Pucelle, Jean, Fortitude, 1325, illuminated manuscript page
west facade from The Belleville Breviary, Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale
Seven Trees of Virtue with the Seven Streams of the Gifts of (Ms. Lat. 10483)
the Holy Spirit, manuscript, Somme le Roi, fifteenth Vasari, Giorgio, Fortitude, fresco painting, 1545, Naples,
century, Oxford, Bedleian Library (Ms. 283, f. 99V.) Italy, Sant' Anna dei Lombardi, Refectory of Monteoliveto
Nicolo da Bologna, The Virtues and the Arts, from Giovanni Vasari, Giorgio, Fortitude, fresco painting, 1548, Arezzo,
Andrea's Novella super libros Decretalutni, illuminated Italy, Casa Vasari
manuscript, fourteenth century, Milan, Italy: Ambrosiana Vellani, Francesco, Fortitude, painting, before 1768, Modena,
(MSB. 42 inf., fol. 1) Italy, Palazzo Galliani
 VIRTUE / VIRTUES M2I

Justice Vasari, Giorgio, Religion, fresco painting, 1545, Naples, Italy,

Giotto, Justice, fresco, 1305, Padua, Italy, Arena Chapel Sant' Anna dei Lombardi, Refectory of Monteoliveto
Raphael, Justice, ceiling fresco, 15 10, Vatican, Stanza della Ripa, Cesare, Religion, woodcut emblem from Iconologia,
Segnatura 1603
Beccafumi, Domenico, Justice, panel, circa 1 540, Lille,

France, Musee des Beaux-Arts Hope

Beccafumi, Domenico, Justice, fresco, circa 1540, Siena, Italy, Hope, from an illustrated Psychomachia, early eleventh
Palazzo Pubblico, Sala del Consistoro century, Leiden, The Netherlands, Bibliotheek der
Vasari, Giorgio, Justice, fresco painting, 1545, Naples, Italy, Rijksuniversiteit
Sant' Anna dei Lombardi, Refectory of Monteoliveto Watts, George Frederic, Hope, oil on canvas, 1886, London,
Salviati, Francesco, Justice, fresco, 1545-1550, Florence, Italy, Tate Gallery
Museo Nazionale
Vasari, Giorgio, Justice, fresco painting, 1546, Rome, Palazzo Felicity
della Cancelleria, Sala dei Cento Giorni Cartari, Vincenzo, Bonus Eventus, engraving, from lmagini
Vasari, Giorgio, Justice, oil painting, 1548, Arezzo, Italy, delli dei degl' Antichi, Vienna, Austria, 1556
Casa Vasari Vasari, Giorgio, Bonus Eventus (Felicity), oil painting, 1548,
Zuccari, Federico, Allegory of Justice, drawing, circa 1585, Arezzo, Italy, Casa Vasari
Florence, Italy, Uffizi Gallery, Gabinetto Disegni e Ripa, Cesare, Felicity, woodcut emblem from Iconologia,
Stampe Rome, 1603
Cesare, Giuseppe (Cavalier d'Arpino), Allegory of Justice,
panel, 1595-1600, Brescia, Italy, Brescia Museum, Neoclassicand Genre Painting
Collection of Tosio-Martinengo Vien, Joseph Marie, Marcus Aurelius Distributing Food
Cesare, Giuseppe (Cavalier d'Arpino), Allegory of Liberality, and Medicine, before 1765, Amiens, France, Musee de
panel, 1 595-1600, Brescia, Italy, Brescia Museum, Picardie
Collection of Tosio-Martinengo Halle, Noel, Justice of Trajan, before 1765, Marseilles,
France, Musee des Beaux-Arts
Charity Banks, Thomas, Death of Germanicus, bas-relief, 1774,
Giotto, Charity, Fresco, 1305, Padua, Italy, Arena Chapel Norfolk, England, Holkham Hall
Tino da Camaino, Charity, sculpture, 1320, Florence, Italy, Durameau, Louis, Continence of Bayard, 1777, Grenoble,
Museo Bardini France, Musee de Peinture et de Sculpture
Tura, Cosimo, Charity, painting, 1490, Milan, Italy, Museo Brenet, Nicolas Guy, Death of Du Gueselin, painting, 1778,
Poldi Pezzoli Dunkirk, France, Musee des Beaux-Arts
Andrea del Sarto, Charity, fresco painting, 151 5, Florence, Wheatley, Francis, Mr. Howard Offering Relief to Prisoners,
Italy, Chiostro dello Scalzo Harrowby
1788, Collection of the Earl of
Andrea del Sarto, Charity, painting, 15 18, Paris, Musee du Gauffier, Louis, Generosity of Roman Women, before 1791,
Louvre Poitiers, France, Musee des Beaux-Arts
Vasari, Giorgio, Charity, fresco painting, 1545, Naples, Italy,
Millais, John Everett, The Widow's Mite, painting, 1870,
Sant' Anna Dei Lombardi, Refectory of Monteoliveto
Birmingham, England, City Art Gallery
Vasari, Giorgio, Charity, fresco painting, 1546, Rome, Fildes,Luke, Applicants for Admission to a Casual Ward,
Palazzo della Cancelleria, Sala del Cento Giorni
1874, Egham, England, Royal Holloway College
Vasari, Giorgio, Charity, fresco painting, 1548, Arezzo, Italy,
Herkomer, Hubert von, Eventide (Workhouse), 1878,
Casa Vasari Liverpool, England, Walker Art Gallery
Morandi, Francesco (II Poppi), Charity, panel, 1584,
Faed, Thomas, They Had Been Boys Together, 1885, Durban,
Florence, Italy, Uffizi Gallery
South Africa, Durban Museum
Giambologna, Charity, sculpture, 1585, Genoa, Italy,

Grimaldi Chapel
Bernini, Pietro, Charity, sculpture, 1600, Naples, Italy,
Further Reading
Church of Monte di Pieta
Caravaggio, Works of Mercy, 1605, Naples, Italy, Pio Monte Alciati, Andrea, Emblematum libellus cum comnientariis,
della Misericordia Paris, 1531; Paris, 1536; Paris, 1542; Lyon, France, 1549;
Guercino, Charity, oil painting, 1625, Dayton, Ohio, Dayton Lyon, France, 1 5 5
Art Museum Aquinas, Thomas, Summa Theologica, Ila., Ilae, Q XXIIla.5
Reni, Guido, Charity, oil painting, 1630, New York, Baccheschi, Edi, The Complete Paintings of Giotto, London:
Metropolitan Museum of Art Widenfeld and Nicolson, 1969; New York: Abrams,
1969
Faith (Including Religion) Bloomfield, Morton Wilfred, The Seven Deadly Sins, East
Faith, from an illustrated Psychomachia, early eleventh Lansing: Michigan State College Press, 1952.
century, Leiden, The Netherlands, Bibliotheek der Cartari, Vincenzo, lmagini delli dei degl' Antichi, Venice,
Ri)ksuniversiteit (Ms. Voss. Lat. Oct 15, ff. 37-43) Italy, 1557
Vasari, Giorgio, Faith, fresco painting, 1548, Arezzo, Italy, Cheney, Liana De Girolami, Botticelli's Neoplatonic Images,
Casa Vasari Potomac, Maryland: Scripta Humanistica, 1993
922 VIRTUE / VIRTUES

, "Giorgio Vasari's Chamber of Abraham: A Religious O'Reilly, Jennifer, Studies in the Iconography of the Virtues
Ceiling in the Aretine House," Sixteenth Century Journal and Vices in the Middle Ages, New York: Garland,
18 (Fall 1987) 1988
, The Paintings of the Casa Vasari, New York: Panofsky, Erwin, Renaissance and Renascences in Western
Garland, 1985 Art,New York: Harper, i960; London: Paladin, 1970
,"Vasari and Naples: The Monteoliveto Order," Papers The Iconography of Coreggio's Camera di San Paolo,
,

in Art History V (1994) London: Warburg Institute, 1961

Colonna, Francesco, Hypnertomachin Poliphili, Venice, Studies in Iconology, Oxford and New York: Oxford
,

Italy, 1499 University Press, 1939

Cornell, Henrik, editor, Biblia Pauperum, Stockholm, Sweden: , Problems with Titian Mostly Iconographic, New York:
Thule-tryck, 1925 New York University Press, 1969
Corti, Laura, et al., Principi, Letterati e artisti nelle carte di Piobb, Pierre Vicenti, Clef universelle des sciences secrets,
Giorgio Vasari, Florence, Italy: Edam, 1982 Paris, 1950
Cox-Rearick, Janet, Dynasty and Destiny in Medici Art, Reau, Louis, Iconographie de l'art chretien, eight volumes,
Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, de France, 195 5-1 9 59
Paris: Presses Universitaire

1984 Ripa, Cesare, Iconologia, Rome, 1603; Padua, Italy, 161

Daly, Mary, "Faith, Hope, and Charity," in Dictionary Ripa, Cesare, Iconologia, New York and London: Garland,
of the History of Ideas, New
York: Scribner's, 1973 1976
del Vita, Alessandro, editor, Lo Zibaldone di Giorgio Ronchetti, Giuseppe, Dizionario Illustrato de Simboli, Milan,
Vasari, Rome: Instituto Archaeologico e Storico Italy: Ulrico Hoepli, 1922

dell'Arte, 1938 Rosenblum, Robert, Transformations in Late Eighteenth

Dorez, L., editor, La canzone delle virtu e delle scienze di Century Art, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University
Bartolomeo di Bartoli, Bergamo, Italy: 1904 Press, 1967
Draper, Jed R., Vasari's Decorations in the Palazzo Vecchio: Rowley, George, Ambrogio Lorenzetti, Princeton, New Jersey:
The Ragionamenti (Ph.D. diss., University of North Princeton University Press, 1958
Carolina, 1973) Segal, Sam, A Prosperous Past, The Hague, The Netherlands:
Frey, Karl, Giorgio Vasari's der Literarische nachlass, two SDU, 1988
volumes, New York: Georg Olms Verlag, 1982 Shapiro, M. L., Ambrogio Lorenzetti's
"Virtues and Vices in
Freyan, Richard, "Evolution of the Caritas Figure," Journal Franciscan Martyrdom," Art Bulletin XLVI (1964)
of the Warburg Courtauld Institutes XI (1948) Sebastian, Santiago, Alciato Emblemas, Madrid, Spain:
Haig, Elizabeth, The Floral Symbolism of the Great Masters, Akal/Arte y Estetica, 1993
London: Thames and Hudson, 1913 Seznec, Jean,The Survival of the Pagan Gods, New York:
Hall, James, Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art, Harper, 1961
revised edition, New York: Harper, 1979 Sherman, Claire Richter, Imaging Aristotle: Verbal and Visual
Horapollo, Hierogliphica, Venice, Italy, 1505 Representation in Fourteenth Century France, Berkeley
Holtausen, Ferdinand, editor, Book of Vices and Virtues, and London: University of California Press, 1995
London: N. Trubner, 1888 Stone, David M., Guercino, Florence, Italy: Cantini, 1991
Katzenellenbogen, Adolf Edmund Max, Allegories of the Tervarent, Guy de, Attributs et symboles dans l'art profane,
Virtues and Vices, London: Warburg Institute, 1939; Geneva, Switzerland: E. Droz, 1958
New York: Harper, 1962 Tuve, Rosamond, "Some Notes on the Virtues and Vices,"
Koch, R., "Flower Symbolism in the Portinari Altarpiece," Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 26
Art Bulletin 46 (1964) (1963), 27 (1964)
Kunstle, Karl, Ikonographie der christlichen Kunst, Freiburg, , Allegorical Imagery: Some Medieval Books and Their
Germany, 1928 Posterity, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University
Lightbown, Ronald, Botticelli, New York: Abbeville, 1990 Press, 1966
Male, Emile, L'art religieux de la fin du Moyen Age en France Valeriano, Piero, Hieroglyphica sive de Sacris Aegyptorum,
(Paris, 1949) 1521
Millar, Eric, An
Illuminated Manuscript of the Somme le Roy, Watson, Arthur, The Early Iconography of the Tree of Jesse,
Paris: Roxburghe Club, 1953 Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1934
Monbeig-Goguel, J. C, "Giorgio Vasari et son temps," Revue Watson, P. S., Agape and Eros, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
XIV (197 1)
del' Art 1953
Monbeig-Goguel, J. C, and W. Vitzthum, "Dessins inedits de Wind, Edgar, "Charity, the Case History of a Pattern,"
Giorgio Vasari," Revue de I'Art II (1968) Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 3 (1940)
North, Helen F, "The Iconography of the Cardinal Virtues," Pagan Mysteries in the Renaissance, New York:
,

Dictionary of the History of Ideas, edited by Gregory Norton, 1968

Bruce Clancy, New York: Scribner's, 1968 Wittkower, Rudolf, Allegory and the Migration of Symbols,
Nygren, Anders, Agape and Eros, London: Society for London: Thames and Hudson, 1977
Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1938; New York: Wood, Christopher, Victorian Panorama: Paintings of
Macmillan, 1941 Victorian Life, London: Faber and Faber, 1976
 visiting/visitation
Alicia Craig Faxon

The following iconographic narratives are covered in the discussion of the theme Visiting/Visitation:

VISITATION OF THREE
ANGELS TO ABRAHAM
VISIT OF THE QUEEN OF
SHEBA TO SOLOMON
MARY AND ELIZABETH
GENRE PAINTINGS

9i3
924 VISITING / VISITATION
 VISITING / VISITATION 925

Albrecht Diirer, Visitation, from The Life

of the Virgin, circa 1511, woodcut (B84),
Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, Harvey D.
Parker Collection. (Courtesy of Museum
of Fine Arts, Boston)

Because the subject of visiting and visitation is so broad, The visit of theQueen of Sheba to Solomon was secularized
it will be covered here mainly most common icono-
in its into the medieval Legend of the True Cross by Piero della
graphic context, that of biblical images, and in regards to Francesca in his The Meeting of Solomon and the Queen of
scenes typically given the title Visit or Visitation. Sheba (circa 1452-1457), part of a fresco cycle in the Church
The first major Old Testament visitation scene is that of of San Francesco in Arezzo, Italy. Here the stately queen and
Abraham visited by three angels (Genesis 18:1-16). During the her female retinue enter a pillared room from the right, and
visit, the angels tell Abraham and his wife Sarah that though she bends forward in profile toward the left, clasping
they are old, they will have a son and fulfill God's earlier Solomon's hand. His courtiers, all male, stand on the left in
promise that Abraham's descendants will multiply and become elegant Renaissance dress. Everything in Francesca's painting
as many as the stars in the sky. This was a scene particularly is symmetrical and stately, framed by fluted columns and rec-
popular in the Netherlands in the seventeenth century, because tangular panels, while the participants seem to move to solemn
the country, newly freed from the rule of Spain, saw itself as a music.
new and the Dutch believed that the stories of the Old
Israel, A very different picture is presented in Fontana's Visit of the
Testament applied to them as the fulfillment of God's promises. Queen of Sheba. In this painting, Solomon's father King David,
Pieter Lastman, Rembrandt van Rijn's teacher, painted crowned and in an ermine-trimmed robe, sits on a raised throne
Visitation of Three Angels to Abraham on this subject, now in on the far left, while a very knowing and beautifully dressed
a private collection, as did Rembrandt's pupils Ferdinand Bol, Queen of Sheba kneels gracefully on the steps before the
whose Abraham Entertaining Three Angels (circa 1640s) is throne. She gestures toward an attendant on the far right who
now in the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, and is entering with a tray of gold vessels and ornaments. Behind

Aert de Gelder, whose work is in the Boymans Museum in her on the right is a retinue of richly clad ladies with ruffs,
Rotterdam, the Netherlands. Rembrandt himself may also while in the right foreground a dwarf in red gestures toward the
have painted this subject in a work now in the Rijksmuseum golden gifts. The participants in Fontana's painting are reputed
in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. The subject was also por- to be portrayals of the Duke and Duchess of Mantua, Italy,
trayed by Raphael and his assistants in The Visitation to Vincenzo Gonzaga and his wife Leonora de'Medici, as well as
Abraham fresco (circa 15 18) in the Loggia of the Vatican, and their court. The idea for this painting may have come from the
by Peter Paul Rubens in Abraham's Visitation (circa Gonzagas' art collection, which included an onyx vessel
1618-16x9) m tne Seville Cathedral in Spain. The visitation of believed to come from the Temple of Solomon. Presumably,
the three angels to Abraham and Sarah is sometimes seen as a Fontana's patrons would have identified strongly with Solomon
prefiguration of the Annunciation in the New Testament, as a noble predecessor.
when the angel Gabriel comes to ask Mary if she will be the The most commonly represented visit is the Visitation: the
Mother of Christ. New Testament story of Mary's visit to her cousin Elizabeth
Another famous Old Testament visit is that of the Queen of when both women are pregnant, Mary with Jesus and
Sheba to King Solomon (I Kings 10:1-13; D Chronicles 9:1-9). Elizabeth with John the Baptist (Luke 1:39-56). The situation
The queen had heard of Solomon's wealth and wisdom, but was different for each of the women: Elizabeth was married
when she came to see him and ask difficult questions, she found to Zacharias and had been barren for many years, while Mary
that he was both wiser and richer than she had been told. She was unmarried though betrothed to a carpenter named
returned home rejoicing, leaving as many
as she had gifts Joseph. When Mary entered the house, Elizabeth felt her child
brought. The and the queen's
biblical description of this visit leap in her womb, and she recognized this as a sign of the spe-
exotic retinue, complete with camels, spices, and precious cial child Mary was bearing. Mary responded to this recogni-
stones, fascinated artists. The scene appears in many paintings, tion in thewords of the Magnificat: "My soul doth magnify
including Livinia Fontana's The Visit of the Queen of Sheba to the Lord and my spirit hath rejoiced in God my Savior. . .
,"

Solomon (late sixteenth century) in the National Gallery in her cousin's response reinforcing the words of the angel
Dublin, Ireland; Benozzo Gozzoli's fresco The Queen of Gabriel in the Annunciation. Mary stayed with Elizabeth for
Sheba's Visit to Solomon (fifteenth century) in the Campo three months, a testimony to Elizabeth's welcoming spirit and
Santo in Pisa, Italy; a painting by Peter Paul Rubens in the motherly qualities.
Courtauld Institute in London; a painting by Raphael in the The Visitation is one of the scenes traditionally represented
Loggia of the Vatican; a painting by Jacopo Robusti Tintoretto in the Life of the Virgin cycles in early Christian and Byzantine
in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, Austria; a painting art. In the fourteenth century, more independent
it became a
by Giovanni Battista Pittoni in the Walker Art Gallery in subject, following the establishment of a separate Marian feast
Liverpool, England; and Claude Lorrain's The Embarkation of day under the influence of St. Bonaventura. The Visitation can
the Queen of Sheba (1640s) in the National Gallery in London. be seen on the south portal (eleventh century) of the Church of
92.6 VISITING / VISITATION

St. Pierre in Moissac, France. The Romanesque work shows These are not elegantly clad noblewomen, as in Renaissance
two elongated figures who bow to each other, adjacent to an precedents, but humble, homely, and convincing people.
Annunciation scene. The figures are heavier and more classic in Kathe Kollwitz's monumental woodcut Mary and Elizabeth
The Visitation (circa 22.5-12.45) on the west portal of the
1 (1938) shows only the bulky bodies of the two women,
Cathedral of Reims, France. This Gothic work contrasts the enclosed within an arched black space. Elizabeth, on the left, is
perfect beauty and serenity of Mary's face with the older, lined shown kissing her young relative as her hand touches Mary's
countenance of Elizabeth. swelling waist. Mary .looks downward tenderly and shyly. The
In the Middle Ages, the two infants Jesus Christ and John starkness of the composition and the use of enclosed figures
the Baptist were sometimes displayed in the wombs, as if visi- indicates the mutuality of their experience of pregnancy.
ble through X-ray vision, and even greeted one another. Through the starkness of outline and pose, Kollwitz makes the
Sometimes a plaque or platytera was hung over the figures, rep- two women symbolic of every woman who has awaited birth
resenting the infants, a practice proscribed by the Council of and who has been supported by another woman. In its simpli-
Trent (1545-1565). In the fifteenth century, with an increased fication of planes and detail and its expressive use of pose and
number of paintings being used for personal devotion, gesture, the woodcut emanates a twentieth-century approach
Elizabeth is sometimes shown kneeling before her cousin Mary, and sensibility.
or kneeling before the Christ Child in Mary's womb, as in Although the primary scene of the Visitation is the greeting
Visitation (before 1727) by Giuseppe Maria Crespi (lo between the two women, Mary is also shown journeying to
Spagnuolo) in the Kress Collection in the National Gallery of meet Elizabeth, as in Alessandro Allori's ceiling painting Mary
Art in Washington, D.C. on Her Way to Judah (before 1607) in Capella della Visitatione
In the sixteenth century, Albrecht Durer included The in Florence. Mary taking leave of Elizabeth is depicted in
Visitation in his woodcut series The Life of the Virgin Lorenzo d'Alessandro da San Severino's Virgin Taking Leave of
(1510-1515). Here the embracing women are featured promi- Zacharias and Elizabeth (before 1503) in San Giovanni in
nently in the foreground, both wearing flowing robes, and Urbino, Italy.

both obviously "with child." The figure of Mary on the left There are occasional references to God's visitation to his
has a tall fir tree symbol of faith, while
behind her, a possible people in the New Testament, such as in the Song of Simeon
a typical mountainous landscape rises in the background. The (Luke 1:68): "Blessed be the Lord God of Israel, for he hath vis-
figures are given great solidity and weight, and the entire scene ited and redeemed his people." Jesus Christ refers to God's vis-

is concentrated on them. The Visitation is also shown in a itation when he foresees the destruction of Jerusalem (Luke
number of other paintings, sometimes with Joseph or 19:44): "and they shall not leave in thee one stone upon anoth-
Zacharias, but most often with the two women alone. It can er; because thou knowest not the time of thy visitation," that
be seen in an illuminated manuscript by the Master of the is, they did not recognize Jesus as Messiah. Jesus also told his
Boucicalt Hours in the Musee Jacquemart- Andre in Paris. One followers of their obligation, and how he recognized those who
of the reasons for the great number of representations of this helped him: "Naked and ye clothed me; I was sick and ye vis-
meeting was that it was a traditional scene in the Book of ited me; I was in prison and ye came unto me" (Matthew
Hours of the Blessed Virgin Mary, a book of prayers for the 25:36). When they asked, "When did we do this?" he replied,
different hours throughout the day. The theme later appears in "Inasmuch as ye have done it unto one of the least of these my
paintings by Albrecht Altdorfer in the Museum of Art in brethren, ye have done it unto me" (Matthew 25:40).
Cleveland; Giotto in the Arena Chapel in Padua, Italy; Palma In terms of genre representations, visiting became a nine-
Vecchio in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna; Fra teenth-century institution complete with cartes de visites (visit-

Angelico in San Marco Museum in Florence, Italy; Taddeo ing cards). Jane Austen described Mrs. Bennet in the first chap-
Gaddi in the Baroncelli Chapel in San Croce in Florence; ter of Pride and Prejudice (181 3) in this fashion: "The business
Tintoretto in the Scuola di San Rocco in Venice, Italy; Pietro of her life was to get her daughters married; its solace was vis-
Vannucci Perugino in the Academia in Florence; and iting and news." Mary Cassatt perfectly captured the niceties of
Rembrandt van Rijn's The Visitation (1640) in the Detroit Art the etiquette of visiting in the painting Five O'Clock Tea (1880)
Institute in Michigan. Although the figures of Mary and at the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, and in the color etching
Elizabeth usually embrace or shake hands, occasionally one and aquatint The Visit. In both of these works, well-dressed
figure bows to one another, as in Ghirlandaio's Visitation (fif- ladies drink tea and talk in an elegant interior, exemplifying the
teenth century) in the Louvre in Paris. social codes of the upper-class lady of leisure. The most consci-
Rembrandt's The Visitation is one of the most unusual rep- entious of these ladies would also visit the poor, as depicted in
resentations. The scene takes place within a large darkened Frank Stone's Charity (before 1859), in the Warrington
landscape that dwarfs the figures. The entrance of the house on Museum and Art Gallery. Here two elegantly dressed women
the from which the elderly Zacharias emerges, is large and
left, enter the cottage of a poor mother whose four children cling to
elegant, with a pillared doorway. Mary and Elizabeth are spot- her. The visitors' servant uncovers a basket of food as two of
lighted in the center of the composition, standing on a circular the children approach him with widening eyes.
entrance platform. A black servant removes Mary's cloak as Luke Fildes's The Doctor's Visit (1891) in the Tate Gallery
Elizabeth embraces her tall young relation. Neither of the in London reveals a more serious side of nineteenth century
women are conventionally beautiful, but the reality of their society, with its frequent illnesses and high mortality rate, espe-
presence in gesture and pose expresses the awe and wonder of cially among children. In Alfred Rankley's Old Schoolfellows
the situation. This is Rembrandt at hismost restrained and clas- (1854), a friend visits his ill, perhaps dying, former companion
sical; every detail contributes to the immediacy of the meeting. at school. The clergy also made rounds, visiting ill or incapaci-
 VISITING / VISITATION 927

tated parishioners, as in William Crosby's The Pastor's Visit Fontana, Lavinia, The Visit of the Queen of Sheba
(before 1873). In general, however, modern representations of to Solomon, oil, late sixteenth century, Dublin,
visiting and visitation tend to show genre scenes of social cus- National Gallery of Ireland
tom, rather than scenes of a spiritual or biblical nature. Claude Lorrain, The Embarkation of the Queen of
In several paintings and etchings, Edgar Degas portrayed a Sheba, oil, 1640s, London, National Gallery
new kind of visit: a visit to a museum. For common people,
this was a distinctly nineteenth-century experience as museums Mary and Elizabeth
had not been accessible to them until Napoleon opened the The Visitation, sculpture, circa 1230, Chartres, France,
former royal collections of the Louvre to the general popula- Cathedral, north portal
tion. The National Gallery in London also opened its doors in Mary and Elizabeth, stone, circa 1225, Reims, France,
the nineteenth century. Degas painted more than one repre- Cathedral, central portal, west front
sentation of museum visits, among them several elegant etch- Bertram von Minden (Master Bertram), Visitation, second
ings of the painter Mary Cassatt and her sister visiting the quarter of fourteenth century, Paris, Musee des Arts
Etruscan Gallery and other sites of the Louvre. His oil paint- Decoratifs
ing A Visit to the Museum (1876) in Boston is another render- Piero di Cosimo,The Visitation with Saint Nicholas and Saint
ing of Cassatt and her sister. On the surface, the work details Anthony Abbot, oil on panel, circa 1490, Washington,
an acceptable social practice of the time: visiting works of art D.C., National Gallery of Art
in a cultured setting. Yet there may be a touch of wicked wit
Ghirlandaio, Domenico, Visitation, fresco, 1486-1490,
in Degas's depiction: the fashionable standing figure of the ele- Rome, S. Maria Novella
gant Cassatt looks at the art while her sister studiously reads Ghirlandaio, Domenico, The Visitation, oil, fifteenth
from a guide book. There may also be a pointed reference to century, Paris, Louvre
the two women's unmarried status. They are looking at the
Allori, Alessandro, Mary on Her Way to Judah, before
sarcophagus of an Etruscan married couple and Paolo
1607, Florence, Italy, SS. Annunziata, Capella della
Veronese's The Marriage Feast at Cana (1562) is in the back-
Visitatione, ceiling
ground. Perhaps Degas, single himself, implies that regarding
Lorenzo d' Alessandro da San Severino I, Virgin Taking
marriage from a safe distance in a museum is an escape from
Leave of Zacharias and Elizabeth, before 1503, Urbino,
life's greater commitments — that it is experiencing passion at
Italy, S. Giovanni
arm's length. This kind of visit may simply be a piece of
Reichlich, Marx, Visitation, circa 1500, Vienna, Austria,
reportage on current social customs, but itmay also be about
Osterreiche Gallerie
art as a substitute for life. A visit to a is one during museum
Master E. S., Visitation, 1506, Budapest, Hungary,
which the cannot talk back to the visitors, nor can the
visited
Szepmuveszeti Museum
visitors truly communicate with the representations they see.
Diirer, Albrecht, The Visitation, woodcut, 15 10-15 15,
Degas's A Visit to the Museum is art about viewing art: imme-
Boston, Museum of Fine Arts
diate formal concerns appear to dominate human ones, yet
Pontormo, Jacopo Carucci da, The Visitation, fresco, 15 14,
beneath the surface stir a number of perplexing questions
Florence, Italy, SS. Annunziata Church
about art and life.
Allori, Alessandro, Mary on Her Way to Judah, before

1607, Florence, Italy, SS. Annunziata, Capella della

Visitatione, ceiling
See also Journey/Flight
Rembrandt van Rijn, The Visitation, oil, 1640, Detroit,
Michigan, Art Institute
Crespi, Giuseppe Maria (lo Spagnuolo), Visitation, before
Selected Works of Art 1727, Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art,
Visitation of Three Angels to Abraham Kress Collection

Raphael and assistants, The Visitation to Abraham, fresco, Kollwitz, Kathe, Mary and Elizabeth, woodcut, 1938,

circa 15 18, Vatican, Loggia Berlin, Kathe Kollwitz Museum

Rubens, Peter Paul, Abraham's Visitation, oil, circa Denis, Maurice, Mary Visits Elizabeth, 1894, St. Petersburg,

1628-1929, Seville, Spain, Cathedral Russia, Hermitage

Lastman, Pieter, Visitation of Three Angels to Abraham,
oil, private collection Genre Paintings
Bol, Ferdinand, Abraham Entertaining Three Angels, oil, Steen, Jan,The Doctor's Visit, before 1679, London,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands,
circa 1640s, Apsley House, Wellington Collection
Rijksmuseum Rankley, Alfred, Old Schoolfellows, 1854, private
collection
Visitof the Queen of Sheba to Solomon Stone, Frank, Charity, before 1859, Warrington, England,
Gozzoli, Benozzo, Queen of Sheba 's Visit to Solomon, Museum and Art Gallery
fresco, fifteenth century, Pisa, Italy, Campo Santo Crosby, William, The Pastor's Visit, before 1873, private
Piero della Francesca, The Meeting of Solomon and the collection
Queen of Sheba, fresco, circa 1452-1457, Arezzo, Degas, Edgar, A Visit to the Museum, oil, 1876, Boston,
Italy, Church of S. Francesco Museum of Fine Arts
928 VISITING / VISITATION

Cassatt, Mary, Five O'Clock Tea, oil, 1880, Boston, Museum Giese, Lucretia, "A Visit to the Museum," Bulletin of the
of Fine Arts. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 76 (1978)
Fildes, Luke, The Doctor's Visit, oil, 1891, London, Tate Hartt, Frederick, History of Italian Renaissance Art, second
Gallery edition, New York: Abrams, 1979

Picasso, Pablo, The Visit (Two Sisters), oil on canvas, 1902, Tufts, Eleanor, "Lavinia Fontana," in Our Hidden Heritage:
St. Petersburg, Russia, Hermitage Five Centuries of Women Artists, London: Paddington,
1974
Valentiner, V. R., "The Visitation by Rembrandt," Bulletin of
the Detroit Institute of Art 8 (192 6- 1927)
Further Reading
Verheyen, Ernst, "An Iconographic Note on Altdorfer's
Daniel, Howard, Encyclopedia of Themes and Subjects in Visitation in the Cleveland Museum of Art," Art Bulletin
Painting, New York: Abrams, 1974 46 (1964)
 ^

VOYEURISM
Eugene Dvvyer

The following periods and cultures are covered in the discussion of the theme Voyeurism:

ANCIENT EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

ISLAMIC NINETEENTH CENTURY
JAPANESE TWENTIETH CENTURY
RENAISSANCE

929
930 VOYF.URISM

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 VOYEURISM 931

Khusraw Sees Shirin Bathing in a Pool, leaf from

aKhamsah of Nizami, illustration from Khusraw
u Shirin, Persian, mid-sixteenth century, Safavid
period, opaque color, gold, and silver on paper,
Washington, D.C., Freer Gallery of Art (08.262).
(Courtesy of the Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C.)

Modern societies usually understand voyeurism to mean most exciting novelty'). Instead of bathing, they are playing the
the viewing by one or more persons of the intimate aristocratic game of go" (p. 78).

state or behavior of another person or persons. Such viewing is Saikaku's novel and Moronobu's adaptation of text and
usually done without the consent or awareness of the person or illustration emphasize a sadistic element in voyeurism. Even
persons viewed and thus entails a relationship of inequality in here the subject (inspired by a David and Bathsheba}) is a
which the voyeur commands a superior position over the vul- pretext for a graphic study of the female nude, suggesting the
nerable "target." The viewer's motive is assumed to be plea- identification of artist/viewer with the voyeur rather than his
sure, whence the term scopopbilia to describe voyeurism in its target. Artists of the Hellenistic period first exploited the
erotic aspect. To understand why voyeurism is almost univer- identification of viewer and voyeur by extending the spatial
sally condemned, the practice of seeing what is not properly envelope about a work of sculpture to include the viewer's
seen must be understood in the context of social attitudes station. Praxiteles' Knidian Aphrodite (circa 350 B.C.) became
toward envy and envy avoidance. "There is no curious man celebrated in antiquity through numerous anecdotes of view-
that is not also malevolent" (Francis Bacon). As Gyges said to er involvement. The artist's choice of the vulnerable moment
Candaules, "Let each man look upon his own" (Herodotus). of the goddess's emergence from the bath has stimulated the
Thus, to condone voyeurism is to encourage behavior that is largely modern debate over her awareness of the viewer. Some
harmful to society. scholars have argued against the interpretation of the work as
While voyeurism has usually been universally regarded as a surprised woman attempting to cover herself, arguing that
dangerous to the individual and harmful to society, artists have such a characterization is beneath the dignity of the goddess
often been called on to execute works of a very private nature, as conceived by Praxiteles but allowing it for the works of
not intended for the public, like Francois Boucher's portrait of inferior followers of the Athenian master (Bieber, p. 20). This
a royal mistress, O'Murphy. (The story is told in
Mile. argument concedes that whatever Praxiteles' original intent
Giovanni Casanova's Memoires.) The artist's and the patron's was, some of his contemporaries understood the motif on a
inability to restrict the subsequent viewing audience of a given more human level. Other freestanding works, such as
work of art potentially affords the process of artistic represen- Barberini Faun and Sleeping Hermaphrodite, are clearly
tation a role in any subsequent act of voyeurism. Thus, artistic intended to shock the viewer through the dramatic exposure
representation, like voyeurism, has often been condemned as of the subjects' genitalia. In each of these works, vulnerabili-
harmful to society. The invention of photography and its pop- ty, the sine qua non of the voyeuristic target, has been
ularization posed even greater challenges to traditional ideas of achieved through the action of sleep (for Renaissance artists'

visual appropriation. use of the device of the sleeping figure, see Meiss). Similarly,
Aside from humorous ephemera, voyeurism per se rarely the sleeping Ariadne, the mythological daughter of King
appears as a primary subject in the visual arts. Indeed, it was Minos of Crete and countless other nymphs, appear in classi-
that very ephemeral quality of subjects that characterized the cal art as the subjects of voyeurism and rape. (Compare
new Ukiyo-e Hishikawa Moronobu, whose Woman
of Pompeian marble sculptures of a sleeping slave boy with
Surprised in Bath taken from the second illustrated edition of
is exposed genitalia.)
Ihara Saikaku's The Man Who Spent His Life in Love (1682, Although voyeurs or onlookers abound in classical art, their

1686), "a long, eventful account of a rake's progress from . . . roles are usually not vicious or voyeuristic as we now under-
precocious childhood to lecherous old age" (Hibbett, pp. 36, stand that activity. Servants or assistants frequently appear as
42, 78). According to Hibbett, Moronobu's print shows the bystanders in Pompeian wall paintings of erotic couples,
hero "Yonosuke, at the age of nine. He is occupied by what has although their presence more likely results from the artists'

been cited as 'an early Japanese use of a European invention':
observing by telescope a large naked woman in
bath-tub . . At the top of Moronobu's picture is a
." (p. 78).
condensed version of the novel's text: "Suddenly she noticed
him. Speechless with embarrassment, she clasped her hands
imploringly. But he only leered all the more, pointed at her, and
laughed. . .
." Hibbett noted here "a disrespectful allusion to a
scene in the third chapter of Lady Murasaki's Tale of Genji,
recalling the more discreet spying of the young Prince Genji,
between screens and sliding doors, when he glimpses a pair of
charming ladies in deshabille (This peep at everyday life was a
attempts to create settings (i.e., by means of staffage) or to
her wooden frame narratives than from efforts to create dramatic involve-
ment (Michel). A Roman silver cup, formerly in the Warren
Collection, depicts two scenes of male-to-male coupling, one of
them witnessed by a boy standing in a doorway (Clarke). Here,
the boy might be analogous to figures in wall paintings or have
the more significant role of an epoptes, that is, one admitted to
the mysteries, a figuration of the viewer. (Art historian Edgar
Wind proposed just such an interpretation for the figure of a
young man who stares at the principal figures in Albrecht
Diirer's Men's Bath from outside the enclosure.)
932. VOYEURISM

Other artistic spheres outside the Greco-Roman have insti- the vindication of the target against the ill will of her
tutionalized voyeurism. A favorite subject in Persian miniature voyeur/oppressors, yet the artistically invasive treatment of
painting is the scene of Prince Khusraw observing the lovely Susanna as a sensual nude involves the artist/viewer in the
maiden Shirin as she bathes in a mountain stream. The episode crime of the lascivious elders (Meiss, p. 225; Knipping, p. 203):
comes from the epic poem Khusraw and Shirin by Nizami. "Few themes have offered so satisfying an opportunity
artistic

Shirin has been traveling alone, disguised as a young prince. for legitimized voyeurism" (Garrard, p. 191). The stories of
Having stopped to bathe (and in the act of wringing or comb- both Bathsheba and Susanna reached new levels of psycholog-
ing her hair), she is discovered by Khusraw. The latter's surprise ical intensity in the works of Artemesia Gentileschi. Whereas
is indicated by his gesture of placing his index finger to his lips. the episodes of Bathsheba and Susanna follow the convention-
At the approach of Khusraw, Shirin's horse Shabdiz alerts his al pattern of bathing female and peeping male, the story of
mistress, thus enabling her to withdraw. The elements of the Noah and his son Ham follows another pattern. Here Noah,

scene as it was treated in fifteenth- and sixteenth-century drunk with the fruits of his viticulture (and presumably lying in
Timurid miniatures are the bathing maiden, her clothing piled an attitude of abandon a la Barberini Faun), is irreverently seen
by the stream (or hanging from a tree), her horse Shabdiz, and by his youngest son (Genesis 9:22-24). Although the Bible itself
the beholder Khusraw. The arrangement of figures follows the offers no explanation as to the precise nature of Ham's sin,
traditional placement of subjects in Timurid painting, with Jewish legend told of the son's assault on the father's manhood
principals toward the bottom of the picture and observers at (Ginzberg I, 166-173, strikingly reminiscent of the assault on
the top behind a coulisse of trees, mountains, or architecture. Cronos by Zeus, king of the gods). The episode is rarely depict-
In earlier versions, a respectable distance and the barrier of the ed outside of Genesis cycles (e.g., a ceiling mosaic in the
coulisse separate Khusraw from Shirin; in later versions, the narthex of St. Mark's in Venice, Italy). However, Giovanni
observed and the observer are moved closer together, suggest- Bellini attempted a single panel on this subject in which Ham is
ing greater intimacy (Guest). depicted as shamelessly inquisitive while his brothers display
The so-called Shiraz canon that governs the placement of the requisite modesty.
the subjects implies a certain decorum, restricting (but also Among genre painters, J. H. Fragonard produced one of the
institutionalizing) voyeurism to the top edge of the composi- most memorable treatments of voyeurism in art in his painting
tion. In the illustration Iskandar Watching the Water Maidens The Swing (1767). Here, the swinging woman, espied by her
at Play, from lskandar-nama, or "Alexander Romance," the voyeur/lover concealed in the bushes, is fully aware of her situ-
world conqueror is obliged by the conventions of the canon to ation; the elderly man who assists her in swinging, presumably
act as a voyeur, peeping down at a large stream filled with her unwitting husband, is the dupe.
cavorting maidens. Voyeuristic onlookers are also found in Unlikely as it may have seemed at the time, Fragonard's
Timurid paintings in which they are entirely irrelevant to the painting is one of the last icons of voyeurism. Among later
action, such as scenes of meetings in the desert (Guest, pi. 42A) painters, Jean-Leon Gerome offered up numerous idealized
and courtly entertainments (Guest, pi. 43B). females to the hostile and profane stares of a vulgar crowd of
A number of subjects mythology involve the dra-
in classical exclusively male viewers. In King Candaules or Queen Rodophe
matic portrayal of voyeurism. The hunter Actaeon is stereotyp- Observed by Gyges (1859), Gerome continued the subject of
ical in that his fate involves the sight of a nude female, Artemis. dramatic voyeurism, illustrating Herodotus's tale as retold by
Accidental discovery is more to the point in Actaeon's story Theophile Gautier Le Roi Candule (1844), emphasizing the
in

than pleasure, and his fate was to be transformed into a stag sensuous oriental setting and Gyges' dramatic exit. In this work,
(i.e., to be appropriated by the goddess of nature) and devoured as in his studies of nude female slaves exposed to lecherous male
by his own dogs. This subject thus involves a reversal of the audiences, the identification of the implied viewer with the tex-
normal target. On the other hand, the beautiful youth advent of a more modern tra-
tual observer (Gyges) signals the
Narcissus derived pleasure from beholding his own image in dition. With the advent of photography and the objective
water. Here, the voyeur is identical with the target. Pleasure is beholder characteristic of the realist style of painting, the iden-
similarly absent as a motive in works depicting the judgment of tification of painter and viewer emerged as an explicit theme.
Paris, although the subject was employed by later artists, such Most painters sought more authorial presence than was consis-
as Peter PaulRubens, to display the voluptuous female body. In tent with the viewer/voyeur paradigm. In his Nude with White
several Pompeian frescoes, the shepherd-god Pan reveals the Stockings (circa 1861), Gustave Courbet arranged his model to
sleeping Ariadne to Dionysus, god of wine, recalling scenes of present the viewer with a near view of her most intimate parts,
nymphs uncovered by satyrs. asif the sight were incidental to a tryst. In The Origin of the

Several biblical episodes involve voyeurism as an essential World (1877), the vantage point from which the faceless nude is
feature of the narrativeand are so represented in art. Certainly presented is so intimate as to appear clinical. Close vantage
the most celebrated episode of voyeurism is that of David and points similarly characterize Edgar Degas's many studies of
Bathsheba (II Samuel 11:2-4). After seeing the latter in her bath unselfconscious nudes. Yet, the more objective and matter-of-
as he walked on the roof of his palace, David appropriated fact the connection between the observer and the observed (i.e.,

Bathsheba, as Gyges did the wife of Candaules. High-Gothic the voyeur and his target), the less the relationship can be
miniaturists naturally seized on the subject of the beautiful described as voyeurism. Although unselfconscious, Degas's
nude bather and the watchful king, although Erasmus and oth- nudes do not in their positivism suggest vulnerability, nor can
ers objected to the use of the subject in church decoration the viewer any longer pretend to the detachment of a voyeur, the
(Knipping, p. 203). The story of Susanna (Daniel 13) represents "invisibility" previously accorded to servants by their masters.
 voyeurism 933

Rather than furtively enjoying someone else's treasure, the view- Etty, William, Candaules King of Lydia Showing His Wife
er is now in possession. The artistic treatment of the subject of London, Tate Gallery
to Gyges, oil painting,
voyeurism historically parallels social attitudes toward sexual Gerome, Jean-Leon, King Candaules (Queen Rodophe
voyeurism. Observed by Gyges), oil on canvas, 1859, Ponce, Puerto
Rico, Museo de Arte

See also Bath/Bathing; Gaze; Naked/Nude

Twentieth Century
Ernst,Max, Susanna Bathing, oil on canvas, 1950,
Darmstadt, Germany, collection of Karl Stroher
Selected Works of Art
Michals, Duane, The Voyeur's Pleasure Becomes Pain,
Ancient sequence of six photographs, 1961
Praxiteles, Knidian Aphrodite, circa 350 B.C., original lost,
many copies
Sleeping Ariadne, marble, Hellenistic period, Vatican, Vatican Further Reading
Museums
Bacon, Francis, "Of Envy," from Essays, Oxford and
Barberini Faun, marble, Hellenistic period, Munich, Germany,
Glyptothek
New York: Oxford University Press, 1930

Warren Cup, silver, first century a.d., private collection

Clark, J.,"The Warren Cup and the Contexts for
Representations of Male-to-Male Lovemaking in

Islamic
Augustan and Early Julio-Claudian Art," Art Bulletin
School of Shiraz, Kbusraw Discovers Sbirin Bathing in a LXXV(i993)
Pool, illustration to Nizami, Khusraw and Shirin,
Fried, Michael, Courbet's Realism, Chicago and London:
sixteenth century, Washington, D.C., Freer Gallery University of Chicago Press, 1990

of Art (08. 262) Fuchs, Eduard, Illustrierte Sittengeschichte, Frankfurt-am-

Main, Germany: Fischer Taschenbuck Verlag, 1909
Japanese Garrard, Mary DuBose, Artemisia Gentileschi, Princeton,
Hishikawa Moronobu, Woman Surprised in Bath, woodcut New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1989

from The Man Who Spent His Life in Love (Koshoku Guest, Grace Dunham, Shiraz Painting in the Sixteenth

ichidai otoko), illustration to Ihara Saikaku, illustrated Century, Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution,
edition, 1686 1949
Hibbett, Howard, The Floating World in Japanese Fiction,
Renaissance Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1959
Bellini, Giovanni, The Drunkenness of Noah, oil on panel, Kunoth-Leifels, Elisabeth, Uber die Darstellungen der

1 5 14, Besancon, France, Musee "Bathsheba im Bade": Studien zur Geschichte des
Gentileschi, Artemisia, Susanna and the Elders, oil on canvas, Bildthemas 4 bis iy Jahrhundert, Essen, Germany: R.
1610, Pommersfelden, Germany, Schloss Weissenstein Bacht, 1962
Gentileschi, Artemisia, David and Bathsheba, oil on canvas, Meiss, Millard, "Sleep in Venice," Proceedings of the

circa 1640, Columbus, Ohio, Museum of Art American Philosophical Society CX (1699); reprinted in
The Painter's Choice, New York: Harper, 1976
Eighteenth Century Michel, D., "Bemerkungen liber Zuschauerfiguren in
Fragonard, Jean-Honore, The Swing, oil on canvas, 1767, pompeijanischen sogenannten Tafelbildern, in La regione
London, Wallace Collection sotterrata dal Vesuvio: Studi e prospettive (Nov. n-15,
1979)
Nineteenth Century Posner, D., "The Swinging Women of Watteau and
Courbet, Gustave, Nude on canvas,
with White Stockings, oil Fragonard," The Art Bulletin, LXIV (1982)
circa 1861, Merion, Pennsylvania, Barnes Foundation Wind, Edgar, "Diirer's Miinnerbad: A Dionysian Mystery,"
Courbet, Gustave, The Origin of the World, oil on canvas, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 2
1866, private collection (1938-1939)
 WHITENESS
Shane Adler

The following periods are covered in the discussion of the theme Whiteness:

RENAISSANCE
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
NINETEENTH CENTURY
TWENTIETH CENTURY

93 5
936 win 11 ni ss
 WHITENESS 937

Frank Benson, Sunlight, 1909, oil on can-

vas, Indianapolis, Indiana, Indianapolis
Museum of Art, John Herron Fund.
(Courtesy of the Indianapolis Museum of
Art, Indianapolis, Indiana)

Whiteness is a visual perception, a quality of color that associated a state of sexual innocence and lack of knowledge
and materials in the natural
exists in various tones with whiteness and the white robe.
world. Yet from earliest times, in unconnected cultures, the Similarly, the taboo on some sexual practices described in

color white garnered similar meanings that migrated outward- Leviticus in the Acharei Mot (Codes of Law) declared that rela-
ly from token to belief and then back again. More than any tionships considered unclean by the Hebrews were wrong
hue, white has had consistent and lasting associations with because they were violations of the soul of another, not because
particular values and their emotions. As the color closest to they involved the sin of sex. Theologians reinterpreted biblical
capturing the radiant effect of light, its meaning was initially cleanliness and redefined sin so that female chasteness was
spiritual. Eventually, the quality called whiteness took on associated with the purest qualities of the untouched Virgin
strong moral overtones while maintaining the seemingly natur- Mother. Red and white were her colors, signifying blood and
al union with the divine. Each additional layer of attributed milk: the red rose of love and the spotless white lily were said
meaning depended on previous connotations so that, over time, to have surrounded Mary in the hortus conclusus (the enclosed
the ideas linked to whiteness became intensified, as if garden of virginal splendor). According to the Dialogues of
immutable. White represented, and became inextricably bound Gregory the Great (sixth century), white was worn by all who
with, truth. attained Paradise, a field of sweet flowers.
Many ancient civilizations used color in their systems of Whiteness began to signify all that was good. The popular
order. The Chinese, Tibetans, islanders of the Southeast Pacific, tale of Tondal, in which a knight's quest leads him through
early Irish, and the indigenous tribes of North America located hell, purgatory, and heaven, was narrated by David Aubert in

the points of the compass according to the sun's rise and its only illuminated version, Simon Marmion's Les Visions du
descent, and designated colors for directions, among them Chevalier Tondal (1474). Aubert, scribe to Philippe the Good
white. The physical world of day and night, of darkness and of Burgundy, characterized the saints, male and female:
light, was a sign of the supremacy of the sun, the moon, and the "Clothed in white robes, they were very handsome, without
spirits believed to dwell in these heavenly bodies. The moon's blemish and without any imperfection." The courtly nobles
nightly glow inspired a faith that was transmuted to the living under the rule of Philippe the Good were themselves
Egyptian Horus, the white god, born of the coupling of the sun painted as they celebrated his betrothal to Isabella of Portugal
and the moon. Horus, who ruled the south, governed time and in the fifteenth century. Because they lived by his beneficence,
oversaw the span of human existence. the earthly lords and ladies were all portrayed as resplendent
In several cultures the period of worship of a particular in white, capped head to toe, their bodies rendered long and
deity was illustrated by wearing the corresponding color. The pointed.
Chinese emperor dressed in white when he honored the moon. However, over the centuries, whiteness came to be most
To symbolize a personal affinity with all that was sacred, the closely identified with thesupposed state of the womanly soul.
ritual wearing of white was adopted by the Chinese philoso- "The untouched Lilly" praised by Anthony Stafford (1635)
pher and scholar Confucius, the Arab prophet Muhammad, was the inspirational and chaste fair lady of his desire, an ideal
and the Brahmans of India. For the Greeks of antiquity, the created by man. Elizabeth of England (153 3-1 603), the eter-
I

body itself was virtuous, and therefore was seen as white, nal virgin queen, declared her personal colors to be white for
especially for the gods who took human form. The poets purity and black for constancy, and wore them for portraits
Homer and Hesiod both referred to Hera as the goddess of the and in public procession.
white arms; white was thought to enhance the complexion, a More abstract and complex than concepts that can be rep-
belief mentioned by Aristophanes and Socrates alike. When resented by either emblematic objects or descriptive actions,
Ovid described the Roman gods in Metamorphoses (early first whiteness, as a testimony to character, has usually been con-
century a.d.), he too spoke of their "fair white limbs" and veyed through clothing. From the early eighteenth century,
"snowy whiteness" of skin, the latter applied to both the white gowns were seen in paintings as evidence of femininity,
female Io, the maiden loved by Zeus, and the beautiful male as they were thought to alter the outer form of imperfection
Narcissus. Ovid also spoke of the "snowy white" garments and transform an ordinary woman into a flawless vision.
worn by married women at the festival to honor Ceres, Roman Because of its frequent appearance in portraiture, it has been
goddess of food plants; sexual abstinence was required of all presumed that the white clothing was the wearer's own.
participants in the festival's sacred rites. The white apparel However, unembellished gowns of costly, unpatterned white
specifically corresponded to the worship of Ceres, in that it silk were exceedingly rare until late in the century. Charles
represented fruitfulness. The period of abstention, or the Jervas painted Martha and Theresa Blount (171 6), together
denial of fertility, was an initiation into the dormant cycle of called "nymphs" by the artist, in an informal but elegant
winter, when the Earth rested. Christian liturgy eventually levite of glossy white satin. In the following decades, William
938 WHITENESS

Hogarth immortalized the gentrified English family in group mer relationship to the Virgin Mary was reinforced by middle-
portraits such as The Jones Family (circa 1 730-1 731). In class morality. Whereas Emma Hart, flamboyant mistress of
many of these conversation pieces, it was the mother, in Sir William Hamilton, could be "drest all in virgin white" [sic]
white satin shimmering with highlights, to whom the atten- and be publicly admired in the late eighteenth century, those
tion was accordingly drawn. Portraitists like Bartholomew who wore white in the nineteenth century were subject to clos-
Dandridge and Francis Hayman were among those who sim- er scrutiny. No longer a state of mind, virginal "whiteness"
ilarly outfitted sitters in gleaming white to attest to their fem- was defined by the dictates of bourgeois righteousness and
inine virtues. subject to its judgment. Promoted by fashion magazines as the
Considered by many to be the first novel of sentiment, appropriate choice for young unmarried ladies at social occa-
Samuel Richardson's Pamela (1740) was narrated in 12 sions, white began to signify youth, simplicity, and the inno-
engravings by Joseph Highmore and published as a set in cent, feminine, middle-class soul. It was in this context that
1745. The heroine, a lady's maid, was rewarded with an aris- James Abbott McNeill Whistler produced his three harmonies
tocratic marriage after staunchly defending her virtue and of whiteness, beginning with Symphony in White No. 1: The
chastity from the advances of her master. In Highmore's ren- White Girl (1861-1862). The model, Whistler's mistress Jo,
derings, Pamela has a large wardrobe, including a variety of holds a downcast wilted white lily, using the symbol of the
gowns that are predominantly white and in the same fashion Virgin to announce her fall. The hostility generated among
as those worn by the aristocracy in portraits. Pamela's own Whistler's audience by this strangely passive yet sexual woman
descriptions of the silk she wore while in service did not spec- was to be surpassed by the outrage provoked by Edouard
ify color, except in the case of the "sad-coloured stuff" that Manet and his painting Le Repos (1871) a decade later. The
replaced her "grey russet" for her anticipated return home. criticism audiences voiced at the rendering of the troubled
This was painted as brown, with a crisp and spotless white young woman seated on a sofa was based on assumptions of
apron and fichu covering the front. her sexual knowledge and directed toward her impropriety in
In French art, too, white connoted goodness from which wearing white.
came love and presumably marriage. In The Declaration of The Impressionists realized Whistler's technical intention to
Love (1731) by Jean Francois de Troy, a young woman seated create a harmony of brilliant white in filtered light. The subject
at the center of the painting is courted by a plaintive suitor of Pierre-Auguste Renoir's Lise (1867) stood outdoors, and the
kneeling by her side. She wears a richly brocaded open robe effect of the sun shining on the white of her dress was called
and petticoat that flow out gracefully, an expanse of pure "delicious." Light's reflection of all colors interested Marie
whiteness. As the eighteenth century progressed, gowns of Braquemond and Berthe Morisot, who conformed to bourgeois
white proliferated in portraits by artists such as Alexandre moral codes by painting their female sitters in white long after
Roslin and in genre paintings, such as A Musical Party (circa its mid-century fashionable life had expired. So too did Claude

1734) by Louis Roland Trinquesse. Whiteness gained another Monet, who depicted his stepdaughters in white as "dreams"
dimension in the works of Marie-Louise-Elisabeth Vigee- of his wife who had died while still young. In this regard his
Lebrun and Jacques-Louis David, who created the prototype of work approached the theories of the symbolist artists who rein-
the model draped a Vantique (in the ancient). vested the woman in white with private emotions, as a person-
Alluding to an ideological valor residing in the virtues of the al spirit. As if to find his way, Maurice Denis placed flattened
ancients, the moral lessons of neoclassicism were clothed in female figures in floating, shapeless sheaths along a path reced-
Roman costume. With the French Revolution (1789), history ing into the distance, recalling the haunting muse guiding peo-
paintings, portraits and allegories, all saw women dressed in ple toward self-knowledge described by the novelist Joseph
fine white draperies. At the same time, fashion participated by Conrad as she who "emerges like a white figure from a dark
providing similar suggestions. White gowns that were said to confused sea." Pierre Puvis de Chavannes called his vision
imitate Grecian draperies proposed that to wear such a cos- Hope (1872).
tume was to become a classical goddess and a work of art, and Yet again, the gown
of white took on another dimension as
were universally worn by women of the middle- and upper- the twentieth century emerged and European and American
classes throughout the Western world. Writer Louis-Sebastien artists explored Impressionism and then went beyond it.
Mercier, writing in the 1790s, considered the shop girl in an Women were once again dressing in white, this time during the
athenienne (an Athenian-like dress) the equal of Venus, Roman summer months. Made of gossamer, light, and fragile fabrics,
goddess of love, and the writer Duchesse d'Abrantes referred to the white dress became a summer one, and summer pervaded
a friend dressed in the antique manner as "more beautiful than in painting in a seemingly never-ending languorous feminine
the work of Phidias." The belief that this trend achieved per- reverie. The inner world of a woman who was settled in an
was proposed by the dandy and finicky fashion
fection in dress intimate and quiet interior near a light-filled windowed out-
buff Beau Brummel in a manuscript dated 1822. He lauded the look was a theme of the 1890s. When they moved outside as
"pure models of Greece and Rome" and the present styles that subjects, women were portrayed as part of nature itself, from
replicated them. the shadowed world of the fin de siecle to bright sun-drenched
Although white was worn in Japanese marriage cere- settings of colorful abundance in the new century. The stat-
monies, the tradition actually derived from the color's associ- uesque and proud beauty who fills the frame of Frank
ation with mourning: the bride wore white as she departed Benson's Sunlight (1909) stands with one hand at her hip and
from her family. In Europe whiteness was ritualized for reli- the other shadowing her eyes from the dazzling light as she
gious celebration, weddings, and communion as art and dress looks out toward the horizon and the future with American
eventually diverged from reference to the antique. White's for- optimism. Significantly, such summer idylls were located in
 WHITENESS 939

remote places where untamed nature luxuriated and dark Highmore, Joseph, Scenes from "Pamela," T744, engraved by
urban realities never intruded. Yet the actual events that were L. Truchy and A. Benoist 1745, London, Tate Gallery;
occurring in cities relied on real women purposefully wearing Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Museum; Melbourne, Australia,
white. The leaders of women's suffrage established a uniform National Gallery of Victoria
code of dress to promote unity and group identity. The adop- Nonotte, Donatien, Monsieur et Madame de Corcelles Faisant

tion of white was an affirmation that they were fashionably de Musique, 1761, private collection
la

correct ladies, feminine and respectable — their cause was Trinquesse, Louis Roland, A Musical Party, circa 1784,
therefore virtuous. on extended loan
private collection to the Alte Pinakothek,
Most recently whiteness has been used to simplistically Munich, Germany
divide "good" and "bad." The mythic hero of a mid-twentieth Horn, Claude, Interior with Portrait of a Young Lady, 1788,
century American generation, the cowboy in white duds, Chicago, Art Institute
favorite of television and movies, claimed great territories in Reynolds, Joshua, The Ladies Waldegrave, 1780-1781,
the name of the good guys. And the female figure clothed in an Edinburgh, National Gallery of Scotland
aura of whiteness, a seemingly eternal symbol of the purest of Gainsborough, Thomas, The Morning Walk, 1785, London,
ideals, is available now as nostalgia, in books or on note cards National Gallery
imprinted with Edwardian ladies of elegance. The confident Boilly, Louis-Leopold, La Famille Gohin, 1787, Paris, Musee
and full-bodied beauties in these depictions now evoke longing des Arts Decoratifs
for the supposed serenity of the past. Fragonard, Jean-Honore, The Stolen Kiss, circa 1790, St.

Petersburg, Russia, Hermitage

Vigee-Lebrun, Marie-Louise-Elisabeth, Comtesse de la Chatre,
See also Dawn/Dawning; Female Beauty and Adornment; 1789, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art
Light II: Divine, Natural, and Neon; Virgin/Virginity Desoria, Jean-Baptiste-Franijois, Portrait of Elisabeth
Dunoyer, 1797, Chicago, Art Institute
David, Jacques-Louis, Mme. De Verninac, nee Henriette
Delacroix, 1799, Paris, Louvre
Selected Works of Art

Renaissance Nineteenth Century

The Master of the Harvard Hannibal, Annunciation, 1420s, Lawrence, Thomas, Lady Templetown and Her Son, circa
Baltimore, Maryland, Walters Art Gallery 1 80 1, Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art
Lippi, Filippino, Adoration of the Christ Child, mid- 1480s, Charpentier, Constance-Marie, Le Melancolie, 1801, Amiens,
St. Petersburg, Russia, Hermitage France, Musee de Picardie
Marmion, Simon, Les Visions du Chevalier Tondal, 1474, Prud'hon, Pierre-Paul, Between Love and Riches, 1 804,
Los Angeles, California, J. P. Getty Museum (Ms. 30) Chicago, Art Institute
Botticelli, Three Miracles of Saint Zenobius, circa 15 10, Peale, James, Madame Dubocq and Her Children, 1807,
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art; London, Louisville, Kentucky, J. B. Speed Art Museum
National Gallery; Dresden, Germany, Gemaldegalerie Sully, Thomas, Lady with a Harp, 181 8, Washington, D.C.,
School of Jan van Eyck (copy after), Celebration at the National Gallery of Art
Court of Burgundy, sixteenth century, Versailles, France, Vernet, Horace, Portrait of a Woman, 183 1, Toledo, Ohio,
Chateau de Versailles Toledo Museum of Art
Gheeraerts, Marcus, the Younger, The Ditchley Portrait of Winterhalter, Franz Xavier, Melanie de Bussiere, Comtesse
Queen Elizabeth I, circa 1 592-1 594, London, National Edmond de Pourtales, 1857, Collection du Comte de
Portrait Gallery Pourtales
Queen Elizabeth I Carried in Procession, circa 1600, Dorset, James Abbott McNeill, Symphony in White No. 1:
Whistler,
England, Sherborne Castle The White Girl, 1 861-1862, Washington, D.C., National
Gallery of Art.
Eighteenth Century Whistler, James Abbott McNeill, Symphony in White No. 2:
Jervas, Charles, Martha and Theresa Blount, 1716, England, The White Girl, 1864, London, Tate Gallery
Little
private collection Whistler, James Abbott McNeill, Symphony in White No. 3,
Hogarth, William, The Jones Family, circa 1730-173 1, 1867, Birmingham, England, University of Birmingham,
Fonmon Castle, England, Collection Ann Lady Barber Institute of Fine Arts
Boothby Manet, Edouard, Le Repos, 1871, Providence, Rhode Island
Troy, Jean-Francois de,The Declaration of Love, 173 1, School of Design
und Garten
Berlin, Staatliche Schlosser Renoir, Pierre- Auguste, Lise, 1867, Essen, Germany,
Hamilton, Gawen, Edward Harley, Third Earl of Oxford Folkwang Museum
and His Family, 1736, Collection Edward Harley Morisot, Berthe, The Artist's Sister at the Window, 1 869,
Devis, Arthur, William Atherton and His Wife Lucy, circa Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art
1743-1744, Liverpool, England, Walker Art Gallery Gonzales, Eva, La Femme sur la Falaise, circa 1868, private
Hayman, Francis, Jonathan Tyers with His Daughter collection
Elizabeth and Her Husband John Wood, circa 1750, Puvis de Chavannes, Pierre, Hope, 1872, Baltimore,
New Haven, Connecticut, Yale Center for British Art Maryland, Walters Art Gallery
94° WHITENESS

Monet, Claude, Woman with a Parasol, 1875, Washington, Curran, Charles, On the Heights, 1909, Brooklyn, New
D.C., National Gallery of Art York, Brooklyn Museum
Braquemond, Marie, Woman in White, 1880, Cambrai, Benson, Frank, Sunlight, oil on canvas, 1909, Indianapolis,
France, Musee de la Ville de Cambrai Indiana, Indianapolis Museum of Art
Monet, Claude, Femme a Vombrelle tournee ver la gauche,
1886, Paris, Musee d'Orsay
Weir, J. Alden, The Windowseat, 1889, private collection
Denis, Maurice, April, 1891, Otterlo, The Netherlands, Further Reading
Rijksmuseum kroller-Muller
Arnold, Janet, Queen Elizabeth's Wardrobe Unlock 'd,
Guthrie, James, Midsummer, 1892, Edinburgh, Scotland,
Leeds, England: Mancy, 1988
Royal Scottish Academy
Davis, Shane Adler, "Without Repose: Manet's Portrait of
Beaux, Cecilia, New England Woman (Mrs. Jedediah II,
Berthe Morisot," Women's Studies 18:4 (1991)
Richards), 1895, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Academy
of Fine Arts.
Ockman, Carol, '"Two Large Eyebrows a l'Orientale':

Chase, William Merritt, Near the Beach, Shinnecock, 1895, Ethnic Stereotyping in Ingres's Baronne de Rothschild,"

Toledo, Ohio, Toledo Museum of Art Art History 14:4 (December 1991)
Khnopff, Fernand, Memories, 1899, Brussels, Belgium, Rolley, Katrina, "Fashion, Femininity and the Fight for

Musees Royaux de Beaux-Arts the Vote," Art History 13:1 (March 1990)
Stefaniake, Regina, "Raphael's Santa Cecilia: A Fine
Twentieth Century and Private Vision of Virginity," Art History 14:3
Reid, Robert, The White Parasol, circa 1900, Washington, (September 1991)
D.C., Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of James McNeill Whistler,
Taylor, Hilary, New York:
American Art Putnam, 1978
 WIDOWHOOD
Karen Pinkus

The following motifs are covered in the discussion of the theme Widowhood:

ALLEGORY
THE GOOD WIDOW
THE BAD WIDOW

941
942. WIDOWHOOD
 WIDOWHOOD 943

Peter Paul Rubens, Marie de' Media, 622, i

oilon canvas, Madrid, Spain, Prado.

(Courtesy of the Museo del Prado, Madrid,
Spain)

Although both men and women suffer at the loss of plays of wealth and status, and the iconography of widowhood
human life, in many cultures and during many histori- is bound up with notions of public spectacle and class. In
cal periods mourning is constructed as a gendered activity and Purgatory (Cantos 8 and 13), Dante describes a bad widow and
assigned to the women of a community. Often, the sexuality a good widow, and the acts of mourning performed for Nino
of a woman was tied up with her husband, and when he died Visconti and Forese Donati by their surviving wives influence
she became a societal burden, a figure of ambivalent status. the disposition of their souls on the mountain and in the after-
Widows were ritually murdered in ancient Egypt and China, life.By the nineteenth century, widowhood as a retroactive
in parts of Europe, and in Africa, India, and Malaysia, or they tribute to the status of the absent male spread to the middle and
were inhibited by strict taboos, subjected to wearing specific then the working class. Widows frequently had their portraits
clothes, and forced to crop their hair. Two themes dominate painted, surrounded by the worldly goods left to them by their
the iconography and cultural paradigms of widowhood: husbands or fathers.
women as surrogate mourners for a community and "the Although Sigmund Freud, in his seminal essay "Mourning
good and bad widow." Many cultures display a marked and Melancholia" (1917), does not assign a gender to the con-
ambivalence toward overly expressive mourning rituals, per- dition of melancholia, he clearly marks it as unproductive and
haps because they seem to belie a sense of despair in the face even pathological because of the inhibition of activity it

of death or a fundamental lack of faith in a divinity. Roman implies. The economics of mourning are similar to those of
law, to give just one example, allowed greater license to melancholy, except that the object of loss is recognizable and
women than to men in the expression of grief, although the the process over after a certain period of time (six months,
Twelve Tables specifically prohibit women from tearing at Freud posited, is average). The Western tradition of mourning
their cheeks with their nails, a practice common throughout as woman's work is epitomized in the psychoanalytic account
Western antiquity. Later philosophical works, especially in of libidinal cathexis and decathexis, reflecting long-standing
the Stoic tradition, urge both genders to refrain from exces- moral constrictions on female bodies and behavior.
sive mourning. Finally, widowhood is not so much a condi- In Exodus 22:22-24, widows and orphans are offered spe-
tion of particular loss as it is a ritual posture that ismore eco- cial protection in the Commandments; they are assigned as
nomically feasible for women because it requires time and a property to the elders of a community. In I Timothy 5:3-16,

cessation of all labor. Paul states that widows deserve honored by the commu-
to be
In addition, there is a persistent cultural attempt to divide nity and by their own children. The widow should remain
feminine behavior into the two Manichean extremes of good pious and uphold the mourning ritual after the death of her
and bad, a paradigm that is imposed on real social conditions husband, but Paul distinguishes between old widows (at least
of loss as a means of controlling and defining female sexuality. 60 years of age, who should be cared for by the community or
The good widow, represented in art from a wide variety of cen- relatives) and young widows (who should not be thus support-
turies and cultures, stands for the reining in of the female ed because they will tend to want to remarry). These young
libido. This figure also represents the fulfillment of the wish widows are portrayed as idle wanderers, gossips, and busybod-
that a wife, as economic and sexual property, would not be ies, so they should be encouraged to remarry, bear children,

transferable; rather, her affections would be naturally bound to and find a legitimate place in society.
a single male for life. However, this cultural ideal is violated by In Lamentations, Jerusalem is personified as a widowed
real communal needs, especially when a woman is widowed female. Abandoned by friends and mourning the
lovers, she sits
during her procreative years. In various representations of wid- fall of the city (her own violation) and the Temple to the

owhood from the West, the older woman is transformed into a Babylonians in 587 B.C. Associated with miasma and ritual
"female masochist" who gives up own identity with the loss
her pollution, the widow of the Bible is alienated from daily life and
of her spouse. Cesare Ripa's canonical Iconologia (Hertel edi- compared to a menstruating woman who waits for a fixed peri-
tion, 1 758-1 760) made use of the widow in the emblem of od of time until her reintegration. Although the Bible does not
"alms." Veiled, an old widow dispenses her last few coins to express a single, unified moral or juridical notion of widowhood,
some children in front of a church. Her veil symbolizes her sta- the statement made by Jesus Christ in I Corinthians 7:8 has been
tus as mourner, a figure marked as socially "different," while taken as exemplary: "To the unmarried and to widows I say this:
allowing her charity to remain an anonymous gesture. it is a good thing if they stay as I am myself [i.e., chaste), but if

In any case, the widow carries the mark of her deceased hus- they cannot control themselves, they should marry."
band until such time as she is transferred to another. As in During the Christian Middle Ages, following the Lamenta-
ancient China and Egypt, funerals in Europe became ritual dis- were represented as widows mourning.
tions text, various cities
944 WIDOWHOOD

having experienced not an actual death but rather some histor- bears a strong resemblance to parables of the young widow
ii a I loss in .1 rnore general sense. In Purgatory 6, Dante echoes already mentioned. Her actions are both prudent and morally
the biblical language of Jerusalem with these words: "Come see sanctioned as she finds a legitimate place in society after the

your Rome who weeps, Widowed and alone, and day and
/ incident. This is carried to comic extremes in the ribald novel-
night calls out: / 'My Caesar, why have you abandoned me?'" la tradition of the Middle Ages, epitomized by Geoffrey
(i i 2-1 14). The specific reference to Julius Caesar here reflects Chaucer's life-affirming Wife of Bath.
Dante's pessimism over the seizure of temporal powers by the In pictorial representations, mourning quickly becomes
clergy and the greed of the emperor, who was concentrating on codified as a series of gestures and motifs related to dress.
increasing his holdings of German territories. In particular, Throughout antiquity, widows often tore their nails or cheeks
Rome was portrayed as a widow by Petrarch and his ally Cola and rended their garments, but such extreme practices were not
di Rienzo during the withdrawal of the papacy to Avignon, always tolerated. At other times, we find the image of a woman
France. Often, Rome was shown as a depressed female in rags, drawing her hand to her eye, obscuring her face. Another
veiled
seated within a representation of the walled city, drawing on a common posture for a mourning woman was a full frontal por-
complex iconographic history that linked the city walls with trait with hands fully extended upward, pointing toward heav-

some tutelary goddess such as Tyche or Fortuna, goddess of en as a prayer for the departed soul and an expression of
fortune, in Hellenistic and Greco-Roman art. The goddess with extreme grief. All these gestures appear in later iconography for
a "turreted crown" came to be conflated with the visual trope the Lamentation, the Entombment, and the Crucifixion.
of the virgin protected by the walls of a city, an equally ancient Although this iconography of mourning is rather general and
motif traced to the biblical Song of Songs, which the bride
in not necessarily restricted to widows, it is almost always women
sings, "A garden enclosed is my sister" (4:12) and "I am a wall who mourn in the Passion scenes, and their dress, such as wid-
and my breasts are like towers" (7:10). In a miniature from the ows' weeds, is related to clothing worn by religious women.
medieval travel epic Dittamundo, we see Rome represented
// The reason for this connection is obvious: Many women did in
as a disheveled widow. Her hair loosened and her hands tear- fact join convents during their widowhood. Headpieces, such
ing at her breasts, this Rome takes up the burden of mourning as habits or large veils, helped to hide their hair (making for a
historical change that would have been too dangerous for the more barren look) and to distinguish them from other women
male politician to express directly. of the lay community.
Artemisia, queen of Caria in Asia Minor during the fourth In Peter Paul Rubens's portrait of Maria de' Medici (1622),
century B.C., was often cited as an example of the "good the subject wears the "widow's peak," a section of her hood
widow" during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. After the drawn just over the forehead, later mutated into an analogous
death of her husband Mausolos, she is said to have built the condition of coiffeur that the superstitious continue to associ-
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, one of the seven wonders of the ate with a prediction of widowhood. From antiquity onward,
ancient world. The extreme qualities of this monument were black (but also white) was associated with widowhood.
taken as signs of her total devotion to her dead husband, and it Catherine de' Medici, for example, is always depicted in black
easy to see how this narrative appealed to a later culture of after the death of her husband Henri II. By the nineteenth cen-
humanists obsessed with ideas of familial authority, nobility, tury, black had become increasingly fashionable in general,
and antiquities. with many precise social nuances attached to each shade. At
Surprisingly, another figure from ancient narratives who this point, black mourning clothes lost their particular distinc-
was sometimes labeled a "good widow" was Dido, the mytho- tion, giving rise to the return of the widow's peak and to a
logical founder and first queen of the north African city of number of other symbols such as special headgear, armbands
Carthage. According to Boccaccio in De Claris Mulieribus, for men, and crepe drapery.
Dido's suicide is explained as a defense against any potential In P. A. Fedotov's mid-nineteenth-century portrait of a good
seduction by the Trojan leader Aeneas, a gesture proving that (or young) widow, the subject stands piously before a framed
she had in fact maintained her vow to remain faithful to her portrait of her deceased husband, her modest black cape reach-
dead husband. In this reading of the Virgilian epic, Dido, as ing the floor. Ironically, although the portrait does present the
paragon of widowhood, never actually becomes Aeneas's lover; widow as a faithful and devout woman, she seems to offer her-
this may also explain a reference to the good widow Dido in self up to a gaze, her half-closed eyes demurely pointing to the
William Shakespeare's Tempest (II, i). floor in a gesture of obvious coquetry. This style of portraiture
Lady of Ephesus (Satyricon,
Petronius's narrative of the becomes quite common: The woman is represented with attrib-
Chaps. 111-112) gave rise to many literary and visual imita- utes of her virtue, but in the context of oil painting these are
tions. This widow is so faithful that she demands to be recodified as commodities for a potential new suitor. The comic
entombed with her newly deceased husband until one of the reverse of this —the theme of man courting a (but unde-
a rich
guardians at the burial site tempts her away with food. After a sirable) widow — number of important narratives,
figures in a
good meal, the guard persuades her to live, and she allows her- including The Rake's Progress, illustrated with prints by
self to be seduced. During this tryst, the guard neglects his William Hogarth (1735). Widows assume a comic valence in
watch, and a crucified corpse is stolen for burial from a nearby the British novelistic tradition in works such as Charles
cross. To help the guard escape punishment, the Lady of Dickens's The Pickwick Papers.
Ephesus agrees to let her own husband be hung up, replacing Although the widows discussed here are primarily examples
the corpse.The guard is saved, and they marry. The narrative from Western culture, many of the structural principles of mar-
 widowhood 945

ginality,masochism, and "difference" can be found in various David, Jacques-Louis, Andromache Mouning Hector, 1783,
widows from the East often focus
societal contexts. Portraits of Paris, Ecole des Beaux-Arts
on the symbolic elements of mourning dress, which may Wright, Joseph, of Derby, Indian Widow, 1785, Derby,
include familiar items such as the veil, ornamental headgear, or England, Museum and Art Gallery
even items of jewelry such as a brooch. Widows from non- Harvey, Elisabeth, Malvina Mourning Oscar, circa 1806,
Western representational art often assume postures of piety and Paris, Musee des Arts Decoratifs,
acceptance, such as the kneeling Hindu woman in G. T. Seton's Graefle, Albert, Queen Victoria as a Widow, 1864, London,
Yes, Lady Sahad. A widow appears in an advertisement for a Collection of Her Majesty
Scottish insurance company from the 1970s. Like many of the Millais, John Everett, The Widow's Mite, 1870, Birmingham,
painted widows, she sits with her eyes downcast and her hands England, City Art Gallery
folded over a stack of unpaid bills. This widow has become a Perugini, Charles Edward, Faithful, late nineteenth-early

burden to the state because her husband neglected to provide twentieth century, Liverpool, England, Walker Art Gallery
life insurance, and as a cultural symptom she suggests that fears Hindu Widow, in Yes, Lady Sahed, by G. T. Seton, circa 1925
of state responsibility for the widow have not progressed far
beyond the earlier representations. Each culture marks the The Bad Widow
widow through outward visual signs; her very representability Hogarth, William, Marriage to an Old Maid, circa 1735,
suggests that her "good" behavior flatters the culture at large London, British Library

and helps to ease the idea of death itself.

Redgrave, Richard, Throwing off Her Weeds, 1846, London,
Victoria and Albert Museum
Fedotov, Pavel Andreevic, The Little Widow, 185
See also Death; Devotion/Piety; Funeral/Burial;
Grieving/Lamentation; Melancholy

Further Reading

Selected Works of Art Barasch, Moshe, Gestures of Despair in Medieval and Early
Renaissance Art, New York: New York University Press,
Allegory
1976
Rome as a Widow, based on a lost mural commissioned by Covey, Herbert, Images of Older People in Western Art and
Cola di Rienzo in the late fourteenth century, London, Society, New York: Praeger, 1991
British Museum (Royal Ms. 6 E. IX, llv) Fedele, Pio, "Vedovanza e Seconde Nozze," in // matnmonio
Rome as a Widow, from an anonymous manuscript of 1447, nelV altomedioevo, Spoleto, Italy, 1977
but considered to be a copy of a fourteenth century Folliott, Sheila, "Catherine de'Medici as Artemesia: Figuring
miniature the Powerful Widow," in Rewriting the Renaissance: The
Discourse of Sexual Difference in Early Modern Europe,
The Good Widow edited by Margaret Ferguson, Chicago and London:
Memling, Hans, Paris Triptych of St. Anne and St. William, University of Chicago Press, 1986
before 1494, Kahn Collection Hollander, Anne, Seeing Through Clothes, Berkeley and
Caron, Antoine, Artemesia and Lygdamis View the London: University of California Press, 1978
Completed Mausoleum, pen and ink with wash, before Rickels, Laurence, Aberrations of Mourning: Writing on
1599, Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale (Estamples, Res. Ad German Crypts, Detroit, Michigan: Wayne State University
105, f. 43) Press, 1988
Mary Queen of Scots, 1610, after a miniature by Nicholas Taylor, Irmgard, Das Bild der Witwe in der deutschen
London, National Portrait Gallery
Hilliard of 1578, Literatur, Darmstadt, Germany: Gesellschaft Hessischer
Rubens, Peter Paul, Marie de'Medici, oil on canvas, 1622, Literaturfreunde, 1980
Madrid, Spain, Prado Taylor, Lou, Mourning Dress: A Costume and Social History,
Hogarth, William, Portrait of Mrs. Anne Hogarth, 1735, London: Allen, 1983; Boston: Unwin, 1983
Canyon, Texas, Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum Vickers, Nancy,"Widowed Words: Dante Petrarch and the
Greuze, Jean-Baptiste, Inconsolable Widow, circa 1763, Metaphors of Mourning," in Discourses of Authority in
London, Wallace Collection Medieval and Renaissance Literature, edited by Kevin
West, Benjamin, Agrippina with the Ashes of Germanicus, Brownlee and Walter Stevens, Dartmouth, New
1768, Northampshire, England, Burghley House Hampshire, and London: Dartmouth College Press, 1989
 witchcraft/sorcery
Yona Pinson

The following iconographic narratives are covered in the discussion of the theme Witchcraft/Sorcery:

MOSES AND AARON BEFORE WITCHES SABBATH: THE CULT OF THE DEVIL
PHARAOH PREPARATIONS FOR THE
INCORPORATION OF
SABBATH
THE WITCH OF ENDOR WITCHCRAFT MOTIFS
WITCHES' SABBATH: THE
CIRCE THE NIGHTMARE
DEPARTURE FOR THE
MEDEA SABBATH ILLUSTRATIONS OF LITERARY
SATURN
WORKS
WITCHES' SABBATH:
SIMON MAGUS witches' ASSEMBLY WITCH TRIALS

ST. JAMES AND THE SCENES OF WITCHCRAFT

MAGICIAN HERMOGENES

947
94^ WITCHCRAFT/ SORCERY
 WITCHCRAFT / SORCERY 949

Hans Baldung Grien, Witches' Sabbath,

1 510, chiaroscuro woodcut, from Devils,
Demons, Death and Damnation by E.

and J. Lehner (New York: Dover, 1971).

(Courtesy of Dover Publications, Inc.)

T hou

Sorcery has haunted the

shalt not suffer a witch to live.

human imagination from

(Exodus 2.2.:

very remote
18) The pharaoh's
cerers to be mentioned
(Exodus 7:11, 7:22.) are the first sor-
priests
the Western history of witchcraft.
in

However, the first magical events mentioned in the Bible are

times. In Judeo-Christian thought it has generally been related attributed to God's envoy Moses and seen as miraculous signs:
to idolatry and heresy. During the Middle Ages, however, atti- his shepherd's crook turned into a snake, his hand whitened as

tudes to sorcery were not always unanimous. The Roman if afflicted by leprosy, etc. (Exodus 4:1-9). These signs were

Catholic Church's official attitude was a total rejection of belief used to persuade people to believe that God's voice was speak-
in maleficium (malefice, black magic), condemned as equiva- ing through his mouthpiece.
lent to idolatry, and therefore a heresy [Canon Episcopi 314, as Moses and Aaron came to the pharaoh's court (Exodus
cited later in the writings of Burchard, Bishop of Worms, 5:1-7) in accordance with the divine will and pleaded with the
1006-1025; Burchardi Wormacienesis Decretum, PI. CXI, Col. pharaoh to release the people of Israel. When the pharaoh
831). St. Augustine adopted a different view. He held that the refused, God's representatives struggled with the forces of evil
maleficium was created by God's enemies (Sermons, 15th ser- alliance, the pharaoh's magicians, and turned their rods into
mon; De Haeresibus, 46; Faustum, XV, 7; XX, n, 30; The City serpents, which Aaron's serpent overcame and devoured. Eater
of God, X, 9) and was followed to some extent by St. Thomas demonologists would interpret this passage as a proof of the
Aquinas, who established the official belief in demonology inferiority of devilish powers once they are confronted with a
[Questiones Disputation, questio 6, art. X) and traced the main divine intermediary who represents the priesthood (Pierre de
lines of later witchcraft mythology. This was fully expressed by Lancre, Tableau del'inconstances des mauvaises anges . . .
,

the Dominicans Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger in their Paris,1613, p. 2.27).
Malleus Maleficarum (i486). They taught that God's anger at This scene became an important iconographic motif in the

mankind's depravity permitted the devil to found the "Secte" of decoration of episcopal and abbatial crosses. The duel between
sorcerers and witches, who since then have menaced both the the Lord's messenger and the pharaoh's magicians prefigures
deity and his creation man. — the struggle of St. Peter against Simon the "Devil's Apostle,"
The terror that invaded Europe in the late Middle Ages and the and as such may be considered a prototype of the Roman
Renaissance was based on already deeply rooted beliefs in a con- Catholic Church's fight against witchcraft.
spiracy of the devil against God, foreshadowed in the thirteenth References to the Witch of Endor are found in the Baalat
century as part of the violent struggle against all forms of heresy. H'ou and in I Samuel 28. The evocation of ghosts and the prac-
Witchcraft is condemned for the first time as heresy in an official tice of necromancy placed high in the sorcerer's repertoire.

ecclesiastical document, the papal bull of 12.33. But juridically Saul, rejected by God, looked for help from the Witch of Endor,
and theologically, sorcery and witchcraft were first defined in the asking her to call up the spirit of the prophet Samuel. She thus
bull of Pope Innocent VIII, Sumis desideratus affectibus (1484). became a prototype of the late medieval necromancer. Since the
This document effectively summed up the belief current during word Ov (sorceress) was translated as Python, she came to be
the Middle Ages, especially in northern Europe, that known as the Domina Pythonis (i.e., the devil's ally). This scene
of necromancy, present to the minds of sixteenth-century
. . .persons of both sexes, unmindful of their own
many
demonologists, was rarely illustrated.
salvationand straying from the Catholic Faith have aban-
Jacob Cornelisz. van Oostsanen's Saul Visiting the Witch
doned themselves to devils, incubi and succubi and by . . .

of Endor (1526) in the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, The

their incantations, spells, conjurations . . . other accursed
Netherlands, represents the witch accompanied by her
charms and crafts . . . they blasphemously renounce the
apprentices, demonstrating her craft, as King Saul appears
Faith . . . [and] outrage the Divine Majesty. . . .

with his retinue at the entrance of her dwelling and Samuel's

This bull gave the official cachet to the Great Witch Hunt phantom is called up from the grave. Other sorceries are per-
that shook Europe, and with the publication of the Malleus formed in the air above: a naked witch rides a goat while
Maleficarum, the iconography of witchcraft was established another follows astride a horse skull. The theme of the Witch
and spread all over Europe, first verbally and then visually. of Endor attracted later artists to the witchcraft motif, such as
the seventeenth-century painters Jacob deGheyn II in a draw-
and Salvator Rosa in a
ing (circa 1600) in the Louvre in Paris
Sorcery in the Old Testament
painting 1688) also in the Louvre; and later Johan Heinrich
(

Although biblical references to sorcery are rather laconic, there Fuseli, whose drawing of the subject is in a Zurich,
are many signs indicating that a belief in magical powers of evil Switzerland, private collection, and Benjamin West, whose
existed at a very early period, arousing fear and signifying painting (1777) is in the Wadsworth Athenaeum in Hartford,
heretical attitudes. Connecticut.
95° WITCHCRAFT / SORCERY

Sorcery in Greco-Latin Sources Medea sarcophagi. On an Apulian volute krater by the

Underworld Painter 330-320 B.C.), no. 3926 in the
(circa
The European "mythology of witchcraft" inherited memories
Museum Antiker Kleinkunst in Munich, Germany, Creiisa is
of the art of maleficence from classical Greek sources this — shown collapsing in the presence of her horrified father and
resurfaced later as the Christian imagery of sorcery. Classical
dropping her jewelry box. On the same krater Medea rides on
sources provided themes that were eventually developed in the
her chariot, which is drawn by serpents (or dragons) whom
late Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Ovid depicts an old
she has conjured up (Ovid, Metamorphoses, 7, 350, 398).
vampire witch called Dispas, who was known for her magical
Shown naked, holding a torch (like her mistress and goddess,
potions. Anointing her body with a magic ointment, she could
Hecate, and with some analogy to Persephone, goddess of the
change herself into a giant bird and fly screaming through the
underworld), Medea prefigures late medieval and Renaissance
air at night. Ovid attributes other forms of maleficiitm to her as
sorceress. The theme was particularly favored by artists work-
well: she could call up the dead, transform men into wild
ing at Fontainebleau, France, for it enabled them to treat clas-
beasts, and was also accused of sacrificing babies (Ovid, Fasti,
sical and witchcraft motifs at the same time. It
subjects
I, 131, 141-142, and 150; Amoves, I, 1-18, cf.; Apuleius,
inspired Leonard Thiry's illustrations for Jacques Gohory's
Golden Ass, I, 10 and II, 22).
Livre de la conqueste de la Toison d'Or par le Prince Jason de
In classical times, lunar goddesses were associated with the
Thessalie (1563, Paris), followed by Renee Boyvin's series of
underworld, magic, and sorcery. Hecate was originally a pro-
engravings Historia Jasonis (sixteenth century) in the
tective goddess associated with fertility (Hesiod, Theogony, 41
Bibliotheque Nationale, Cabinet des Estampes in Paris. In
ff.), then degenerated into a terrifying figure, goddess of the
Boyvin's Medea Invoking the Night Goddesses (1563) Medea
night and the crossroads, queen of the realm of ghosts and the
conjures the gods in order to obtain the dragon's chariot
demons' emissary. Presiding over sorcerers' assemblies while
(Ovid, Metamorphoses, 7, 350, 398). Medea is portrayed as
grasping a flaming torch (Theocritus, Idylls, II, 12), Hecate
disheveled in a stormy, deserted, nocturnal landscape in which
foreshadowed the modern witch.
she invokes the divinities of the night. Behind her are her
Circe, expert sorceress and devil's messenger, Great
attributes: a jar and a magic stick. The demonic chariot
Goddess of the Wild, was known for her magic philters
descends to take her to remote regions where she will pick her
(Odyssey, X, 394). Together with the sorceress Medea, she
magic drugs.
employed erotically seductive powers to achieve evil (Odyssey,
Ovid dwells on Medea's rejuvenation spells. The rejuvena-
X, 391-394), chiefly known for her skill in turning men into
tion of her aged father-in-law Aeson (Metamorphoses, 7,
wild beasts (Apuleius, Golden Ass, III, 24 and Apologia, Sive
164-294) is the subject of some Greek vase decorations. She is
pro se de Magia Liber, 31, Odyssey, X). By the time St.
often shown standing by a steaming cauldron boiling a ram, as
Augustine wrote The City of God, Circe was already regarded
on an Archaic red-figure vase, no. E442 in the British Museum
as an archetypal witch. In the section of the Malleus
in London. This "miracle" served her against Pelias, Jason's
Maleficarum dealing with transmutations (Part I, Quest. 10)
Kramer and Sprenger refer to Augustine's remark that a cer-
uncle, as she demonstrated to his daughters how they could
produce this "magic" by drawing off their father's blood, leav-
tain sorceress named Circe changed the companions of
Odysseus into On
Greek vases and lekythoi she typi-
beasts.
ing them with the corpse. Medea is sometimes shown demon-
strating this magical rejuvenation to Pelias's daughters, cutting
cally appears preparing a magic beverage, using her magic
stick, and transforming Odysseus's companions into pigs and
up a ram and boiling it, as in a white-figure lekythos by the
other animals. Sometimes she is shown raising her arms in an
Beldam Painter (fifth century B.C.), no. 599 in the National
incantatory gesture amidst the already transformed brutes as Museum in Athens, Greece.

they lie on the floor of her enchanted palace. Similarly, in lit-

Boyvin's Medea Preparing her Philter for Aeson shows her

erary sources Circe's enchanted palace was said to be sur- before an altar performing a sacrifice to her patroness Hecate:

rounded by and inno-

terrible wild beasts, lions, wolves, pigs, Ah by the Queen of Night, whom I revere
cent travelers whom metamorphosed (Odyssey, X,
she has Above all, and for fellow-worker chose,
212-219). Odysseus's companions are usually depicted with Hecate dweller by mine hearth's dark shrine.
human bodies and beasts' heads: bewitched men "leaping up" (Euripides, Medea, 395-398)
are only transformed into "heraldic animals."
Circe's companion Medea is another prototype of the mod- Medea is represented here according to the already crystallized
ern sorceress. Moon goddess and queen, she was Hecate's motif of the Witch's Kitchen, foreshadowed in late antiquity in

devoted priestess and disciple (Euripides, Medea, 395-398). the Latin grammarian Macrobius's description of her cutting
After falling in love with Jason, Medea used her charms and roots with a bronze sickle and collecting their juices in bronze
spells to help Jason overcome mortal dangers and win the jars. "She was naked, shrieking and wild eyed" (Macrobius,

Golden him with a magic ointment

Fleece. She also provided Saturnales, V, 19:10). Medea, the terrible archetypal sorceress
to protect him against the guardian dragon's flaming mouth. motivated by evil and erotic impulses (Euripides, Medea,
But once betrayed, she would turn into a furious devilish fig- 401-405), announces the new type of witch, one able to con-
ure and exercise her maleficent science. She gave fatal gifts to trol the course of nature, cause tempests, destroy fields, and

Jason's beloved princess Creiisa, Creon's daughter: a poisoned even alter the moon's movements (Euripides, Medea, 398;
crown and mantle that caused her to die a dreadful death Horace, Epodes, 5, 45-46; 62). Priestess of Hecate, the cross-
(Euripides, Medea, 784 ff and 947 ff). This scene was depict- roads' moon goddess, Medea even introduces the crossroad as
ed on Greek vases inspired by Euripides' tragedy and also on a favorite place for witches' ceremonies.
 WITCHCRAFT / SORCERY 95 I

Mythological Figures Incorporated in Late devil's apostle (Simoni deo Sancto; according to Eusebius of
Medieval and Renaissance Witchcraft Caesarea, lib. II C. XVIII). In Rome he gained the favor of
Emperor Nero (a.d. 37-68), who erected Simon Magus's
The first recognition of pagan prefiguration of sorcery types
image as it become an object of a false cult, venerated as
appears in the eleventh-century Canon Episcopi (PL, CXL, Simon Deo. The devil's messenger Simon was said to have
831-833). It attacks the belief that certain women ride out at
challenged St. Peter, accompanied by St. Paul, in a test of his
night accompanied by Diana, the Roman virgin goddess of the
"miraculous" skills. After he failed to restore life to the dead,
moon, assimilated to the Greek Artemis, the terrifying Holda in
the final came: Simon leapt from the top of a tower in
trial
Germanic lands, and at times with Hecate (Virgil, Aeneid, VII,
Nero's presence and flew in the air supported by "Satan's
516). This might have been regarded as heritage of the worship angels." But St. Peter, with God's help, adjured the demons to
of Diana that was sometimes carried out at night by women release their hold and the magician fell to his death. This
carrying torches. episode was popular in the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and
In ancient Greece the image of the Satyr — of the
a spirit survived into the Counter-Reformation, stressing the triumph
woods and mountains with goatlike features —was adopted as of the Roman Catholic Church over heresy.
an archetypal diabolic image. Its unrestrained sexual appetite The legend of St. James the Greater, one of the twelve
prefigures the devil and he often appeared in witches assem- Apostles, and the magician Hermogenes, as related by
blies. A a witch-nymph appears in six-
demon-satyr raping Voragine, is another version of a confrontation between God's
teenth-century popular illustrations, such as Olaus Magnus's apostles and pagan heretic menace, one that haunted early
Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus (1555) in Rome. Christianity and appeared again in the waning Middle Ages,
Saturn, the Roman god of agriculture, was annexed to the when fear of the Devil's triumphs over faith infested Europe.
demonic and the infernal in the late Middle Ages and the In Judea, Hermogenes, supported by the Pharisees, summoned
Renaissance and became associated with maleficium. In his up the demons against St. James. But, as related in the Golden
relationship to the underworld Saturn also became the patron Legend, the saint finally overcame the sorcerer's spells, invok-
of miners. The mythological tale of Saturn devouring his own ing the divine powers to release the demons and instructing
offspring prefigured the devil in what became the new witch- them to bring the sorcerer before him. In the end the Apostle
craft mythology. In popular imagery Saturn became the patron overcame the forces of evil and the defeated sorcerer was con-
of witches. In Renaissance depictions, such as Crispijn de verted and baptized. Pieter Bruegel the Elder's St. James and
Passe's engraving after Maarten de Vos's Saturn, the Witch's the Magician Hermogenes (1565) is a very interesting inter-
Patron (late sixteenth century) in the Bibliotheque Nationale, pretation and a significant deviation. Here it is the saint who
Cabinet des Estampes in Paris, he is shown in his dragon- is magically led to the sorcerer, as the Latin caption declares:
drawn chariot accompanied by an infernal black dog. His Divus iacobus diabolis praestigio ante magnum sis titur (The
astrological sign, Capricorn (billy goat), in this context divine James by devilish arts is placed before the magician).
became a distinctive attribute of sorcery. In this work Saturn's This inversion illuminates the artist's attitude. The composi-
figure dominates the whole composition which in itself is a tion is an important source for the study of the iconography of
kind of anthology of witchcraft. sorcery. The enthroned Hermogenes, holding a book of spells,
is surrounded by demons, monsters, and attended by the devil.

In the dark sky naked witches ride dragons and a billy goat to
Sorcery in Christian Sources
their assembly, raising a storm. A witch flies a broomstick
The topos of the Devil's Grain has a Biblical association. "The through a chimney, another is already perched on top of the
field is the world; the good seed are the children of the king- chimney, and a third prepares to fly, tracing a "magic circle."
dom; but the tares are the children of the wicked one" In the middle of the composition a magic potion is boiling in
(Matthew 13:38). The
weed of the grainfields, was inter-
tare, a a huge cauldron, causing ships to sink. Toads, apes, and a cat,
preted as the Devil's weapon in his contest with God and emblems of evil and witchcraft, are sitting before the fire.
mankind. An engraving by Bartholomaus de Momper, The Meanwhile, a hellish performance has broken loose in the
Haywain (1559), shows Satan sowing the tare, as it turns into chamber, illustrating the devil's "antimass." Bruegel's "witch-
various vices. The motif was rarely depicted; a drawing by craft anthology" parody shows his satirical intentions, which
Gheyn II (now destroyed, formerly in the Berlin Kupferstich- are more directly expressed in his second illustration The Fall
kabinet) depicted the devil sowing tares that turned into witch- of the Magician (1564). This is apparently a version of the
es riding goats. devil's revenge on Hermogenes. The caption is Idem impetrav-
The fall of Simon Magus, a Samaritan magician whose it a Deo ut magus a demonibus discerperetur (God granted the
attempts at imparting the Holy Ghost angered Peter, occupies saint's prayer that the magician should be torn apart by the
a central place in Jacobus de Voragine's account of the Acts of demons). The punishment of the heretic wizard takes place in
St. Peter. The first appears in Samaria as God's adver-
sorcerer a topsy-turvy world. The context of a kermis spectacle, where
sary, challenging the apostle with his "miracles" (Acts 8:9-24). heresy and witchcraft are represented in the guise of perform-
The Golden Legend's apocryphal version stresses the Roman ers, such as jugglers, acrobats, a puppeteer, and fools, under-
Catholic Church's struggle against sorcery as heresy (fore- lines a new conception of the contemporary witchcraft mania.
telling the Inquisition). Pretending to be the "True Son of Bruegel satirizes this traditional "moral lesson." He seems to
God," Simon Magus is a kind of Antichrist; practicing the consider it another aspect of human folly, foreshadowing
maleficium, he also prefigures also a new type of sorcerer, one the satire of William Hogarth and Francisco de Goya's
able to fly through the air aided by "Satan's angels" as the modernism.
952 WITCHCRAFT / SORCERY

Witches' Sabbath or Satan's Synagogue smoke was seen as a means of "devilish transport," already
occurring in Bruegel's St.James and the Magician Hermogenes
The nocturnal Witches' Assembly was considered the principal
and repeated in David Teniers the Younger's many versions of
event in Satanic devotion. First mentioned in the Inquisition's
the subject, such as Preparations for the Sabbath (circa 1650).
registers concerning heresy around 1330, it is based on an
imaginative mixture of bacchanal orgies and heretic cults. The
"Office" opens with the sorceresses' confessio declaring their The Departure for the Sabbath (Malleus
absolute loyalty to their master, followed by an antimass, the Part II, Quest. 1, Ch. Ill)

Adoration of the Devil, and the affirmation of their pact with

Witchcraft's sexual connotations are emphasized in sixteenth-
the devil (Malleus, Part II, Quest. 1, ch. II). The antimass is cel-
century German works, especially in Grien's interpretations.
ebrated with spoiled wine and the sacrifice of unbaptized
The moment of departure depicted in his drawing Witches'
babies. Following a banquet that culminates with copulation
Sabbath (15 14) in the Albertina in Vienna, Austria, shows the
with the devil in the form of incubi or succubi (Malleus, Part I,
effects of the magic ointment. In a dreamy and ecstatic state,
Quest. 6; Part II, Quest. 1, ch. IV), the celebration finally turns
shrouded in enchanted vapors, one of the witches is already fly-
into a wild bacchanal orgy with dances in honor of the devil (or
ing,mounted on the devil's fork and taking up a young witch
with him). with her. As in many other versions of Hexen, the woman's
long hair blows wildly: according to tradition a witch's hair

The Preparation for the Witches' Sabbath was endowed with demonic powers. The presence of a putto
trying to ride a goat reminds one of the sorceress's association
For witches, the ritual of the Sabbath was preceded by various with carnal temptations.
preparations. A magic potion (or ointment) had to be boiled Albrecht Diirer, the first artist to assimilate the teachings of
and smeared on the body so that the witch would be able to fly the demonologists in his work, produced the earliest indepen-
and change her shape. dent compositions on the subject and formulated new icono-
The newly established iconography adopted a visual form graphic patterns. In the engraving Witch Riding Backwards on
only toward the end of the fifteenth century, when the first a Goat (circa 1500-1502), he illustrates the very moment of
illustrated "manuals" were published. Witches Breii'ing up a departure for the Sabbath. A naked old hag with sagging
Hailstorm, the title page of Ulrich Molitor's De Lanijs et phi- breasts is mounted backward on a dark goat, facing into the
tonicis mulieribus (1489), is the first known representation of storm, flying aggressively toward the devil's Sabbath. She is

witches brewing the magic potion, one composed of snakes and holding a spindle and distaff, probably associated with the
cocks. Its vapors cause stormy weather. ("For they raise hail- backward conforms
Fates. Diirer's depiction of the witch riding
storms and hurtful tempest and lightnings," Malleus, Part I, to the belief that in the Satanic realm was reversed and that
all

Quest. 1, ch. II.) "the (devil) transports the witches on animals which are not
This operation takes place in the Witches' Kitchen or in a true animals but devils in that form ..." (Malleus Part I,
wild nocturnal landscape, such as in Hans Baldung Grien's Quest. 6 and Part II, Quest, zi). The winged putti attending the
Witches' Sabbath (1510). In Grien's single-leaf woodcut three witch and holding her utensils also hints at the lascivious char-
naked witches are seated in a triangle of forked devil's sticks. acter of the demonic cult.
One holds a vessel with pseudo-Hebraic lettering (a cabalistic The departure was sometimes said to be followed by shape-
spell?) spouting a great cloud of vapor that produces stormy changing, attributed to the witch's demonic power. This icono-
weather, sweeping a hag aloft. Another is already riding back- graphic motif appeared for the first time in Molitor's illustrated
ward on a billy goat toward Satan's synagogue. manual Preparation for Sabbath (see above). Italian Renaissance
The hellish kitchen motif recurs toward the end of the six- representations of sorcery are rather rare. Marcantonio
teenth century and the first decades of the seventeenth century. Raimondi's La Carcase lo Stregozzo (sixteenth century) is for-
Gheyn II made versions of both open-air and interior kitchens. mulated as a bacchic trionfi. A witch rides an enormous animal
His The Witches' Kitchen (circa 1660), an exceptionally large skeleton, holds a steaming cauldron, and carries babies and little

engraving, depicts the preparation of the ointment. Witches children to be sacrificed to Satan (Malleus, Part II, Quest. 1, ch.
consult their recipe books while a strewn corpse and bones hint IIand ch. XIII). She is accompanied by demons mounted on
at the ingredients. Cats, frogs, and a lizard also inhabit the monstrous skeletons and goats. The pageant passes through a
scene (Malleus, Part II, Quest. 1, ch. II). The effects of the marshy landscape that, together with the reeds, may refer to a
potion are shown above, where
hag riding on a broomstick
a cult of Diana.
soars aloft on magic vapors, others sitting astride a demonic
mount, creating thunderbolts and volcanic eruptions. A winged
The Cult of Satan
Eros, the Greek god of love, mounted on a monster is a clear
reference to the erotic character attributed to witches by demo- Sorcery was considered an "antireligion" menacing God and
nologists, who declared "All witchcraft comes from carnal lust humankind. The Church of Satan was supposed to have its
which is in women insatiable" (Malleus, Part I, Quest. 6). In a own cult: its magic rites, worship of the devil, and antimass (or
drawing depicting an interior kitchen, formerly in the Black Mass) were regarded as offensive manifestations of the
Staatliches Kunstgewerbemuseum in Berlin, Gheyn II estab- Antichurch of Satan. Although this motif does not appear
lished a new iconographic motif —
the witch flying up the chim- before the end of the fifteenth century, it is foreshadowed in the
ney. Demonologists considered the kitchen fire a means of mak- thirteenth, mainly in illuminated Bible Moralisees, in which
ing offerings to the Prince of Evil; in popular imagination the Jews, as the devil's agents, appear worshipping Satan in some
 WITCHCRAFT / SORCERY 953

illustrations of the Adoration of the Golden Calf. Jews are also ed in the central panel of the Last Judgment (1490-15 10)
shown sacrificing before the devil (Bible Moralisee, circa in Vienna.
1 250-1 270, Osterreichisches nationalbibliothek, Vienna,
Codex 2554, fol. 2y[d|; Bible Moralisee de Jean le Bon, circa
The Erotic Nightmare
1 349-1 3 5 2, Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, fa. 167, folks. 27(b)
and va [b|). The first representation of the cult of Satan appears Erotic fantasies play an important role in sorcery mythology.
in tracts against heresy at the end of the fifteenth century, in Nightmares were also etymologically ascribed to sorceresses.
which the devil usually appears in the form of a goat adored by (" . Au pays de Valois et de Picardie il y a une sorte de sor-
. .

his adepts, who kneel in prayer before him. In Renaissance and ciere qu'ils appellent coche-mare ..." Jean Bodin, De la
Baroque representations, the goat is sometimes replaced by a demonomanie de [1587, II, 7, Paris]). It was
sorciers . . .

cat, an ape, or by an enthroned Satan himself. German-speaking areas, that nachttnars

believed, especially in
(nightmares) were evocations of night-demons or night-hags
tormenting sleepers and riding on their chests. These dreams
Incorporation of Witchcraft Motifs in
were also considered the devil's instruments for what was
Northern Renaissance Art
called "interior temptation" (Malleus, Part I, Quest. 7).
A growth of belief in sorcery affected the Netherlands especial- Erotic-demonic iconography is expressed in the sixteenth
ly after the Vauderie d'Arras (1461), which set off a mass hys- century drawing by Taddeo Zuccaro The Nightmare or
teria. A terrifying idea, propagated through St. Thomas Allegory of Dreams, which depicts a young maiden lying on her
Aquinas's writings, that the world might be ruled by the devil, back dreaming. A mixture of frightening demonic apparitions
assisted by his agents, was disseminated. These credences took and images fills the air. The dreaming girl holds a magic
erotic
such profound root that it is not surprising that motifs were staff and a sprig of opium poppies, a traditional ingredient of
borrowed from witchcraft iconography and incorporated into the "magic ointment." Behind her pillow lurks a toad-devil,
when the power of evil was shown in
other themes, especially inciting her to dream. This theme obsessed a representative fig-
conflict with the divine. ure of early Romanticism, the eighteenth-century Anglo-Swiss
Hieronymus Bosch used the Witches' Sabbath as a motivat- painter Henry Fuseli, in work such as his Nightmare (1781) in
ing factor in his The Temptation of Saint Anthony (circa the Detroit Institute of Art. A dreaming maiden lies on her back
1 505-1 506) in Lisbon, Portugal. He adopted the motif of the in an agonized erotic pose as an incubus-demon squats on her

Departure for the Sabbath in representing men and women on chest. Behind the bed, a grinning bewitched horse hints at the
monstrous mounts riding through the air. The antimass cele- nightmare's connection to sorcery. On her night table are oint-
bration takes place in the central panel and is opposed to the ment jars and a "magical" mirror, accessories traditionally
true Mass celebrated by Jesus Christ. Other motifs are also related to the sorceress's demonic practices. The mirror, Venus-
incorporated, creating a new iconographic pattern: the gather- Luxuria's attribute, was considered a devilish tool of seduction,
ing on the banks of a pond (reminiscent of Diana's cult), and a especially of young virgins and innocent boys who might fall

Black Mass read by a demon priest with a pig's head, are bor- into the hands of the devil's agents (Malleus, Part II, Quest. 1,

rowed from the recently established witchcraft iconography. ch. XIII, p. 142).
The new iconography of St. Anthony's temptations, filled By the end of the seventeenth century the fear of witchcraft
with witchcraft motifs, continued into the sixteenth century (in had subsided and the furious persecutions of demons and their
the works of artists such as Pieter Huys and Pieter Verbeek) and allies began to calm down. But the dying mythology still nour-

influenced seventeenth-century works such as those by Pieter ished the artistic imagination and elicited some response to the
Brueghel the Younger and his son Jan Brueghel the Elder, and macabre and the morbid, as reflected especially in Salvator
many versions of the saint's
especially Tenier the Younger's Rosa's many versions of the theme, which along with Fuseli's
show the air filled with flying
temptations (circa 1640), which paved the road for early Romanticism.
monsters and witches on broomsticks. Sometimes the Queen With the new era of the Enlightenment, the formerly official
Devil tempting the saint accompanied by hideous witches, as
is belief in diabolic powers was criticized and satirized (Voltaire,
in the Anonymous German Master's Temptation of St. Anthony Dictionnaire philosophique, IV, Paris, 1821, 343-344 B; Benito
(circa 1516-1520) in the Prado in Madrid, Spain. Jeromimo Feijoo, Cantas Erudiatas y Curiosas en quepar la
Bosch confronts the divine miracle with demonic magic in Mayor Parte se Continua del designio del Theatro Critico
his Marriage at Cana (1475-1480). In the background, a magi- Universal, vol. IV, Letter XX, Madrid, 1774), and sorcery
cian is performing an antioffice in a "chapel" before an "altar," scenes began to reflect this satirical approach. Hogarth's
turning the cherubim that decorate the capitals into demons engraving Credulity, Superstition and Fanaticism (1762) is a
and bewitching the food. In contrasting the true faith with satire directed against crazed frenzied fanaticism, especially
heretical manifestations, Bosch might be illustrating the Pauline that of the Methodists, and against superstitious beliefs about
verse: "Ye cannot drink the cup of the Lord, and the cup of dev- ghosts and demons, rumors that were still prevalent in his time.
ils; ye cannot be partakers of the Lord's table, and of the table The caricature shows on his pulpit holding figures
a preacher
of devils" (I Corinthians 10:21). of a witch riding a broomstick and a devil, evoking panicked
Bosch also incorporates witchcraft motifs in his infernal reactions in his audience.
scenes. In the Hell panel from the Garden of Earthly Delights Goya used a very large repertoire of witchcraft iconography
(1485-1505) a damned personage is being seduced by a in his series Los Suenos (1757, Dreams); in Los Caprichos
demon-succuba in the figure of a pig-nun tempting him to sign (1797-1798); in Six Paintings of Witchcraft (1797-1798) ini-

a pact with the devil. Images of the Witches' Kitchen are repeat- tially acquired by the Duke and Duchess of Osuna, his greatest
954 WITCHCRAFT / SORCFRY

patrons; and in the series La Quinta del Sordo (1821-1813, Although the witchcraze died down, "witchcraft mytholo-
Black Paintings). These demonic appearances constitute a sym- gy" still inspired modern artists, mostly as a means of express-

bolism reflective ol the real forces of evil that affected both ing their own anguish and fear, such as in Salvator Rosa's work,
Goya's society and his own life. which paved the road for the Romantics (Fuseli, and later
In these series Goya acts as a moralist preaching against the Delacroix). Goya revived the iconography of witchcraft in the
vices and social abuses of his age. In Los Caprichos he express- form of a bitter satire reflecting his own anguish.
es his own anguish and satirizes the prejudices, superstitions,
hypocrisy, and follies of unenlightened Spanish society. His
satirical approach again clearly appears in the series Six See also Bacchanalia/Orgy; Nightmare; Path/Road/Crossroads
Paintings of Witchcraft, formerly in the Osuna Collection, in
which he translates the satirical images conveyed in the plays of
the seventeenth-century Spanish author Antonio de Zamora
Selected Works of Art
1795). Here Goya's moralistic criticism initially
(reedited in
seems to convey an optimistic attitude; he portrays these Moses and Aaron Before Pharaoh
hideous creatures in the hope of influencing his audience. But Wooden Doors, sixth century, Rome, S. Sabine
his hopes collapse in front of reality, which becomes more Flemish Tapestry, from Tournai, early sixteenth century, New
frightening than his own didactic nightmares. In the series La York, Metropolitan Museum of Art
Quinta del Sordo Goya responds to the atrocity of actuality. Woeiriot, Pierre, Moses and Aaron Before Pharaoh and his

The terrifying images of Saturn devouring his own children, Magicians, engraving, 1580, Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale,
witches celebrating the Black Mass and sacrificing babies, and Cabinet Estampes (Res. ed. 5c petit in folio)

alarming flying monsters symbolize the real political and eccle- West, Benjamin, Moses and Aaron Before Pharaoh, oil on
siastical injustices of his time, and at the same time refer to his canvas, 1796, Greenville, South Carolina, Bob Jones
own fears and pessimism. University
The works of Goya had an immense influence on Eugene
Delacroix, whose illustrations for Johann Wolfgang von The Witch of Endor
Goethe's Faust (1828) similarly expressed his own melancholy. Cornelisz. van Oostsanen, Jacob, Saul Visiting the Witch of
The old philosopher Faust and the devil-figure Mephistopheles Endor, oil on canvas, 1526, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,

are conceived as the embodiment of an internal conflict Rijksmuseum

between evil and good in the human soul, manifesting itself in Gheyn, Jacob de, II, The Witch of Endor Invoking the
the Middle Ages through the Theophilius, reemerging in the Prophet's Spirit, drawing, circa 1600, Paris, Louvre
Renaissance with the German folk legend of Faust popularized Rosa, Salvator, The Witch of Endor, oil on canvas, 1688,
in Christopher Marlowe's version (1604), and reaching final Paris, Louvre

form in the late eighteenth century with Goethe's great work. Fuseli, Henry, The Witch of Endor, drawing. Zurich,

Delacroix gave an extraordinary expression to Goethe's view Switzerland, private collection

that Faust and Mephistopheles reflect an inner human conflict. West, Benjamin, The Witch of Endor, oil on canvas, 1777,
Goethe saw in Delacroix's illustrations the work of an artist "of Hartford, Connecticut, Wadsworth Athenaeum
great talent who found in Faust his proper aliment ..." and Blake, William,The Witch of Endor Raising the Spirit of
gave expression to his own experience. He also observed that Samuel, pen and watercolor, 1783, New York, New York
in these drawings the artist not only assimilated the gloom Public Library, Prints Division
inherent in Faust, but tinted his depictions with his own moods Allston, Washington, Saul and the Witch of Endor, oil on
(Conversations of Goethe with Eckermann and Soret canvas, 1 820-1 821, Amherst, Massachusetts, Amherst
1822-1833, November 29, 1826). Preoccupied as he was by College, Mead Art Museum
the presence of evil, Delacroix also found interest in Macbeth's
encounter with the witches (William Shakespeare, Macbeth, Circe
Act and 3), again a theme in accordance with the romantic
I; 1 The Daybreak Painter, Circe and Ulysses' Metamorphosed
approach, which he represented in Macbeth and the Witches Companions, lekythos, late sixth century B.C., Taranto,
(1825). Italy, Taranto Museum (9125)

Sorcery has troubled humankind from the beginnings of Parmigianino, Circe Gives the Magic Potion to Ulysses'
Western civilization. In the Judeo-Christian tradition it was Companions, drawing, mid-sixteenth century, Florence,
related to heresy and the forces of evil opposing the deity; this Italy, Uffizi Gallery; Fantuzzi, engraving after
belief reemerged with violence during the waning Middle Ages Parmigianino, 1542
and the Renaissance. The late European "mythology" of witch- Burne-Jones, Edward Coley, The Wine of Circe, watercolor,
craftcan be traced back to classical sources: Hecate, Circe, and 1863-1869, private collection
Medea can be considered prototypes of the "modern" arche-
typal witch. The new "mythology" spread over Europe after Medea
the publication of the Malleus Maleficarum (i486), especially The Underworld Painter, Medea Throwing a Spell over Jason's
through a large number of engravings. The growth of a belief Arms, The Rejuvenation of Aeson, The Death of Creusa,
in sorcery, and in the terrifying idea that the world might be Medea on Her Snake's Chariot, Apulian volute krater,
ruled by the devil assisted by his "agents," had a great influence circa } 30-3 20 B.C., Munich, Germany, Museum Antiker
on artists in northern Europe, especially Bosch. Kleinkunst
 WITCHCRAFT / SORCERY 955

Medea Sarcophagus, Basel, Switzerland, Antikenmuseum oil on copper, circa

Bramer, Leonard, Witches' Sabbath,
(Inv. 135, 2 °3) 1630-1635, Bordeaux, France, Musee des Beaux-Arts
Boyvin, Rene (after Leonard Thiry), Medea Invoking the
Night Goddesses and Medea Preparing Her Philter for Scenes of Witchcraft
Aeson, engraving 1563, Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, Rosa, Salvator, Scene of Witches, oil on canvas, early 1 640s,
Cabinet des Estampes (Ed. Z in folio) collection of Tommaso Corsini
Sandys, Frederick, Medea, oil on panel, 1 866-1 868, Rosa, Salvator, Scene of Witches, oil on canvas, circa 1 646,
Birmingham, England, Birmingham Museums and Art Althorp House, collection of Earl Spencer
Gallery Ernst, Max, The Witch, oil on canvas, 1 941-1942, New
York, collection of Alfred Barr
Saturn
Passe, Crispijn de (after Maarten de Vos), Saturn, the The Cult of the Devil
Witch's Patron, engraving, late sixteenth century, Adoration of the Devil, illustration for Johanis Tinctoris's
Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, Cabinet des Estampes Contra Secatum Voldemsium, circa 1460, Brussels,
(sa 1 in-folio) Belgium (Bibl. Roy., Ms. 1 1209, fol. 31:)
Callot, Jacques, The Cult of the Demon, engraving,
Simon Magus 1627
Simon Magus, capital, twelfth century, Autun, France, Rijckaert, David, III, The Diabolic Dance, oil on wood,
Cathedral circa 1650, Clermont-Ferrand, France, Musee
Bourdon, Sebastian, St. Peter and Simon the Magician, oil Bargoin
on canvas, seventeenth century, Montpelier, France,
Musee Fabre Incorporation of Witchcraft Motifs
Bosch, Hieronymus, The Marriage of Cana, oil on wood,

St.James and the Magician Hermogenes circa 1475-1480, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, Museum
Gaddi, Agnolo, Hermogenes Is Brought Before the Saint, Boymans-Van Beuningen
predella, circa 1380, Paris, Louvre Bosch, Hieronymus, The Temptation of St. Anthony, oil on
Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, St. James and the Magician wood, circa 1 505-1 506, Lisbon, Portugal, Museo
Hermogenes, engraving, 1565 Nacional
Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, The Fall of the Magician, drawing, Teniers, David, the Younger, Temptation of St. Anthony, oil
1564, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Rijksmuseum on copper, circa 1640, Madrid, Spain, Prado
Teniers, David, the Younger, Temptation of St. Anthony with
Witches' Sabbath: Preparations for the Sabbath Seven Deadly Sins, oil on copper, circa 1640, Madrid,
Witches Brewing up a Hailstorm, from the title page of Spain, Prado
Ulrich Molitor's De Lanijs et Phitonicis Malieribus,
Cologne, Germany, 1489 The Nightmare
Baldung Grien, Hans, Witches' Sabbath, chiaroscuro Zuccaro, Taddeo, The Nightmare (Allegory of Dreams),
woodcut, 1 5 10 drawing, sixteenth century, Paris, Louvre
Baldung Grien, Hans, Witches' Sabbath, pen on green tinted Fuseli, Henry, The Nightmare, oil on canvas, 178 1, Detroit,
paper, 15 14, Paris, Louvre Michigan, Detroit Institute of Arts
Gheyn, Jacob de, II, The Witches' Kitchen, engraving, circa Goya, Francisco de, Dream of the Witches, drawing,
1600 1797-1798, Madrid, Spain, Prado
Teniers, David, the Younger, Preparations for the Sabbath, Goya, Francisco de, The Dream of Reason, engraving,
oil on canvas, circa 1650, New York, Historical Society Capricho 43, 1797-1798, also Caprichos 45, 47, 60, 62,
66, 68, 70
Witches' Sabbath: The Departure for the Sabbath Goya, Francisco de, Six Paintings of Witchcraft, 1797- 1798,
Vaudoise on a Broomstick, illustration for Martin Lefranc, London, National Gallery; Madrid, Spain, Museo Lazaro
Le Champion des Dames, circa T451, Paris, Bibliotheque Galidiano; Madrid, Spain, Ministerio de la Gobermacion;
Nationale (Ms. 1276, fol. 104V) Mexico, Pani Collection.
Diirer, Albrecht, Witch Riding Backwards on a Goat, Goya, Francisco de, Saturn Devouring His Offspring, The
engraving, circa 1 500-1 502 Witches' Sabbath, Asmodea, "Black Painting" series,
Altdorfer, Albrecht, Witches' Sabbath, pen on pale brown 1822-1823, Madrid, Prado
paper, 1506, Paris, Louvre
Baldung Grien, Hans, Witches' Sabbath, pen on red tinted Illustrations of Literary Works
paper, T514, Vienna, Austria, Albertina Fuseli, Henry, Macbeth, Banquo and the Witches on the
Raimondi, Marcantonio, La Carcase lo Stregozzo, engraving, Heath, oil on canvas, 1793-1794, Perworth, England,
sixteenth century National Trust, Egremont Collection
Delacroix, Eugene, Lithograph Illustrations for Goethe's
Witches' Sabbath: Witches' Assembly Faust, printed by Goyer Hermet, Paris, 1828
Francken, Frans, II, Witches' Assembly, 1607, Vienna, Delacroix, Eugene, Mephistopheles Appears Before Faust, oil

Austria, Kunsthistorich.es Museum on canvas, 1 826-1 827, London, Wallace Collection

956 WITCHCRAFT / SORCERY

Delacroix, Eugene, Macbeth and the Witches, lithographs, Goya and the Spirit of Enlightenment, exhibition catalogue,
.825 by Alfonso E. Prez Sanchez and Eleanor A. Sayer, Madrid,
Morgan le Fay, oil on panel, 1864,
Sandys, Frederick, Spain, Prado; Boston, Museum of Fine Arts; New York,
Birmingham, England, Birmingham Museums and Art Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1989
Gallery Hecks, Frank Irving, Supernatural Themes in the Art of
Francesco Goya, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press,
Witch Trials 1990
George, The Trial of the Salem Witches,
Fuller, oil on canvas, Hulst, LindaC, "Hans Baldung Grien's 'Weather Witches',"
circa 1883, Chicago, Art Institute Pantheon 40 (1982)
Fuller, George, And She Was a Witch, oil on canvas, circa Huyghe, Rene, Delacroix, London: Thames and Hudson,
1883, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art 1964
Janson, Horst Woldemar, "Fuseli's Nightmare" in 16 Studies,
New York: Abrams, 1973
Kerenyi, Karl, Goddess of the Sun and Moon, translated by
Further Reading
Murray Stein, Dallas, Texas: Spring,
1973
Baroja,Caro Julio, The World of Witches, London: Kramer, Heinrich, and James Sprenger, The Malleus
Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1964 Maleficarum, translated by Montague Summers, New
Cohn, Norman, Europe's Inner Demons: An Inquiry York: Dover, 1971
Inspired by the Great Witch-Hunt, New York: Basic, Lehner, Ernst, and Johanna Lehner, Devils, Demons, Death
1975 and Damnation, New York: Dover, 1971
Davidson, Jane, The Witchin Northern European Art, Marrow, James, and Alan Shertack, Hans Baldung Grien,
1470-1750, Freren, Germany: Lucas Verlag, 1987 Prints and Drawings, exhibition catalog, Washington,
Delacroix, Eugene, Theme und Variationen, Arbeiten D.C.: National Gallery of Art, 1981
auf Papier, exhibition catalog, Frankfurt am Main, Moffitt, John, "Malleus Maleficarum: A Literary Context
Germany: Stadlische Galerie im Stadeleschen for Fuseli's Nightmare," Gazette des Beaux Arts 115
Kunstinstitut, 1988 (1990)
Europe in Torment, exhibition catalog, Providence, Rhode Neave, Dorina, "The Witch in Early Sixteenth Century
Island, Brown University,
1974 German Art," Woman's Art Journal 9 (1988)
Faraone, Christopher, and Dirk Obbink, editors, Magika Preaud, Maxime, Les Sorcieres, exhibition catalog, Paris:
Hiera: Ancient Greek Magic and Religion, Oxford and Bibliotheque National, 1973
New York: Oxford University Press, 1992 Russel, Jeffery, A History of Witchcraft, Sorcerers, Heretics
Givry, Grillot de, Le Musee des Sorciers, Paris: Claud Tchou, and Pagans, London and New York: Thames and Hudson,
1966 1980
 ZODIAC
Paul Grimley Kuntz

The following motifs and periods are covered in the discussion of the theme Zodiac:

FORMS AND USES OF THE FORMS OF THE ZODIAC: THE USES OF THE ZODIAC: OTHER
ZODIAC BAND OR FRIEZE GROUPS OF 12
FORMS OF THE ZODIAC: THE USES OF THE ZODIAC: THE USES OF THE ZODIAC: THE
GLOBE HOROSCOPE OCCULT
FORMS OF THE ZODIAC: USES OF THE ZODIAC: OTHER VARIATIONS
PLANISPHERE SEASONS, MONTHS, AND ANCIENT AND NON-WESTERN
LABORS OF THE MONTHS
FORMS OF THE ZODIAC: THE MEDIEVAL
CIRCLE USES OF THE ZODIAC:
ZODIACAL MAN RENAISSANCE
FORMS OF THE ZODIAC: THE
RING USES OF THE ZODIAC: GODS
USES AND FORMS OF THE AND GODDESSES
ZODIAC: THE ARCH

957
95S ZODIAC
 ZODIAC 959

Limbourg Brothers, October: Planting,

Chateau du Louvre, from Tres Riches
Heures du Due de Berry, manuscript
illumination, before 141 5, Chantilly,
France, Musee Conde. (Courtesy of
Giraudon/Art Resource, New York)

o understand the important iconography of the zodiac, it Bull (Taurus) who with lowered face and brow summons the
.M. is wise to begin with an ancient text. All the iconographic Twins (Gemini); then the Crab (Cancer) follows, the Lion
elements developed by later artists were thought out philo- (Leo) the Crab, and the Virgin (Virgo) the Lion. Then the bal-
sophically 2,000 years ago by poets. There is Aratus's ance (Libra), having matched daylight with the length of night,
Pbaenomena (circa 276 B.C.), a Greek poem that often draws on the Scorpion (Scorpio), ablaze with his glittering
appeared in one of three Latin versions with paintings in the constellation, the man with the body of a horse (Sagittarius)
early Middle Ages. There is Firmicus Maternus's Mathesis aims with taut bow a winged shaft, ever in the act to shoot.
(circa a.d. 336), eight books partly derived from the Next comes Capricorn (Capricornus), curled up with his
Astronomica of Manilius, a long didactic poem written at the cramped space [not quite thirty degrees], and after him from
time of Jesus Christ, in the reigns of the Roman emperors urn upturned the Waterman (Aquarius) pours forth the wont-
Augustus and Tiberius. These texts are helpful in understand- ed stream for the Fishes (Pisces) which swim eagerly into it;
ing the iconography that we encounter exclusively as astrology and these as they bring up the rear of the signs are joined by
(which was then astronomy), for the distinction has been sharp the Ram" (Manilius, I. 265-274). The cycle thus endlessly
only in the last two centuries. Into the seventeenth century, repeats itself.

those who studied the heavens, such as Johannes Kepler and I have inserted into the English translation the Latin names
even Sir Isaac Newton, cast horoscopes, unlike modern in the nominative case. These names are as well known to the
astronomers. The Babylonians began to interpret certain move- contemporary person of Western culture as to the person of the
ments in the sky as omens for good and
ill, and by the time the Roman empire 2,000 years ago. This continuity is all the more
science of astrology was developed by the Greeks, horoscopes remarkable because the symbols of the zodiac of the ancient
for their leaders were cast and predictions about specific events world are so similar to most of those in contemporary visual
made. Astrology, based on intense observations over time and culture that an ancient, opening our daily newspaper or week-
complicated calculations, amounted to a science in the ancient ly magazine, would recognize the 12 signs that draw the eye to

world, and although astrology is a larger subject than the zodi- horoscopes.
ac, it did use zodiacal names and symbols and reflected the con- Even more remarkable is the fact that zodiacs of Islamic cul-
tinuing belief that what happened in the sky influenced events ture are in part derived from the Babylonians, going back
on Earth. beyond our Western tradition another 2,000 years. And the
According to Manilius, the universe is an interrelated whole cycle of 12 animals in Far Eastern cultures applies not only to
in which nothing happens by chance because all is designed by each year but to each cycle of 12 years: Rat (Aries), Ox
divine reason. Manilius believed that civilization arrived when (Taurus), Tiger (Gemini), Hare (Cancer), Dragon (Leo), Serpent
the ancients discerned the influence of the starry heavens on (Virgo), Horse (Libra), Sheep (Scorpio), Monkey (Sagittarius),
human destiny (Manilius, I. 25-112). Wise men from the east Cock (Capricorn), Dog We have
(Aquarius), and Boar (Pisces).
taught the Greeks and Romans. These were Babylonians and added to the 12 Chinese animals our 12, not because there is a
Egyptians and also apparently Zoroaster, the prophet of the correspondence but to mark the divergence of East from West.
ancient Aryans in Persia (Manilius, I. 42), who divined how the In a series of studies, Franz Cumont found astrology to be the
patterns of the constellations repeat themselves endlessly year universal religion of the ancient world, and at the end of the
after year. This accounts for the seasons, "why days varied in twentieth century he would find evidence that this is again the
duration and the period of darkness fluctuated" (Manilius, I. case worldwide. Given a continuous history with many varia-
69-71). tions throughout humankind, the art of the zodiac calls for com-
The zodiac, a "slating girdle [of] the heavens," is the path of parative study of its iconography. Jews and Christians adopted
"the Sun and the other planets" of the celestial sphere. What in the zodiac from Greco-Roman sources, and Babylonian iconog-
general meaning? That "a divine spirit ... by sacred dis-
is its raphy survives among Moslems. Much of ancient astronomy
pensation brings harmony and governs with hidden purpose, was advanced in Islamic cultures, and in returning to Europe
arranging mutual bonds between all parts, so that each may many stars still bear Arabic names.
furnish and receive another's strength and the whole may stand The iconographer of zodiacs M. A. Clarke suggests that we
fast in kinship despite its variety of forms" (Manilius, I. could go around the world and find parallels on every conn
250-264). nent. "It is curious to find the same sequence of symbols
The procession of 12 symbols is now well known to us: employed for same decorative purposes in India as in
the
"Resplendent in his golden fleece the Ram (Aries) leads the Europe. A was copied in 1764 from a pago-
perfect set of signs
way and looks back with wonder at the backward rising of the da in Verdapettah near Cape Comorin, and one equally com-
960 ZODIAC

plete existed at the same period on the ceiling of a temple near Greco-Roman borrowings and Libra), we are aware of a
(Aries
Mindurah" .(Clarke). different tradition of mythology. Ursa Major is the god of the
The first and most evident elements of zodiacal iconography Celestial Cow, Ursa Minor is a Jackal dedicated to the Goddess
are the circle and the sphere. Their origin is evident: We see our Set, and Draco is the Hippopotamus. It is of great iconograph-

universe as the dome of heaven and in the dark expanse of ic importance that the circle of animals is within a square.

night pick out patterns of stars that we call constellations. The Manilius writes that "Earth, poised squarely in the centre, with
tradition of the Hindus does this — but again in a very different a sphere of stars .... by fixed laws . . . united . . . into a single
way. Most evident now as in the time of Manilius, we learn to body, (the Cause and Guardian of All Things] ordaining
first

identify the "Pole Star" in the constellations of "the shining that air and earth and fire and flowing water should each for
Bears, which from the summit of the sky look down on all the the other provide mutual sustenance in order that harmony
stars and know no and shifting of their opposed sta-
setting might prevail over so many elements at variance ." (III. . .

tions" (Manilius, 1. 275-276). The sky and stars rotate, and, 48-54, cf. I. 49f). The variance of the elements is developed in

like a wheel, the universe turns as on an axis, from the north many texts as contrasted qualities of dry and wet, hot and cold.
"through the very globe of the earth, stands fixed," itself with- Life is possible for the universe and for humans only if balance
out motion (Manilius, I. 280-282). There is, then, a still center restrains the cosmic body and human body from extremes, thus
that can symbolize eternity in contrast to the ceaseless circular the basis for the parallelism of microcosm to macrocosm: "We
motion of time. Seven planets turn in the middle space between perceive our creator, of whom we are part, and rise to the stars,
the pole and the Earth. Why is this symbolism of circle and whose children we are. Can one doubt that a divinity dwells
sphere significant? There is "nothing more wonderful than. . . within our breasts and that our souls return to the heavens
its design and the credence of all to an immutable law. whence they came?" (IV. 885-888). The most famous repre-
Nowhere does confusion do harm; nothing in any of its parts sentation of the analogy between the divinely ruled cosmos and
moves randomly ." (Manilius, I. 478-482). Manilius, on the
. . the divinely ruled person is in Leonardo da Vinci's Homo, pro-
basis of observable uniformity, affirms as an indubitable argu- portioned to the cosmic circle and square.
ment that the universe "is indeed the manifestation of God ." . .

What, then, are the twelve signs of the zodiac? The way
(Manilius, 483-486).
I.
God divided the world into portions [and] distributed it
The iconography of the zodiac is not independent of belief.
among the individual signs. To each guardian power he
In many illustrations, graphic and sculptural, the artist shows
has given a special region of the world to rule. And just
nature dependent on the divine. In one, the hand of God holds
as the human fate is apportioned among the signs, and
The text is "the heavens declare the glory of God, a
the axis.
the protection they afford, though collectively extending
demonstration of Psalm 19" (Heninger).
over the limbs allocated among them (the Ram is
The center has various functions. An empty circle may sig-
attached to the head, the Bull to the neck; the arms reck-
nify eternity. An Eastern alternative is the circle divided by an
oned as under the Twins' domain, the breast under the
S-curved line: the opposites yang-yin, the light and the dark, the
Crab's; the shoulders appeal to you Nemian [Lion], and
male and the female. Western iconography more commonly
to you Maiden [Virgo], the belly; the Balance attends the
uses the sun. This may be read impersonally as the Pythagorean
loins, and the Scorpion is lord of the groin; the Archer
central fire or personified as the Creator who commands "Let
has bestowed his love upon the thighs, Capricorn upon
there be light" or as a crowned figure, Jesus Christ the King.
his knees, whilst the Youth [water-man] is protector of
We will encounter many other alternatives, such as the shep-
the shanks and the Fish[es] of the feet), so in like manner
herd-god Pan, the God of Time, and even physical Earth itself.
do different signs lay claim to different lands. (Manilius,
Thus, the iconography of the zodiac is profoundly ambigu-
IV 701-710)
ous. We may recognize, as do scholars who have studied
Babylonian mythology, that as many as seven of our signs Of these ideas, it is the Chinese zodiac that names the 12
derive from Mesopotamian polytheism, yet the unity of the tribes of humankind under the signs. There are many medical
harmonious whole points toward monotheism. zodiacs, dating from early times into the eighteenth century.
The universe of the zodiac may be polytheistic, for the stars The symbols are the significant influences tied to the bodily
and planets, especially the sun, are living spirits. Yet Manilius, parts or rays of light or by lines connected to the signs.
in sympathy with Stoic natural theology, speaks of one ultimate Many of the more than 4,000 lines of Manilius's verses are
divinity characterized by reason. In Chinese zodiacs, the center devoted to devising horoscopes, and there are innumerable cal-
may appear empty because eternity cannot be represented by a culations of lots that our birth date makes likely or inevitable.
temporal being. However, the principle is of eternal change, as We are told which combinations of signs are unlikely to be har-
illustrated in the eightfold permutation and combination of monious and which days (102) of the year are unlucky. All this
three broken and three unbroken lines. is more clearly communicated in charts. But the basic scheme

The most famous Egyptian planisphere, from a ceiling at of the starry heaven with the procession of the signs is visual
Dendera, shows the world order upheld by four pairs of kneel- and an invitation to painter and sculptor. For the most part, we
ing deities at the north, south, east, and west sides of the square must recognize that the pictures reflect beliefs about the cosmos
room. At the northeast, southeast, southwest, and northwest and human destiny, yet we must set them aside to concentrate
corners are standing female deities also supporting the heaven- on the iconography. The way in which we select patterns and
ly circle. Although built during the reign of the Ptolemies, with express them visually to some extent explains the beliefs. All
 ZODIAC

books on astrology more or less depend on their illustrations Because the 12 signs had been related to the rz patriarchs, it

for significance. Let us set side by side the most famous was fitting to take the zodiac as symbolic of the 12 apostles.
Egyptian painting of the starry heavens and a sculpture from However, more significant than numerological correspondence
third-century Rome. was to consider Aries a lamb and Taurus a gentle calf. Virgo
When the ceiling of the temple at Dendera was first studied meant the Blessed Virgin Mary, and Libra meant the justice that
at theend of the eighteenth century, it led the French scholar Jesus Christ brought to the world. The theologians who con-
Charles-Francois Dupuis to claim, in books (1781,
a series of demned the determinism or fatalism of astrological prognosti-
1794, and later), that the zodiac was universal and revealed the cations did not also condemn the zodiac. Because the Orphics
origin of all varieties of worship. Dupuis's drawing calls atten- put Phanes and the Mithraic cult
in the central divine place,

tion to the presence of the same 12 signs described by Manilius reserved it crowned sun could take cen-
for Mithras, Christ as a
in his procession. However, there are Egyptian peculiarities. tral place and the whole zodiac became a symbol of Christ's
The sun god Ra was a personification of the solar disk, and the mission.
moon was sometimes called the left eye of Horus. Egyptians Some of the earliest evidence of how Christians used bibli-
who plied the Nile River pictured sun and moon crossing the cal metaphor to make the zodiac at home in the church is from
sky by boat. The solar boat during the night returned by a Hippolytus of Rome (circa a.d. 170-235):
lower sky.
Christ the Sun, once he had risen from the womb of the
In the Roman sculpture, the divine planets included Horus,
earth, showed the twelve Apostles to be, as it were,
"the bull of the sky" (Saturn), "the goddess of the morning"
twelve hours. . . . Once they were gathered together, the
(Venus), "the jewel of the sky" (Jupiter), and "the star of the
twelve Apostles, like twelve months, proclaimed the per-
east" or "Horus The departed pharaoh joined
the red" (Mars).
fect year, Christ. . . . Because the prophet refers to Christ
this astral company ("Astronomy and Astrology," Col. 45).
as day, sun,and year [Isaiah 61:2] the Apostles must be
Rather than the 12 gods of Egypt who uphold the heavens in a
called hours and months. (Bened. Myosis, Patrologia
famous Roman sculpture, it is Atlas whose shoulders bear the
Graeca 27:171, from Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 14, p.
zodiacal ring. In the center sits the chief of the gods, Jupiter.
869)
Another noted example of Atlas holding up the sphere of heav-
en, with zodiac, is Atlas Farnese (second century a.d.) in Christian interpretation casts Christ as the sun and the 12 zodi-
Naples, Italy. acal signs as the 12 apostles and the 12 minor prophets (from
"
In contrast to the anthropomorphic Egyptian and our clas- Schmid's Musterbuch" Becker). ';

sical Greco-Roman systems is the impersonal principle of heav- Among the most interesting parallels to what Jews and
en, or yang-yin, at the center of Chinese zodiacs. Here, we have Christians did are the noted examples that show at the center
a completely different set of 12 animals (Becker; Cycle). Phanes or Aion, god of time, and the Mithras slaying the bull.
In thinking of the variations between zodiacs that illustrate Mithras overcame the sun and made friends with him. By
different belief systems, art history also reminds us of their slaughtering the bull, he conferred fertility on Earth, as vegeta-
practical application in everyday life. The zodiac is a calendar, tion springs from the blood. Witnessing salvation, part of a cult
a way of keeping track of the days of each twelfth segment of that appeared to soldiers of Roman armies are a dog, a serpent,
the yearly cycle. In the graffiti calendar of a.d. 354, found on a scorpion, a cup, and a crow, among the constellations. The
the Equiline Hill ofRome, there are holes for each of 30 days; serpent symbolizes Earth, the cup water, the crow air, and the
each day a peg is moved one step further. Also, there are the lion fire —
once again, the four elements (Gleadon, Origin, p.
seven gods, after whom the days of the week are named, and 120, and fig. 8). The zodiacs of Babylon present the violent
the 12 signs, each with a midpoint (Cutler, p. 231). struggle between gods and between gods and monsters.
Representation of many deities was the reprehensible idola- Salvation in Mithraism, as in Christianity, does not come with-
try prohibited by Moses and the prophets. Jeremiah in particu- out blood. An Orphic stone relief of the second century a.d. in

lar denounced from the planets and stars

foretelling the future the Galleria Estense in Modena, Italy, presents us with the zodi-
(Jeremiah 10:2, etc.). Yet the zodiac had great appeal to Jews of ac circle as an oval mandorla. In the center, emerging from the
the ancient world, and most significant is the zodiac in the cosmic egg, is an angelic winged God of Time. Although
mosaic floor of the synagogue at Beth Alpha in Israel (also entwined by a serpent, he triumphs (Gundel and Gundel, p.
Na'Aran and Hammath Tiberias, which are not as well pre- 166). The Christian version replaces Phanes with Christ; some-
served). The 12 signs may iconographically represent the 12 times, because the birthday of light is December 25, the scene
sons of Jacob or the 12 tribes of Israel. YHWH may not be rep- is of the birth of Jesus.
resented as a deity at the center, but the sun can symbolize the Christian Europe did not destroy the achievement of pagan
work of the Creator. Just as the signs from Aries to Pisces can astronomy; rather, it transmitted texts such as that of Aratus.
be shown in procession across the sky, so too can the animal His poem Phaenomena appeared in three Latin translations. In
symbols of the 12 tribes ("Zodiac," cols. 191-192); Catholic the age of Charlemagne's revived Roman Empire, with its court
Encyclopedia, vol. 7, p. 972). at Aachen, Germany (Aix la Chapelle), numerous manuscripts
Christian teachers, who were originally all Jews, similarly were illustrated with paintings copied from ancient artists who
condemned astrology. But the zodiac had spiritual worth. The represented the signs of the zodiac. A score or two of these illu-

best brief account of how the zodiac was adopted into minated manuscripts survive in various libraries (listed with
Christian iconography is the article "Zodiakus" (Holl). shelfmarks in Encyclopedia of World Art, vol. 3, Cols. 57-59).
962. /< >l 11 \<

The best known, the Leiden Aratea, shows the signs, such as Astrology blended with revelation in such a way that it
Sagittarius, with squares of gold to represent the stars of its shocked no one at the time. The great authority on religious art
constellation. The small book made up of 99 parchment
is of medieval France, Emile Male, found no protest against such
leaves. In the painting of each sign and other constellations, the blending of pagan and Christian, even when the iconography
painter was little concerned with the astronomical number, was used in church sculpture. Why? Because the zodiacal
position, or brightness of the stars. In presenting the universe, creation reinforced biblical faith that "man is the center of the

the painter represents Earth by a circle in the center. In spheres universe. It was for man that God set the planets in their orbits
around Earth, the seven "wandering stars" not only Mars, — to turn round the earth; they were there not only for the enjoy-
Venus, Mercury, Jupiter, and Saturn but the sun and the moon ment of his eyes, but to teach him the rules of health."
as well — revolve around Earth in their cycles. Each sign is also Astrology's premise —
that nature limits human freedom
in a circle and interspersed with the figures of the months, also can be accepted by Christian theology.
in circles. The oddity is that the signs read counterclockwise
The newly born is like virgin wax, ready to receive any
and the months clockwise! The copyist followed the heavenly
imprint. The planet reigning in the sky at the moment
configuration, now calculated to have been March z8, 579, so
imprints an indelible stamp on his being. At the moment,
that the book is useless as either calendar or astronomy. The
the child's character and destiny are inscribed within
Leiden Aratea presented the four seasons: four human heads in
him ... he can only become what he is. A formidable
corners of the squarish field. Twelve signs group easily into
fatalism, but one which the Church as a whole could
four threes. "Spring wears a garland of flowers; Summer is
accept freedom is only the power to accept or reject
. . .

crowned with wheat; Fall sports a wreath made of vine leaves;

grace. It is by grace alone that we escape . . . nature, that
and Winter covers her head with a warm cloak" (Katzenstein
is, fatality. . . . Our temperament and character [are] pre-
and Savage-Smith, p. 35). The figures of the zodiacal signs are
destined. ... All temperaments can participate in
beautiful and convey noble messages. The twin sons of Leda
redemption: was of a sanguine temperament, St.
St. Peter
and Jupiter, Castor and Pollux (the Gemini), are balanced. One
Paul was choleric, St. John was melancholic], St. Mark
carries a club and the other a lyre. The gods' lives must com-
was phlegmatic: all four sit at the right hand of God.
bine the virtues of an athlete with those of an artist (learned in
That is what Albrecht Diirer meant to convey when he
both Gytnnastike and Mousike, which teach Plato's Republic).
represented the four temperaments as the four apostles.
In this regard, the sign has moral significance. According to the
(Male)
myth of brotherly loyalty, when Castor was killed in battle,
Pollux begged his father to exchange his
life for that of the dead In Romanesque and medieval cathedrals, the zodiac occurs
brother. Jupiterrewarded the brothers' devotion by placing in the tympanum of the western entrance. In many shrines,
them among the stars. In an age of chivalry, the distinction such as at Vezelay, France, Christ sits in judgment, and the pro-
between pagan and Christian virtues vanished. cession of the symbols arches the sky above. There are 30 cir-
During the Middle Ages, the language of the 12 symbols was cles carved 180 degrees of the round arch that show how
in the

enriched with 12 corresponding abstract signs. Renaissance early medieval sculptors represented Cancer (the Crab), which
scholars provide us with explanations of the derivation of each has the head of a fish, the tail of an octopus, the claws of a lob-
sign from its Sometimes the symbol accompa-
original symbol. ster, and three pairs of frog legs. We cannot complain that they

nies the sign,and sometimes another circle is provided to make merely copied ancient models or nature and that they lacked
the association meaningful and memorable (Becker). imagination.
Zodiacal symbolism became conspicuous in medieval art.
Name Sign Explanation
Nearly all the French cathedrals of the twelfth and thirteenth
Aries T Ram's head centuries exhibit on their portals a species of rural calendar in
Taurus tf Ox's head which each month and sign has its corresponding labor. The
Gemini n Two people, arms and legs tied zodiac of Notre Dame of Paris, opening with Aquarius, is a
Cancer S3 Claws of a crab noted example. A similar series, in which sculptured figures of
Leo si Tail of a lion Christ and the apostles are associated with the signs, can be
Virgo na? Wings of a virgin seen in perfect preservation on the chief doorway of the abbey
Libra -Tl
Balance beams church at Vezelay. The cathedrals of Amiens, Sens, and Rheims
Scorpio 111 Scorpion with raised tail are decorated in the same way. In Italy, the signs and works sur-

Sagittarius ? Arrow resting on a bowstring vive fragmentarily in the baptistery at Parma, completely on the
porch of the cathedral of Cremona, and on the west doorway
Capricorn VJo Wound tail of a goat-fish
of St. Mark's at Venice. They are less common in England, but
Aquarius cax Stream of water
St. Margaret's in York and the church of Iffley in Oxfordshire
Pisces H Two fishes
offer good specimens. In the zodiac of Merton College in
We should not be surprised to find Christ represented as the Oxford, Libra is represented by a judge in his robes and Pisces
sun. The Roman Catholic Church chose December 25 as the day by the dolphin of Fitzjames, warden of the college (1482-1507).
of his birth because on that day, birthday of the sun, the amount The great rose windows of the early Gothic period were fre-
of daylight increases. Each Lord's Day (Dies Domenica) is quently painted with zodiacal emblems. Some frescoes in the
Sun-Day. cathedral of Cologne, Germany, contain the signs, each with an
 / ( ) I ) I A 963

attendant angel, just as they were depicted on the vault of the A painted planisphere can be seen in the ceiling of the cal-
church at Mount Athos in Greece. danum of a palace bath house in Quasayr 'Amra, Jordan (circa
a.d. 700). The planisphere can
also be found in medieval man-
uscripts, as in one of the ninth century in the Staatsbibliothek
Forms and Uses of the Zodiac
in Munich, Germany, and in Renaissance prints, as in a wood-
Although the symbols for the zodiac (both the animal and the cut by Albrecht Diirer (151 5). In the latter print, the four cor-
human figures and another set of more abstract signs developed ners of the sphere are taken up with figures of astrologers,
in the medieval period) were frequently used in casting Aratus, Ptolemy, and Manilius among them. In each case, this
horoscopes and other astrological activities, the fact that they map of the heavens uses the zodiacal figures to indicate the
were well known made them useful in a number of ways. location of the constellations.
Furthermore, the forms in which they were used in art fall into
a number of familiar groupings. Some of these are discussed
Forms of the Zodiac: The Circle
below. In some cases, the symbols are found without a clear
purpose, as in an early potsherd, or ostrakon, found in Egypt Many zodiacs are found in the form of a circle of the 1 2 signs
that lists the zodiacal signs and the planets and has been dated surrounding a central scene or figure. The circle, the most com-
to circa 250 B.C. Later Egyptian examples of zodiacal signs mon representation of the zodiac, can be seen in such examples
include several painted sarcophagi that show the goddess of the as the mosaics in the Synagogue at Beth Alpha, Israel (sixth

sky Nut stretched across the starry sky, surrounded by the sym- century a.d.). Helius, the sun god, is in the center of the circle
bols of the zodiac.Although the Egyptians contributed to the in his quadriga, with stars and the moon in the background,
development of the zodiac,their interests were in the calendar while surrounding him and making a larger circle are 1 2 wedge
rather than astronomy. shapes, each containing a figure or figures symbolic of one sym-
bol of the zodiac. A similar composition is represented by a
more realistic depiction in a Roman mosaic of the third centu-
Forms of the Zodiac: The Globe
ry, now in the Landesmuseum in Bonn, Germany. At the center,
One of the most direct ways to represent the zodiac was to Helius, in his chariot with four rearing horses, dominates the
depict the celestial globe with the zodiac band around it, the composition, with the encircling band of the 12 symbols of the
symbols on the band echoing the placement of the constella- zodiac clearly depicted, although of smaller scale. Similar com-
tions. A Roman example, probably from the second century, positions commonly appear as sculpture. For example, in a sec-
can be seen in the Hall of the Busts in the Vatican. A round ball, ond-century relief in the Villa Albani in Rome, Atlas holds up
covered by stars, it has a narrow band around its circumstance a circle of the zodiac symbols in the center on which an
that bears the symbols of the zodiac. Often this globe is worked enthroned Jupiter is seated.
into a larger composition, as in a fresco painting from the Villa
Diomede in Pompeii, Italy. Urania, the muse of astronomy,
Forms of the Zodiac: The Ring
stands in front of the globe holding a pointer as if she were giv-
ing an art history lecture about it. In the Roman bas-relief The zodiac is also pictured as a figure, often as Aion, the per-
Apotheosis of Antoninus and Faustina on the base of the sonification of Time, holding a large band or ring on which the
Antoninus Column in the Cortile della Pigna in the Vatican, the signs can be seen while he is it. Examples of the
standing inside
central winged figure of Genius or Aion, a personification of open band or ring variety include the mosaic from Sentinum,
Time, carries a zodiacal globe in his hand. In a variation on this Italy, and the silver plaque depicting the Phrygian mother-god-

theme, the figure of the first century B.C. Atlas Farnese in dess Cybele and her young consort Attis from Parabiago, Italy.
Naples holds up on his back a large globe covered with the The zodiacal symbols follow one another around the circle in
symbols of the zodiac. In this case, they are not in a band but their usual order. In the Renaissance, Giovanni di Paolo's The
distributed all over the globe. F.xpulsion from Paradise (circa 1445) in Metropolitan
the
Another form of shows it with two bands
a zodiacal globe Museum of Artin New York shows Earth mountains and
as
crossing it, one representing the zodiac and the other the equa- rivers surrounded by colored rings, with the outermost blue
tor. For example, in a Pompeian wall painting from the Villa ring containing the i 2 signs of the zodiac.
dell'Argenteria, a representation of Helius holds a crossed globe
in his outstretched hand. A sixth-century ivory plaque in the
Uses and Forms of the Zodiac: The Arch
Staatliche Museen in Berlin shows the Virgin and Child with
two angels, one of them holding a globe with crossed bands. At times, the zodiacal symbols, instead of forming a full circle
around were deployed in an arch above the central fig-
a figure,
ure or surrounding it on three sides. This form seemed to be
Forms of the Zodiac: Planisphere
especially popular on Mithraic zodiacs, as in a third-century
The constellations were also depicted as a flat sphere or plane relief from the ancient Mesopotamian town of Dura-Europos,

passing through a polar circle. The Ptolemaic ceiling plani- now in the Gallery of Fine Arts at Yale University in New
sphere in the Hathor Temple at Dendera (circa 30 B.C.) shows Haven, Connecticut. Mithra is sacrificing a bull while sur-
an elaborate circular disk with signs of the zodiac indicating the rounding figures watch. The composition is framed by columns
position of the heavenly bodies. with the zodiacal symbols arching above them. The arch bear-
964 ZODIAC

ing the zodiacal symbols surrounds the bust of Mithra in a Georges Papandreou, have consulted them, even arranging
horseshoe shape in a sculpture from Housesteads, England, events according to their predictions.
near Hadrian's Wall of about the same time, now in the
University of Durham in England. In a Gnostic relief of the
Uses of the Zodiac: Seasons, Months, and
same time in the British Museum
London, the bust of the
in
Labors of the Months
goddess of the sky with a lunar crescent on her head is backed
by seven star forms and surrounded by an arch bearing the The zodiac's 12 symbols linking heavenly and earthly life are
zodiacal symbols, which continue across the base. nowhere more vivid than in medieval and Renaissance visual-
izations of the yearly cycle of agricultural as on the portals
life,

of cathedrals that displayed the labors of the months and man-

Forms of the Zodiac: The Band or Frieze
uscripts such as Aratea in Leiden, the Netherlands, and Tres
The symbols of the zodiac were often fitted into a long rectan- Riches Heures du Due de Barry in Chantilly, France. There are
gular space, as on the surface of a baldric or sash usually worn many on the agricultural cycle: Plowing must pre-
variations
by a god or goddess or on the archivolt of a building. For cede sowing, growth of flowers precedes the fruiting of plants,
example, the fragment of the torso of the so-called Apollo with and harvesting proceeds in states. The sun may occupy the cen-
the Goose (Helius) in the Vatican wears a sash over his left ter, and the corners may show figures holding flowers or a sheaf

shoulder that falls down to his waist on the right side. It is of wheat; harvesting may be symbolized by a sickle. The weath-
ornamented with the symbols of the zodiac. A Hellenistic frieze er is important, and the four winds may occupy the corners.
embedded in the archivolt of the Hagios Eleutherios in Athens, The "zodiac of labors" was replaced in the French castles and

Greece, is another example of the zodiac arranged in a lateral hotels by a "zodiac of pleasures" in which hunting, hawking,
band, in this case mingled with personifications of the months, fishing, and dancing were substituted for hoeing, planting,
or labors. reaping, and plowing.
Let us now turn to the most celebrated of all illuminated
manuscripts. Umberto Eco, now famous for his studies of
Uses of the Zodiac: The Horoscope
medieval aesthetics as well as for The Name
of the Rose, first
The horoscope, which shows the configuration of the stars, fell in love with the medieval imagination when he was about
planets, and constellations of the zodiac on a particular date, is 20 years old. What he encountered was the 12 months from
usually cast with the intent of foretelling events in the future. Tres Riches Heures du Due de Berry. If we take the month of
The horoscope appeared in classical times, when it was first October from this work as an example, we see not only the
used to determine the influence of the stars on an individual at detail with which the scenes of planting and sowing are depict-
his or her birth or some other occasion. In Greece and Rome, —
ed with a flock of blackbirds, unafraid of the scarecrow
astrologers often forecast the most propitious moment for the archer in the background, stealing the seed but also the semi- —
coronation of a ruler. The earliest such horoscope found is that circular arch above the calendar miniatures. This month and
plotted for the Hellenistic ruler Antiochus I of Commagene, a those that complete the cycle of the year reveal that the
district of ancient Syria, in 61 B.C. Placed on his tomb high on medieval zodiac consisted of precise astrological references
the Taurus Mountains in Turkey, it shows the conjunction of belonging to both an elaborate system devised by experts and
the planets Mars, Mercury, and Jupiter among the stars in Leo, customary discourse. Each of the 12 arches is of 30 degrees,
represented as a massive lion, on Antiochus's coronation date and each shows the transition from one zodiacal sign to anoth-
of July 7, 62 B.C. er. October is between Libra and Scorpio, golden stars shine

With a similar motive in the Renaissance, Agostino Chigi, a from a deep blue sky, and in the center the sun is in his chari-
banker in Siena, Italy, in building the Villa Farnesina in Rome, ot. For each day, we can read the length of the day from sun-
reproduced the heavenly configurations in the sky the night of rise to sunset and for each night the phase of the moon. On the
December 1, 1466, his birth date. These panels in the Sala di facing page, a calendar shows the feasts and fasts and the saint
Galatea, the same room that housed Raphael's Triumph of commemorated (Cazelles and Rathofer, pp. 7, 12-13).
Galatea, thus represented his horoscope and reminded him and
his guests of his promise of greatness.
Uses of the Zodiac: Zodiacal Man
The modern horoscope spawned the current popularity
that
in newspapers and magazines was apparently the horoscope in What is extraordinary in Tres Riches Heures du Due de Berry,
London's Sunday Express in 1930 on the occasion of the birth the most beautiful of all calendars and prayer books, is the
of Princess Margaret (Barton, p. 1). Whereas the horoscope of complete cycle of the zodiac in a mandorla, an oval cosmic
ancient times was usually meant to predict the date of death or frame in which stand two beautiful nudes, facing us: Woman
to show the prospects for a ruler's success or failure, the mod- and, immediately at her back, Man (or is it the converse?). The
ern horoscope, although using the same zodiacal symbols, is zodiacal symbols form an oval surrounding the figures, but
more like a counseling service that deals with personal rela- they also are placed down along the front of the foremost
tions, dating, and financial transactions. figure, each symbol placed near the organ or part of the body
Although the scientific community and most "men of good it affects. The iconographic idea became famous in the
sense" have turned their backs on astrologers, there are still Renaissance in the astronomical thought of Robert Fludd and
reports that prominent figures, including Ronald Reagan and Athanasius Kircher. This manuscript clearly depicts the relation
 ZODIAC 965

of to the cosmos, microcosmos to macrocosmos, the lit-

human mentioned). There are also many examples of the zodiac asso-
tleworld to the great world (Cazelles and Rathofer, pp. 12-13; ciated with Diana of Ephesus, an ancient Ionian city ot Asia
Longnon and Cazelles, p. 11). Renaissance illustrations devel- Minor. A statue of her in the Ephesus Museum displays the
op the idea of the Homo Zodiacus, corresponding the 1 2 signs zodiacal symbols encircling her throat just above her multiple
to 12 body parts, as in the fifteenth-century manuscript Codex breasts.
Urbin. 398 in the Vatican. This manuscript shows a human
lat 1

body in a U-shaped position in the center of a ring of zodiacal

Uses of the Zodiac: Other Groups of i 2
signs with lines extending from each part of the body to the
sign associated with it. In Jewish iconography of the zodiac, the 12 signs could also
stand for the Twelve Tribes of Israel. The hours and the months
are associated with zodiacal symbols in a ninth-century manu-
Uses of the Zodiac: Gods and Goddesses
script in the Vatican (Cod. Vat. Gr. 1291, fol. 9 recto). The

The principal Greek gods and goddesses are frequently paired, outer ring of a circular composition contains the symbols of the
male and female, in a group of 12. Sometimes these 12 are zodiac, and two inner rings contain figures representing the 1 2

associated with the months, at other times with the zodiac. In months and 1 2 hours of the day. In the center, Helius, the sun
the so-called "Altar" of Gabii (a.d. 1 17-138), a Roman mar- god, drives his chariot through a blue circle of sky. In the
ble relief disk, the heads of the 12 main Olympian divinities are Christian era, the number of apostles (12) made them candi-
arranged around the circle of the disk. These divinities include dates for association with zodiacal symbols. For example, in an
Venus, goddess of love; Mars, god of war; Diana, goddess of ivory relief on a reliquary of the tenth century, each apostle is

wild things; Apollo, god of youth; Vesta, goddess of the hearth; placed between columns. Above each apostle, in an arched
Mercury, god of merchants; Ceres, goddess of food plants; frame, is a symbol of the zodiac.
Neptune, god of the sea; Minerva, goddess of arts and crafts;
Vulcan, god of fire; Juno, goddess of marriage; and Jupiter,
Uses of the Zodiac: The Occult
king of the gods. On the bank around the sides of the disk, the
12 zodiacal signs are matched with an attribute of one of the The largest marble zodiac in a medieval church, in the nave of
Olympians. Slots for mounting a metal plaque in the center of San Miniato al Monte in Florence, Italy, is in the form of a large
the disk have led some to identify the disk as a sundial, but its circle with the 12 zodiacal figures: silhouettes embedded in an
original function is unknown. A similar association between ornate arabesque background and radiating from a solar cen-
Roman gods and goddesses and zodiacal signs can be found in ter. The whole church, according to Fred Gettings, art histori-
a carpet mosaic from Hellin, Spain, now in the Archaeological an and student of astrology and the occult, is a web of symbols

Museum in Madrid, Spain, and in a marble candelabrum base, emanating from this zodiac and its accompanying inscription.
now in the Louvre in Paris. With symbols (not only Christian symbols but others more eso-
Humanists at the court of the Este in fifteenth-century teric and obscure as well), Gettings sees the church and its zodi-

Ferrara, Italy, used the zodiacal signs in conjunction with the ac as an important key to medieval life and thought.
paintings of Triumph of the Gods of Antiquity. Here is a very
different theology from that in the great Tres Riches Heures,
Other Variations
where we saw the sun in every month but did not think of
Apollo; rather, we thought of the Creator and His command Giotto's zodiac at Padua, Italy, was remarkable (in its undis-
"Let there be light" or Christ as the "Light of the World." On turbed condition) were arranged so that each
in that the signs

the other hand, Francesco del Cossa paints Minerva, Venus, was struck in turn, during its corresponding month, by the
Apollo, and others in March to September in what remains of sun's rays. Some iconographies mix the usual forms of the zodi-
Triumph of the Gods of Antiquity (five months have been lost) ac. For example, the west entrance to St. Mark's Basilica in
in the great hall of the Palazzo Schifanoia in Ferrara. The divi- Venice displays a frieze around the doorway. The January fig-
sion by months, over which gods and goddesses preside;
is ure carries wood, as Aquarius carries water. The February fig-
however, not only are there signs of the zodiac (even the 10- ure has cold feet, as the Fishes (Pisces) are cold. March is as
day third parts of a 30-degree segment), but the decans are Mars, ready for a fight, and Aries (the Ram) is ready, too. April
personified.Minerva might be morally acceptable as a symbol suggests the Easter feast, for he carries a lamb on his neck and
of chastityand wisdom. Her chariot is drawn by white uni- shoulders, but Taurus (the Bull) is not gentle, and Spring is a
corns, and the Wise Virgins, busy at their weaving, sewing, or contest of Winter and Summer. May is being
opposites,
embroidery, flank the goddess. There is also a group of teach- crowned by two maidens, corresponding to Gemini (the Twins)
ers and students from the University of Ferrara. But the (Dermis). There is, in repeating the zodiac, much subtle sym-
Triumph of Venus shows that goddess of love on a barge bolic thought.
drawn by swans while on the banks amorous couples wander We of the twentieth century live in another period of revived
among flowery groves. A Girolamo Savonarola would have interest in the zodiac. This is it comes after
surprising because
suspected that paganism displays an all-too-alluring yielding on ways of thinking rejected by those
several centuries of attack
to temptation. who consider scientific methods alone worthy of praise. It is
The symbols of the zodiac are also used with images of sin- all the more remarkable because modern artists often reject

gle gods (Aion, Jupiter, Helius, and Apollo have already been traditional iconographic symbols. The wonder, then, is that a
966 zodiac

Roman reader of Manilius's poem, shown a horoscope column Zodiac Around Helius, Roman mosaic, mid-third century
in one of our. daily newspapers, would in some cases recognize a.d., Bonn, Germany, Landesmuseum

every sign of the zodiac, presented visually to lure the eye to the Ring Zodiac, Roman mosaic, from Sentinum (Sassoferrato),
advice proffered. This, too, would appear familiar. third century a.d., Munich, Germany, Glyptothek
Wahid, Abd al-, Zodiac, Persian ceramic plate, 563-1 564, 1

Berlin, Staatliche Museen

See also Fortune; Labor/Trades/Occupations; Order/Chaos

Medieval
Helius in Chariot Surrounded by the Zodiac, mosaic floor,
fifth or sixth century, Hefzibah, Israel, excavated
synagogue
Selected Works of Art
Virgin and Child with Two Angels, One with a Crossed
Ancient and Non-Western Globe, Byzantine ivory plaque, sixth century, Berlin,
Apollo with the Goose (Helius with a Baldrick), fragmentary Staatliche Museum
torso, marble, original fifth century B.C., copy in Vatican, Zodiac Ring with Helius, Months, and Hours, illuminated
Museo Chiaramonti manuscript, 813-820, Vatican (Cod. Vat. Gr. 1291, Fol. 9
Signs of the Zodiac, ceiling painting, 170-71 B.C., New recto)

Haven, Connecticut, Yale University, Art Gallery Planisphere, illuminated manuscript, 818, Munich,

Calendar Frieze, archivolt bas-relief, marble, circa second Germany, Staatsbibliothek (Cod. Monac. lat. 219, Fol.
or first century B.C., Panhagia Gorgoepikoos, Athens, 113V)

Greece, now embedded in the facade of the Hagios Zodiac Signs with the Apostles, ivory relief on reliquary,
Eleutherios, Athens tenth century, Munich, Germany, Bayerische

Coronation Horoscope of Antiochus I of Commagnene, Nationalmuseum

bas-relief, 62 B.C., Nimrud Dagh, Turkey, tomb
Zodiac Signs, stained-glass windows, thirteenth century,
Chartres, France, Cathedral
complex, western terrace, cast in Vorderasiat Museum,
Zodiac Signs and Seasonal Tasks, bas-reliefs, mid-thirteenth
Berlin
century, Amiens, France, Cathedral
Planisphere, Egyptian sandstone ceiling relief, from the
Zodiac, portal sculpture, twelfth century, Paris, Notre
Hathor Temple, Dendera, circa 30 B.C., Paris,
Dame
Louvre
Zodiac, portal sculpture, twelfth century, Vezelay, France,
Atlas Farnese Supporting the World Ring Carved with the
Le Madeleine
Signs of the Zodiac, sculpture, Roman copy, first century
Zodiac, porch sculpture, Cremona, Italy, Cathedral
B.C., Naples, Italy, Museo Nazionale
Zodiac, portal sculpture, twelfth century, Venice, Italy,
Uranus and Minerva with Globe, Roman wall painting,
St. Mark's, west portal
circa a.d. 79, Pompeii, Italy, Villa di Diomede,
Zodiac, marble, 1207, Florence, Italy, San Miniato al
Room K
Monte
Helms with a Crossed Globe, Roman wall painting, circa
a.d. 79, Pompeii, Italy, Villa delPargenteria, VI, 7, 20,
Renaissance
Naples, Italy, Museo Nazionale
8819) (Inv.
Limbourg Brothers, Tres Riches Heures du Due de Berry,
Nut, Goddess of the Heavens and Zodiac, painting on
manuscript illumination, before 1415, Chantilly France,
wood, Sarcophagus of Petemenophis, Egyptian, from Musee Conde (Fol. 14 verso)
Luxor, a.d. 116, Paris, Louvre Man, manuscript
Circle with Zodiacal illumination,
"Altar" of Gabii, Roman, marble relief cylinder, from fifteenth century, Vatican (Cod. Urbin. lat. 1398,
Gabii, a.d. 1 17-13 8, Paris, Louvre Fol. 10 verso)
Globe with Zodiac Ring, Roman, marble sculpture, Durer, Albrecht, Four Apostles, oil painting, Munich,
circa second century a.d., Vatican, Sala dei Busti Germany, Alte Pinakothek
(No. 341) Giovanni di Paolo, The Expulsion from Paradise, tempera
Birth of a God in Oval Zodiac Ring, marble relief, second and gold on panel, circa 1445, New York, Metropolitan
century a.d., Modena, Italy, Galleria Estense Museum of Art
Zodiac Circle with Jupiter Upheld by Atlas, relief, second Cossa, Francesco del, Triumphs of the Gods, fresco,
century a.d., Rome, Villa Albani 1469-1470, Ferrara, Italy, Palazzo Schifanoia, Great
Zodiacal Globe in the Hand of Genius, detail of the Hall
Apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and Faustina, Roman, Horoscope of Agostino Chigi, ceiling painting, 1508-15 11,
marble bas-relief, circa a.d. 160, Vatican, Courtile della Rome, Villa Farnesina
Pigna, base of Antonius column Diirer, Albrecht, Imagines coeli septentrionales cum
Gnostic Relief with Zodiacal Signs Around the Goddess of duodecim imaginibus zodiac, woodcut, 1 5 1

the Sky, marble bas-relief, from Argos, second-third Zodiac, ceiling fresco, 1575, Caparola, Italy, Villa Farnece,
century a.d., London, British Museum Sala dei Mappamondo
 ZODIAC 967

Further Reading Gundel, Hans Georg, Zodtakos: Tierkreisbilder un

Altertum, Mainz, Germany: Verlag Philipp von Zabern,
"Astronomy and Astrology," Encyclopedia of World Art,
1992
New York: McGraw-Hill. 1967 Gundel, Wilhem, and Hans Georg Gundel, Astrologumena:
Barasch, Mosche, "Jewish Iconography," Encyclopedia of
Die astrologische Literatur in der Antike und ihre
Religion
Geschichte, Wiesbaden, Germany: Franz Steiner, n.d.
Barton, Tamsyn, Ancient Astrology, London and New York:
Hachlili, R., "The Zodiac in Ancient Jewish Art:
Routledge, 1994
Representation and Significance," Bulletin of the American
Beck, R., "Interpreting the Ponza Zodiac," Journal of
Schools of Oriental Research 228 (1977)
Mithraic Studies 1 (1976), 2 (1978) Heninger, S. K., Jr., The Cosmographical Glass: Renaissance
Becker, Ubo, "Astrology," and "Zodiac," in The Continuum Diagrams of the Universe, San Marino, California:
Encyclopedia of Symbols, translated by Lance W. Warner, Huntington Library, 1987
New York: Continuum, 1994 Holl, O., "Zodiakus," in Lexicon der Christlichen
Boas, George, "Macrocosm and Microcosm," in The Ikonographie, edited by Engelbert Kirschbaum, Freiburg
Dictionary of the History of Ideas, edited by P. P. Wiener,
im Breisgau, Germany: Herder, 1968
New York: Scribner's, 1973 An Acausal Connecting
Jung, Carl Gustav, Synchronicity:
Bober, Harry, "The Zodiacal Miniature of the Tres Riches Principle, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University
Heures of the Duke du Berry, Its Sources and Meaning," Press, 1969
Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 1 Katzenstein, Renee, and Emilie Savage-Smith, The Leiden
(1948) Aratea: Ancient Constellations in Medieval Manuscripts,
Cazelles, Raymond, and Johannes Rathofer, Illuminations Los Angeles: Paul Getty Museum, 1988
J.
of Heaven and Earth: The Glories of the Tres Riches Kitsch, Anabella, editor, Historyand Astrology, London:
Heures du Due de Berry, translated by Theodore Unwin, 1989
Swift Faunce and I. Mark Paris, New York: Abrams, Lloyd-Jones, Hugh, Myths of the Zodiac: Sculptures by
1988 Marcelle Quinton, New York: St. Martin's, 1972
Cirlot, Juan Eduardo, A Dictionary of Symbols, second Long, Charlotte R., The Twelve Gods of Greece and Rome,
edition, translated by Jack Sage, New York: Philosophical Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1987
Library, 1971 Lorgnon, Jean, and Raymond Cazelles, The "Tres Riches
Clarke, Agnes Mary, "Zodiac," in Encyclopaedia Britannica, Heures" of Jean, Duke of Berry, Musee Conde, Chantilly,
eleventh edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, translated by Victoria Benedict, New
York: Braziller, 1969
1911 Male, Emile, Religious Art The Late Middle Ages:
in France:
Cumont, Franz, Astrology and Religion Among the Greeks A Study in Medieval Iconography and Its Sources,
and Romans, New York: Putnam, 19 12 Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1984
The Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism, Chicago:
, Manilius, Astronomica, edited by G. P. Goold, Cambridge,
Open Court, 191 Massachusetts, and London: Harvard University Press,
Cutler, Anthony, "Stalking the Beast: Art History as 1940
Asymptotic Exercise," Word and Image 7:3 Mirandola, Giovanni Pico della, Disputationes Adversus
(July-September 1991) Astrologiam Divinatricem, two volumes, edited by
The Cycle of Twelve, New York: New York Times, 1971 Eugenio Garin, Florence, Italy: Vallecchi, 1946
Dobin, Rabbi Joel C, To Rule Both Day and Night: Moore, Thomas, The Planets Within: Marsilio Ficino's
Astrology in the Bible, New York: Innertraditions Astrological Psychology, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania:
International, 1977 Bucknell University Press, 1982
Firmicus, Maternus, Mathesis, Leipzig, The Netherlands, Pogon, Edmond, Les Tres Riches Heures du Due du Berry,
191 3; English translation by J. Rhys Bram, Ancient translated by David Macrae, New York: Crescent,
Astrology: Theory and Practice, New Jersey, 1975 1987
Garin, Eugenio, Astrology in the Renaissance: The Zodiac Reau, Louis, "Le Symbolisme Humain: Occupations des
of Life, translated by Carolyn Jackson, Jane Allen, Mois," in Iconographie de I'Art Chretien, Paris: Presses
and Clare Robertson, London: Routledge and Kegan Universitaire de France, 1955-1959
Paul, 1983 Giuseppe Maria, The Glorious Constellations: History
Sesti,
Gettings, Fred, The Secret Zodiac: Hidden Art in Medieval and Mythology, translated by Karin H. Ford, New York:
Astrology, London: Arkana, 1987 Abrams, 1991
Gleadon, Rupert, The Origin of the Zodiac, London: Spencer, Edmund, Faerie Queene, Variorum Edition,
Johnathan Cape, 1968 Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins Press, 1936
,Your Character in the Zodiac, London: Phoenix Tester, S. J., A History of Western Astrology, Woodbridge,
House, 1968 England: Boydell, 1987; New York: Ballantine, 1989
Glueck, Nelson, Deities and Dolphins: The Story of the Tuzet, Helene, "Cosmic Images," in The Dictionary of the
Nabataeans, New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, History of Ideas, edited by P. P. Wiener, New York:
1965 Scribner's, 1973
968 ZODIAC

Webster, James Carson, The Labors of the Months in Antique West, John Anthony, and Jan Gerhard Toonder, The Case for
and Medieval Art to the End of the Twelfth Century, Astrology, New York: Coward-McCann, 1970
Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1938 "Zodiac," Encyclopedia Judaica, New York: Macmillan, 1971
 NOTES ON
CONTRIBUTORS

Shane Adler is an independent scholar with recent articles publishedin Art Journal and Women's

Studies. She is currently writing A Visual Perfume, the Progress and Revolution of the Seasons in
Society, a study of Frenchand English social history in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
Essays: Months; Seasons; Whiteness

Diane Apostolos-Cappadona, Professorial Lecturer in Art, Religion and Gender Studies at

Georgetown University, has published many books and articles on various aspects of religion and
the arts, including the Encyclopedia of Women in Religious Art (1966), Dictionary of Christian
Art (1994), and The Spirit and the Vision: The Influence of Christian Romanticism on 19th
Century American Art (1995). She has also edited many works, including Women, Creativity, and
the Arts (1995), Art, Creativity, and the Sacred (1984/1995), and the publications Theologians on
Art: Documents and Sources in the History of Christian Art (1998) and Then They Knew They
Were Naked: The Nude in Western Art (1998). Essays: Beheading/Decapitation; Toilet Scenes;
Virgin/Virginity

Andrew Stephen Arbury is an Associate Professor of Art History at Radford University in Virginia.

As a graduate student at Rutgers University, he was a founding editor of the Rutgers Art
Review, a scholarly journal of art history. He has presented professional papers at numerous
conferences and has published articles on Spanish catafalques and slide computerization. Essays:
Abduction/Rape; Judgment; Laughter

Priscilla Baumann, and Architecture in the Radcliffe Seminars, Radcliffe

Instructor in Medieval Art
College, has published The Profane Arts of the Middle Ages (1996), articles on Romanesque
sculpture in Church History (1990, 1991) and La Revue Mabillon (1994), ar) d articles on the
history of Auvergne in the Dictionnaire encyclopedique du Moyen Age chretien. She is
currently completing a book on Romanesque sculpted capitals of Auvergne. Essays: Avarice;
Labyrinth/Maze; Margins/Outsiders

Rudolf M. Bisanz, Professor of Art History at Northern Illinois University, has written more than
100 professional publications, including German Romanticism and Philipp Otto Runge, j Study
in Nmeteenth-Century Art Theory and Iconography and The Rene von Schleinitz Collection of

the Milwaukee Art Museum. Essays: Dawn/Dawning; Devotion/Piety

969
97° NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Christine M. Bocckl, Associate Professor at the University of Nebraska at Kearney, has published on
the subject of the plague, including "A New Reading of Nicolas Poussin's The Miracle of the Ark
in the Temple of Dagon" in Artibus et Historiae 24 (1991); "Vienna's Pestsaule: The Analysis of
a Seicento Plague Monument"
Wiener Jabrbuck fur Kunstgeschichte 49 (1996); "Plague
in

Imagery as Metaphor for Heresy in Rubens's The Miracles of St. Francis Xavier" in The Sixteenth
Century Journal 27:4 (1996); and "The Pisan Triumph of Death and the Papal Constitution
Benedictus Deus" in Artibus et Historiae. Her book Plague Imagery in the Renaissance and

Reformation: Iconography and Iconology is in preparation for the series 16th Century Studies.
Essays: Path/Road/Crossroads; Penitence/Repentance; Plague/Pestilence; Protestantism; Self-
Portraits I: Men; Sin/Sinning

Lee Braver, a student of Soren Kierkegaard's use of pseudonyms, is pursuing a Ph.D. in Philosophy
at Emory University. Essays: Ascent/Descent; Fortune; Order/Chaos

Liana De Girolami Cheney, Professor of Art History and Art History Coordinator at the University
of Massachusetts Lowell, is the author of Quattrocento Neoplatonism and Medici Humanism in

Botticelli's Mythological Paintings, Neoplatonic Images, The Paintings of the Casa

Botticelli's

Vasari, Religious Architecture of Lowell, and Readings in Italian Mannerism, and is the coauthor
The Symbols of Vanitas in the Arts,
or editor of Piero della Francesca's Treatise on Painting,
Literature and Music, Pre-Raphaelitism and Medievalism in the Arts, and Self Portraits of
Women Painters. Her major articles include studies on mannerist female painters, Italian and
Dutch emblems, Rodin, Whistler and the Italian symbolist Giovanni Segantini. She is currently
preparing manuscripts on Giorgio Vasari and on Edward Coley Burne-Jones's mythological
paintings. Essays: Abundance; Fame; Fortune; Honor/Honoring; Imagination/Creativity; Love
and Death; Peace; Vanity/Vanitas; Vices/Deadly Sins; Virtue/The Virtues

Petra ten-Doesschate Chu has taught at Princeton University and at Seton Hall University, where she
is currently Chair of the Department of Art and Music. Her specialization is in nineteenth-century
French and seventeenth-century Dutch art. Among her book-length publications are French
Realism and the Dutch Masters (1974), Courbet in Perspective (1977), Im Lichte Hollands
(exhibition catalog, 1987, with contributions by other authors), The Letters of Gustave Courbet

(1987), and The Popularization of Images: Visual Culture Under the July Monarchy (1994,
coedited with Gabriel Weisberg). Essays: Nightmare; Sleep/Sleeping

Julie F. Codell, the Director of the School of Art at Arizona State University, has published numerous
articles and book reviews on nineteenth-century and has edited the Journal of Pre-
British art
Raphaelite Studies (1991-1994). She is currently preparing a book-length study on artists' careers
and the image of the artist in England in 1870-1914 as well as coediting (with Dianne Macleod)
Colonialism Transposed, a collection on the influences of the colonies on Britain. Essays:
Artists/Art

Erica Cruikshank-Dodd, Professor of Byzantine and Islamic Art at American University of Beirut
and the University of Columbia (retired), has published Byzantine Silver Stamps
Victoria, British

(1962), Byzantine Silver (1973), anc The Image of the Word (1982). She is currently publishing a
'

volume on The Frescoes of Mar Musa al-Habashi, near Nebek, Syria, is working on a publication
about the medieval frescoes in Lebanon, and is working on inscriptions of the Wazir Khan of
Lahore, Pakistan. Essays: Light I: The Lamp in the Niche; Logos/Word; Offering

Don Denny, Professor in the Department of Art History and Archaeology at the University of
Maryland, College Park, is the author of The Annunciation from the Right and various articles in

such periodicals as Art Bulletin and Gazette des Beaux-Arts. Essays: Annunciation; Apocalypse;
Baptism

Eugene Dwyer, Professor of Art History at Kenyon College, is a classical archaeologist who has
written on Roman sculpture and architecture and on the classical tradition. His works include
Pompeian Domestic Sculpture (1982), articles in European and American journals, and
collections of essays. Essays: Destruction of City; Envy; Evil Eye; Excess; Gaze; Luxury; Voyeurism
 NOTFS ON CONTRIBUTORS 97 I

Alicia Craig Faxon, Professor of Art History and Chair of the Department of Art and Music,
Simmons College, Emerita, Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1989) and A Catalogue
is the author of
Raisonne of the Prints of Jean Louis Forain (1982). She is also the coeditor of and a contributor
to Pre-Raphaelite Art in Its European Context (1994) and Pilgrims and Pioneers: New England
Women in the Arts (1987). She has also published articles in such periodicals as Art Bulletin,
Master Drawings, Journal of Pre-Raphaelite Studies, Visual Resources, and History of
Photography. She is working with colleagues Liana Cheney and Kathleen Russo on a hook,
Self-Portraits of Women Painters. Essays: Bath/Bathing; Crucifixion; Damned Souls;
Dance/Dancers/Dancing; Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale; Hair/Haircutting; Journey/Flight;
Kiss/Kissing; Martyrdom; Metamorphosis; Reading; Sacrifice; Shipwreck; Temptation;
Visiting/Visitation

Zirka Zaremba Filipczak is the Massachusetts Professor of Art History at Williams College. She is

the author of Picturing Art in Antwerp, 15 j 0-1700 (1987) on sixteenth- and

and of articles
seventeenth-century topics for journals and exhibitions. She guest curated Hot Dry Men, Cold
Wet Women, the Theory of Humors and Depictions of Men and Women in Western European
Art of the 1600s for the Williams College Museum and for the American Federation of Arts.
Essay: Humors

Nancy Frazier is a writer and editor whose published books include Sexism in School and Society
Museums of the Northeast (1985), Louis Sullivan and the Chicago School (1991),
(1973), Special
and Jewish Museums of North America (1992). She is enrolled in the University of Massachusetts
American Studies Ph.D. program. Essays: Crucifixion; Judaism

Beth S. Gersh-Nesic is an art historian who wrote The Early Criticism of Andre Salmon: A Study of

His Thoughts on Cubism (1991). She is currently translating Salmon's 191 2 work La feune
peinture francaise and his 19 19 La feune sculpture francaise from French into English. Essays:
Birth/Childbirth; Drunkenness/Intoxication; Pregnancy

Sarah S. Gibson, retired Librarian of the Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute in Williamstown,
Massachusetts, has published widely on iconography, scientific institutions, and library science.
Her most recent publication, with Susan Roeper and Dustin Wees, is Book Illustration from Six
Centuries in the Library of the Sterling & Francine Clark Art Institute Library (1990). Essays:
Adultery; Bacchanalia/Orgy; Expulsion; Hunting/Hunter/Huntress; Journey/Flight; Serpent's Bite;
Shepherds/Shepherdesses

Elise Goodman is Professor of Art History at the University of Cincinnati and General Editor of the
Eighteenth-Century Art and Culture. She is the author of Rubens: The Garden
series Studies in of
Love as Conversatie a la mode (1992), and numerous articles. She has recently completed the
book The Portraits of Mine de Pompadour: Celebrating the Femme Savante. Essay: Female
Beauty and Adornment

Dimitri Hazzikostas, Professor of Art History at Pratt Institute, New York, is currently preparing a
book on Images of Sleep in Greek Art. Essays: Arms Raised; Grieving/Lamentation

Kathryn Moore Heleniak, Associate Professor of Art History at Fordham University, is the author of
William Mulready (1980) and articles Art Bulletin and Acts of the XXVII International
in

Congress of the History of Art (1992) and in other periodicals. She is preparing a book on the
nude in nineteenth-century British art. Essay: Naked/Nude

Claudia Hill has been an editor for the Getty Art History Information Program's Art and
Architecture Thesaurus in Williamstown, Massachusetts, and is currently an architecture
cataloger for Avery and Butler Libraries at Columbia University. Essay: Sanctuary

Fredrika Jacobs is an Associate Professor of Art History, with an affiliation with the Department of
Women's' Studies, at the Virginia Commonwealth University. She has published articles on Italian
Renaissance art, critical theory, and women artists in Art Bulletin, Artibus et Historiae, Studies in
Iconography, Word & Image, Renaissance Quarterly, and other periodicals. She wrote the book
Defining the Renaissance Virtuosa (1997). Essay: Self-Portraits II: Women
972- NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Paul Grimlcy Kuntz, a philosopher interested in iconography, has taught at Smith College, Grinnel]
- College, and Emory University. Among
books are studies of George Santayana, Alfred North
his

Whitehead, and Bertrand Russell. With Marion Leathens Kuntz he has written Jacob Ladder 's

and the Tree of Life: Concepts of Hierarchy and the Great Chain of Being 1987) and is (

preparing another volume on the concept of order. He has also published many articles on meta-
physics, aesthetics, and the philosophy of religion. His next book is on the Ten Commandments,
with attention to the iconography of Moses, Mount Sinai, and the Tablets of the Law. Essays:
Ascent/Descent; Expulsion; Fortune; Order/Chaos; Zodiac

Stephen Lamia is and Chairman of the Department of Visual Arts at Dowling

Assistant Professor
College. As Director of the Sarah Lawrence College Art Gallery, he curated the exhibition "Egypt:
The Source and the Legacy." He is currently developing a multimedia installation at Dowling
College's Giordano Art Gallery. He is also on the Editorial Board of Mediterranean Studies, an
annual volume of essays published in conjunction with Dowling's interdisciplinary Mediterranean
Conference. Essays: Funeral/Burial; Labor/Trades/Occupations; Night

Fritz Laupichler since 1981 has been a collaborator in the Bildarchiv Foto Marburg — Deutsches
Dokumentationszentrum fur Kunstgeschichte (German Documentation Center for Art History) in
Marburg, Germany, and staff member of DISKUS, the database of art and architecture in
—
Germany. He is the coauthor of ICONCLASS Indexes Italian Prints (1987-) and the author of
—
ICONCLASS Indexes German Prints (199 5-) and of essays on the history of Bildarchiv Foto
Marburg. Essays: Madness; Misfortune; Pointing/Indicating

Claire Lindgren, Professor of Art History and Humanities at Hofstra University, is the author of
Classical Art Forms and Mutations (1980) and has been associated with the publication of
Celtic
The Age of Spirituality (1979) and The Society of Independent Artists: The Exhibition Record
(1984). She has also written reviews and delivered papers and is working on a book on the art of
personal adornment. Essays: Apotheosis/Deification; Calumny; Patronage

Corinne Mandel, an Associate Professor of Art History at the University of Western Ontario, is the
author of Sixtus V and the Lateran Palace (1994) and of numerous articles on Italian Renaissance
art. She is completing a book on the Vatican Library facade program and carrying out research

on the scrittoio of Francesco I in Florence. Essay: Melancholy

Janice McCullogh is an Associate Professor of Art History at Baylor University. She is the author of
on German expressionism, August Macke, and contemporary topics in Art Bulletin, Arts
articles
Magazine, Ceramics Monthly, German- American Cultural Review, and other periodicals and
books. Essays: Hanging; Upside Down

David D. Nolta has taught art history and literature at Yale University and at the Massachusetts
College of Art, where he is currently Assistant Professor of Critical Studies. His published work
includes articles on Christina Rossetti, seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Italian painting, and
eighteenth- and nineteenth-century British art. Essay: Sublime

Edward J. Nygren is Director of the Art Collections at the Huntington Library, Art Collections and
Botanical Gardens in San Marino, California. He has written on British and American art of the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Essay: Money

Valerie (Hutchinson) Pennanen, an independent scholar, has published on the cult of Bacchus,
including Bacchus in Roman The Evidence for His Cult (1986). She has also published
Britain:
the Instructor's Manual to accompany the third edition of Frederick Hartt's Art: A History of
Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture (1989). In addition to her work in Greek and Roman Art,
she is also interested in sacred and spiritual themes in world art. Essays: Communion; Ecstasy

Karen Pinkus, Assistant Professor of French and Italian and of Comparative Literature at the
University of Southern California, Los Angeles, is the author of Daily Regimes: Italian
Advertising Under Fascism (1995) and Picturing Silence: Emblem, Language, Counter-
Reformation Materiality (1996). She has also written on various topics in cultural studies,
psychoanalysis, race, and gender studies. Essays: Automata; Sport; Widowhood
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS 973

Yona Pinson has taught Northern European Painting at Tel Aviv University since 1975. An expert on
late medieval and Northern Renaissance painting and on iconography, she has published in

Artibus et Historiae, Gazette des Beaux-Arts, Source, Corpus of Illuminated Manuscripts, Assaf,
and other periodicals. Her current research includes iconographic issues in Hieronymus Bosch's
and Pieter Bruegel the Elder's works, iconographic aspects of marginalia of late medieval
illuminated manuscripts, and human folly in Northern Renaissance art. Essays: Music;
Witchcraft/Sorcery

Elizabeth Powers, a Ph.D. in German literature from the City University of New York, is the author
of two novels and the coeditor of Pilgrim Souls: An Anthology of Spiritual Autobiography.
She contributes regularly on literary subjects to Commentary and other publications. Essay:
Choice/Choosing

Helene E. Roberts is An International Journal of Documentation and

the Editor of Visual Resources:
of the book Documenting the Image. She has compiled two iconographic indexes of Old
series

and New Testament subjects in works of art and has published articles on visual imagery and on
nineteenth-century British art and art criticism. Essays: Abandonment; Light II: Divine, Natural,
and Neon

Elaine Shefer, Chair of the Art History Department at Haifa University, is an expert in Pre-

Raphaelite Art. She has published the book Birds, Cages and Women in Victorian and Pre-
Raphaelite Art (1990) and many Journal of Pre-Raphaelite Studies, Art Bulletin,
articles in
Women's Art Journal, Journal of the History of Sexuality, and others. She is working on the Pre-
Raphaelites and the fairy tale, Edouard Manet, Jan Vermeer, and American artists at Kibbutz ein
Herod in Israel. Essays: Death; Dreams/Visions; Masks/Personae; Mirror/Reflection

M. Ann Simmons is a practicing psychotherapist in New York City, specializing in women's issues

and eating disorders. She has contributed to various seminars and projects and was the Editor of
New York Pulse, an electronic publishing project of the New York Times. Her dissertation for a
Ph.D. in comparative literature at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York is
entitled "Fictions of Femininity: Hysteria in the Fin-de-Siecle." Her current project is investigating
the narratives of multiple personality and their relationship to postmodernism. Essay:
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne

Gina Strumwasser, Professor of Art History at California State University at Fresno, is a specialist in
Renaissance and Baroque art. She has presented papers and published articles on Jan van Eyck,
Leonardo da Vinci, and heroic women from the Old Testament, as well as on problems of gender
in art, humor, popular culture, and advertising. Essays: Betrayal; Justice

Margaret A. Sullivan, an independent scholar of the Northern Renaissance, has published Bruegel's
Peasants: Art and Audience in the Northern Renaissance (1994). She also has published articles in
Art Bulletin, Artibus et Historiae, and other periodicals. She is preparing a manuscript on satire
for publication. Essays: Caricature/Cartoon; Fools/Folly; Peasantry; Physiognomy

Barry Wind, Professor of Art History at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, is the author of
books on Diego Velazquez's bodegones, on seventeenth-century genre painting, and on the
depiction of deformity in seventeenth-century art. His long and abiding interest in things risible,
ranging from works by Caravaggio to William Hogarth, is manifest in articles in such periodicals
as Art Bulletin, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Storia dell' Arte, Paragone, and
Arte Lombarda. Essay: Comic

Brucia Witthoft, Professor of Art History, Emerita, Framingham State College, is author of Fine Arts
Etchings of James David Smillie (1992) and the exhibition catalog American Artists in Diisseldorf
1840-1865, Danforth Museum of Art (1982). She has also published on the Tacuinum Sanitatis
and other medieval and Renaissance topics in Gesta and Artibus et Historiae. Her most recent
publication is "Riti Nuziali e loro Iconografia," a chapter in Storia dei Matrimonio, edited by
M. De Giorgio and C. Klapisch-Zuber (the third volume in the series Storia delle Donne in
Italia). Essays: Harvesting; Marriage/Betrothal
 INDEX OF ANCIENT MYTHOLOGICAL
AND HISTORICAL PERSONAGES,
PLACES, AND CONCEPTS

The the index term refer to the essays in which the subject is found. See citations refer the reader
titles after

to the term within the index or to other indexes where primary information can he found. See also citattons
refer the reader to other terms within the index or to other indexes where additional information can he found.

ABU, Mesopotamian god, Gaze met Dido, only to leave her when the gods recalled him
ACHELOUS (AKELOOS), god of the river of the same to his destiny to found Rome, Abandonment, Betrayal,
name, Abundance Damned Souls, Expulsion, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
ACHILLES, Greek hero of the Trojan War, Abduction/Rape, Journey/Flight, Light I, Love and Death,
Arms Raised, Bath/Bathing, Dawn/Dawning, Destruction Marriage/Betrothal, Pointing/Indicating, Temptation,
of City, Fame, Gaze, Grieving/Lamentation, Virtue/Virtues, Widowhood
Journey/Flight, Madness, Upside Down AESCHYLUS (5Z5-456 B.C.), the first and perhaps
ACRISIUS, king of Argos and father of Danae, Adultery,
greatest of the tragic poets, he wrote about 90 plays
Pointing/Indicating, Sacrifice
of which only seven survive, see Index of Authors,
ACROPOLIS of Athens, elevated, fortified walled area,
Literary Texts, Composers, Filmmakers, and
Ascent/Descent, Patronage
Folktales
ACTAEON, a hunter seeing Artemis bathing, was trans-
AESON, father of Jason, Witchcraft/Sorcery
formed into a stag and torn to pieces by his own
AFRICANAS, Sextus Julius (flourished a.d. 2zii, historian,
dogs, Gaze, Humors, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
Dreams/Visions
Metamorphosis, Pregnancy, Voyeurism
ADMFTUS, king of Pherae, married to Alcestis, he would
AGAMEMNON, king of Mycenae, husband of
Clytemnestra, Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Arms
be spared from death only if someone would be willing
Raised, Bath/Bathing, Sacrifice
to die in his place, Love and Death,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses AGATHODAEMON see TYCHE/FORTUNA/FAl 1

ADONIS, beautiful youth beloved by Aphrodite, AGAVE, mother of King Pentheus, killed her own
the

Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, son during a Bacchanalian orgy, Abandonment,

Journey/Flight, Kiss/Kissing, Love and Death, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Ecstasy
Metamorphosis AGENOR, king of Tyre, father of Europa, Adultery
AEGISTHL'S, the paramour of Clytemnestra, killed by her AGLAIA see GRACES
son Orestes, Adultery, Bath/Bathing AGLAUROS, Herse's sister, )ealous of her beauty, Envy
APNEAS, the founder of Rome, fought in the Trojan War, Al 1MES, Queen of Egypt, Birth/Childbirth
then was shipwrecked on the coast of Carthage where he MONsee PHANES

975
976 INDEX OF ANCIENT MYTHOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL PERSONAGES, PLACES, AND CONCEPTS

AJAX, Greek hero of the Trojan War, known for his great ANTENEOR, advised the return of Helen to Menelaus,
strength, Arms Raised, Destruction of City, Madness, became known as a traitor to Troy, Betrayal
Metamorphosis ANTICLEIA, Odysseus's mother, Journey/Flight
AKELOOS see ACHELOUS ANTIGONE, daughter of Oedipus, defied Creon,
AKHENATON (ruled i 379-1 362 B.C.), Egyptian pharaoh, Destruction of City
Eighteenth Dynasty, established a monotheistic religion ANTINOUS, companion to Emperor Hadrian,
worshiping the sun god, Aton, Light I, Light II Apotheosis/Deification
AKKO, terrifying female character in ancient drama, ANTIOCHUS I, King of Commagene, Zodiac
Masks/Personae ANTIOPE, Amazon Queen, abducted by Theseus,
ALARIC (a.d. 370-410), Visogothic king who sacked Rome Abduction/Rape
in a.d. 4 1 o, Destruction of City ANTIPHILOS see Index of Artists and Works of Art
ALCESTIS, wife of Admetus, was willing to die for him, but ANTIPODES, peoples and places diametrically opposite,
was rescued from Thanatus, Journey/Flight, Love and Upside Down
Death, Sacrifice ANTISSA, area of Lesbos, Beheading/Decapitation
ALCINOUS, king of Phaeaciam and savior of shipwrecked ANTIUM, ancient Roman city on the present day site of
sailors, Luxury Anzio, Virtue/Virtues
ALEXANDER THE GREAT (356-323 B.C.), through ANTONINUS PIUS (a.d. 86-161), Roman emperor
his military victories spread his rule from Greece to whose reign enjoyed peace and prosperity,
India, and is responsible for introducing Hellenism Apotheosis/Deification
over this area, Apotheosis/Deification, Artists/Art, ANUBIS, Egyptian jackal-headed god who conducted the
Dawn/Dawning, Excess, Fame, Gaze, Judgment, dead to judgment, Funeral/Burial, Judgment
Light I, Luxury, Peace APELLES (flourished 4th century B.C.), the most celebrated
ALEXANDER OF MACEDONIA see ALEXANDER THE painter in Greece, but now only known through
GREAT reputation, as none of his works are extant, see Index
ALEXANDRIA, city on the western extreme of the Nile, of Artists and Works of Art
founded by Alexander the Great, Patronage APHRODITE (VENUS), goddess of erotic love and beauty,
ALPHITO, terrifying female character in ancient drama, Abduction/Rape, Abundance, Adultery, Baptism,
Masks/Personae Bath/Bathing, Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth,
ALTHEA, mother of Meleager, who caused his death, Choice/Choosing, Comic, Dawn/Dawning,
Abundance Dreams/Visions, Evil Eye, Excess, Expulsion, Fatal
AMALTHEA, the goat that suckled the infant Zeus, Woman/Femme Fatale, Female Beauty and Adornment,
Abundance, Fortune Gaze, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Humors,
AMARYLLIS, a Virgilian shepherdess, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Imagination/Creativity,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses Journey/Flight, Judgment, Justice, Kiss/Kissing, Laughter,
AMASIS II (died 525 B.C.), king of Egypt, Fortune Light I, Logos/Word, Love and Death, Metamorphosis,
AMAZONS, a legendary tribe of warrior women, Mirror/Reflection, Music, Naked/Nude, Night, Offering,
Abduction/Rape, Naked/Nude Path/Road/Crossroads, Penitence/Repentance,
AMMON, Egyptian deity, originally god of Thebes, Pointing/Indicating, Seasons, Serpent's Bite,
he is represented as a ram or a ram-headed man, Sleep/Sleeping, Toilet Scenes, Virgin/Virginity, Whiteness,
Apotheosis/Deification Witchcraft/Sorcery, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues,
AMOR see CUPID Zodiac
AMPHISSA, ancient Greek city on the site of the modern APOLLO, one of the major Olympian deities; he personifies
city Salona, Bacchanalia/Orgy beauty, clarity, and music; he is often associated with
AMULIUS, brother of Numitor, drove him from power and reason in opposition to Dionysian ecstacy,
killed his heirs, Love and Death Abduction/Rape, Apotheosis/Deification, Arms Raised,
AMUN, Egyptian creation deity, Devotion/Piety, Light II Bacchanalia/Orgy, Beheading/Decapitation,
AMYMONE, daughter of Danaes, seduced by Poseidon, Birth/Childbirth, Dawn/Dawning,
Abduction/Rape, Sleep/Sleeping Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
ANCHISES, father of Aeneas who carried him on his back Excess, Gaze, Hair/Haircutting, Hanging,
escaping from the Trojan War, Comic, Damned Souls, Honor/Honoring, Humors, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
Journey/Flight Imagination/Creativity, Judgment, Light I, Love and
ANDROMACHE, Hector's wife, awarded to Neoptolemus Death, Metamorphosis, Music, Order/Chaos,
after the Trojan War, Death, Destruction of City, Plague/Pestilence, Pointing/Indicating, Seasons, Serpent's
Grieving/Lamentation, Journey/Flight Bite, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Zodiac
ANDROMEDA, chained to a rock by her father to appease APPIAN WAY, main road from Rome to Greece and the
a sea monster, she was rescued by Perseus, Fatal east, Virtue/Virtues
Woman/Femme Fatale, Metamorphosis, Naked/Nude, APPIUS CLAUDIUS (471-451 B.C.), severe and corrupt
Sacrifice Roman decemvir, Judgment
ANNA PERENNA, an old crone in a bridal dress who APULEIUS see Index of Authors, Literary Texts, Composers,
fooled Mars, Laughter Filmmakers, and Folktales
 INDEX OF ANCIENT MYTHOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL PERSONAGES, l'l \< I
S, AND CONCEPTS 977

ARACHNE, earned Athena's rage by besting her in a ATALANTA, a famous maiden hunter and warrior, involved
weaving contest, and hanged herself when the goddess in many adventures, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Sport
punished her, Hanging, Metamorphosis ATELLAN FARCE, Roman farce developed from plays of
ARCADIA, mountainous interior region of the rustic life, Comic, Masks/Personae
Peloponnesus, Pregnancy, Shepherds/Shepherdesses ATHAMAS, king of Orchomenus, driven mad by 1 [era,
ARCAS, son of Zeus and Callistro and king of Arcadia, killed his own son, Learchus, Madness
Pregnancy ATHENA (MINERVA), virgin warrior goddess of reason
ARCHELAUS of Priene (2nd century B.C.), Greek sculptor, and wisdom, and patron of Athens, Abandonment,
see Index of Artists and Works of Art Abduction/Rape, Beheading/Decapitation,
ARES (MARS), god of war, Adultery, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
the Birth/Childbirth, Choice/Choosing, Destruction
Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth, Comic, Excess, Humors, of City, Devotion/Piety, Dreams/Visions, Envy, P'xcess,
Justice, Laughter, Logos/Word, Love and Death, Months, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Gaze, Hair/Haircutting,
Peace, Sleep/Sleeping, Virtue/Virtues Hanging, Judgment, Laughter, Madness, Music,
ARGOLIS, area of land in the Peloponnesus, more Path/Road/Crossroads, Peace, Reading, Self-Portraits I,

commonly called Argos, Madness Serpent's Bite, Temptation, Toilet Scenes, Virgin/Virginity,
ARGONAUTS, 50 Greek heroes who sailed with Jason Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac
in search of the Golden Fleece, Abduction/Rape, ATHENIANS, citizens of Athens, Judgment
Journey/Flight ATHENS, major Greek city-state of the ancient world,
ARGOS see ARGOLIS Patronage, Virtue/Virtues
ARGUS (ARGUS PANOPTES), man with many eyes, often
ATLAS, one of the Titans, so strong he supported the
used as a watchman, Sleep/Sleeping
heavens, Zodiac
ARIADNE, daughter of King Minos of Crete, helped
ATON/ATUN/ATUM, Egyptian sun god, Devotion/Piety
Theseus to kill the Minotaur; he then abandoned ATROPOS, one of the Moirai, represents the fate that
her on the island of Naxos; Dionysus rescued her and
cannot be avoided (i.e., death), Choice/Choosing
married her, Abandonment, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
ATTALUS I Pergamon, Patronage
(died 107 B.C.), king of
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
ATTIS, Phyrigian youth associated with Cybele; he went
Journey/Flight, Labyrinth/Maze, Love and Death,
mad when she killed his beloved, Bath/Bathing,
Sleep/Sleeping, Voyeurism
Devotion/Piety, Madness, Zodiac
ARISTANEUS (ARISTIAEUS), a beekeeper and son of
ATUM, one of the names for the Egyptian sun god,
Apollo, Serpent's Bite
Light II
ARISTIPPUS (circa 325-circa 300 B.C.), Greek philosopher,
AUGUSTUS (63 B.C. -a.d. 14), first Roman emperor who
Choice/Choosing
patronized the arts and letters and established the Pax
ARISTOTLE see Index of Authors, Literary Texts,
Romana, Abundance, Apotheosis/Deification, Luxury,
Composers, Filmmakers, and Folktales
Virtue/Virtues
ARSINOE II, wife and sister of Ptolomy II,
AURA, personification of the breeze, Love and Death
Apotheosis/Deification, Excess
ARTEMIDORUS (flourished a.d. 140), Roman soothsayer,
AURELIAN WAY, ancient road along the west coast of
Italy, Virtue/Virtues
Dreams/Visions
ARTEMIS (DIANA), chaste goddess of hunting and of
AURORA see EOS
childbirth, Adultery, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Birth/Childbirth,
AVERUS, a lake near Naples, regarded by the Romans
Expulsion, Hair/Haircutting, Honor/Honoring, Humors,
as an entrance to the underworld, Damned Souls,
Vices/Deadly Sins
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Imagination/Creativity, Love
and Death, Marriage/Betrothal, Metamorphosis,
Naked/Nude, Offering, Pregnancy, Sacrifice, BABYLON, ancient city of Mesopotamia, Abduction/Rape,

Sleep/Sleeping, Toilet Scenes, Virgin/Virginity, Destruction of City, Grieving/Lamentation, Luxury,

Voyeurism, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac Widowhood

ASCANIUS (IULUS), son of Aeneas and Creiisa; also the BACCHANALIA/ORGY, or ceremonies in the worship of

name of a river, Abduction/Rape, Journey/Flight, Love the cult of Dionysus, characterized by drunkenness, wild

and Death and the dismemberment of animals.

frenzy, ecstacy,

ASCLEPIUS, god of healing, Arms Raised, Birth/Childbirth, Abandonment, Automata

Plague/Pestilence, Serpent's Bite BACCHANTS see MAENADS
ASHURBANIPAL III (died 860? B.C.), king of ancient BACCHUS see DIONYSUS
Assyria, 884-860? B.C., Dreams/Visions, Sport BAUBO, caused people to laugh by lifting her clothes to
ASTARTE, Phoenician goddess of fertility, beauty, and love, expose her buttocks, Laughter
Hair/Haircutting IMS, I gyptian god ot recreation, depicted .1- .1 dwari with
ASTRAEUS, the father of the Winds, Virtue/Virtues a large head, Dreams/Visions, Fools/Folly, Laughter,
ASTREA see DIKE Pointing/Indicating
ASTYANAX, son of Hector and Andromache; the child was BOREAS, the god of the north wind, Abduction/Rape
flung from the walls of Troy, Destruction of City, BRISFIS, the favorite slave of Achilles, Abduction/Rape,
Journey/Flight Grieving/Lamentation
978 INDEX OF ANCIKNT MYTHOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL PERSONAGES, PLACES, AND CONCEPTS

BRUTUS, LUCIUS JUNIUS (circa 509 B.C.), Roman consul CERASUS, modern name, Kerasund, on the north coast of
who sentenced his two traitorous sons to death, Turkey, Luxury
ludgmeni CERBERUS, the three-headed dog of the underworld,
BRUTUS, MARCUS JUNIUS (85-42 B.C.), principle assassin Abduction/Rape, Journey/Flight
of Julius Caesar, Death, Martyrdom CERCOPES, Lydian ruffians and thieves captured by
Hercules, Upside Down
CADMUS, founder of Thebes, Birth/Childbirth, Comic CERES see DEMETER
( A I
'(
INA, Cerman general, excited envy and disapproval CHALCHAS, a winged old man, Mirror/Reflection
through his dress, Envy CHARON, old man who ferried dead souls across the river
CAESAR, JULIUS (ioi?- 44 B.C.), the great Roman Styx to the underworld, Damned Souls, Light I,

statesman and general, Widowhood Order/Chaos, Sin/Sinning

CALCHAS, a high priest in some versions of the sacrifice CHARUN, Etruscan demon of the underworld, Damned
of Iphigenia, Sacrifice Souls
CALCHUS, a seer with the Greeks who made important CHARYBDIS see SCYLLA AND CHARYBDIS
predictions about the Trojan War, Honor/Honoring CHEPHREN see KHAFRA
CALIGULA ( a.d. 1 2.-4 1 ), a cruel and ruthless Roman CHIMERA, a Lydian monster, part lion, goat, and serpent,
emperor, Envy Fame
CALLIOPE, the Muse of Epic Poetry, CHLORIS (FLORA), the only surviving daughter of Niobe,
Imagination/Creativity, Love and Death goddess of flowers, spring, and love, Birth/Childbirth,
CALLISTO, a nymph seduced by Zeus in the form of Seasons
Artemis, Adultery, Expulsion, Pregnancy, Sleep/Sleeping CHRONOS see CRONUS
CALYDONIAN BOAR, a savage beast sent by Artemis to CHRYSEIS, daughter of Chryses, abducted by Agamemnon,
ravage Calydon; killed in the famous Calydonian Boar Abduction/Rape, Plague/Pestilence
Hunt, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Sport CHRYSES, a priest of Apollo Smintheus, Arms Raised
CALYPSO, detained Odysseus for seven years, CICONIAN WOMEN, Maenads who killed Orpheus,
Abandonment, Journey/Flight, Shipwreck, Temptation Abandonment
CAMBYSES (6th century B.C.), king of the Medes and CIMON, old man in prison, saved by his daughter's own
Persians, Judgment milk, Virtue/Virtues
CAMILLUS, MARCUS FURIUS (365-403 B.C.), a Roman CINCINNATUS (5th century B.C.), legendary Roman
general and censor, Betrayal, Judgment, Virtue/Virtues patriot, Virtue/Virtues
CAMPUS MARTIUS, Rome, site of funeral pyres and CINYRUS, the father of Adonis through an incestuous
consecration ceremonies, Apotheosis/Deification union with his daughter Myrrha, Birth/Childbirth
CANDAULES, Lydian king, so proud of his wife's beauty, CIRCE, a sorceress who turned men into beasts, Fatal
he reveals her to his bodyguard Gyges, Envy, Gaze, Woman/Femme Fatale, Journey/Flight, Metamorphosis,
Voyeurism Temptation, Witchcraft/Sorcery
CANTHUS (CANATHOS), a spring in Nauphon, CIRCUS MAXIMUS, Roman arena for chariot races and
Virgin/Virginity Martyrdom
contests,
CARTHAGE, ancient city on the northern coast of Africa, CLAUDIUS, APPIUS see APPIUS CLAUDIUS
Destruction of City, Luxury, Temptation CLEOPATRA, queen of Egypt, Birth/Childbirth, Excess,
CARYATIDS, sculptured female figures supporting an Love and Death, Luxury, Serpent's Bite
entablature, Envy, Luxury CLYTEMNESTRA, wife and betrayer of Agamemnon,
CASSANDRA, daughter of Priam and Hecuba, was Adultery, Bath/Bathing, Birth/Childbirth,
endowed with the gift of making prophecies, which, Hair/Haircutting, Sacrifice
although always true, were never believed, Adultery, CLYTIE, loved Apollo, and was transformed into a
Destruction of City sunflower, Abandonment, Metamorphosis
CASSIOPIA, queen of Ethiopia, mother of Andromeda, COLCHIS, land on the Black Sea, Journey/Flight
Sacrifice COLOSSEUM, ancient Roman amphitheater, Destruction
CASTOR see DIOSCURI of City, Martyrdom
CATO, the Elder (234-149 B.C.), Roman statesman and COLOSSUS of Thebes, mythical speaking statue, Automata
moralist, Luxury COMMODUS (a.d. 161-192), Roman emperor, licentious
CEBES, student of Socrates, Ascent/Descent and brutal, who sought to be worshiped under the name
CECROPS, a king of Attica, father of Aglauros and Herse, of Hercules Romanus, Apotheosis/Deification
Birth/Childbirth, Envy COMUS, Roman god of mirth and revelry, Laughter
CENTAUR, creatures that are half horse, half human, CORINTH, ancient rival city of Athens, Destruction of City,
Abduction/Rape, Arms Raised, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Virtue/Virtues
Excess, Music, Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac CORYBANTES, male dancers and attendants of Cybele,
CEPHALUS, loved by Eos, he mistakenly killed his Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Ecstasy
wife Procris, Abduction/Rape, Dawn/Dawning, CORYDON, a Virgilian shepherd, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Love and Death, CRATO, Greek philosopher, baptized by Christ,
Sleep/Sleeping Annunciation
 INDEX OF ANCIENT MYTHOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL PERSONAGES, PLACES, AND CONCEPTS 979

CREON, king of Corinth, father of Creiisa, DEIANEIRA, the wife of Hercules, Abduction/Rape
Witchcraft/Sorcery DELPHIC ORACLE, the much revered seat of the Pythia
CREUSA, wife of Aeneas, presumably died in the Trojan and her prophecies, Pregnancy
War, Journey/Flight DEMETER7CERES, goddess of corn and agriculture, was
CREUSA (GLAUCE), bride of Jason, killed by the jealous particularly associated with the search for her daughter,
Medea, Fatal Woman/Femrne Fatale, Witchcraft/Sorcery Persephone, abducted by Hades to the underworld,
CROCUS, beloved of Smilax, Metamorphosis Abduction/Rape, Abundance, Birth/Childbirth, Fatal
CROESUS, king of Lydia, Abundance, Money, Woman/Femme Fatale, Laughter, Seasons, Serpent's Bite,
Pointing/Indicating Whiteness, Zodiac
CRONUS (CHRONOS, KRONUS, SATURN), a Titan, DEMOCRITUS (460-370 B.C.), Greek philosopher,
father of Zeus, god of the harvest, and site of his temple Melancholy
at Olympia, Abundance, Ascent/Descent, Birth/Childbirth, DIANA see ARTEMIS
Dawn/Dawning, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Death, DIDO, queen of Carthage, was beloved by the shipwrecked
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fame, Melancholy, Sanctuary, Aeneas, who abandoned her when called to fulfill his
Serpent's Bite, Voyeurism, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac destiny to found Rome, Abandonment, Arms Raised,
CRUMISSA, the island where Poseidon took Theophane to Betrayal, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Journey/Flight,
hide her, Abduction/Rape Kiss/Kissing, Love and Death, Marriage/Betrothal,
CUPID (EROS, AMOR), Greek god of love associated
the
Temptation, Widowhood
with Aphrodite; he often engaged in amorous adventures, DIKE (ASTREA, DICE, IUSTITIA), personification or
as with Psyche, sometimes being punished for his
goddess of justice, one of the Horae, Dawn/Dawning,
behavior, Abandonment, Abduction/Rape, Betrayal,
Justice, Virtue/Virtues
Love and Death, Female Beauty and Adornment, Fame, DIOCLETIAN Roman emperor, Madness,
(a.d. 245-313),
Fortune, Honor/Honoring, Journey/Flight, Luxury,
Martyrdom
Music, Penitence/Repentance, Sleep/Sleeping,
DIOGENES (circa 412-323 B.C.), Greek Cynic philosopher,
Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Light I

CURETES, Cretan mountain nymphs and diviners,

DIONE, a Titan or Oceanid, the mother of Aphrodite,
Dance/Dancers/Dancing
Birth/Childbirth
CYBELE (OPS), goddess of wild nature, mountains, and
DIONYSUS (BACCHUS), the god of wine and mystic
fertility; also called Great Mother or Magna Mater,
ecstacy, usually represents the irrational in contrast to
Bath/Bathing, Dawn/Dawning, Devotion/Piety, Ecstasy,
Apollo; he rescued Ariadne from the island of Naxos,
Judaism, Madness, Toilet Scenes, Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac
Abandonment, Abduction/Rape, Apotheosis/Deification,
CYCLOPES, monsters with one eye in the middle of their
Bacchanalia/Orgy, Birth/Childbirth, Comic,
foreheads, Excess, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
CYRUS, the Great (died 529 B.C.), king of Persia,
Honor/Honoring,
Ecstasy, Evil Eye, Excess,
conqueror of Lycia and founder of the Persian Empire,
I, Love and Death,
Imagination/Creativity, Light
Abandonment, Abundance, Beheading/Decapitation,
Madness, Masks/Personae, Music, Naked/Nude,
Betrayal, Excess
Offering, Peasantry, Seasons, Shepherds/Shepherdesses,
CYTHERA, Greek island, center of the cult of Aphrodite,
Sleep/Sleeping, Voyeurism, Virtue/Virtues
Journey/Flight
DIOSCURI (CASTOR and POLLUX), twin sons of Leda
and brothers of Helen of Troy, Abduction/Rape,
DACIANS, ancient peoples of southeastern Europe,
Adultery, Birth/Childbirth, Journey/Flight, Zodiac
Devotion/Piety
DAEDALUS, master craftsman who devised lifelike statues,
DISPAS, vampire mentioned by Ovid, Witchcraft/Sorcery
the Labyrinth, and wings Automata,
for flying,
DORIAN MODE, musical style that is firm, grave, and
Labyrinth/Maze, Path/Road/Crossroads severe, Imagination/Creativity

DAEMONES (GENII), a large number of supernatural DRAGON OF COLCHIS, guardian of the Golden Fleece,
beings acting as guardian spirits, not usually individually Music
named or personified, Fortune, Virtue/Virtues DRYADS, tree nymphs, Naked/Nude
DANAE, although sequestered in a tower by her father, DUMUZI, Sumerian god, abducted by demons to spend

she was seduced by Zeus in the form of a shower half the year in the underworld, Abduction/Rape,

of gold, Adultery, Beheading/Decapitation, Money, Journey/Flight

Pointing/Indicating
DAPHNE, a nymph who, to escape Apollo, was turned into ECHO, a nymph, punished by Hera, was able to repeat only

a laurel tree, Honor/Honoring, Humors, Metamorphosis, words of others, Laughter

the
Virtue/Virtues EILEITHYIAE, Greek goddess of childbirth. Arms Raised,
DAPHNIS, a blind shepherd, composer of sad songs, Birth/Childbirth
Shepherds/Shepherdesses EIRENE, personification of peace, one of the Horae,
DARIUS (549-485? B.C.), king of ancient Persia, Dawn/Dawning, Virtue/Virtues
Dawn/Dawning ELECTRA, the daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra,
DECIUS (a.d. 201-251), Roman emperor, Martyrdom sister of Orestes, Hair/Haircutting
980 INDEX OF ANCIENT MYTHOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL PERSONAGES, PLACES, AND CONCEPTS

ELYSIAN FIELDS, land of humans immortalized by the FAUSTULUS, the shepherd who found Romulus and Remus,
gods, Virtue/Virtues 1 ove and Death
1 MPEDOCLES (495-435 b.c), Greek philosopher, FELICITAS, Roman goddess of good fortune, Virtue/Virtues
Melancholy FLORA, Roman goddess of flowering plants and
FNDYMION, beloved by Artemis (or Selene), he chose fertility, Dawn/Dawning, Metamorphosis, Seasons,
everlasting sleep, Funeral/Burial, Love and Death, Night, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
Sleep/Sleeping FORTUNA see TYCHE/FORTUNA/FATE
FNKI, Sumerian water god, Damned Souls, Journey/Flight FURIES see ERINYES
ENKIDU, Gilgamesh's companion, Journey/Flight
EOS (AURORA), goddess of the dawn, Abduction/Rape, GAIA (GE), personification of the Earth, Abundance,
Dawn/Dawning, Love and Death, Sleep/Sleeping, Birth/Childbirth, Offering, Seasons
Virtue/Virtues GALATEA, modern name for the statue created by
EOSPHORUS (LUCIFER), the morning star. Love and Pygmalion, Metamorphosis
Death GAMYMEDE, a beautiful youth abducted by Zeus,
FPHIALTES (GIANT) see OTUS and EPHIALTES Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Comic
EPHIALTES (INCUBUS), a demon causing nightmares. GAULS, ancient Celtic peoples of France and northern Italy,

Nightmare Destruction of City, Gaze, Patronage

EPICLIR1ANS, Roman cult devoted to the pursuit of GE see GAIA
pleasure, Excess GENII see DAEMONES
EPICURUS (341-270 Greek philospher, Virtue/Virtues
B.C.), GERMANICUS CAESAR (15 b.c-a.d. 19), Roman
EREBUS, darkness of the underworld, Vices/Deadly Sins general, presumably poisoned by rivals, Death,
ERECHTHEUS, a king of Athens, Abduction/Rape Grieving/Lamentation
ERECTHEUM, porch of the Acropolis, consisting of GIANTS, 24 monstrous offspring of Gaia and Uranus who
caryatids, Envy waged war on Olympus and were eventually defeated
ERESHKIGAL, Sumerian queen of the underworld. with the help of Hercules, Dawn/Dawning, Fame
Damned Souls GIGANTOMACHY, war of the giants with the gods of
FRICHTI IONII IS, born ot I lephaestus's semen, fallen to the Olympus, Patronage
ground when he tried to rape Athena, Birth/Childbirth, GILGAMESH, hero of a Babylonian epic legend,
Envy, Virgin/Virginity Journey/Flight, Light I

ERINYES (FURIES), avenging spirits, especially of blood GIZA (GIZEH), site of Great Pyramids and the Sphinx,
acts against kin, Abduction/Rape, Hair/Haircutting, opposite the Nile from Cairo, Sanctuary
Madness GOLDEN FLEECE, the fleece of the magical ram, the goal
ERIS, the goddess of discord, Adultery, Bacchanalia/Orgy, of the Argonauts, Abduction/Rape, Betrayal, Fatal
Choice/Choosing Woman/Femme Fatale, Journey/Flight, Music,
EROS see CUPID Witchcraft/Sorcery
ETNA, volcano whose eruption destroyed Pompeii and GORGONS (STHENO, EURYALE, and MEDUSA), women
Herculaneum, Abduction/Rape with brazen hands, gold wings, and serpents as who
hair,

EUMENES II (died 160 or 159 B.C.), king of Pergamon, men

could turn to stone by their gaze, Evil Eye, Fatal
Patronage Woman/Femme Fatale, Gaze, Hair/Haircutting,
EUNOMIA, personification of order, one of the Horae, Metamorphosis
Dawn/Dawning, Virtue/Virtues GRACES (AGLAIA, EUPHROSYNE, THALIA) handmaids
EUPHROSYNE see GRACES of Venus, personifications of beauty, charm, and grace,
EUROPA, seduced by Zeus in the form of a white bull, Choice/Choosing, Seasons, Virtue/Virtues
Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Imagination/Creativity GREAT GODDESS OF THE WILD, Witchcraft/Sorcery
EURYDICE (EURIDICE), killed by a snakebite, and GREAT MOTHER GODDESS, Abundance, Bath/Bathing,
brought back from Hades by her husband Orpheus, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Pregnancy, Toilet Scenes,
who breaks the prohibition to look at her, Abandonment, Virgin/Virginity
Gaze, Journey/Flight, Love and Death, Music, Serpent's GRILLOS, antique satirical character, Comic
Bite GULA, Near Eastern goddess, Arms Raised
ELIRYSTHEUS, king of Tiryns and Mycenae, exacted the GYGES, the bodyguard of King Candaules, who shows off
labors of Hercules, Abduction/Rape his naked wife to Gyges, Envy, Luxury, Voyeurism
EURYTUS, the Centaur who tried to abduct Hippodamia,
and began the battle between the Lapiths and the HADES (PLUTO), the god of the underworld and the
Centaurs, Drunkenness/Intoxication place that is the home of the dead, Abduction/Rape,
Ascent/Descent, Damned Souls, Excess, Fatal
FALERII, Etruscan town, Judgment Woman/Femme Judgment,
Fatale, Gaze, Journey/Flight,
FATES MOIRAI
see Love and Death, Madness, Music, Order/Chaos,
FAUN see SATYR Serpent's Bite, Sleep/Sleeping
FAUSTINA (circa a.d. 104-14 i), Roman empress, wife of HADRIAN (a.d. 76-138), Roman emperor,
Antonius Pius, Apotheosis/Deification Apotheosis/Deification, Luxury, Sanctuary, Virtue/Virtues
 INDEX OF ANCIENT MYTHOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL I'l KSONAGES, PLACES, AMI COM I IMS 98 I

HALICARNASSUS, ancient city of Caria in Asia Minor, HERMES (MERCURY), a half-brother of Apollo, he
Widowhood plays many varied roles in Greek mythology; he is

HAMMURABI (flourished iroo B.C.), king of Babylonia, best known as the messenger of the gods; he is

Arms Raised, Devotion/Piety, Gaze, Justice recognized by his winged hat and sandles and the
HARPIES, female monsters in the form of birds, caduceus he carries, Abandonment, Arms Raised,
Abduction/Rape, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale Birth/Childbirth, Choice/Choosing, Envy, Fame, Gaze,
HATHOR, Egyptian goddess, Birth/Childbirth, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Imagination/Creativity,
Dawn/Dawning, Toilet Scenes Love and Death, Masks/Personae, Reading,
HECATE TRIVIA (HECATE TRIODITS, HECATE Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sleep/Sleeping, Virtue/Virtues,
ENODIA), goddess protecting roads and fertility, Zodiac
Path/Road/Crossroads, Witchcraft/Sorcery HERO, a priestess of Aphrodite, beloved of Leander,
HECTOR (HEKTOR), Trojan hero, son of Priam, Journey/Flight
husband of Andromache, killed in the Trojan War, HERSE, beloved by Mercury, but hindered by her envious
Arms Raised, Death, Destruction of City, sister Aglauros, Envy
Grieving/Lamentation, Journey/Flight HESPERIDES, nymphs who guarded the famous garden of
HECUBA, wife of Priam and queen of Troy, Adultery, golden apples, Choice/Choosing
Betrayal, Grieving/Lamentation, Nightmare, Sanctuary, HESTIA (VESTA), goddess of the hearth, Birth/Ch.ldbirth,
Sleep/Sleeping Virgin/Virginity, Zodiac
HELEN, the wife of Menelaus, renowned for her beauty;
HESYCHIA, personification of tranquility, Virtue/Virtues
her abduction by Paris caused the Trojan War, HILAERA, one of the daughters of Leucippus, abducted
Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Betrayal, by the Dioscuri, Abduction/Rape
Birth/Childbirth, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale,
HIPPODAMIA, abducted at her wedding to the King of
Imagination/Creativity, Judgment, Kiss/Kissing
the Lapiths, thus beginning the battle of the Lapiths
HELIUS (HELIO, HELIOS), the sun god before Apollo,
and the Centaurs, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
Birth/Childbirth, Dawn/Dawning, Zodiac
Marriage/Betrothal
HEMERA, goddess of the day, Dawn/Dawning
HIPPOLYTUS, cursed by his father Theseus when he was
HEPHAESTUS (VULCAN), god of fire and
the lame
falsely accused of rape, and dragged to death by his
metalworking, Adultery, Artists/Art, Automata,
horses, Hair/Haircutting
Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth, Comic, Excess, Justice,
HOMER, semi-legendary blind Greek poet, the author of
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Laughter, Logos/Word,
the Iliad and the Odyssey, see Index of Authors, Literary
Misfortune, Pointing/Indicating, Virgin/Virginity,
Texts, Composers, Filmmakers, and Folktales
Zodiac
HERA
HORAE (DIKE, EIRENE EUNOMIA), or Seasons,
(JUNO), goddess and the jealous wife of Zeus,
Birth/Childbirth, Choice/Choosing, DawnADawning,
Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
Seasons, Virtue/Virtues
Bath/Bathing, Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth,
HORATIUS COCLES, Roman legendary hero,
Choice/Choosing, Comic, Excess, Expulsion,
Virtue/Virtues
Honor/Honoring, Imagination/Creativity, Judgment,
Love and Death, Luxury, Madness, Peace, Pregnancy,
HORMAKHU, Egyptian god, Dreams/Visions

Sanctuary, Toilet Scenes, Virgin/Virginity, Whiteness,

HORUS, Egyptian god, son of Isis and Osiris, personified

Zodiac
by a hawk or falcon, Baptism, Devotion/Piety, Gaze,

HERACLES see HERCULES Judgment, Seasons, Whiteness, Zodiac

HERAEA, races in honor of Hera, Peace
HYACINTH, beautiful youth, first to be loved by another
man, was accidently killed by Apollo, Metamorphosis
HERCULANEUM, ancient city buried by the eruption of
Mount Vesuvius, Adultery, Destruction of City, Evil
HYDRA OF LERNA, a monster with many heads, killed

Eye, Journey/Flight by Hercules, Beheading/Decapitation, Misfortune

HERCULES (HERAKLES, HERACLES), one of the major HYLAS, a beautiful youth, loved by Hercules and the water
Greek heroes with a diverse and complicated list of nymph Pagea, Abduction/Rape

adventures, Abduction/Rape, Apotheosis/Deification, HYPNOS (SOMNUS), god of sleep, Love and Death,
Beheading/Decapitation, Birth/Childbirth, Pointing/Indicating, Sleep/Sleeping

Choice/Choosing, Comic, Drunkenness/Intoxication, HYPOLIDIAN MODE, musical style that fills the soul with

Excess, Fortune, Journey/Flight, joy, Imagination/Creativity

LaborAlrades/Occupations, Madness, Melancholy,
Misfortune, Naked/Nude, Path/Road/Crossroads, IAMBE, induced the goddess Demeter to smile during her

Peace, Protestantism, Sacrifice, Upside Down, grief over Persephone, Laughter

Virtue/Virtues ICELOSsee PROBETOR
HERMAPHRODITE/ANDROGYNE, beautiful son of IKHNATON see AKHENATON
Hermes and Aphrodite, loved by the nymph Salmacis, ILISSUS, a river near Athens, Abduction/Rape
who prayed their bodies might be united, thus producing IMHOTEP, Egyptian god of healing; known to the Greeks
one body with both male and female characteristics, as Imouthes, Dreams/Visions
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Sleep/Sleeping IMOUTHES see IMHOTEP
i)Ni INDEX Ol AN( II NT MYTHOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL PERSONAGES, PLACES, AND CONCEPTS

INANNA, Sumerian queen of heaven and goddess of love, LAGYNOPHORIA, rustic Alexandrian festival,

Abduction/Rape, Damned Souls, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Drunkenness/Intoxication

Journey/Flight, Metamorphosis LAOCOON, Trojan priest who offended Apollo, who sent
INCUBUS see EPHIALTES serpents to kill him and his sons, Serpent's Bite
INO, driven mad by Hera, destroyed her own son, LAODOMIA, wife of Protesilaus, she mourned at his death
Melicertes, transformed into Leucothea, Madness Love and Death
until she killed herself,

IO, fled Zeus in the form of a cow, but was eventually LAPITHS, people from Thessaly famous for their battle
seduced by him, Adultery, Ecstasy, Sublime with the Centaurs, Abduction/Rape, Arms Raised,
IOLAUS, charioteer and faithful companion of his uncle, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Excess
Hercules, Beheading/Decapitation LATONA see LETO
ION, the son of Creusa and Apollo, hewas abandoned to LEANDER, drowned swimming the Hellespont to meet his
die in a grotto on the Acropolis by his mother who love Hero, Journey/Flight
feared the wrath of her father; Ion was rescued by LEARCHUS, killed by his father, Athamas, in a fit of
Hermes, at the request of Apollo, Abandonment madness, Madness
IONIC MODE, musical style representing dances, LEDA, seduced by Zeus in the form of a swan, Adultery,
bacchanals, and feasts, Imagination/Creativity Birth/Childbirth, Light I, Pregnancy, Zodiac
IPHIGENIA, daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, LEONIDAS (died 480 B.C.), king of Sparta, defended the
was sacrificed by her father to gain advantage in the pass at Thermopylea, Virtue/Virtues
Trojan War, Adultery, Arms Raised, Martyrdom, Sacrifice LESBOS, island off the west coast of Asia Minor,
IRIS, the rainbow, a messenger of the gods, Sleep/Sleeping Beheading/Decapitation
ISHTAR, Babylonian and Assyrian goddess of fertility, LETHE, underworld river of forgetfulness,
Abduction/Rape, Damned Souls, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Beheading/Decapitation
Journey/Flight LETO (LATONA), mother of Apollo and Artemis,
ISIS, nature goddess of ancient Egypt, Seasons, Toilet Scenes, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
Virtue/Virtues LEUCIPPUS, his daughters, Phoebe and Hilaera, were
ISSUS, ancient town of Asia Minor, scene of three historic abducted by the Dioscuri, Abduction/Rape
battles, Dawn/Dawning LEUCOTHEA, sea goddess, transformed from Ino, gave
ITHACA, an island, the home of Odysseus, Journey/Flight, her magic veil to Odysseus, Journey/Flight
Kiss/Kissing, Shipwreck LICINIUS (died a.d. 325), Roman emperor, Martyrdom
IUSTITIA see DIKE LOCRIS, Greek colony in southern Italy, Judgment
IXION, punished for his excesses by Zeus, who chained him LOTOS-EATERS (LOTOPHAGI), a vegetarian people who
to a winged fiery wheel, Excess, Misfortune eat the addictive lotus, Journey/Flight, Temptation
LUCIFER see EOSPHORUS
JANUS, god of doors, gates, and beginnings, represented
the LUCIUS VERUS, co-ruler with Marcus Aurelius, a.d.
as facing two ways, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Fortune, 161-169, Virtue/Virtues
Virtue/Virtues LUCRETIA, wife of Tarquinius Collatinus, raped by Sextus,
JASON, the leader of the Argonauts in the quest for the stabbed herself in disgrace, Abduction/Rape, Adultery,
Golden Fleece, Betrayal, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Betrayal, Judgment, Serpent's Bite
Journey/Flight, Witchcraft/Sorcery LUCRETIUS see Index of Authors, Literary Texts,
JOCASTA, the mother and wife of Oedipus, Hanging Composers, Filmmakers, and Folktales
JULIAN the Apostate, Roman emperor a.d. 361-363, LUCULLUS (circa 110-56 B.C.), Roman general, who
Arms Raised defeated Mithridates, Fortune, Luxury, Virtue/Virtues
JULIUS CAESAR, Roman statesman and general, LUNA see SELENE
Birth/Childbirth, Serpent's Bite LYCAON, king of Arcadia, father of Callisto, Pregnancy
JUNO see HERA LYCIDIAS, a Virgilian shepherd, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
JUPITER see ZEUS LYCURGUS (7th century B.C.), king of Sparta and reformer
of their constitution, Laughter, Madness
KA, Egyptian spirit or personality, residing in the burial LYDIA, an area in western Asia Minor, Pointing/Indicating
statue after death. Gaze LYDIAN MODE, musical style used for mournful subjects,
KERASUND see CERASUS Imagination/Creativity
KHAFRA (CHEPHREN) (flourished circa 2869 B.C.), king LYSIMACHOS of Magnesia (circa 355-281 B.C.),
of the Fourth Dynasty in Egypt, Sanctuary Apotheosis/Deification
KORE, a name for Persephone, indicating the seasonal
changes, Birth/Childbirth, Seasons, Toilet Scenes, MACCUS, clownish yokel in Atellan farce, Comic
Virgin/Virginity MAENADS, female votaries of the cult of Dionysus,
KRATES, Eumenes' librarian at Pergamon, Patronage Abandonment, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
KRONUS see CRONUS Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
Ecstasy, Naked/Nude
LAELAPS, an infallible hound who always caught his prey, MAISON, comic cook, symbol of gluttony in ancient
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress drama, Masks/Personae
 INDEX OF ANCIENT MYTHOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL PERSONAGES, PLACES, AND CONCEPTS 983

MANLIUS TORQUATUS, Roman general and consul, 4th MINOTAUR, a monster with the body of a man and the
century B.C., Judgment head of a bull, he was imprisoned in the legendary
MARC ANTONY (circa 83-30 B.C.), Roman politician, Labyrinth of Crete; he exacted a yearly tribute of
and lover of Cleopatra, Excess, Serpent's Bite
soldier, Athenian youth until he was killed by Theseus, aided
MARIKAS, clown character in ancient drama, by Ariadne, Abandonment, Arms Raised, Automata,
Masks/Personae Artists/Art, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Death,
MARS ARES
see Journey/Flight, Labyrinth/Maze
MARSYAS, a satyr skilled at flute playing who entered a MITHRA(S), god of Persia and India, whose worship, as
contest with Apollo, lost, and was flayed alive, Hanging, Mithraism, spread over the ancient world, Evil Eye,
Honor/Honoring, Music Gaze, Judgment, Sacrifice, Zodiac
MASSINISEA (circa 258-149 B.C.), king of Numidia, MITHRIDATES (circa 13 1-63 B.C.), king of Persia, Luxury
Dreams/Visions MNEMOSYNE (MEMORY), a titaness and mother of the
MAUSOLOS (circa 376-353 B.C.), satrap of Caria, whose nine Muses, Imagination/Creativity
wife Artemisia erected the famous Mausoleum of MOIRAI (FATES, PARCAE), personifications of destiny
Hallicarnassus as his tomb, Luxury, Widowhood (see also Atropos),Choice/Choosing, Love and Death,
MAXENTIUS (died a.d. 312), Roman emperor, Night, Seasons, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Dreams/Visions, Martyrdom, Sleep/Sleeping MOMUS, god of satire, mockery, and ridicule, Laughter,

MEDEA, a sorceress, wife of Jason, Betrayal, Fatal Vices/Deadly Sins

Woman/Femme Fatale, Journey/Flight, Witchcraft/Sorcery MORMO, terrifying female character in ancient drama,
MEDES, inhabitants of the ancient country of Media in Masks/Personae
western Asia, Reading MORPHEUS, son of Somnus, appears in human form
MEDIA, ancient country in western Asia, Journey/Flight during dreams, Sleep/Sleeping
MEDICASTE, one of the Trojan Women, Destruction of MORS see THANATOS (MORS)
City MOTHER EARTH see GAIA (GE)
MEDUSA, one of the three snake-headed gorgons, MOTHER GODDESS see GREAT MOTHER GODDESS
decapitated by Perseus, Beheading/Decapitation, MOUNT HELICON, haunt of the Muses,
Evil Eye, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Hair/Haircutting, Imagination/Creativity, Music
Metamorphosis, Virtue/Virtues MOUNT OLYMPUS, home of the gods, Abduction/Rape,
MEGARA, daughter of Creon and wife of Hercules, Ascent/Descent, Envy, Excess, Fame, Journey/Flight,
Madness Months, Virgin/Virginity
MEIDAS PAINTER see Index of Artists and Works of Art MOUNT PARNASSUS, site of the Delphic Oracle and
MELAMPUS, one of the great Greek seers, Madness favorite place of Apolloand the Muses,
MELEAGER, one of the major Greek heroes who took Imagination/Creativity, Music
and the Calydonian Boar
part in the Argonauts' voyage MUMMIUS, LUCIUS (2nd century B.C.), Roman statesman
Hunt, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Journey/Flight, Love and general, Fortune, Virtue/Virtues
and Death MUSES, the nine daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne
MELICERTES, killed by his mother, Ino, in a fit of madness, (Memory), they were the goddesses of epic poetry
Madness (Calliope), lyric poetry and flute playing (Euterpe),
MELISIPAK, Neo-Assyrian king, Devotion/Piety love poetry and lyre playing (Erato), sacred music
MELISSEUS, king of Crete, reputed to have nurtured the and pantomime (Polyhymnia), tragedy (Melpomene),
infant Zeus, Abundance comedy (Thalia), history (Cleo), dance (Terpsichore),
MELITLIS, ancient Greek seaport colony in Asia Minor, and astronomy (Urania) (see also Individual Names),
sacked by the Persians in 494 B.C., Destruction of City Apotheosis/Deification, Dance/Dancers/Dancing,
MENEDEMUS, character in New Comedy, Masks/Personae Fame, Honor/Honoring, Imagination/Creativity,
MENELAUS, king of Sparta and husband of Helen of Troy, Masks/Personae, Music, Self-Portraits I, Sleep/Sleeping
Adultery, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Betrayal, Justice MYNES, husband of Briseis, killed by Achilles,
the
MENTUHOTEP Egyptian II, pharaoh, Devotion/Piety Abduction/Rape
MERCURY see HERMES MYRRHA, the mother of Adonis through her incestuous
MERIT, wife of Sennofer, Baptism union with her father, Birth/Childbirth
METIS, swallowed by Zeus, she still gave birth to Athena, MYRSINE, murdered by the Athenian women for her
Birth/Childbirth beauty, Envy
MIDAS, mythical king of Phrygia who, winning a favor
from Apollo, asked for everything he touched to be NAIADS, nymphs of lakes, brooks, and springs, Serpent's
turned to gold, Automata, Avarice, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Bite
Calumny, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Judgment, Luxury, NARCISSUS, handsome youth who fell in love with his
Money, Penitence/Repentance own reflection in a pool, Comic, Gaze, Metamorphosis,
MINERVA see ATHENA Mirror/Reflection, Toilet Scenes, Voyeurism, Whiteness
MINOS, king of Crete who ordered the building of the NARMER, early ruler in predynastic Egypt, Reading
Labyrinth to contain the Minotaur, Adultery, Judgment, NAUPLION (NAUPL1A), a seaport near the gulf of Argolis
Labyrinth/Maze on the east coast of the Peloponnesus, Virgin/Virginity
984 INDLX Ol ANCIENT MYTHOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL PERSONAG1 S, l'l A< I S, AND CONCEPTS

N'AI ISK A A, daughter of King Alcinous, aided Odysseus, OMPI [ALE, queen of Lydia, to whom Hercules was bound
Journey/Flight as a slave, Choice/Choosing, Comic
NAXOS, island in the Aegean off Greece, Sleep/Sleeping ( >KI SMS, son nl Agamemnon and ( lytemnestra,
NEBUCHADNEZZAR (died 562. B.C.), king of Babylon, avenged his father's murder, Adultery, Bath/Bathing,
Excess Hair/Haircutting, Madness
NEFERTITI (14th century B.C.), wife of Akhenaton, ORION, a giant hunter with many adventures, changed by
Egyptian pharaoh, Eighteenth Dynasty, Light II Zeus into the constellation bearing his name, Excess
\l Ml SIS, goddess of retribution foi evil deeds 01 ORITHYIA, a daughter of Erechtheus, abducted by Boreas,
undeserved good fortune, Evil Eye, Fortune, Night, the north wind, Abduction/Rape
Virtue/Virtues ORPHEUS, legendary musician and worshiper of Dionysus,
NEOPTOLEMUS see PYRRHUS most famous for his trip to the underworld to rescue his
NEPTUNE see POSEIDON wife Eurydice, Automata, Beheading/Decapitation, Gaze,
Nl REIDS, sea nymphs, Naked/Nude, Sacrifice Journey/Flight, Light I, Love and Death, Music, Serpent's
NERO (a.d. 37-68), Roman emperor, Bite, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Luxury, Martyrdom, ORPI IISM, Greek mystic cult founded by Orpheus, Zodiac
Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery OSIRIS, the first-born of ancient gods, becomes ruler of
NESSUS, a centaur killed by Hercules, Abduction/Rape Egypt, then of the underworld. Baptism, Devotion/Piety,
NIKE, Greek goddess who presided over contests and wars, Judgment, Seasons, Toilet Scenes, Virtue/Virtues
Apotheosis/Deification, Honor/Honoring, Reading
OSTIA, ancient Roman city at the mouth of the Tiber,
NILE, major river of Egypt, Grieving/Lamentation, Luxury,
Evil Eye
Sanctuary, Zodiac
OTUS and EPHIALTP2S, twin giants who earned the anger
NIMROD, mighty hunter and descendant of Cush,
of the gods by piling mountains on top of each other and
mentioned in Genesis, I Chronicles, Ascent/Descent
other rambunctuous deeds, Ascent/Descent
NINEVEH, ancient Assyrian city, Destruction of City,
Excess, Luxury
PALATINE, the central hill of ancient Rome, Luxury
NIOBE, inordinately proud mother, offended the gods,
PALLAS, ancient goddess of wisdom, Justice, Peace,
who killed her children, Plague/Pestilence
Virtue/Virtues
NU, Egyptian name for primitive darkness, Light II
PAN (FAUNUS), god of shepherds, half man, half goat,
NUMA POMPILIUS, second king of Rome, Artists/Art, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Ecstasy,
Birth/Childbirth, Months, Virtue/Virtues
Judgment, Laughter, Love and Death, Music,
NUMITOR, king of Alba Longa, father of Rhea Silvia,
Voyeurism, Zodiac
Love and Death
NUT, Egyptian sun goddess of heaven, Arms Raised,
PANATHENAEA, festival honoring Athena, Patronage
Dawn/Dawning, Zodiac
PANATHENAIC PROCESSION, Devotion/Piety
NYMPHS, young and beautiful spirits of nature,
PANDAREOS, a king of Miletus, Abduction/Rape
Bacchanalia/Orgy, Bath/Bathing, Birth/Childbirth,
PANDORA, the first woman, opened a jar in her care,
Ecstasy, Expulsion, Love and Death, Metamorphosis,
releasing evils onto the world, Order/Chaos
Nightmare, Sacrifice, Shepherds/Shepherdesses,
PANTHEON, an altar or temple dedicated to all the gods,

Sleep/Sleeping, Voyeurism, Whiteness

Sanctuary

NYMPHS of Nysa, nurtured the young Dionysus, PAPPUS, priapic character in Atellan farce, Comic
Drunkenness/Intoxication PARCAE (FATES) see MOIRAI
PARIS, a Trojan prince abandoned at birth; was asked to

OCEANIDS, the 3,000 daughters of Oceanus, Fortune choose between Aphrodite, Athena, and Hera; choosing
OCEANUS, the god of the river Oceanus, Fortune, Love Aphrodite he won Helen of Troy, the most beautiful
and Death, Pregnancy, Virtue/Virtues woman in the world, as his wife, thereby starting the
OCTAVIAN see AUGUSTUS Trojan War, Abandonment, Abduction/Rape, Adultery,
ODYSSEUS (ULYSSES), the hero of Horner's Odyssey, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Choice/Choosing, fixcess, Judgment,
Betrayal, Comic, Damned Souls, Destruction of City, Nightmare, Path/Road/Crossroads, Sanctuary,
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Sleep/Sleeping, Voyeurism

Hair/Haircutting, Journey/Flight, Kiss/Kissing, Light I,

PARTHENON, temple on the Acropolis, Athens, dedicated
Madness, Metamorphosis, Shipwreck, Temptation to Athena, Ascent/Descent
OEDIPUS, in response to a prophecy was abandoned on a PASIPHAE, wife of King Minos, developed a passion for a
mountaintop, unknowingly returned to his home to kill bull, with whom she mated to produce the Minotaur,
his father and marry his mother; he became king of Automata
Thebes, but his secret was discovered when the plague PATROCLUS, Achilles' squire, beloved by him,
attacked his city. Abandonment, Fatal Woman/Femme Beheading/Decapitation, Funeral/Burial,
I atale, I tanging Grieving/Lamentation, Pointing/Indicating,
OENONE, a nymph, married to Paris, Adultery Sleep/Sleeping, Sport
OI.YMPIA, mother of Alexander the Great, Fame PAX ROMANA, the reign of peace established over much
OLYMP1A, sanctuary, site of the Olympic Games, Sanctuary of Europe by Augustus in the 1st century a.d., Light I
 1NDI X OF ANCII NT MY II KM <)(.!( A I AND 1 1 IS I OK H A I I'l RSONAGES, PI AC IS, ANN I ON( I PTS 9*5

PEGASUS, winged horse, offspring <>t Poseidon and PHOENICIANS, inhabitants ot cit) itatCS . 1 lour, the 'astern
Medusa, ( hoiccA hoosing, lame. Metamorphosis, Mediterrean, Sa< rifice

Parh/Road/( aossroads PHRYGIAN MODI , musical style for vehemence, fury, and
PEIRITHOUS see PIRITHOUS battles, Imagination/* reativity
PHI IHS, besciged by misfortune, married Thetis Plli'l I IS, a Virgilian shepherdess, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
and was the father <>l Achilles, Bacchanalia/Orgy, PINDAR (51 x- circa 438 b.i .), generally regarded as the
( !hoice/( !hoosing, Marriage/Betrothal greatest Greek lyric poet, see Index oi Authors, I iterarj
PI I IAS, Jason's uncle, who sent Jason in search <>l the IeXtS, ( oil) posers, F'i I m makers, and I oik tales
Golden Fleece, |ourncy/Flight, Love and Death, PIRIT1 [OUS (PI IKON l< >US>, king of the I apiths, whose
Witchcraft/Sorcery wedding was the cause of the famous battle between the
PENEIUS, a river god ot Thcssaly, Metamorphosis I. apiths and the ( entaurs, ended hi days a prisoner of 1

PF.NFI OP1 , faithful wife oi Odysseus, Journey/Flight, I lades in the underworld, AIhIik lion/Rape,
kiss/kissing I )runkenness/Intoxication, Excess
PENTI IIvSILFA, queen of the Amazons, fought on the side PIT'FACUS (una 679 circa 650 B.( .), < Ireek statesman,
of the Trojans against the Greeks and was killed by poet, and military leader, Virtue/Virtues
Achilles, ( !aze PLATO Greek philosopher, see Index of
(427?-}47? b.< .),

PENTI II US, king of Thebes, denied the divinity of Authors, Literary Texts, Composers, Filmmakers, and
Dionysus, who lured him to spy on the Bacchants, folktales
including his mother, who discovered him and tore him
PLUTO see HADES
Abandonment, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Ecstasy
to pieces.
PI.U'I I is, the god ol wealth, Fortune
PERA, young mother who saved her father's life in prison POENA, personification ol Retaliation, Virtue/Virtues
by nursing him with her own milk, Virtue/Virtues
P01 UX see DIOS< URI
I

PERGAMON (PERGAMUM), ancient (.reek kingdom in l'( )l V( KA I I S (died urea 522 B.< .), tyrant ol Samos,
Asia Minor, Patronage
( 1 "ucifixion, I ortune
PERICLES (circa 495-429 B.C.), Athenian statesman.
POLYDEKES, king of the island Seriphus,
Patronage, Virtue/Virtues
Beheading/I >et apitation
PERSEPHONE (PROSEPINE, PROSERPINA), daughter of
POLYDEU( ESsee DIOSCURI
Zeus and Demeter, spends winter in the underworld as
POLYPI [EMUS, a yclops who ( imprisoned ( >dysseus,
the wife of lades, Abduction/Rape, Dreams/Visions,
I

I )runkenness/Intoxication, fourney/Flight
fatal Woman/Fcinmc Fatalc, |ourney/Flight, love and
P( )EYXENA, daughter of Priam and Hecuba, sacrificed on
Death, Music, Serpent's Bite, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Achilles tomb alter the Trojan War, I )estru< lion of City
PERSF.PNF.I, Ftruscan queen of the underworld, Damned
POMPEII, ancient Roman city destroyed by the eruption of
Souls
Vesuvius, Adulter)', ChoiceA hoosmg, Comic, Destruction
PERSEUS, the son of Zeus and Danae, killed Medusa and
of City, F.vil Eye, Logos/Word, Luxury, Mislortune,
rescued Andromeda, Adultery, Beheading/Decapitation,
Seasons, Serpent's Bite, Voyeurism
Fatal Woman/Fcmme Fatale, 1 lair/1 Iaircutting,
PONTIFEX, highly placed representative of Roman religious
Metamorphosis, Naked/Nude, Pregnancy, Sacrifice
structure, )evot ion/Piety
PERSIANS, ancient enemy of the Greeks against whom they
I

l-osi IDON iNl I'l uX I ), god of earthquakes, water, and the

waged war 500-449 B.C., Destruction of City, Luxury,
sea. Abandonment, Abduction/Rape, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
Reading
Birth/Childbirth, Damned Souls, lame, I l.ur/l Iaircutting,
PI IAETON, the son oi I Iclius, destroyed by his wish to
Sacrifice, Shipwreck, Zodiac
drive his father's chariot of the sun, Dawn/Dawning
PHANKS (AION), lord of Time in Orphism,
PR A EN I. SI F, ancient Roman city on the present A.w ate ot

Apotheosis/Deification, Zodiac Palestrina, Virtue/Virtues

PI IANTASOS, son of Somnus, appears as inanimate objects PRAXIDICAE, goddess, extracter of justice, [ustice

during dreams, Sleep/Sleeping PRIAM, king ol Troy tlurmg the I rojan War, Adultery, Ai ms
Raised, Destruction of City, judgment, Sanctuary
PHARAOH, title of ruler of Egypt, Destruction oi ( ity

PHARAOI at Memphis, I Apotheosis/Deification PRIAPUS, originally a fertility god, he ruled over plants and

PI IIDIAS 500-circa 432 B.C.), Greek sculptor,

(circa animals as well as chiklhcai nig women; Ins main
considered the finest artist in the ancient world, see attribute was a very large penis. Abundance,
Index of Artists and Works of Art Bacchanalia/Orgy, Drunkenness/Intoxication, I v I I ye

PHILIP, Till ARABIAN (MARCUS JULIUS PHILIPPUS) PROCRIS, mistakenly killed bj her husband, ( ephalus,
(a.d. 204?-249>, Roman emperor, Offering I luntmg/l lunter/l luntrcSS, I OVe and Death
PHOBETOR (ICELOS), son of Somnos, appears in beast PROETUS, king of riryn, Madness
forms during dreams, Sleep/Sleeping PR< )MI 1 1 [EUS, a Titan who championed mankind against
PI lOCION, Greek hero executed as a traitor, Betrayal, the gods, Artists/Art, Automata, Misfortune
Judgment PROS! PINE (PROSERPINA) see PI RSI PHON1
PI IOEBE, one of the daughters of I.eucippus, abducted by PR( ) 1 1 Sll Al is, knowing il would ( ause Ins death, he led
the Dioscuri, Abduction/Rape the first attack on lio\, thus leaving his mourning wife,

PHOEBUS APOLLO see APOLLO Laodomia, to die, I ove and I v.uh

>)S(. INDEX OF ANCIENT MYTHOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL PERSONAGES, PLACES, AND CONCEPTS

PSYCHE, a beautiful young maiden of whom Aphrodite SAGARITIS, beloved by Attis, Madness
was jealous, and Cupid beloved; she broke Cupid's SALMACIS, nymph who loved Hermaphroditus,
command to look at him, and embarked on a brave and Hermaphrodite/Androgyne
dangerous journey to effect a reconciliation with him, SAI.ONINA, wife of Caecina, envied for her dress, Envy
Abandonment, Abduction/Rape, Betrayal, Journey/Flight, SAPPHO (early 6th century B.C.), the greatest of the early
Luxury, Penitence/Repentance, Sleep/Sleeping lyric poets, Imagination/Creativity
PTAH, an Egyptian sun god, Eight II S ARD AN APALUS, Assyrian monarch at the fall of
PTOLEMY I (died 283 B.C.), first king of Macedonian Ninevah, Destruction of City, Excess, Luxury,
dynasty ruling Egypt, Calumny Virtue/Virtues
PTOLEMY II (circa 308-246 B.C.), king of Egypt, reformer SARGON (flourished circa 2800 B.C.), king of Accede
and patron of the arts, Apotheosis/Deification, Excess Mesopotamia, the dynasty he founded lasted two
in
PTOLEMY (CLAUDIUS PTOLEMAEUS) (flourished centuries and controlled much of the ancient Near East,
a.d. 127-141/151), Greco-Roman mathematician, Abandonment, Gaze
astronomer, and geographer in Alexandria, Egypt, Zodiac SARPF.DON, Zeus's son, u hose both is removed from
PURRHUS (NEOPTOLOMUS), Achilles' son, Destruction the battleground of Troy by Hypnos and Thanatos,
of City Pointing/Indicating, Sleep/Sleeping
PYGMALION, king of Cyprus, sculpted his ideal woman SATURN see CRONUS
and fell in love with her, Artists/Art, Automata, SATURNALIA, Roman festival with obscene singing and
Metamorphosis, Naked/Nude, Self-Portraits II dancing celebrated in December, Fools/Folly
PYRAMUS, courted Thisbe through a wall, and killed SATYR (FAUN), spirit of wildness and licentiousness,
himself, through a mistake, at their first meeting. Love
companions of Dionysus, Abduction/Rape, Automata,
and Death Bacchanalia/Orgy, Birth/Childbirth, Comic,
PYRRHIC DANCE, Dance/Dancers/Dancing Drunkenness/Intoxication, Ecstasy, Evil Eye, Gaze,
PYRRHUS (NEOPTOLEMUS), son of Achilles, Sanctuary Music, Peasantry, Voyeurism, Witchcraft/Sorcery
PYTHAGORAS (circa 582-507 B.C.), Greek philosopher, SCIPIO AFRICANUS (234-183 B.C.), Roman general in
Music, Path/Road/Crossroads
the Punic Wars, Virtue/Virtues
SCYLLA AND CHARYBDIS, a monster and a whirlpool
QUINTUS FABIUS MAXIMUS (died 623 B.C.), opponent of
on each narrow passage in the Strait of
side of a
Hannibal, Virtue/Virtues
Messina, Journey/Flight, Shipwreck
SEA NYMPHS see NYMPHS
RA/RE, the Egyptian sun god, Birth/Childbirth,
SELENE (LUNA), goddess of the moon, Dawn/Dawning,
Devotion/Piety, Funeral/Burial, Light II, Sanctuary,
Night, Sleep/Sleeping
Zodiac
SELEUCUS see ZALEUCUS
RAMOSE, Egyptian vizier, Thebes, Baptism
SEM, Egyptian priest involved with burial rites,
RAMSES, Egyptian pharaoh, Devotion/Piety
Funeral/Burial
REMUS see ROMULUS AND REMUS
SEMELE, seduced by Zeus, she became the mother of
RHADAMANTHUS, a Cretan lawgiver who was made a
Dionysus, Abduction/Rape, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
judge of the dead in Hades, Damned Souls, Judgment
Birth/Childbirth, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Madness
RHEA, a Titan, wife of Cronus, and mother of the gods,
Abundance, Dawn/Dawning
SENECA 35 b.c.-a.d. 65), Roman philosopher,
(circa

dramatist and statesman, see Index of Authors, Literary

RHEA SILVIA, a Vestal Virgin seduced by Ares; she gave
Texts, Composers, Filmmakers, and Folktales
birth to Romulus and Remus, Abundance, Love and
Death SENNOFER (15th century B.C.), mayor of Thebes, Baptism

RITHO, Egyptian goddess, Birth/Childbirth SERAPIS, Egyptian god connected with Apis, the Bull,
ROMA, tutelary goddess of the city of Rome, Arms Raised
Apotheosis/Deification SERVIUS TULLIUS (578-534 B.C.), sixth legendary king

ROMAN EMPIRE, Sin/Sinning of Rome, Fortune, Virtue/Virtues

ROMANS, Destruction of City SET, Egyptian god of chaos and confusion, Baptism, Zodiac
ROME, major city of the Roman Empire, Abundance, SHAMASH, Babylonian sun god, Arms Raised,
Comic, Destruction of City, Fame, Honor/Honoring, Devotion/Piety, Gaze, Justice
Journey/Flight, Love and Death, Luxury, Temptation, SICINNIUS, an exemplar of fortitude, Virtue/Virtues
Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery SILENS, half-human, half-beast creatures symbolizing
ROMULUS AND REMUS, abandoned by their mother, they drunkenness and lust, Drunkenness/Intoxication
were brought up by a wolf and lived to become the SILENUS, old and wise companion of Dionysus,
founders of Rome, Abandonment, Abundance, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Drunkenness/Intoxication
Birth/Childbirth, Destruction of City, Love and Death SILVANLIS, ancient pastoral god of fertility,

Apotheosis/Deification, Honor/Honoring
SABINA, empress, wife of Hadrian, Apotheosis/Deification SIRENS, bird-women who lured sailors with their songs,
SABINE WOMEN, invited to a festival by Romulus and Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Journey/Flight, Music,
abducted by the young men of Rome, Abduction/Rape Naked/Nude
 INDEX OF ANCIENT MYTHOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL PERSONAGES, PLACES, AND CONCEPTS 987

SISAMNES, corrupt judge flayed by Cambyses, Judgment TETHYS, a Titan, mother of the Oceanids, Fortune,
SISYPHUS, condemned to Hades, where he eternally rolled Pregnancy, Virtue/Virtues
a huge stone up to the top of a hill, only to have it roll TEUKROS, a warrior shown in some versions of the
down again, Ascent/Descent, Damned Souls, Misfortune sacrifice of Iphigenia, Sacrifice

SMILAX, beloved of Crocus, Metamorphosis THALIA, the muse of comedy, Laughter

SOCRATES (469-399 B.C.), Greek philosopher, Artists/Art, THALIA see GRACES
Choice/Choosing, Death, Excess, Melancholy, Self- THANATOS (MORS), death, or the personification of
Portraits I, Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness death, Love and Death, Pointing/Indicating, Sacrifice,
SOL INVICTUR, Syrian sun god, Arms Raised Sleep/Sleeping
SOLON (circa 639-559 B.C.), early Athenian poet and THEANO, Antenor's wife, and priestess of Athena, Betrayal
statesman, known as a reformer and law-giver, THEBES, Egyptian city, Destruction of City
Abundance, Grieving/Lamentation, Pointing/Indicating, THEIODAMAS, king of Dryopes, father of Hylas, killed by
Virtue/Virtues Hercules for his son, Abduction/Rape
SOMNUS see HYPNOS THEMIS, goddess of law and order, second wife of Zeus,
SOPHOCLES see Index of Authors, Literary Texts, Justice, Virtue/Virtues
THEODOSIUS I, THE GREAT (a.d.
Composers, Filmmakers, and Folktales 34 6?-39 5 ), Roman
SPARTACUS (died 71 B.C.), leader of a slave revolt, emperor of the East, Martyrdom
Crucifixion THEOPANE, changed into a ewe by her abductor Poseidon,
SPHINX, in Egypt, a symbol of vigilence with a lion's body Abduction/Rape
and a human head; in Greece, a symbol ofwisdom with THESEUS, the great hero of Athens, slew the Minotaur, flee-
the head and breasts of a woman, Dreams/Visions, Fatal ing with Ariadne whom he abandoned on Naxos;
Woman/Femme Fatale, Sanctuary he battled the Amazons and married their queen
STABIAE, favorite resort of the Romans, buried by the Hipppolyta; he was also involved with the battle of the
eruption of Mount Vesuvius, Seasons Lapiths and the Centaurs, as well as other adventures,
STOICISM, Greek school of philosophy founded by Zeno Abandonment, Abduction/Rape, Arms Raised,
or Critium in 3rd century B.C., Artists/Art, Death, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Excess,
Logos/Word, Widowhood, Zodiac Journey/Flight, Labyrinth/Maze
STYX, river leading to the underworld, Bath/Bathing, Light THETIS, a Nereid, was fated to bear a son that would
I, Order/Chaos, Penitence/Repentance, Upside Down become more powerful than his father; Zeus, although
attracted to her, ordained she should marry a mortal,
TAMMUZ, beloved of Inanna, Damned Souls, Seasons Bacchanalia/Orgy, Bath/Bathing, Choice/Choosing,
TANTALUS, immersed in a pool in Hades where the water Fame, Journey/Flight, Justice, Marriage/Betrothal,
receded when he tried to slake his thirst and the fruit Upside Down
was just out of reach above his head, Damned Souls, THISBE, courted through a wall by Pyramus, killed herself
Misfortune at finding Pyramus dead, Love and Death
TANUATH-AMEN, Ethiopian conqueror of Egypt, THOTH, Egyptian scribe to the gods, Pointing/Indicating
Dreams/Visions THUTMOSE IV, king of Egypt, reigned circa 1420-circa
TARQUINIUS COLLATINUS, husband of Lucretia, 141 1 B.C., Dreams/Visions
Adultery THYRSIS, a Virgilian shepherd, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
TARQUINIUS SEXTUS, son of Tarquinius Superbus and TIBER, river in central Italy, flowing past Rome,
raper of Lucretia, Adultery, Judgment, Betrayal Virgin/Virginity
TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS, last king of Rome, Adultery, TIBERIUS (42 b.c.-a.d. 37), second Roman emperor;
Judgment although he made financial reforms, he was very
TARTARUS, the dark underworld, the part of Hades unpopular, Apotheosis/Deification
where the worst punishments took place, and the TIBERIUS, son of Brutus, killed by him, Judgment
personification of it, Damned Souls TIGRIS, river flowing through Mesopotamia, now Iraq, into
TA-URT/TAWERET/THOERUS, Egyptian goddess the Euphrates, Journey/Flight
protecting women in childbirth, Pregnancy TIRESIAS, the blind seer of Thebes, who had lived as both
TAURUS, a peninsula on the coast of the Black Sea, now a man and a woman, Journey/Flight, Metamorphosis
called Crimea, Sacrifice TISIPHONE, one of the Erinyes, Madness
TELAMONS, sculptured male figures supporting an TITANS, ancient dieties, ruled by Cronus, the father of
entablature, Luxury Zeus, Abduction/Rape, Order/Chaos
TELEPHUS, exposed on a mountain top by his grandfather, TITHONUS, beloved of Eos, Dawn/Dawning
was rescued by a shepherd and suckled by a doe; he TITUS (circa a.d. 40-81), Roman emperor,
eventually became a hero in the Trojan War, Honor/Honoring, Virtue/Virtues
Abandonment TITUS, son of Brutus, killed by him. Judgment
TELLUS (TERRA) see GAIA TITYUS, a giant, exiled to Hades, where a snake or a
TERMINUS, god of boundaries, Dance/Dancers/Dancing vulture daily ate his liver. Damned Souls, Gaze,
TERRA see GAIA Misfortune
988 INDEX OF ANCIENT MYTHOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL PERSONAGES, PLACES, AND CONCEPTS

TMOLUS, a mountain god who judged the contest between VESTAL VIRGINS, priestesses of Hestia, the goddess of the
Pan and Apollo, Judgment hearth, Honor/Honoring, Virgin/Virginity
TOMYRIS, queen who overcame Cyrus the Great, VESUVIUS, ancient volcano that destroyed the cities of
Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, Fame, Justice Pompeii and Herculaneum in a.d. 79, Destruction of
TRAJAN (a.d. 5
3— 1 14), Roman emperor, Devotion/Piety, City, Evil Eye
Honor/Honoring, Justice, Virtue/Virtues VETURIA, the mother of Coriolanus, who persuaded him
TRITONS, minor sea gods with monstrous attributes, Fame, not to march into. Rome, Betrayal
Fight I, Serpent's Bite VIRGIL see Index of Authors, Literary Texts, Composers,
TROEZENIAN WOMEN, who cut off their hair before Filmmakers, and Folktales
marriage, dedicating it to Hippolytus, Hair/Haircutting VIRGILLUS, Abduction/Rape
TROILUS, son of Hecuba and Priam or Apollo, killed in VIRGINIA, daughter of Virgilinius, killed by her father to
the Trojan War, Beheading/Decapitation, Destruction save her honor, Betrayal, Judgment
of City VIRGINIUS, Roman centurion, killed his daughter to save
TROJAN HORSE, the hollow horse, filled with Greek her honor, Judgment
warriors, by which entrance was gained into Troy, VULCAN see HEPHAESTUS
Automata
TROJAN WAR, described in the Iliad and waged between XENOPHON see Index of Authors, Literary Texts,
the Greek cities and Troy over the abduction of Helen by Composers, Filmmakers, and Folktales
Paris, Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Bacchanalia/Orgy, XERXES (circa 465-419 B.C.), king of Persia, Luxury
Bath/Bathing, Beheading/Decapitation, Choice/Choosing,
Destruction of City, Honor/Honoring, Journey/Flight, ZALEUCUS, lawgiver in Locris, had his own eye plucked
Judgment, Madness, Sanctuary out to satisfy his judgment against his son, Judgment,
TROY (ILIUM), a Phrygian city, destroyed in the Trojan Justice
War, Adultery, Destruction of City, Expulsion, ZEPHYR, god of the west wind, Abduction/Rape,
Journey/Flight, Judgment, Labyrinth/Maze, Nightmare, Birth/Childbirth
Sacrifice, Sanctuary, Shipwreck, Sleep/Sleeping ZEUS (JUPITER), the most powerful of the Olympian
TUCCIA, Vestal Virgin who proved her chastity by carrying gods, particularly known for his sexual exploits,
water in a sieve, Virgin/Virginity Abduction/Rape, Abundance, Adultery,
TUTANKHAMUN (flourished circa 1355 B.C.), pharaoh of Apotheosis/Deification, Arms Raised, Ascent/Descent,
the Eighteenth Dynasty in Egypt, Funeral/Burial, Light II Bacchanalia/Orgy, Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal,
TYCHE/FORTUNA/FATE, the goddess of luck or fortune. Birth/Childbirth, Comic, Dawn/Dawning,
Abundance, Fortune, Virtue/Virtues, Widowhood Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Destruction of City,
TYNDAREUS, king of Sparta and husband of Leda, Devotion/Piety, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Ecstasy,
Adultery, Birth/Childbirth, Pointing/Indicating Evil Eye, Expulsion, Fame, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
TYRE, ancient city of Phoenicia, Destruction of City Imagination/Creativity, Justice, Labor/Trades/Occupations,
TYRRHENIAN PIRATES, Etruscans, Love and Death, Madness, Marriage/Betrothal,
Drunkenness/Intoxication Misfortune, Money, Order/Chaos, Peace,
Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy, Sanctuary, Serpent's Bite,
ULYSSES see ODYSSEUS Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sleep/Sleeping, Sublime,
UNDERWORLD see HADES Temptation, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Voyeurism,
UR OF THE CHALDEES, ancient city of Sumer in Zodiac
Mesopotamia, Sacrifice ZEUXIS see Index of Artists and Works of Art
URANIA, the Muse of Astronomy, Zodiac ZIUSUDRA, Sumerian king who built a boat to escape a
URANUS, god of the sky, Birth/Childbirth, deluge, Journey/Flight
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Hair/Haircutting ZODIAC, originating with the Babylonians, is a band across

the sky formed by the orbits of the sun, moon, and

VEII, ancient city of Vitruria, north of Rome, Luxury five planets known to the ancients; it contains the 12
VENUS see APHRODITE constellations, see Index of Other Names and Terms
VESPASIAN (a.d. 9-79), Roman emperor, founder of the ZOROASTER, religious teacher of ancient Persia,
Flavian dynasty, Luxury Abandonment, Order/Chaos
VESTA see HESTIA ZOZER, second king of the Third Dynasty of Egypt, Gaze
 INDEX OF JUDEO-CHRISTIAN
PERSONAGES, PLACES,
AND CONCEPTS

The titles which the subject is found. See citations refer the reader to
after the index term refer to the essays in
the term within the index or to other indexes where primary information can be found. See also citations refer
the reader to other terms within the index or to other indexes where additional information can be found.

AARON, Ascent/Descent, Sacrifice, Witchcraft/Sorcery ADORATION OF THE LAMB, Apocalypse

ABBOT(S), Dreams/Visions ADORATION OF THE MAGI (KINGS), Dawn/Dawning
ABEL, Communion, Envy, Expulsion, Fortune, Harvesting, Devotion/Piety, Money, Night, Path/Road/Crossroads,
Offering, Order/Chaos, Sacrifice, Sin/Sinning Pointing/Indicating
ABIGAIL, Abduction/Rape, Judgment ADORATION OF THE SHEPHERDS, Devotion/Piety,
ABRA, Drunkenness/Intoxication Night
ABRAHAM, Abduction/Rape, Annunciation, AGNUS DEI see LAMB OF GOD
Ascent/Descent, Beheading/Decapitation, Communion, AGONY IN THE GARDEN, Betrayal, Dawn/Dawning
Expulsion, Journey/Flight, Judaism, Laughter, AHADAB, Penitence/Repentance
Martyrdom, Music, Naked/Nude, Offering, AHASVERUS (WANDERING JEW), Journey/Flight,
Order/Chaos, Peace, Pointing/Indicating, Sacrifice, Path/Road/Crossroads, Self-Portraits I

Serpent's Bite, Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation AHAZIAH, Abduction/Rape

ABSALOM, Hair/Haircutting AHINOAM, Abduction/Rape
ADAM, Ascent/Descent, Automata, Beheading/Decapitation, AMALEKITES, Abduction/Rape
Communion, Crucifixion, Expulsion, Fame, ANGEL(S), Annunciation, Apocalypse, Ascent/Descent,
Journey/Flight, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Melancholy, Baptism, Bath/Bathing, Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth,
Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos, Penitence/Repentance, Communion, Dawn/Dawning, Dreams/Visions, Death,
Pointing/Indicating, Sanctuary, Serpent's Bite, Devotion/Piety, Ecstasy, Expulsion, Funeral/Burial,
Sleep/Sleeping, Temptation Grieving/Lamentation, Honor/Honoring,
ADAM AND EVE, Betrayal, Choice/Choosing, Damned Imagination/Creativity, Journey/Flight, Judaism,
Souls, Expulsion, Fortune, Journey/Flight, Justice, Judgment, Justice, Kiss/Kissing, Laughter, Light II,

Labor/Trades/Occupations, Margins/Outsiders, Madness, Margins/Outsiders, Martyrdom,

Marriage/Betrothal, Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos, Music, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads,
Pointing/Indicating, Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence,
Vices/Deadly Sins Pointing/Indicating, Protestantism, Reading,
ADORATION OF THE CHILD, Pointing/Indicating, Self-Portraits I, Sacrifice, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping,
Virgin/Virginity Sublime, Temptation, Upside Down, VanityA'anitas,

989
990 INDEX OF JUDEO-CHRISTIAN PERSONAGES, PLACES, AND CONCEPTS

Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation, BEATITUDES, Virtue/Virtues

Zodiac BEHEMOTH, Masks/Personae
ANGELIC COLLOQUY, Pregnancy BEL, Laughter
ANGELIC MISSION, Pregnancy BELISARIUS, Patronage
ANGELIC SALUTATION, Annunciation, Pregnancy BENEDICTINE ORDER, Protestantism
ANGELUS, Devotion/Piety BENJAMINITES, Abduction/Rape
ANGLICAN PRAYER BOOK, Marriage/Betrothal BETHANY, Hair/Haircutting, Sin/Sinning
ANNA, Annunciation, Birth/Childbirth, Kiss/Kissing, BETHEL, Ascent/Descent
Reading, Sacrifice BETHLEHEM, Birth/Childbirth, Path/Road/Crossroads,
ANNUNCIATION TO MARY see Index of Other Names Pregnancy, Vanity/Vanitas, Virgin/Virginity
and Terms BETHULIA, Justice
ANNUNCIATION TO THE SHEPHERDS, Annunciation, BILDAD, Laughter
Arms Raised, Light II, Path/Road/Crossroads, BISHOPS (see also SAINTS), Caricature/Cartoon, Death,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses Dreams/Visions, Penitence/Repentance
ANTI-ANABAPTIST, Protestantism ECCLESIUS, Patronage
ANTICHRIST, Birth/Childbirth, Caricature/Cartoon, VICTOR, Patronage
Protestantism, Witchcraft/Sorcery BODENSTEIN, ANDREAS RODOLF, see KARLSTADT
APOCALYPSE see Index of Other Names and Terms BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER, Marriage/Betrothal
APOCALYPTIC BEASTS, Fame, Honor/Honoring, BRAZEN SERPENT, Serpent's Bite
Judgment BROTHERHOOD OF OUR LADY (Spain), Vices/Deadly
APOSTLES (see also SAINTS; Index of Other Names and Sins
Terms), Apocalypse, Arms Raised, Communion, BURNING BUSH, Judaism
Funeral/Burial, Grieving/Lamentation, Light II,

Margins/Outsiders, Martyrdom, Order/Chaos, CAIAPHAS, Pointing/Indicating

Path/Road/Crossroads, Protestantism, CAIN, Envy, Expulsion, Fortune, Harvesting,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, Zodiac Labor/Trades/Occupations, Offering, Order/Chaos,
APOSTLES CREED, Ascent/Descent, Damned Souls Sacrifice, Sin/Sinning
APOSTOLIC FATHERS, Devotion/Piety CALVIN, JOHN/CALVINIST(S)/CALVINISM,
ARCHANGELS, Order/Chaos Caricature/Cartoon, Music, Protestantism
GABRIEL, Annunciation, Ascent/Descent, CAMILLIANS (nursing order), Plague/Pestilence
Birth/Childbirth, Justice, Offering, CANAAN (promised land), Baptism, Journey/Flight
Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy, Visiting/Visitation CANAAN (son of Ham), Drunkenness/Intoxication
MICHAEL, Birth/Childbirth, Damned Souls, Fame, CANON EPISCOPI 314, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Journey/Flight, Justice, Plague/Pestilence, CAPUCHINE ORDER, Devotion/Piety
Sin/Sinning, Virtue/Virtues CARDINAL(S), Crucifixion, Death, Vanity/Vanitas
ARCHBISHOPS, Death CARLSTADT see KARLSTADT
MAXIMIANUS, Patronage CARMELITES, Ascent/Descent
ARK (NOAH'S ARK), Journey/Flight, Shipwreck CATECHISM, Sin/Sinning, Virgin/Virginity
ARK FOR A TORAH, Judaism, Light I CATHOLIC(S) see ROMAN CATHOLIC(S)
ARK OF THE COVENANT, Light Plague/Pestilence,
I, CENSER, Funeral/Burial, Plague/Pestilence
Sanctuary, Sin/Sinning CHASUBLE(S), Funeral/Burial, Sanctuary
ARTHEMIA, Madness CHERUBIM, Witchcraft/Sorcery
ASCENSION, Apotheosis/Deification, Arms Raised, CHRIST (see also JESUS CHRIST; MARY/VIRGIN/
Ascent/Descent, Dawn/Dawning, Path/Road/Crossroads MADONNA: MADONNA AND CHILD)
ASPERGILLUM, Funeral/Burial CHRIST AS FIRST FRUIT OF THE VIRGIN,
ASSUMPTION, Apotheosis/Deification, Ascent/Descent, Abundance
Funeral/Burial CHRIST AS JUDGE, Choice/Choosing, Judgment,
ASTYAGES, KING, Laughter Justice, Zodiac
ATHALIAH, Abduction/Rape CHRIST AS KING, Zodiac
AUREOLE see Index of Other Names and Terms CHRIST AS MESSIAH, Ascent/Descent,
Dawn/Dawning, Sacrifice, Visiting/Visitation
BAAL, Ascent/Descent, Kiss/Kissing CHRIST ENTHRONED, Communion, Judgment
BALDACHIN, Plague/Pestilence CHRIST IN MAJESTY, Apocalypse, Fame, Light I
BAPTISM see JESUS CHRIST: BAPTISM (see also Index of CHRIST PANTOCRATOR, Arms Raised, Light I,
Other Names and Terms) Light II

BARNABITE ORDER, Devotion/Piety CHURCH FATHERS, Arms Raised, Devotion/Piety,

BARUCH, Abduction/Rape Light I, Logos/Word, Luxury, Music, Vanity/Vanitas,
BATHSHEBA, Adultery, Bath/Bathing, Betrayal, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues
Honor/Honoring, Humors, Naked/Nude, Temptation, CIBORIUM, Plague/Pestilence
Toilet Scenes, Voyeurism CISTERCIAN MONKS, Labor/Trades/Occupations
 INDKX OF JUDEO-CHRISTIAN PERSONAG1 S, PLA( I S, AND CONCEPTS 991

CITY OF GOD, Devotion/Piety, Justice DELILAH, Betrayal, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale,

( ,EOPAS, Path/Road/Crossroads
I Hair/Haircutting, Sin/Sinning, Toilet Scenes
CLOVIS (King of the Franks), Baptism DELUGE/FLOOD, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
COMMUNION see Index of Other Names and Terms Judgment, Martyrdom, Misfortune, Seasons,
CONSTANTINE THE GREAT, Communion, Crucifixion, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sublime
Dreams/Visions, Gaze, Logos/Word, Martyrdom, DESIDERIUS, ABBOT, see POPE VICTOR III
Night, Sanctuary, Sleep/Sleeping, Upside Down, DEVIL(S)(see also LUCIFER; SATAN; Index of Other

Virgin/Virginity Names and Terms), Abduction/Rape, Ascent/Descent,

CONSTANTIUS II, Gaze Avarice, Caricature/Cartoon, Communion, Damned
CORNELIUS THE CENTURIAN, Baptism, Crucifixion Souls, Death, Fools/lolly, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne,
COUNCIL OF EPHESUS (431), Virgin/Virginity Justice, Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/Betroth. il,

COUNCIL OF NICAEA (325), Virgin/Virginity Masks/Personae, Mirror/Reflection, Naked/Nude,

COUNCIL OF NICAEA (787), Martyrdom Order/Chaos, Protestantism, Serpent's Bite, Sin/Sinning,

COUNCIL OF TRENT (1562-1563), Abduction/Rape, Temptation, Vices/Deadly Sins, Witchcraft/Sorcery

Devotion/Piety, Marriage/Betrothal, DIASPORA, Judaism
Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence, Serpent's Bite, DIOCLETIAN, Communion
Virgin/Virginity DIOSCORUS, Betrayal
COUNTER-REFORMATION, Apocalypse, Arms Raised, DISCIPLE(S), Abandonment, Choice/Choosing,
Communion, Crucifixion, Devotion/Piety, Ecstasy,
Dreams/Visions, Order/Chaos, Shipwreck

Funeral/Burial, Honor/Honoring, Justice, Martyrdom, DISPENSATION(S), Annunciation

Music, Naked/Nude, Penitence/Repentance, DIVES AND LAZARUS see PARABLES: DIVES AND
Protestantism, Serpent's Bite, Shepherds/Shepherdesses,
LAZARUS
Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery
DIVINE JUDGMENT, Arms Raised

COVENANT(S), Abduction/Rape, Ascent/Descent,

DIVINE REVELATION, Light I, Logos/Word
Communion, Dawn/Dawning, Dreams/Visions, Judaism,
DIVINE WILL, Grieving/Lamentation, Witchcraft/Sorcery
DOMINICAN(S), Calumny, Comic, Peasantry,
Justice, Virtue/Virtues
Penitence/Repentance, Vices/Deadly Sins,
CREATION (see also Index of Other Names and Terms),
Witchcraft/Sorcery
Ascent/Descent, Order/Chaos, Temptation, Vices/Deadly
Sins
EASTER, Martyrdom
CROSS CRUCIFIX; JESUS CHRIST: CRUCIFIXION;
see
EBENEZER, Sin/Sinning
Index of Other Names and Terms
ECCE AGNUS DEI see LAMB OF GOD
CROSSING (PARTING) OF THE RED SEA, Baptism,
ECCE HOMO see JESUS CHRIST: ECCE HOMO
Journey/Flight
ELDERS, Apocalypse, Bath/Bathing, Dreams/Visions, Fame,
CROWN OF THORNS, Grieving/Lamentation, Judaism
Justice, Margins/Outsiders, Music, Toilet Scenes,
CRUCIFIX, Arms Raised, Crucifixion,
Voyeurism, Widowhood
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Protestantism, Vanity/Vanitas
ELECT, Order/Chaos
CRUCIFIXION see JESUS CHRIST: CRUCIFIXION
ELI, Sin/Sinning
(see also Index of Other Names and Terms)
F.LIJAH, Ascent/Descent, Metamorphosis,
Path/Road/Crossroads
DALMATIC(S), Funeral/Burial, Honor/Honoring
ELIPHAZ, Laughter
DAMASCUS, Penitence/Repentance
ELIZABETH, Annunciation, Birth/Childbirth, Pregnancy,
DANIEL, Arms Raised, Bath/Bathing, Calumny, Visiting/Visitation
Communion, Dreams/Visions, Justice, Laughter, EMMAUS, Path/Road/Crossroads
Madness, Martyrdom, Order/Chaos, Reading, ENOCH, Ascent/Descent
Shipwreck EPIPHANY, Ascent/Descent
DAVID, Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Ascent/Descent, EPISCOPALIAN(S), Protestantism
Bath/Bathing, Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, ESAU, Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
Envy, Grieving/Lamentation, Hair/Haircutting, ESTHER, Betrayal, Fame, Marriage/Betrothal
Honor/Honoring, Journey/Flight, Judaism, Judgment, ETIMASIA (HETOIMASIA), Judgment
Justice, Kiss/Kissing, Laughter, Light I, Madness, EUCHARIST, Baptism, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Communion,
Melancholy, Music, Penitence/Repentance, Crucifixion, Ecstasy, Fame, Harvesting, Honor/Honoring,
Plague/Pestilence, Reading, Sacrifice, Self-Portraits I, Light I, Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/Betrothal,
Serpent's Bite, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Temptation, Path/Road/Crossroads, Plague/Pestilence, Protestantism.
Toilet Scenes, Virgin/Virginity, Visiting/Visitation, Sacrifice, Sin/Sinning, Virtue/Virtues
Voyeurism EULOGIA, Plague/Pestilence
DAY OF ATONEMENT, Sacrifice HIERONYMUS SOPHRONIUS see
EUSEBIUS SAINTS:
DAY OF WRATH, Fame JEROME
DAYS OF AWE, Judgment EVANGELISTS, Apocalypse, Ecstasy, Honor/Honoring,
DEACON(S)/DEACONESS(ES), Honor/Honoring Imagination/Creativity, Margins/Outsiders, Virtue/Virtues
992- INDEX OF JUDEO-CHRISTIAN PERSONAGES, PLACES, AND CONCEPTS

JOHN, Baptism, Betrayal, Communion, Crucifixion, GOD THE FATHER (see also HAND OF GOD; GRACE
Funeral/Burial, Grieving/Lamentation, OF GOD; KINGDOM OF GOD; LAMB OF GOD;
Imagination/Creativity, light I, Metamorphosis, THRONE OF GOD; YAHWEH), Abduction/Rape,
Nightmare, Protestantism, Reading, Abundance, Adultery, Annunciation,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sleep/Sleeping, Zodiac Apotheosis/Deification, Arms Raised, Ascent/Descent,
LUKE, Artists/Art, Ascent/Descent, Communion, Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth, Comic, Communion,
Imagination/Creativity, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Dawn/Dawning, Ecstasy, Envy, Expulsion, Fatal
Plague/Pestilence, Reading, Self-Portraits I Woman/Femme Fatale, Fortune, Gaze, Hair/Haircutting,
MATTHEW, Ascent/Descent, Imagination/Creativity, Imagination/Creativity, Journey/Flight, Judaism,
Light II, Money, Order/Chaos, Pointing/Indicating, Judgment, Justice, Labor/Trades/Occupations,
Protestantism, Reading, Zodiac Labyrinth/Maze, Laughter, Light I, Madness,
%

MARK, Imagination/Creativity, Plague/Pestilence, Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/Betrothal, Martyrdom,

Reading Masks/Personae, Melancholy, Mirror/Reflection,
EVE (see also ADAM AND EVE), Arms Raised, Misfortune, Music, Offering, Order/Chaos,
Ascent/Descent, Betrayal, Choice/Choosing, Path/Road/Crossroads, Patronage, Penitence/Repentance,
Communion, Expulsion, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Plague/Pestilence, Pointing/Indicating, Protestantism,
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Humors, Judaism, Reading, Sacrifice, Sanctuary, Seasons, Serpent's Bite,

Marriage/Betrothal, Melancholy, Naked/Nude, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Sublime, Temptation,

Order/Chaos, Pointing/Indicating, Seasons, Sin/Sinning, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues,
Sleep/Sleeping, Temptation, Virgin/Virginity Visiting/Visitation, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
EXODUS, Journey/Flight, Misfortune GODHEAD, Melancholy
EXPULSION FROM EDEN, Expulsion, Journey/Flight, GOLDEN CALF, Ascent/Descent, Automata,
Order/Chaos, Sin/Sinning Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Journey/Flight, Money,
EZEKIEL, Fortune, Virgin/Virginity Sacrifice, Witchcraft/Sorcery
GOLEM, Ascent/Descent, Automata
FALL, Abundance, Arms Raised, Ascent/Descent, Betrayal, GOLGOTHA, Ascent/Descent, Crucifixion, Light I,

Choice/Choosing, Expulsion, Fortune, Humors, Justice, Path/Road/Crossroads

Melancholy, Order/Chaos, Penitence/Repentance, GOLIATH, Beheading/Decapitation, Honor/Honoring,
Pointing/Indicating, Protestantism, Self-Portraits I, Music, Naked/Nude, Self-Portraits I

Serpent's Bite, Sin/Sinning, Temptation GOOD FRIDAY, Protestantism

FEAST THE HOUSE OF LEVI, Sin/Sinning
IN GOOD SHEPHERD, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Communion,
FEAST OF THE ANNUNCIATION, Annunciation Crucifixion, Damned Souls, Light I, Martyrdom, Music,
FEAST OF THE EPIPHANY, Peace Sacrifice, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
FEAST OF THE NATIVITY, Annunciation GOOD THIEF (see also THIEVES), Penitence/Repentance
FEAST OF SUKKOTH (THE TABERNACLE), Offering GRACE OF GOD (see also Index of Other Names and
FIERY FURNACE, Martyrdom Terms), Abundance, Light I

FLIGHT INTO EGYPT, Expulsion, Journey/Flight,

Path/Road/Crossroads, Pointing/Indicating HABAKKUK, Communion
FLOOD see DELUGE/FLOOD HAGAR, Expulsion, Pointing/Indicating, Virtue/Virtues
FOUR HORSEMEN, Apocalypse, Order/Chaos HALO see Index of Other Names and Terms
FOUR LAST THINGS, Sin/Sinning HAM, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Sleep/Sleeping, Voyeurism
FOX, GEORGE, Expulsion HAMAN, Hanging
FRANCISCAN ORDER, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, HAND OF GOD, Ascent/Descent, Baptism,
Virtue/Virtues Imagination/Creativity, Order/Chaos, Sacrifice
HANNAH, Reading
GACIUS, Martyrdom HANNUKAH, Betrayal, Light I

GALILEE, Birth/Childbirth HARROWING OF HELL, Damned Souls

GARDEN OF EDEN (PARADISE), Ascent/Descent, HEAVEN (see also PARADISE; Index of Other Names and
Choice/Choosing, Expulsion, Harvesting, Humors, Terms), Ascent/Descent, Choice/Choosing, Damned
Marriage/Betrothal, Melancholy, Naked/Nude, Souls, Dreams/Visions, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
Offering, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, Expulsion, Funeral/Burial, Grieving/Lamentation,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Journey/Flight, Judgment, Laughter, Margins/Outsiders,
Vices/Deadly Sins Martyrdom, Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos,
GARDEN OF GETHSEMANE, Choice/Choosing Penitence/Repentance, Protestantism, Sin/Sinning,
GATE OF THE LORD, Judaism Sleep/Sleeping, Upside Down, Vices/Deadly Sins
GATH, KING OF, Madness HEAVENLY BRIDEGROOM, Communion
GENEZARETH, SEA OF, Madness HEAVENLY JERUSALEM, Apocalypse
GENTILES, Expulsion, Shipwreck, Virtue/Virtues HEAVENLY KINGDOM, Light I

GERASA, Madness HEBREW(S) see Index of Other Names and Terms

GLORIA DEI, Music HELIODORUS, Expulsion
 INDEX OF JUDEO-CHRISTIAN PERSONAGES, PLACES, AND CONCEPTS 993

HELL, Apocalypse, Arms Raised, Ascent/Descent, Comic, Order/Chaos, Peace, Pointing/Indicating, Sacrifice,
Communion, Damned Souls, Hanging, Journey/Flight, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Zodiac
Judgment, Kiss/Kissing, Margins/Outsiders, JACOB'S LADDER (Jacob's Dream), Ascent/Descent,
Masks/Personae, Music, Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos, Dreams/Visions, Night, Sleep/Sleeping
Sin/Sinning, Upside Down, Vices/Deadly Sins JACOB WRESTLING WITH AN ANGEL,
HERMOGENES, Witchcraft/Sorcery Ascent/Descent, Dawn/Dawning, Dreams/Visions
HEROD, Birth/Childbirth, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, JAEL, Betrayal, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Justice,
FatalWoman/Femme Fatale, Journey/Flight Sin/Sinning
HERODIAS, Beheading/Decapitation, JAHWAH see YAHWEH
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, JANSENISTS, Devotion/Piety, Penitence/Repentance
Path/Road/Crossroads JAPHETH, Drunkenness/Intoxication
HEZEKIAH, Laughter JEHOSHEBA, Abduction/Rape
HOLOFERNES, Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, JEHOVAH (see also GOD; YAHWEH),
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Penitence/Repentance
Justice, Naked/Nude, Self-Portraits I, Sin/Sinning, JEPTHAH AND HIS DAUGHTER, Beheading/Decapitation
Sleep/Sleeping, Virtue/Virtues JEREMIAH, Abduction/Rape, Destruction of City, Zodiac
HOLY FAMILY, Expulsion, Journey/Flight, Patronage, JERUSALEM (see also HEAVENLY JERUSALEM; JESUS
Path/Road/Crossroads, Pointing/Indicating, Sacrifice CHRIST: ENTRY INTO JERUSALEM; Index of Other
HOLY GRAIL, Light 1 Names and Terms), Ascent/Descent, Destruction of City,
HOLY SPIRIT/HOLY GHOST, Abundance, Annunciation, Grieving/Lamentation, Honor/Honoring, Journey/Flight,
Baptism, Communion, Order/Chaos, Peace, Laughter, Light I, Path/Road/Crossroads,
Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy, Virgin/Virginity, Plague/Pestilence, Sanctuary, Visiting/Visitation,
Virtue/Virtues Widowhood
HOLY WATER, Funeral/Burial JESSE, Ascent/Descent
HOLY WOMEN, Death, Funeral/Burial JESUITS see SOCIETY OF JESUS
HOPHNI, Sin/Sinning JESUS CHRIST (see also CHRIST IN MAJESTY; CHRIST
HORTUS CONCLUSUS, Annunciation, Whiteness AS MESSIAH; CHRIST AS KING; CHRIST
HOSEA, Marriage/Betrothal, Sacrifice PANTOCRATOR), Abandonment, Apocalypse,
HOST, Betrayal, Communion, Fools/Folly, Apotheosis/Deification, Arms Raised,
Path/Road/Crossroads, Plague/Pestilence, Virtue/Virtues Artists/Art, Ascent/Descent, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
HUGUENOTS, Protestantism Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, Choice/Choosing,
HUNT OF THE UNICORN, Annunciation Communion, Death, Devotion/Piety, Dreams/Visions,
HUS (HUSS), JOHN, Protestantism Ecstasy, Fortune, Hair/Haircutting,Hanging, Harvesting,
HYMNS see Index of Other Names and Terms Honor/Honoring, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
Journey/Flight, Judaism, Judgment, Justice,
IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, Adultery, Apocalypse, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Labyrinth/Maze, Laughter,
Ecstasy, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Virgin/Virginity Light I, Logos/Word, Madness, Margins/Outsiders,
INCARNATION, Arms Raised, Crucifixion, Martyrdom, Masks/Personae, Melancholy,
Grieving/Lamentation, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Mirror/Reflection, Misfortune, Money, Music,
Reading, Virtue/Virtues Naked/Nude, Night, Order/Chaos, Patronage,
INQUISITION, Penitence/Repentance, Sin/Sinning, Penitence/Repentance, Path/Road/Crossroads,
Vices/Deadly Sins, Witchcraft/Sorcery Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy, Protestantism, Reading,
INSTRUMENTS OF THE PASSION, Judgment, Sacrifice, Sanctuary, Self-Portraits I, Serpent's Bite,
Sleep/Sleeping Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning,
ISAAC, Annunciation, Ascent/Descent, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation,
Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, Crucifixion, Expulsion, Widowhood, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Judaism, Laughter, Light I, BIRTH OR NATIVITY OF JESUS, Annunciation,
Martyrdom, Naked/Nude, Offering, Order/Chaos, Peace, Baptism, Bath/Bathing, Birth/Childbirth,
Pointing/Indicating, Sacrifice, Sanctuary, Virtue/Virtues Dawn/Dawning, Devotion/Piety,
ISAIAH, Music, Reading Labor/Trades/Occupations, Light II, Melancholy,
ISHMAEL, Expulsion, Pointing/Indicating, Virtue/Virtues Night, Path/Road/Crossroads, Pregnanes,
ISRAEL/ISRAELITES {see also Index of Other Names and Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning,
Terms), Abduction/Rape, Dawn/Dawning, Destruction of Virgin/Virginity
City, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Journey/Flight, BAPTISM OF JESUS, Baptism, Naked/Nude, Peace
Laughter, Misfortune, Order/Chaos, Serpent's Bite, TEMPTATION, Ascent/Descent,
Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac Path/Road/Crossroads, Temptation
JESUS IN THE CARPENTER'S SHOP, Light II
JACOB, Abduction/Rape, Ascent/Descent, Betrayal, JESUS AT THE TEMPLE, Ascent/Descent, Expulsion,
Birth/Childbirth, Fortune, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Money
Journey/Flight, Marriage/Betrothal, Offering, MARRIAGE AT CANA, Marriage/Betrothal
994 INDEX OF JUDEO-CHRISTIAN PERSONAGES, PLACES, AND CONCEPTS

TRANSFIGURATION, Metamorphosis, JOSEPH (Old Testament), Abduction/Rape, Ascent/Descent,

Shepherds/Shepherdesses Betrayal, Dreams/Visions, Envy, Harvesting, Offering,
ENTRY INTO JERUSALEM, Honor/I lonoring, Pointing/Indicating, Virtue/Virtues
Margins/Outsiders, Path/Road/Crossroads JOSEPH AND POTIPHAR'S WIFE, Adultery,
ARREST OF JESUS CHRIST, Night, Betrayal,Calumny, Judgment, Offering,
Path/Road/Crossroads Temptation
MOCKING OF JESUS CHRIST, JOSEPH (New Testa-ment), Birth/Childbirth, Fortune,
Drunkenness/Intoxication Labor/Trades/Occupations, Light II, Marriage/Betrothal,
FLAGELLATION OF JESUS CHRIST, Vanity/Vanitas Melancholy, Pregnancy, Visiting/Visitation
ECCE HOMO, Pointing/Indicating JOSEPH OF ARIMATHAEA, Crucifixion, Death,

PASSION, Arms Raised, Betrayal, Death, Funeral/Burial, Grieving/Lamentation

Devotion/Piety, Grieving/Lamentation, JUDAH, Abduction/Rape, Betrayal, Laughter

Honor/Honoring, Journey/Flight, Justice, JUDAS ISCARIOT, Betrayal, Communion, Evil Eye,

Mirror/Reflection, Naked/Nude, Night, Gaze, Hair/Haircutting, Hanging, Kiss/Kissing,

Sleep/Sleeping, Vices/Deadly Sins, Margins/Outsiders, Money, Penitence/Repentance,

Virtue/Virtues Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues

CARRYING THE CROSS (ROAD TO CALVARY), JUDEA, Peace, Witchcraft/Sorcery

Journey/Flight, Margins/Outsiders JUDITH, Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal,

CRUCIFIXION (CHRIST ON THE CROSS) Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale,

(see also Index of Other Names and Terms), Justice, Naked/Nude, Night, Sin/Sinning, Toilet Scenes,
Virtue/Virtues
Arms Raised, Artists/Art, Ascent/Descent,
Beheading/Decapitation, Choice/Choosing,
JULIANUS ARGENTARIUS, Patronage
Communion, Crucifixion, Damned Souls, JUSTINIAN (Byzantine emperor), Abduction/Rape, Light I,

Patronage, Sanctuary
Dawn/Dawning, Death, Funeral/Burial,
JUSTINIAN, DEACON, Sleep/Sleeping
Judaism, Masks/Personae, Mirror/Reflection,
Naked/Nude, Offering, Path/Road/Crossroads,
Penitence/Repentance, Pointing/Indicating,
KARLSTADT (ANDREAS RUDOLF BODENSTEIN),
Protestantism
Protestantism, Sacrifice, Serpent's Bite,
Sin/Sinning, Virtue/Virtues
KINGDOM OF GOD/HEAVEN, Fortune, Light II

KOIMESIS, Virgin/Virginity
DEPOSITION, Death, Grieving/Lamentation
ENTOMBMENT, Arms Raised, Crucifixion,
LABAN, Betrayal, Sacrifice
Funeral/Burial, Grieving/Lamentation,
LACRANTIUS, Upside Down
Journey/Flight, Masks/Personae, Naked/Nude
LAKE OF GENESARETH, Shipwreck, Sleep/Sleeping
RESURRECTION, Abundance,
LAMB OF GOD/ECCE AGNUS DEI, Communion,
Apotheosis/Deification, Arms Raised,
Devotion/Piety, Grieving/Lamentation, Judgment,
Ascent/Descent, Crucifixion, Damned Souls,
Martyrdom, Pointing/Indicating, Protestantism,
Dawn/Dawning, Funeral/Burial,
Sacrifice
Grieving/Lamentation, Honor/Honoring,
LAMENTATION (see also Index of Other Names
Journey/Flight, Light Martyrdom,
II,
and Terms), Arms Raised, Betrayal, Death,
Mirror/Reflection, Naked/Nude, Offering,
Grieving/Lamentation, Night
Path/Road/Crossroads, Penitence/Repentance,
LAST JUDGMENT, Apocalypse, Ascent/Descent,
Protestantism, Shipwreck, Sleep/Sleeping
Choice/Choosing, Damned Souls, Fame, Hanging,
JOURNEY TO EMMAUS, Path/Road/Crossroads Harvesting, Judgment, Justice, Light I, Naked/Nude,

MAN OF SORROWS, Melancholy Night, Order/Chaos, Protestantism, Self-Portrv.cs I,

HUMAN NATURE OF CHRIST, Abundance Serpent's Bite, Sin/Sinning, Vanity/Vanitas,

JESUITS see SOCIETY OF JESUS Vices/Deadly Sins
JOAB, Hair/Haircutting LAST SUPPER, Arms Raised, Betrayal, Communion,
JOACHIM (husband of Anna), Annunciation, Devotion/Piety, Grieving/Lamentation,
Birth/Childbirth, Kiss/Kissing, Sacrifice Margins/Outsiders, Martyrdom, Night,
JOACHIM (husband of Susanna), Adultery Path/Road/Crossroads, Protestantism
JOASH, Abduction/Rape LAZARUS (brother of Martha and Mary), Arms Raised,
JOB, Envy, Laughter, Misfortune Hair/Haircutting, Protestantism, Sin/Sinning
JOBIA, Madness LAZARUS (leper) see PARABLES: DIVES AND LAZARUS
JOEL, Betrayal LEAH, Envy, Mirror/Reflection
JOHANAN, Abduction/Rape LENT, Crucifixion
JOHN THE BAPTIST see SAINTS LENTEN HYMNS, Sacrifice
JONAH, Arms Raised, Crucifixion, LENTEN PROCESSIONS, Path/Road/Crossroads,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Shipwreck Penitence/Repentance
JONATHAN, Grieving/Lamentation, Kiss/Kissing LEVIATHAN, Masks/Personae
 INDEX OF JUDEO-CHRISTIAN PERSONAGES, PLACES, AND CONCEPTS 995

LILITH, Expulsion, Sin/Sinning, Toilet Scenes, Zodiac CORONATION OF THE VIRGIN,

LIMBO, Damned Souls, Journey/Flight, Margins/Outsiders, Grieving/Lamentation, Honor/Honoring, Light II

Sin/Sinning REGINA COELI (QUEEN OF HEAVEN),

LION OF JUDAH, Judaism Honor/Honoring, Light I, Light II, Sin/Sinning
LITURGY, Death, Sacrifice VIRGIN IMMACULATA, Annunciation,
LORD'S PRAYER, Virtue/Virtues Apocalypse, Arms Raised, Ascent/Descent,
LOT, Abduction/Rape, Pointing/Indicating Penitence/Repentance, Sin/Sinning, Virgin/Virginity
LOT AND HIS DAUGHTERS, Betrayal, Sin/Sinning MASS, Annunciation, Betrayal, Fools/Folly,
LUCIFER (see also DEVIL[S]; SATAN), Expulsion, Imagination/Creativity, Marriage/Betrothal, Martyrdom,
Masks/Personae, Sin/Sinning, Vices/Deadly Sins Sacrifice, Witchcraft/Sorcery
LULAB, Light I, Offering MASSACRE OF THE INNOCENT, Path/Road/Crossroads
LUTHER, M A RTIN/LUTH ER AN S )/LUTHER ANISM,
( MEDIA see Index of Ancient Mythological and Historical
Caricature/Cartoon, Crucifixion, Order/Chaos, Personages, Places, and Concepts
Protestantism, Serpent's Bite MELANCHTHON, PHILIP, Melancholy, Protestantism
MELCHIZEDEK, Communion
MACCABAEUS, SIMON, Offering MELITA, Shipwreck
MADONNA AND CHILD see MENNONITE(S), Sin/Sinning
MARY/VIRGIN/MADONNA MENORAH, Betrayal, Judaism, Light I, Logos/Word, Offering
MAGEN (MOGEN) DAVID see STAR OF DAVID MERTON, THOMAS, Ascent/Descent
MAGI (see also ADORATION), Birth/Childbirth, MESSIAH (see also CHRIST AS MESSIAH), Judgment,
Dawn/Dawning, Kiss/Kissing, Journey/Flight, Money, Reading
Path/Road/Crossroads METHODISTS, Ecstasy, Witchcraft/Sorcery
MALCHUS, Betrayal MIRIAM, Ascent/Descent, Dance/Dancers/Dancing
MANDYLION OF EDESSA, Beheading/Decapitation MITRE(S), Caricature/Cartoon
MANOAH, Annunciation, Sacrifice MITZVAH, Judaism
MARIOLATRY/MARIOLOGY, Devotion/Piety, Music, MOAB/MOABITES, Destruction of City
Virgin/Virginity MOGEN (MAGEN) DAVID see STAR OF DAVID
MARME, Virtue/Virtues MONK(S) see Index of Other Names and Terms
MARTYRDOM see Index of Other Names and Terms MONSTRANCE(S), Communion, Path/Road/Crossroads
MARY/VIRGIN/MADONNA, Communion, Crucifixion, MORMONS, Dreams/Visions
Death, Devotion/Piety, Dreams/Visions, Funeral/Burial, MOSES, Abandonment, Ascent/Descent, Baptism,
Grieving/Lamentation, Honor/Honoring, Journey/Flight, Crucifixion, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Humors,
Justice, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Light I, Journey/Flight, Judaism, Justice,
Mirror/Reflection, Money, Order/Chaos, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Light I, Logos/Word,
Path/Road/Crossroads, Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, Martyrdom, Metamorphosis, Money, Order/Chaos,
Protestantism, Reading, Sacrifice, Self-Portraits I, Path/Road/Crossroads, Reading, Sanctuary, Serpent's
Sin/Sinning, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Bite, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning,
Visiting/Visitation, Whiteness, Zodiac Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
BIRTH OF MARY, Birth/Childbirth, Music MOUNT ARARAT, Ascent/Descent, Journey/Flight
MARY AT THE TEMPLE, Ascent/Descent MOUNT CARMEL, Ascent/Descent
MARRIAGE TO JOSEPH, Marriage/Betrothal MOUNT MORIAH, Music
ANNUNCIATION see Index of Other Names and MOUNT OF OLIVES, Honor/Honoring, Mirror/Reflection
Terms MOUNT SINAI, Ascent/Descent, Judaism, Sanctuary
MADONNA AND CHILD (VIRGIN AND CHILD), MOUNT ZION, Ascent/Descent
Apocalypse, Apotheosis/Deification, Artists/Art,
Betrayal, Fame, Imagination/Creativity, NAAMAN, Bath/Bathing
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Mirror/Reflection, NABAL, Judgment
Music, Path/Road/Crossroads, Sanctuary, NAME (OF THE LORD), Light I

Sleep/Sleeping, Virgin/Virginity NATHAN, Adultery

CHRIST AS FIRST FRUIT OF THE VIRGIN,
Abundance
PIETA, Death, Funeral/Burial, Grieving/Lamentation,
Madness, Naked/Nude, Peace
MATER DOLOROSA, Honor/Honoring
DEATH/DORMITION OF THE VIRGIN,
Annunciation, Grieving/Lamentation, Music,
Path/Road/Crossroads, Virgin/Virginity
ASSUMPTION OF THE VIRGIN,
Apotheosis/Deification, Ascent/Descent,
Grieving/Lamentation, Music, Virgin/Virginity
NATIONAL COVENANT (16^8), Martyrdom
NATIVITY see JESUS CHRIST BIRTH OR NATIVITY
OF JESUS
NAZARETH, Reading
NEBUCHADNEZZAR, Madness
NICODEMUS, Funeral/Burial, Grieving/Lamentarion
NIMROD, Ascent/Descent, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
NOAH, Ascent/Descent, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
Journey/Flight, Light II, Marriage/Betrothal, Martyrdom,
Misfortune, Order/Chaos, Peace, Sacrifice, Seasons,
Shipwreck, Sleep/Sleeping, Voyeurism
996 INDEX OF JUDEO-CHRISTIAN PERSONAGES, PLACES, AND CONCEPTS

NOLI ME TANGERE, Path/Road/Crossroads, Sin/Sinning GREGORY VII, Penitence/Repentance

NUN(S) see Index of Other Names and Terms HONORIUS, Martyrdom
NUNCIATURE, Sanctuary INNOCENT III, Abduction/Rape
INNOCENT VIII, Vices/Deadly Sins,
OLIVETANS (nursing order), Plague/Pestilence Witchcraft/Sorcery
ONIAS, Expulsion INNOCENT X, Physiognomy
ORIGINAL SIN, Fall JOAN, Birth/Childbirth
OUR LADY OF CARMEL, Ascent/Descent JOHN VIII, Birth/Childbirth

JULIUS II, Caricature/Cartoon, Expulsion,

PALM SUNDAY, Honor/Honoring Hair/Haircutting, Luxury, Patronage
PAPAL BULL OF 1233, Witchcraft/Sorcery LEO X, Peace, Serpent's Bite .

PAPAL BULL OF 1484, Witchcraft/Sorcery PAUL III, Judgment, Penitence/Repentance

PARABLE OF THE RICH MAN see PARABLES: DIVES PAUL IV, Pointing/Indicating
AND LAZARUS SIMPLICIUS, Martyrdom
PARABLES (see also Index of Other Names and Terms), URBAN VIII, Self-Portraits I

Protestantism VICTOR III, Patronage

DIVES AND LAZARUS, Avarice, Damned Souls, POPERY, Marriage/Betrothal
Margins/Outsiders, Order/Chaos, POTIPHAR'S WIFE see JOSEPH AND POTIPHAR'S WIFE
Pointing/Indicating, Protestantism
PRESBYTER(S),Virgin/Virginity
PRODIGAL SON, Damned Souls, Journey/Flight,
PRINCE OF DARKNESS see DEVIL(S); LUCIFER; SATAN
Penitence/Repentance, Protestantism,
PRODIGAL SON see PARABLES: PRODIGAL SON
Self-Portraits I
PROMISED LAND, Journey/Flight
PARADISE (see also GARDEN OF EDEN; HEAVEN; PROPHETS, Arms Raised, Ascent/Descent, Devotion/Piety,
Index of Other Names and Terms), Ascent/Descent,
Dreams/Visions, Fortune, Harvesting, Journey/Flight,
Betrayal, Crucifixion, Expulsion, Light I, Logos/Word,
Light I, Order/Chaos, Protestantism, Reading, Zodiac
Marriage/Betrothal, Pointing/Indicating, Vices/Deadly
PROTESTANT(S), Apocalypse, Artists/Art,
Sins
Caricature/Cartoon, Communion, Crucifixion, Death,
PARALYTIC(S), Sin/Sinning
Devotion/Piety, Ecstasy, Female Beauty and Adornment,
PARAMENT(S), Plague/Pestilence
Journey/Flight, Marriage/Betrothal, Martyrdom,
PASCHAL LAMB, Betrayal, Communion, Martyrdom
Order/Chaos, Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence,
PASCHASIUS, Betrayal
Protestantism, Self-Portraits I, Sin/Sinning,
PASSION see JESUS CHRIST: PASSION
Virgin/Virginity
PASSOVER, Betrayal, Communion
PROTHESIS, Funeral/Burial
PATER NOSTRE see LORD'S PRAYER
PUBLICAN(S), Protestantism
PATRIARCHS, Journey/Flight, Zodiac
PEACEABLE KINGDOM, Logos/Word, Order/Chaos PURGATORY, Ascent/Descent, Death,
Path/Road/Crossroads, Whiteness
PENTECOST, Devotion/Piety, Path/Road/Crossroads
PHARAOH (see also Index of Ancient Mythological and
Historical Personages, Places, and Concepts), Adultery,
QUAKER(S), Expulsion
Abandonment, Apotheosis/Deification, Dreams/Visions, QUINTIAN, Martyrdom
Journey/Flight, Misfortune, Offering, Pointing/Indicating,
QUINTILIUS VARUS, Crucifixion
Witchcraft/Sorcery
PHARISEE(S), Adultery, Hair/Haircutting, Protestantism, RACHEL, Betrayal, Envy, Grieving/Lamentation,

Sacrifice, Sin/Sinning, Witchcraft/Sorcery

Marriage/Betrothal, Mirror/Reflection

PHILISTINE(S), Betrayal, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale,

REBECCA, Birth/Childbirth, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
Hair/Haircutting, Plague/Pestilence, Sin/Sinning REBEL ANGELS, Expulsion, Plague/Pestilence, Self-
PHINEHAS, Sin/Sinning Portraits I, Sin/Sinning, Upside Down, Vices/Deadly Sins
PIETISM, Devotion/Piety REDEMPTION (see also Index of Other Names and Terms),
PONTIUS PILATE, Death, Pointing/Indicating Ascent/Descent, Choice/Choosing, Crucifixion, Fame,
POOL OF BETHSEDA, Bath/Bathing Grieving/Lamentation, Journey/Flight,
POPE(S), Caricature/Cartoon, Communion, Crucifixion, Margins/Outsiders, Serpent's Bite, Sin/Sinning

Death, Devotion/Piety, Fools/Folly, Kiss/Kissing, REFORMATION, Betrayal, Caricature/Cartoon,

Protestantism, Sanctuary, Vanity/Vanitas Communion, Crucifixion, Death, Fools/Folly,
BENEDICT XIV, Self-Portraits I Margins/Outsiders, Patronage, Peasantry,
CLEMENT Honor/Honoring
IX, Plague/Pestilence, Protestantism, Self-Portraits I, Serpent's
CYRIACUS, Baptism, Madness Bite, Sin/Sinning, Toilet Scenes, Virgin/Virginity

GREGORY, Plague/Pestilence REFORMED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, Martyrdom

GREGORY (THE GREAT)
I (see also Index of RESURRECTION (see also JESUS CHRIST:
Authors, Literary Texts, Composers, Filmmakers, RESURRECTION; Index of Other Names and Terms),
and Folktales), Masks/Personae, Sin/Sinning Grieving/Lamentation, Night
 INDEX OF JUDEO-CHRISTIAN PERSONAGES, PLACES, AND CONCEPTS 997

ROMAN CATHOLIC) S)/ROM AN CATHOLIC CHURCH, Folktales), Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth,

Apocalypse, Caricature/Cartoon, Communion, Dreams/Visions, Light II, Virgin/Virginity
Crucifixion, Death, Devotion/Piety, Ecstasy, Fools/Folly, CALLISTUS, Virtue/Virtues
Martyrdom, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, CAMILLUS, Plague/Pestilence
Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence, Protestantism, CATHERINE OF ALEXANDRIA, Fortune,
Sanctuary, Self-Portraits I, Serpent's Bite, Sin/Sinning, Honor/Honoring, Martyrdom, Virgin/Virginity
Vices/Deadly Sins CATHERINE OF SIENA, Choice/Choosing,
ROSH HASHANAH, Judgment Dreams/Visions
RUTH, Harvesting CECILIA, Honor/Honoring, Martyrdom, Music
CHARLES BORROMEO, Devotion/Piety,
SACRA CONVERSAZIONE, Devotion/Piety, Protestantism Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence
SACRAMENTS {see also Index of Other Names and CHRISTOPHORUS (CHRISTOPHER),
Terms), Communion, Honor/Honoring, Path/Road/Crossroads
Marriage/Betrothal, Penitence/Repentance CHRYSOSTOM, Fools/Folly

SAINTS (see also APOSTLES; EVANGELISTS; Index of CLAIRE, Hair/Haircutting

Other Names and Terms), Choice/Choosing, CLEMENT, Virtue/Virtues

Devotion/Piety, Hair/Haircutting, Harvesting, COSMAS AND DAMIAN, Sleep/Sleeping

Honor/Honoring, Journey/Flight, Light I, Logos/Word, DENIS, Beheading/Decapitation

Madness, Martyrdom, Months, Music, Nightmare, DOROTHEA, Virgin/Virginity

Order/Chaos, Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence, ELIZABETH, Betrayal

Shipwreck, Vanity/Vanitas, Zodiac EUPHEMIA, Virgin/Virginity

ADELBERT, Funeral/Burial
EUSTACE, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
AGATHA, Beheading/Decapitation, Martyrdom,
FELICITAS, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues

Virgin/Virginity
FRANCIS OF ASSISI (see also Index of Authors,
Literary Texts, Composers, Filmmakers, and
AGNES, Martyrdom, Hair/Haircutting
Folktales), Apotheosis/Deification, Death,
AMBROSE (see also Index of Authors, Literary Texts,
Devotion/Piety, Dreams/Visions, Ecstasy,
Composers, Filmmakers, and Folktales), Adultery,
Funeral/Burial, Hair/Haircutting,
Music
Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence,
ANDREW, Crucifixion, Martyrdom,
Vanity/Vanitas
Path/Road/Crossroads, Pointing/Indicating
FRANCIS OF SALES (see also Index of Authors,
ANNE, Apocalypse
Literary Texts, Composers, Filmmakers, and
ANSELM, Virtue/Virtues
Folktales), Devotion/Piety
ANTHONY OF FLORENCE, Plague/Pestilence GEORGE, Beheading/Decapitation, Gaze,
ANTHONY OF PADUA, Crucifixion, Devotion/Piety, Imagination/Creativity, Self-Portraits I
Dreams/Visions, Nightmare, Plague/Pestilence,
GILES, Sin/Sinning
Temptation, Witchcraft/Sorcery
GREGORY (THE GREAT)
I see POPES
APOLLONIA, Virgin/Virginity
HELEN, Betrayal
AUGUSTINE (see also Index of Authors, Literary
HELSINUS, Shipwreck
Texts, Composers, Filmmakers, and Folktales),
HILARY, Funeral/Burial
Devotion/Piety, Funeral/Burial, Upside Down HUBERT OF LIEGE, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
BARBARA, Ascent/Descent, Beheading/Decapitation,
HYACINTH, Dreams/Visions, Humors
Betrayal, Martyrdom, Virgin/Virginity,
IGNATIUS LOYOLA Index of Authors,
(see also
Virtue/Virtues
Literary Texts, Composers, Filmmakers, and
BARTHOLOMEW, Artists/Art, Damned Souls,
Folktales), Devotion/Piety, Dreams/Visions,
Judgment, Martyrdom, Self-Portraits I, Upside Protestantism
Down IRENE, Martyrdom
BENEDICT, Ascent/Descent, Devotion/Piety, JAMES THE GREATER, Journey/Flight,
Funeral/Burial, Labor/Trades/Occupations Metamorphosis, Path/Road/Crossroads,
BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX (see also Index of Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sleep/Sleeping,
Authors, Literary Texts, Composers, Filmmakers, Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery
and Folktales), Devotion/Piety, Reading JEROME (see also Index of Authors, Literary Texts,
BERNWARD/BERWARD, Pointing/Indicating Composers, Filmmakers, and Folktales),
BONAVENTURA/BONAVENTURE (see also Destruction of City, Dreams/Visions, Martyrdom,
Index of Authors, Literary Texts, Composers, Masks/Personae, Penitence/Repentance,
Filmmakers, and Folktales), Devotion/Piety, Light Path/Road/Crossroads, Reading, Vanity/Vanitas
II, Mirror/Reflection, Path/Road/Crossroads, JOHN THE BAPTIST, Annunciation,
Virtue/Virtues Apotheosis/Deification, Ascent/Descent, Baptism,
BRIDGET OF SWEDEN (see also Index of Authors, Bath/Bathing, Beheading/Decapitation,
Literary Texts, Composers, Filmmakers, and Birth/Childbirth, Crucifixion,
998 INDEX OF JUDEO-CHRISTIAN PERSONAGES, PLACES, AND CONCEPTS

Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Fatal Woman/Femme Sleep/Sleeping, Upside Down, Virtue/Virtues,

Fatale, Grieving/Lamentation, 1 lair/Haircutting, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
Hermaphrodite/ Androgyne, Humors, PETER MARTYR, Martyrdom
lourncy/Flighr, Fight I, Martyrdom, Naked/Nude, PETRONIFFA, Funeral/Burial
Nightmare, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, PHILIP, Upside Down
Penitence/Repentance, Pointing/Indicating, PRAXFDIS, Protestantism
Pregnancy, Protestantism, Sacrifice, Sin/Sinning, REGIS, Plague/Pestilence
Visiting/Visitation REMI (Bishop of Reims), Baptism
JOHN THE CARPENTER, ROCH, Evil Eye, Journey/Flight, Plague/Pestilence,
Fabor/Trades/Occupations Virtue/Virtues
JOHN CHRYSOSTOMOS (see also Fidex of Authors, ROMUAFD, Ascent/Descent, Vanity/Vanitas
Fiterary Texts, Composers, Filmmakers, and SEBASTIAN, Evil Eye, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne,
Folktales), Penitence/Repentance Martyrdom, Naked/Nude, Plague/Pestilence
JOHN CFIMACOS (CFIMAX, SCHOLASTICUS) STEPHEN, Funeral/Burial, Honor/Honoring,
see Index of Authors, Fiterary Texts, Composers, Margins/Outsiders, Martyrdom
Filmmakers, and Folktales TERESA OF AVIFA (see also Index of Authors,
JOHN OF THE CROSS (see also Index of Authors, Fiterary Texts, Composers, Filmmakers, and
Fiterary Texts, Composers, Filmmakers, and Folktales), Ascent/Descent, Ecstasy
Folktales), Ascent/Descent THECFA, Virgin/Virginity
JOHN THE EVANGEFIST see EVANGEFISTS THEODORE, Gaze
FUCIFFA OF ROME, Baptism THOMAS THE APOSTLE, Virgin/Virginity
FUCY, Apotheosis/Deification, Betrayal, THOMAS AQUINAS (see also Index of Authors,
Funeral/Burial Fiterary Texts, Composers, Filmmakers, and
FUKE see EVANGEFISTS Folktales), Automata, Sin/Sinning
MACARIUS, Plague/Pestilence THOMAS BECKET, Funeral/Burial, Sanctuary
MARGARET OF ANTIOCH, Martyrdom, URSUFA, Journey/Flight, Sleep/Sleeping,
Mirror/Reflection, Pregnancy Virgin/Virginity
MARK see EVANGEFISTS VAFENTINE, Baptism
MARTINI, Ascent/Descent, Martyrdom ZENOBIUS, Apotheosis/Deification
MARY OF EGYPT, Penitence/Repentance, SAFOME (daughter of Herodias), Beheading/Decapitation,
Sin/Sinning, Virgin/Virginity Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale,
MARY MAGDAFENE, Ascent/Descent, Communion, Hair/Haircutting, Naked/Nude, Nightmare, Sin/Sinning
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Grieving/Famentation, SAFOME (midwife), Birth/Childbirth, Virgin/Virginity
Hair/Haircutting, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, SAMARIA, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Madness, Melancholy, Mirror/Reflection, SAMSON, Annunciation, Betrayal, Fatal Woman/Femme
Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence, Fatale, Hair/Haircutting, Fabor/Trades/Occupations,
Sin/Sinning, Toilet Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas, Sacrifice, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Virtue/Virtues
Virgin/Virginity SAMUEF, Witchcraft/Sorcery
MICHAEF see ARCHANGEFS SARA/SARAH (bride of Tobias), Comic, Journey/Flight
NEMESIUS, Baptism SARAH, Annunciation, Expulsion, Laughter, Offering,
NICHOFAS OF MYRA, Abduction/Rape, Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation
Virtue/Virtues SATAN (see also DEVIL[S]; LUCIFER), Ascent/Descent,
ONUPHRIUS, Penitence/Repentance Damned Souls, Dreams/Visions, Expulsion, Hanging,
PAUF (SAFJF), Beheading/Decapitation, Journey/Flight, Fabor/Trades/Occupations, Faughter,
Communion, Crucifixion, Devotion/Piety, Masks/Personae, Misfortune, Order/Chaos,
Gaze, Honor/Honoring, Kiss/Kissing, Path/Road/Crossroads, Patronage, Protestantism,
Fabor/Trades/Occupations, Fight I, Melancholy, Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Vices/Deadly Sins,
Metamorphosis, Mirror/Reflection, Order/Chaos, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Peace, Penitence/Repentance, Protestantism, SAUF (Old Testament), Envy, Grieving/Lamentation,
Serpent's Bite, Shipwreck, Virtue/Virtues, Honor/Honoring, Madness, Melancholy, Music,
Widowhood, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac Penitence/Repentance
PERPETUA, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues SAUL (New Testament) see ST. PAUL
PETER, Apocalypse, Avarice, Baptism, Betrayal, SAVONAROLA, Calumny, Death, Luxury,
Choice/Choosing, Communion, Crucifixion, Penitence/Repentance, Zodiac
Dawn/Dawning, Dreams/Visions, SCHISMATICS, Protestantism
Honor/Honoring, Humors, Kiss/Kissing, SCOTTISH COVENANTERS, Martyrdom
Fight I, Martyrdom, Metamorphosis, Night, SEA OF GALILEE, Shipwreck
Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, SECOND COMING, Apocalypse, Devotion/Piety,
Penitence/Repentance, Pointing/Indicating, Judgment, Plague/Pestilence, Sin/Sinning
Protestantism, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, SECOND TEMPFE, Sanctuary
 INDEX OF JUDEO-CHRISTIAN PERSONAGES, PLACES, AND CONCEPTS 999

SEDER, Betrayal TEN COMMANDMENTS, Ascent/Descent,

SELEUCUS IV PHILOPATER, King of Syria, Expulsion Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Journey/Flight, Judaism,
SERPENT see Index of Other Names and Terms Reading, Sanctuary, Sin/Sinning, Virtue/Virtues,
SEVEN ACTS OF MERCY, Plague/Pestilence Widowhood
SEVEN BEATITUDES, Virtue/Virtues THEATINE ORDER, Devotion/Piety
SEVEN DEADLY SINS, Sin/Sinning, Vices/Deadly Sins, THEODORA (Byzantine empress), Patronage
Virtue/Virtues THEODORIC (Byzantine emperor), Patronage
SEVEN GIFT VIRTUES, Virtue/Virtues THEOTOKOS (Mother of God), Ascent/Descent,
SEVEN-HEADED BEAST, Apocalypse, Order/Chaos Virgin/Virginity
SEVEN LAST WORDS, Crucifixion, Virtue/Virtues THIEVES {see also GOOD THIEF), Protestantism
SEVEN SEALS (Opening of the Apocalypse), Order/Chaos THREE CHILDREN IN THE FIERY FURNACE, Arms
SHAKERS, Ecstasy Raised
SHEBA, QUEEN OF, Journey/Flight, Marriage/Betrothal, THREE MARYS, Arms Raised, Grieving/Lamentation
Visiting/Visitation THRONE OF GOD, Martyrdom
SHEM, Drunkenness/Intoxication TIGRIS see Index of Ancient Mythological and Historical
SHILOH, Abduction/Rape Personages, Places, and Concepts
SIBYL(S), Destruction of City, Devotion/Piety, Fame, TOBIAS, Comic, Journey/Flight, Marriage/Betrothal
Fortune, Harvesting, Order/Chaos, Reading TOBIT, Journey/Flight
SIMEA DEI, Vices/Deadly Sins TONSURE, Hair/Haircutting, Sanctuary
SIMEON, Sacrifice, Visiting/Visitation TOPHET, Ascent/Descent
SIMON MAGUS, Avarice, Witchcraft/Sorcery TORAH, Judaism, Light I

SIMON THE PHARISEE, Hair/Haircutting TOWER OF BABEL (BABYLON), Ascent/Descent,

SINAI, Ascent/Descent Labor/Trades/Occupations, Order/Chaos
SISERA, Betrayal, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping TRANSUBSTANTIATION, Communion, Crucifixion
SOCIETY OF JESUS, Devotion/Piety, Martyrdom, Months, TREE OF JESSE, Ascent/Descent, Virtue/Virtues
Penitence/Repentance TREE OF KNOWLEDGE, Abundance, Ascent/Descent,
SOCINION SECTS, Sin/Sinning Betrayal, Choice/Choosing, Expulsion, Order/Chaos,
SODOM AND GOMORRAH, Abduction/Rape, Betrayal, Sin/Sinning, Temptation
Destruction of City, Judgment, Misfortune, TREE OF LIFE, Abundance, Ascent/Descent, Judaism,
Pointing/Indicating Order/Chaos, Protestantism
SOLEMN LEAGUE AND COVENANT (1643), Martyrdom TREE OF PASSION, Abundance
SOLOMON, Ascent/Descent, Bath/Bathing, Betrayal, TREE OF SIN, Vices/Deadly Sins
Fortune, Judgment, Justice, Love and Death, TRIBE OF JUDAH, Judaism
Marriage/Betrothal, Plague/Pestilence, TRINITY, Annunciation, Communion, Dawn/Dawning,
Pointing/Indicating, Sacrifice, Sin/Sinning, Devotion/Piety, Honor/Honoring, Imagination/Creativity,
Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation Martyrdom, Order/Chaos, Peace, Plague/Pestilence
STAR OF DAVID, Ascent/Descent, Betrayal, Judaism TWELVE TRIBES OF ISRAEL, Judaism, Zodiac
STATIONS OF THE CROSS, Devotion/Piety, TWO NATURES OF CHRIST, Arms Raised
Path/Road/Crossroads, Vices/Deadly Sins TWO WITNESSES, Apocalypse
SUGER (Abbot of St. Denis), Communion, Funeral/Burial,
Light II, Sanctuary UR OF THE CHALDEES, Ascent/Descent, Journey/Flight
SUSANNA (SUSANNAH), Adultery, Arms Raised, URIAH, ADULTERY, Bath/Bathing, Betrayal, Temptation
Bath/Bathing, Betrayal, Calumny, Dreams/Visions,
Humors, Justice, Mirror/Reflection, Naked/Nude, VALLEY OF HINOM, Ascent/Descent
Temptation, Toilet Scenes, Virtue/Virtues, Voyeurism VATICAN, Patronage, Sanctuary
SYBIL(S) see SIBYL(S) VATICAN COUNCIL, SECOND (1962-1965),
SYNAGOGUE {see also Index of Other Names and Terms), Devotion/Piety, Path/Road/Crossroads
Judaism VEIL OF VERONICA, Beheading/Decapitation
VESPERS, Grieving/Lamentation
TABLETS OF THE LAW see TEN COMMANDMENTS VIRGIN AND CHILD see MARY/VIRGIN/MADONNA:
TALLIT, Judaism MADONNA AND CHILD
TAMAR, Abduction/Rape, Betrayal VIRGIN IMMACULATE see IMMACULATE
TASHLIKH, Sin/Sinning CONCEPTION
TEFILLIN, Judaism VISION OF THE MYSTIC LAMB, Music
TEMPTATION see FALL; JESUS CHRIST: TEMPTATION; VISITATION see Index of Other Names and Terms
Index of Other Names and Terms
TEMPLE OF JERUSALEM, Ascent/Descent, Judaism WANDERING JEW see AHASVERUS
TEMPLE OF THE MOUNT, Sanctuary WHORE OF BABYLON, Apocalypse, Order/Chaos,
TEMPLE OF SOLOMON, Baptism, Visiting/Visitation Sin/Sinning
TEMPTER see DEVIL(S); LUCIFER; SATAN WISE AND FOOLISH VIRGINS, Judgment, Zodiac
IOOO INDEX OF JUDEO-CHRISTIAN PERSONAGES, PLACES, AND CONCEPTS

WISEMEN see MAGI YHWH see YAHWEH

WITCH OF ENDOR, Fortune, Witchcraft/Sorcery YOM KIPPUR, Judgment
WOMAN CLOTHED IN THE SUN, Apocalypse
WOMAN TAKEN IN ADULTERY, Adultery ZACCHAEUS, Penitence/Repentance
WORD OF GOD, Logos/Word, Protestantism ZACHARIAS, Annunciation, Ascent/Descent,
WORKS OF MERCY, Virtue/Virtues Birth/Childbirth, Sacrifice, Visiting/Visitation
WYCLIF (WYCLIFFE), JOHN, Protestantism ZIKLAG, Abduction/Rape
ZION, Ascent/Descent, Dawn/Dawning
YAHWEH (see also GOD; JEHOVAH), Abduction/Rape, ZULEIKA see JOSEPH: JOSEPH AND POTIPHAR'S WIFE
Arms Raised, Ascent/Descent, Sin/Sinning, Zodiac ZWINGLI, HULDERIC, Protestantism
 INDEX OF REFERENCES
TO THE BIBLE AND
OTHER SACRED BOOKS

The titles after the reference refer to the essays in which the reference is found.

BIBLE: OLD TESTAMENT 4:1 1-1 2 Labor/Trades/Occupations

4:17 Ascent/Descent
GENESIS Order/Chaos, Seasons, 7:1-17 Journey/Flight
Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, 7:6-24 Judgment
Sublime 8:1 1 Peace
i Ascent/Descent 8:22 Harvesting
1-2 Expulsion 9:1 Seasons
1-2:4 Order/Chaos 9:7 Drunkenness/Intoxication
1 = 3 Order/Chaos 9:20-23 Drunkenness/Intoxication
1:3-5 Light I 9:22-24 Voyeurism
1:4 Ascent/Descent 10:10 Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
1:8-17 Ascent/Descent 1 Ascent/Descent
i:i6 Birth/Childbirth it: 1-9 Ascent/Descent
i-3 Ascent/Descent, Order/Chaos, 12:1-8 Journey/Flight
Sin/Sinning 14: 1 2-16 Abduction/Rape
2:7 Order/Chaos 14:16-20 Communion
2:8-25 Ascent/Descent 15:15 Peace
2:21-24 Hermaphrodite/Androgyne 17:15-17 Laughter
3 Temptation 18 Annunciation, Communion
3:1-7 Melancholy 18:1-16 Visiting/Visitation
3:4-2-3 Ascent/Descent 18:1-19 Laughter
3=7 Naked/Nude, Sin/Sinning 19:24-29 Judgment
3:15-25 Journey/Flight 21:6 Laughter
3:16-19 Sin/Sinning 11 Communion, Sacrifice
3:19 Labor/Trades/Occupations 22:17 Virtue/Virtues
4 Communion, Envy, Sacrifice 25:29-31 Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
4:3-4 Sacrifice 28: 10-19 Sleep/Sleeping
1002 INDEX OF REFERENCES TO THE BIBLE AND OTHER SACRED BOOKS

2.8:10-2.2. Ascent/Descent, Dreams/Visions 34 Ascent/Descent

30 Envy 34:8 Grieving/Lamentation
32:22-32 Dawn/Dawning
JOSHUA
32:24-32 Ascent/Descent
10:21 Peace
37 Envy
37:23-28 Abduction/Rape JUDGES
37=34 Grieving/Lamentation 4:12-24 Sleep/Sleeping
39:7-20 Adultery 4:17 Peace
39:10-20 Judgment 9:8-9 Peace
43:2.7 Peace 11:4-39 Beheading/Decapitation
50:10 Grieving/Lamentation 13 Annunciation
13:2-24 Sacrifice
EXODUS
13-16 Hair/Haircutting
3:8 Abundance
16 Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale
4:1-9 Witchcraft/Sorcery
16:4-22 Sleep/Sleeping
5 = 1-7 Witchcraft/Sorcery
16:19 Hair/Haircutting
7:11, 22 Witchcraft/Sorcery
21:20-23 Abduction/Rape
12:40-41 Journey/Flight
14 Baptism I SAMUEL
14:8 Arms Raised 2:16-17 Sin/Sinning
14-40 Journey/Flight 6:13 Harvesting
15:20-21 Dance/Dancers/Dancing 16 Music
16:4-36 Communion 16:23 Madness, Music
17:5-7 Communion 18 Envy
18:7 Peace 18:6-7 Honor/Honoring, Music
-
io: 1
-1 Reading 20:41-42 Kiss/Kissing
20:4-5 Kiss/Kissing 25:20-35 Judgment
20:14 Adultery 28 Witchcraft/Sorcery
20:17 Envy 30:5-20 Abduction/Rape
21:16 Abduction/Rape
II SAMUEL
21:23-25 Justice
1:17-27 Grieving/Lamentation
22:18 Witchcraft/Sorcery
3:31 Grieving/Lamentation
22:22-24 Widowhood
4-7 Plague/Pestilence
23:15-16 Harvesting
11 Adultery, Bath/Bathing
25:31 Judaism
11:2-4 Voyeurism
32:1-20 Dance/Dancers/Dancing
11-12 Temptation
32-:i"35 Automata
11:2-17 Honor/Honoring
33:3 Abundance
17:10 Judaism
36 Communion
18:9 Hair/Haircutting
LEVITICUS Whiteness 18:33 Hair/Haircutting
16 Sacrifice
I KINGS
16:20-22 Margins/Outsiders
3:16-28 Judgment
20:10 Adultery
^:33 Peace
23:40 Offering
10 Marriage/Betrothal
NUMBERS 10:1-13 Visiting/Visitation
2:4-9 (Douai) Serpent's Bite 16:23 Melancholy
13 Baptism 18:20-40 Ascent/Descent
21:6-9 Crucifixion 19:13-18 Kiss/Kissing
23:24 Judaism 22:17 Peace

DEUTERONOMY Judaism II KINGS

5:18 Adultery 1:50-51 Sanctuary
5:21 Envy 2:1-14 Ascent/Descent
13:1-3 Dreams/Visions *=33 Peace
21:22 Crucifixion 5 Bath/Bathing
22:22 Adultery 5:26 Peace
24:7 Abduction/Rape 9-13 Honor/Honoring
32:20 Vices/Deadly Sins 11:1-12 Abduction/Rape
32:28-29 Vices/Deadly Sins 23:10 Ascent/Descent
 INDEX OF REFERENCES TO THE BIBLE AND OTHER SACRED BOOKS IOO3

I CHRONICLES PROVERBS Fools/Folly

7:22 Grieving/Lamentation 1:26 Laughter
1 5:i6ff Music 3:2 Peace
16:7-24 Music- 3:18 Ascent/Descent
14:13 Laughter
II CHRONICLES 16:18 Ascent/Descent
5
Music
21:13 Sacrifice
7:19-22 Judgment 26:19 Laughter
9:1-9 Visiting/Visitation
29:23 Ascent/Descent
12-13 Music Marriage/Betrothal
30:19
30:10 Laughter
35:2.5 Grieving/Lamentation ECCLESIASTES Death, Fools/Folly,

Judgment Grieving/Lamentation, Music

36:15-17
1:2 Vanity/Vanitas
ESTHER 3:4 Laughter
7:10 Hanging 7:6 Laughter
9:11 Fortune
JOB Misfortune, Sublime
5:22 Laughter SONG OF
5=2-3 Peace SOLOMON Love and Death
8:21 Laughter 4:12 Widowhood
14:1-2 Vanity/Vanitas 6:10 Dawn/Dawning
3i:3 Envy 8:10 Widowhood
38:31 Order/Chaos
ISAIAH
PSALMS 6:9-10 Judgment
4 8 Peace 11:1-9 Reading
8 5 Ascent/Descent 11:6 Order/Chaos, Peace
9 7 Order/Chaos 11:6-9 Logos/Word, Music
9 8-9 Order/Chaos 14:12-21 Expulsion
18 Labor/Trades/Occupations 28:24-29 Kiss/Kissing
19 Zodiac 30:33 Ascent/Descent
2-3 Ascent/Descent 35 1=
Virtue/Virtues

2,9:3 Logos/Word 38:17 Peace

22:11 Peace 40:1-11 Reading
38:3 Peace 40:11 (Douai) Shepherds/Shepherdesses
40:12 Hair/Haircutting 45:7 Peace
41:9 Communion 48:18 Peace
42:1-2 Ecstasy 58:8 Dawn/Dawning
51:16-17 Sacrifice 60:1-3 Dawn/Dawning
Fools/Folly 60:17 Peace
53
59:8 Laughter 60:19 Light I

65:5-6 Logos/Word 62:8 Arms Raised

69:4 Hair/Haircutting JEREMIAH
73 Envy Judgment
7
85:10 Kiss/Kissing
7:29 Hair/Haircutting
86:1-3 Logos/Word 7:31-33 Ascent/Descent
92- Labor/Trades/Occupations 9:20 Grieving/Lamentation
102:3 Vanity/Vanitas 10:2 Zodiac
106:19-23 Automata 12:1 Envy
1 10:4 Communion 31:15 Grieving/Lamentation
118-25 Honor/Honoring 43:1-8 Abduction/Rape
118:20 Light I

Light
LAMENTATIONS Destruction of City, Widowhi
119:105 I

i:2ff Grieving/Lamentation
119:164 Music
121:1 Ascent/Descent EZEKIEL
121:8 Logos/Word 1:1-28 Fortune
126 Labor/Trades/Occupations 1:5-14 Apocalypse
126:2 Laughter 1:28 Light II

139:8-10 Ascent/Descent 21:21 Automata

1 49:1 Music 34:23 (Douai) Shepherds/Shepherdesses
1004 l\l)l \ Ol KM I K! NC IS K) IIII R1RI.I- AND Oil II K SAC. KM) ROOKS

DANIEL PSEUDEPIGRAPHA
5 Reading
5:17 Order/Chaos BOOK OF
6:32-34 Madness ENOCH Vices/Deadly Sins
7-12 Apocalypse
7:14 Order/Chaos
12:2 Order/Chaos BIBLE: NEW TESTAMENT
12:3 Order/Chaos
13 Voyeurism MATTHEW Vices/Deadly Sins
X 19 Marriage/Betrothal
HOSEA 1 : 1

3=2 Marriage/Betrothal
2:r-2 Dawn/Dawning
2:1-12 Journey/Flight
6:6 Sacrifice
2:1-66 Journey/Flight
8:5-6 Automata
Kiss/Kissing
2:1 Birth/Childbirth
13:2
2:18 Grieving/Lamentation
AMOS 3:13-17 Baptism
8:10 Grieving/Lamentation 3:16 Peace

JONAH Shipwreck 4:1-11 Temptation

7:1-5 Judgment
HABAKKUK 7:13 Path/Road/Crossroads
1 Envy 8:22 Grieving/Lamentation
MALACHI 8:23-27 Sleep/Sleeping

3:11 Judgment 9:10-13 Sacrifice

9:12 Sin/Sinning
DECALOGUE Virtue/Virtues
10:16 Mirror/Reflection, Virtue/Virtues
13:3-8 Harvesting
13:38 Witchcraft/Sorcery
BIBLE: APOCRYPHA 13:38-39 Harvesting
14:6-11 Dance/Dancers/Dancing
ASCENSION 17:1-6 Metamorphosis
OF ISAIAH Music
17:1-13 Ascent/Descent
BEL (Daniel 14) 19:16 Temptation
1:7 Laughter 19:22-23 Temptation
21:1-21 Honor/Honoring
DANIEL Adultery, Calumny, Temptation
21:12 Expulsion
33-39 Communion Order/Chaos
24:29-30
ENOCH Expulsion 24:38 Marriage/Betrothal
25:36 Visiting/Visitation
PROTOEVANGELIUM Annunciation, Birth/Childbirth,
26:21-26 Betrayal
OF JAMES Light II, Virgin/Virginity
Communion
26:23
JUDITH Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fatal 26:26-29 Communion
Woman/Femme Fatale, Justice 26:36-46 Sleep/Sleeping
13:1-10 Sleep/Sleeping 2.7 Crucifixion
2-7:3-5 Hanging
II MACCABEES
2-7:3 3-5 6 Grieving/Lamentation
3:7-26 Expulsion
2-7:34 Crucifixion
7 Virtue/Virtues
27:46 Abandonment
22-26 Expulsion
27:57-5 8 Grieving/Lamentation
GOSPEL OF 28:1 Dawn/Dawning
PSEUDO- 28:19 Communion
MATTHEW Birth/Childbirth
MARK
GOSPEL OF 1:9-11 Baptism
NICODEMUS Grieving/Lamentation, 1:13 Temptation
Honor/Honoring, Journey/Flight 4:36-41 Shipwreck, Sleep/Sleeping
6:21-28 Dance/Dancers/Dancing
SIRACH (Ecclesiastes)
9:2-4 Metamorphosis
2 r : 20 Laughter
9:2-10 Ascent/Descent
TOBIT Journey/Flight 1 1:1-10 Honor/Honoring
8:4-5 Marriage/Betrothal 11:15-17 Expulsion
 INDEX OF REFERENCES TO THE BIBLE AND OTHER SACRED BOOKS IOO5

14:18-21 Betrayal 1:29 Sacrifice

14:22-24 Communion 2:14-15 Expulsion

14:30-31 Betrayal 3:14-15 Serpent's Bite
14:32-42 Sleep/Sleeping 3:15 Crucifixion
15 Crucifixion 3:16-17 Crucifixion
15:22-41 Grieving/Lamentation 4:10 Music
15:34 Abandonment 5:1-17 Bath/Bathing
15:39 Crucifixion 6 Communion
15:42-46 Grieving/Lamentation 6:31-33 Communion
25:31-46 Choice/Choosing 6:49-51 Communion
7:12 Light I
LUKE
7:24 Physiognomy
1:15 Annunciation
8:3-11 Adultery
1:26-38 Annunciation
8:7-8 Sin/Sinning
1:27 Marriage/Betrothal
8:12 Dawn/Dawning, Light II
1:39-56 Visiting/Visitation
10:9 Light I
1:68 Visiting/Visitation
10:11 (Douai) Shepherds/Shepherdesses
1:78 Dawn/Dawning
10:11-18 Sacrifice
2:6-7 Birth/Childbirth
11:2 Hair/Haircutting
2:8-14 Annunciation
12:1-8 Hair/Haircutting
2:9 Arms Raised
12:12-13 Honor/Honoring
2:21-50 Ascent/Descent
12:46 Light I
2:23-24 Sacrifice
Ascent/Descent
13:21-30 Betrayal
2:41-50
3:21-22 Baptism 13:27 Communion
14:6 Path/Road/Crossroads
4:1-13 Temptation
16:20 Grieving/Lamentation
4:16-20 Reading
19 Crucifixion
5:20 Sin/Sinning
19:17-37 Grieving/Lamentation
6:25 Laughter
Bath/Bathing, 19:19-22 Crucifixion
7:36-50
Penitence/Repentance 19:25-27 Grieving/Lamentation

Hair/Haircutting 19:26-27 Crucifixion

7:37-50
Penitence/Repentance 19:28 Crucifixion
7:38
Sleep/Sleeping 19:30 Crucifixion
8:23-25
Ascent/Descent 19:37 Death
9:29-36
12:16-21 Judgment 19:38-40 Grieving/Lamentation

Judgment 20:17 Ascent/Descent

12:57
15:4 (Douai) Shepherds/Shepherdesses ACTS Sin/Sinning
15:11-32 Journey/Flight, Protestantism 1:8 Martyrdom
16:19-31 Avarice, Damned Souls, Judgment 1:9 Ascent/Descent
18:23 Temptation 1:18 Hanging
18:25 Temptation 1:22 Martyrdom
19:29-38 Honor/Honoring 2:1-4 Ecstasy
19:44 Visiting/Visitation
7:41 Automata
19:45-46 Expulsion Martyrdom
7:54-60
20:46-47 Devotion/Piety Witchcraft/Sorcery
8:9-24
22:14-23 Communion IO-I 1 Baptism
22:21-23 Betrayal
Shipwreck
2-7
22:39-46 Sleep/Sleeping
22:61 Dawn/Dawning ROMANS
2-3 Crucifixion 6:6-8 Crucifixion
i3:33-49 Grieving/Lamentation 8:13 Grieving/Lamentation
2-3=34 Crucifixion 8:22 Virtue/Virtues

23:37 Grieving/Lamentation 8:28 Virtue/Virtues

2-3:43 Crucifixion 11:24 Peace

23:46 Crucifixion 12:1-2 Sacrifice

2-3=47 Crucifixion
I CORINTHIANS
23:50-54 Grieving/Lamentation
2:2 Crucifixion
JOHN 2:9 Virtue/Virtues
Logos/Word 3:16-17 Kiss/Kissing
 ioo6 INDEX OF REFERENCES TO THE BIBLE AND OTHER SACRED BOOKS

6:19 Kiss/Kissing 6:1-8 (Four

7:8 Widowhood Horsemen) Apocalypse
8:3 Virtue/Virtues 6:9 (Martyrs) Martyrdom
9:10 Labor/Trades/Occupations 7:14-1 7 (White
10:3 Communion Robes of Martyrs) Martyrdom
10:4-5 Communion 7:9-17 (Adoration
10:21 Witchcraft/Sorcery of the Lamb) Apocalypse
1 1:5—6 Hair/Haircutting 1 1 (Two
11:17-34 Virtue/Virtues
Witnesses) Apocalypse
11:23-26 Communion, Devotion/Piety
of the
12:7-9 (Fall
11:29 Communion Rebel Angels) Expulsion
13 Virtue/Virtues
12:1-2 (Woman
13:12 Mirror/Reflection
Clothed with
13:13 Virtue/Virtues
the Sun) Apocalypse
15:42-49 Metamorphosis
12:1-13 (Maria
2-5:3 5-37 Virtue/Virtues
in Sole) Music
II CORINTHIANS 12:7-9 (Fall of
7:10 Melancholy the Rebel Angels) Journey/Flight
11:25 Shipwreck 12-13 (Seven
GALATIANS Headed Beast) Apocalypse
Crucifixion 14:1 (Christ
5:24
6:14 Crucifixion as Lamb) Sacrifice

15 (Celestial
EPHESIANS Choir of Angels) Music
6:24 Virtue/Virtues
15:2-4 (Victory
PHILIPPIANS over the Beast) Music
1:9 Judgment 17 (Whore
4=7 Vices/Deadly Sins of Babylon) Apocalypse
20:12-15 Damned Souls
I TIMOTHY
21 (Heavenly
5:3-16 Widowhood
Jerusalem) Apocalypse
6:7-10 Temptation
6:10 Avarice, Money 21:8 Damned Souls
22:16 Dawn/Dawning
HEBREWS
6:18-19 Virtue/Virtues BOOK OF WISDOM
7 Communion 7:26 Mirror/Reflection
9:26 Sacrifice
11:17 Virtue/Virtues
12:15-16 Sacrifice
ISLAMIC TEXTS
JAMES
1:10 Virtue/Virtues
KORAN Judgment, Light I,

Logos/Word,
11:17 Virtue/Virtues
Sanctuary
II PETER IV:i70-i72 Logos/Word
1:19 Dawn/Dawning XIV: 3 2 Light I

1 |oll\ XVII Ascent/Descent

4:8 Virtue/Virtues XXIV: 3 6-3 7 Light I, Logos/Word

REVELATION Apocalypse, Birth/Childbirth Surat an-Nur Light I

Patronage, Plague/Pestilence, Surat ar-Rahman Light I

Vices/Deadly Sins
2:28 Dawn/Dawning
4:3 Light II

5-8 (Opening of OTHER RELIGIOUS TEXTS

the Seven Seals) Apocalypse, Music
BHAGAVAD GITA
5:11 (Angels
(Hindu) Sanctuary
Singing the
Lord's Glory) Musk TANAKH (Jewish) Judaism
 INDEX OF OTHER CULTURES,
RELIGIONS, AND MYTHOLOGIES

The titles which the subject is found. See citations refer the reader to
after the index term refer to the essays in
the term within the index or to other indexes where primary information can be found. See also citations refer
the reader to other terms within the index or to other indexes where additional information can be found.

ABD AL-MALIK, Caliph (MUSLIM), Sanctuary BURAQ (ISLAM), Ascent/Descent

ABRAHAM (ISLAM), Offering
ADKA (Feast of the Sacrifice, ISLAM), Offering CELTIC, Toilet Scenes
PLAIN OF (CELTIC), Judgment
AEI, CENTEOTI (AZTEC), Birth/Childbirth
AHRIMAN (ZOROASTRIANISM), Expulsion CESOK-BUDDAH (BUDDHIST), Ecstasy
AMAIRGEN (CELTIC), Judgment CHINVAT BRIDGE (ZOROASTRIANISM), Judgment
AMATERASU (JAPANESE), Laughter COATLICUE (AZTEC), Self-Portraits II
AME-NO-UZUME (JAPANESE), Laughter CONFUCIUS, Whiteness
AMESHAS (ZOROASTRIANISM), Judgment CONNACHT (CELTIC), Judgment
AMINA (ISLAM), Birth/Childbirth COYOTE (NATIVE AMERICAN), Laughter
ANGKOR WAT (CAMBODIA), Sanctuary CUAILGNE (CELTIC), Judgment
ASGARD (CELTIC), Abduction/Rape
AVALOKITESHVARA-PADAMAPANI (BUDDHIST), DAO see TAO
Grieving/Lamentation DEVAS (ZOROASTRIANISM), Judgment
AVENUE OF THE DEAD (AZTEC), Sanctuary DODOTH (AFRICAN), Ecstasy
DRUIDS, Judgment, Light II
BHAGAVAD GITA (HINDU), Sanctuary DUSAHK (ZOROASTRIANISM), Judgment
BHAKTI (BUDDHIST), Gaze
BLUE JAY (NATIVE AMERICAN), Laughter EASTER ISLAND (POLYNESIAN), Sanctuary
BRAHMA/BRAHMAN(S) (HINDU), Sanctuary, Whiteness EREMON (CELTIC), Judgment
BRICRIU NEMTHENGA (CELTIC), Judgment ESKIMO see INUIT
BUDDHA, Annunciation, Ascent/Descent, Baptism, EVENKI (INUIT), Ecstasy
Birth/Childbirth, Damned Souls, Gaze, Journey/Flight
BUDDHISM, Annunciation, Arms Raised, Ascent/Descent, FORSETI (NORSE GOD OF JUSTICE), Judgment
Baptism, Birth/Childbirth, Damned Souls, Ecstasy, Gaze,
Grieving/Lamentation, Journey/Flight, Laughter, GA WREE-WRE (AFRICAN: DAN), Judgment
Sanctuary, Temptation GEHENNA (ISLAM), Ascent/Descent

1007
IOOS INDEX OF OTHER CULTURES, RELIGIONS, AND MYTHOLOGIES

GNOSTICISM, Serpent's Bite MITHRA(S) (MITHRAISM; ZOROASTRIANISM),

GOBBO (FOLK), Evil Eye see Index of Ancient Mythological and Historical
GUI VI SPIRI'I (NATIVI AMERK AN), Dawn/Dawning Personages, Places, and Concepts
GREAT ZIMBABWE (SHONA), Sanctuary MITHRAISM, Vices/Deadly Sins, Zodiac
MITHUNA (HINDU), Kiss/Kissing
HARAM (ISLAM), Sanctuary MIZAB (ISLAM), Sanctuary
HINA-NUI-TE-PO (POLYNESIAN), Laughter MOHAMMED see MUHAMMAD
HINDUISM, Ascent/Descent, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, MONOMOTAPA (SHONA), Sanctuary
Ecstasy, Sanctuary, Temptation, Widowhood, MOUNT FUJI (JAPANESE BUDDHISM), Ascent/Descent,
Zodiac Seasons
HOLDA (GERMANIC LEGEND), Witchcraft/Sorcery MOUNT MERU (BUDDHIST, HINDU, JAIN),
HOPI (NATIVE AMERICAN), Seasons Ascent/Descent
HOTEI (JAPANESE), Laughter MUKAI (JAPANESE BUDDHISM), Journey/Flight
MUHAMMAD (MAHOMET; MOHAMMED) (ISLAM),
IATIKU/IYATIKU (NATIVE AMERICAN), Laughter Ascent/Descent, Birth/Childbirth, Judgment, Sanctuary,
IDUNN (CELTIC), Abduction/Rape Whiteness
INUIT, Sport MUKARNAS (ISLAM), Light I

ISLAM7ISLAMIC, Ascent/Descent, Birth/Childbirth, MULLA NASRUDDIN (ISLAM), Laughter

Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Journey/Flight, Judaism, MUSLIM seeISLAM/ISLAMIC
Judgment, Laughter, Light I, Logos/Word, Melancholy, MWARI (SHONA), Sanctuary
Offering, Sanctuary, Sleep/Sleeping, Sport, Voyeurism,
Zodiac NATIVE AMERICAN CHURCH, Ecstasy
NIAV/NIAMH (CELTIC), Abduction/Rape
JAIN, Ascent/Descent NIRVANA (BUDDHIST), Grieving/Lamentation
JERUSALEM, MOSQUE OF, Ascent/Descent
ODIN (NORSE), Hanging
KAABA/KAABA/KA'BA (ISLAM), Offering, Sanctuary OSSIAN/OISIN (CELTIC), Abduction/Rape
KAGURA (JAPANESE), Laughter OUROBOROS (GNOSTIC), Serpent's Bite
KALI (HINDU), Toilet Scenes
KAMBUTSU (JAPANESE RITUAL), Baptism PEYOTE CEREMONIES (NATIVE AMERICAN), Ecstasy
KARMA (HINDU), Sanctuary PHNOM PENH (CAMBODIA), Sanctuary
KORAN see Index of References to the Bible and Other PROPHET (ISLAM), Light OfferingI,

Sacred Books
KOSHARE (NATIVE AMERICAN), Laughter QIBLA (ISLAM), Light I

KUDALINI (TANTRISM), Ecstasy QUETZALCOATL (AZTEC), Sanctuary

KUKAI (JAPANESE BUDDHISM),
LANKA (HINDU), Abduction/Rape
LARA (SPANISH FOLK TALE), Birth/Childbirth
LEYEK (BALI), Birth/Childbirth
LOKI (NORSE), Abduction/Rape,
MAHOMET see MUHAMMAD
MAHAYANA BUDDHA (BUDDHIST),
Grieving/Lamentation
MANICEAN, Widowhood
MANU (HINDU), Dawn/Dawning
MARA/MAERE (TEUTONIC), Nightmare
MAUI/MOWEE (POLYNESIAN), Laughter
MAYA, QUEEN (BUDDHIST), Annunciation,
Birth/Childbirth
MBIRE (SHONA), Sanctuary
MECCA (ISLAM), Ascent/Descent, Light
MESHA (ZOROASTRIANISM), Expulsion
MESHYAMA (ZOROASTRIANISM), Expulsion
MICHABO, GREAT HARE (NATIVE AMERICAN),
Dawn/Dawning
MIDRASH TANHUNA (ISLAM), Offering
MIHRAB (ISLAM), Light I SITA (HINDU), Abduction/Rape
MINK (NATIVE AMERICAN), Laughter
Journey/Flight
RABBIT (AFRICAN; NATIVE AMERICAN), Laughter
RAGNAROK (NORSE), Judgment
RAMA (HINDU), Abduction/Rape
RASHNU (ZOROASTRIANISM), Judgment
Laughter RAVANA (HINDU), Abduction/Rape
RAVEN (NATIVE AMERICAN), Laughter
RIG- VEDA (HINDU), Order/Chaos
RUDABE, QUEEN (PERSIAN), Birth/Childbirth
RUSTAND (PERSIAN), Birth/Childbirth
SALAS (SPANISH FOLK TALE), Birth/Childbirth
SENECA (NATIVE AMERICAN), Seasons
SEPHIROTH TREE, Ascent/Descent
Baptism, SHAKTI (HINDU), Hermaphrodite/Androgyne
SHICHI FUKUIN (JAPANESE BUDDHISM), Laughter
SHIKOKU (JAPANESE BUDDHISM), Journey/Flight
I SHIVA (HINDU) (see also SIVA MAHADEVA),
Abduction/Rape, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Sanctuary
SHIVA NATARAJA (HINDU), Dance/Dancers/Dancing
SIDDHARTHA GAUTAMA (BUDDHIST), Birth/Childbirth,
Sanctuary
SILBURY HILL, Pregnancy
SIVA see SHIVA

ilVAMAHADEVA (HINDU), Ecstasy
iKADI (NORSE), Laughter
SKANDA (HINDU), Abduction/Rape
SPIDER (AFRICAN: ANANSI), Laughter
iRAOSHA (ZOROASTRIANISM),
iTONEHENGE, Sanctuary
iTUPA (BUDDHIST), Sanctuary
iUDDHODHANA, KING (BUDDHIST), Baptism,
Birth/Childbirth
iUN DANCE (NATIVE AMERICAN),
>URAH (ISLAM), Offering
>URYA (HINDU), Dawn/Dawning
sURYAVARMAN II (CAMBODIA),
LANTRISM, Ecstasy
rAO (TAOIST), Order/Chaos, Seasons
rAO-TE CHING (TAOIST), Order/Chaos
rARA (DIVINE COMPASSION) (BUDDHIST),
Grieving/Lamentation
rAUROCTONY (MITHRAISM), Evil
rENOCHTITLAN (AZTEC), Zodiac
ITOTIHUACAN (AZTEC), Sanctuary
rHIAZI (CELTIC), Abduction/Rape
rHRYMHEIM (CELTIC), Abduction/Rape
OR NAN OG (CELTIC), Abduction/Rape
fLALOC (AZTEC), Pregnancy
INDEX OF OTHER CULTURES, RELIGIONS, AND MYTHOLOGIES IOOy
TLAZOLTEOTI (AZTEC), Birth/Childbirth
TUVWOTS (NATIVE AMERICAN: UTE), Laughter
UPANISHADS (HINDU), Ascent/Descent
Judgment URETSETE/UTSHTSITI (NATIVE AMERICAN), Laughter
USHAS (HINDU SUN GODDESS), Dawn/Dawning
VISHNU (HINDU), Sanctuary
VISION QUEST (NATIVE AMERICAN), Ecstasy
VIVASVAT (HINDU RISING SUN), Dawn/Dawning
Ecstasy
VOODOO CULTS, Sacrifice
WAKDJUNKAGA (NATIVE AMERICAN: WINNEBAGO),
Sanctuary
Laughter
XOLOTI (AZTEC), Laughter
YAKSHAS/YAKSHIS, Sanctuary
YAKUB/JACOB (ISLAM), Offering
YGGDRASIL (NORSE), Ascent/Descent
Eye YIN/YANG (CHINESE), Zodiac
YOMA (HINDU LORD OF DEATH), Damned Souls
YOMI, LAND OF GLOOM (JAPANESE), Bath/Bathing
YUSUF/JOSEPH (ISLAM), Offering
ZOROASTRIANISM, Expulsion, Vices/Deadly Sins, Zodiac
ZUHRA FAMILY (ISLAM), Birth/Childbirth
 INDEX OF ARTISTS AND
WORKS OF ART

The titles which the subject is found. See

after the index term refer to the essays in citations refer the reader
to the term within the index where primary information can be found.

ANONYMOUS ART Byzantine ivories, Crucifixion, Death,

African architecture, Sanctuary Grieving/Lamentation
African masks, sculpture, and reliefs, Birth/Childbirth, Byzantine manuscript illumination, Communion,
Judgment, Masks/Personae,
Ecstasy, Funeral/Burial, Grieving/Lamentation,
Metamorphosis, Naked/Nude, Pregnancy Journey/Flight, Months
Assyrian clay tablets, Dreams/Visions Byzantine metalwork, Communion
Assyrian sculpture and reliefs, Ascent/Descent, Byzantine mosaics, Annunciation, Ascent/Descent,
Death, Destruction of City, Devotion/Piety, Beheading/Decapitation, Birth/Childbirth,
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Path/Road/Crossroads, Communion, Crucifixion, Damned Souls, Death,
Sport Drunkenness/Intoxication, Grieving/Lamentation,
Australian Aborigine painting, Birth/Childbirth Judgment, Light I, Light II, Martyrdom,
Aztec architecture, Sanctuary Order/Chaos, Patronage, Sanctuary,
Aztec codicii, Path/Road/Crossroads Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Virgin/Virginity
Aztec sculpture and reliefs, Birth/Childbirth, Zodiac Byzantine panel painting, Crucifixion, Gaze, Light I,

Babylonian sculpture and reliefs, Devotion/Piety, Gaze, Path/Road/Crossroads

Justice Byzantine sculpture and reliefs, Devotion/Piety,
Balinese sculpture and reliefs, Birth/Childbirth Pregnancy
Baroque prints, Sleep/Sleeping Byzantine wall painting, Grieving/Lamentation,
Baroque sculpture, Penitence/Repentance Offering
Buddhist architecture, India, Sanctuary Cambodian sculpture and relief, Sin/Sinning
Buddhist sculpture, China, Arms Raised Canaanite metalwork, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
Buddhist sculpture, India, Annunciation, Arms Raised, Carolingian manuscripts, Labor/Trades/Occupations
Ascent/Descent, Baptism, Birth/Childbirth, Gaze Carolingian-Ottonian sculpture and reliefs,

Buddhist sculpture, Japan, Birth/Childbirth Devotion/Piety

Buddhist sculpture, Korea, Arms Raised Celtic metalwork, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Toilet Scenes
Buddhist sculpture, Nepal, Arms Raised, Chinese bamboo carving, Laughter
Birth/Childbirth, Kiss/Kissing Chinese landscape gardening, Seasons
IOI Z INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OI ART
Chinese painting, Communion, Seasons
Chinese- pottery, Laughter
Cretan sculpture and reliefs, Adultery, Zodiac
Cycladic figurines, Naked/Nude
Dutch prints, Birth/Childbirth
Dutch sculpture, Birth/Childbirth
Early Christian ivories, Birth/Childbirth, Crucifixion,
Death
Early Christian lamps, Shipwreck
Early Christian manuscript illumination,
Birth/Childbirth, Crucifixion,
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Grieving/Lamentation,
Honor/Honoring, Martyrdom, Virtue/Virtues
Early Christian metalwork, Light I, Toilet Scenes
Early Christian mosaics and inlay, Abduction/Rape,
Dawn/Dawning, Devotion/Piety, Judgment, Light
Logos/Word, Martyrdom, Offering, Seasons
Early Christian pottery, Light I Greek mosaics, Comic, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
Early Christian sculpture and reliefs, Arms Raised,
Ascent/Descent, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Communion,
Crucifixion, Honor/Honoring, Judgment, Light
Logos/Word, Martyrdom, Naked/Nude, Shipwreck,
Virgin/Virginity, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Early Christian seals, Crucifixion, Shipwreck
Early Christian terra-cottas, Judgment
Early Christian wall painting, Adultery, Arms Raised,
Ascent/Descent, Choice/Choosing, Communion,
Devotion/Piety, Dreams/Visions, Honor/Honoring,
Martyrdom, Sanctuary, Sacrifice, Seasons,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning
Egyptian architecture, Sanctuary, Zodiac
Egyptian coins, Labyrinth/Maze
Egyptian gems, Labyrinth/Maze
Egyptian hieroglyphics, Caricature/Cartoon
Egyptian ivories, Pregnancy
Egyptian metalwork, Toilet Scenes
Egyptian painting. Toilet Scenes
Egyptian papyrus, Arms Raised, Damned
Dreams/Visions, Funeral/Burial, Judgment, Toilet
Scenes
Egyptian pottery, Labor/Trades/Occupations
Egyptian sculpture and reliefs, Apotheosis/Deification,
Baptism, Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth,
Dawn/Dawning, Destruction of City,
Devotion/Piety, Dreams/Visions, Gaze,
Grieving/Lamentation, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Light II,
Melancholy, Misfortune, Night, Peasantry,
Reading, Toilet Scenes, Zodiac
Egyptian wall painting, Dance/Dancers/Dancing,
Funeral/Burial, Grieving/Lamentation, Harvesting,
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Journey/Flight, Labor/
Trades/Occupations, Luxury, Self-Portraits
Eighteenth-century metalwork, Communion
Eighteenth-century pottery/porcelain,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses
Eighteenth-century prints, Months
Eighteenth-century sculpture, Pregnancy
Ethiopian manuscripts, Birth/Childbirth
Etruscan metalwork, Pregnancy
Etruscan sculpture and reliefs, Abandonment, Arms
Raised, Gaze, Kiss/Kissing, Visiting/Visitation
Etruscan vase painting, Abandonment, Journey/Flight
Etruscan wall paintings, Damned Souls,
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Evil Eye
Flemish prints, Hanging
French prints,. Birth/Childbirth
French tapestries, Journey/Flight
German prints, Birth/Childbirth, Judgment
Gothic see Medieval
Greek architecture, Sanctuary
Greek coins, Apotheosis/Deification,
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Labyrinth/Maze
Greek gems, Labyrinth/Maze, Melancholy
Greek ivories, Choice/Choosing
I, Greek metalwork, Adultery, Evil Eye, Light I, Luxury,
Masks/Personae, Melancholy, Mirror/Reflection
Music
Greek sculpture and reliefs, Abundance,
I, Apotheosis/Deification, Bath/Bathing,
Birth/Childbirth, Choice/Choosing,
Comic, Dawn/Dawning, Devotion/Piety,
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Evil Eye, Excess,
Fatal Woman/ Femme Fatale, Female Beauty
and Adornment, Gaze, Grieving/Lamentation,
Harvesting, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne,
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Kiss/Kissing,
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Light I, Love and
Death, Luxury, Melancholy, Metamorphosis,
Months, Naked/Nude, Offering, Patronage,
Peasantry, Pregnancy, Sacrifice, Seasons,
Serpent's Bite, Shepherds/Shepherdesses,
Sleep/Sleeping, Sport, Temptation, Toilet
Scenes, Virgin/Virginity, Voyeurism, Zodiac
Greek terra-cottas, Abduction/Rape,
Beheading/Decapitation, Comic,
Souls, Evil Eye, Grieving/Lamentation,
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Madness,
Masks/Personae, Pregnancy, Virgin/Virginity
Greek vase painting, Abandonment,
Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Automata,
Bacchanalia/Orgy, Bath/Bathing,
Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal,
Birth/Childbirth, Comic, Damned Souls,
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Destruction of City,
Luxury, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Ecstasy, Fatal
Woman/Femme Fatale, Funeral/Burial, Gaze,
Grieving/Lamentation, Hair/Haircutting,
Journey/Flight, Judgment, Justice,
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Light I,
Madness, Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae,
I, Zodiac Metamorphosis, Naked/Nude, Night,
Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy, Sacrifice,
Seasons, Shipwreck, Sleep/Sleeping,
Virgin/Virginity, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Greek wall painting, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Music
Hindu architecture, Cambodia, Sanctuary
Hindu manuscript illumination, Abduction/Rape
Hindu sculpture (India), Damned Souls,
 INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART IOI3

Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Dawn/Dawning, Ecstasy, Medieval metalwork, Communion, Crucifixion,

Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Kiss/Kissing, Light I, Naked/Nude, Offering, Sanctuary, Virgin/Virginity
Naked/Nude Medieval mosaics, Annunciation, Baptism,
Huichol painting (Mexico), Birth/Childbirth Birth/Childbirth, Communion, Damned Souls,
Iberian sculpture and reliefs, Kiss/Kissing Kiss/Kissing, Labor/Trades/Occupations,
Indian architecture, Zodiac Order/Chaos, Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac
Indian sculpture and reliefs, Zodiac Medieval panel painting, Beheading/Decapitation,
Indian textiles, Offering Communion
Islamic architecture, Light I, Logos/Word, Luxury, Medieval sculpture and reliefs, Abduction/Rape,
Offering, Sanctuary Adultery, Baptism, Apocalypse, Avarice, Betrayal,
Islamic art, Offering Choice/Choosing, Communion, Crucifixion,
Islamic glass, Light I Damned Souls, Death, Expulsion, Fools/Folly,
Islamic manuscripts, Birth/Childbirth, Hunting/Hunter/ Funeral/Burial, Hanging, Harvesting,
Huntress, Judaism, Sanctuary, Sport Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Honor/Honoring,
Islamic metalwork, Judaism Journey/Flight, Justice, Labor/Trades/Occupations,
Islamic mosaics, tilework, and inlay, Light I, Months, Music, Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos,
Logos/Word, Offering Peasantry, Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy, Sacrifice,
Islamic textiles, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Judaism Sanctuary, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Temptation,
Italian mosaics, Birth/Childbirth Vices/Deadly Sins, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues,
Italian pottery, Love and Death, Zodiac Visiting/Visitation, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
Italian prints, Birth/Childbirth Medieval stained glass, Avarice, Ecstasy, Fools/Folly,
Italian wall paintings, Birth/Childbirth Fortune, Funeral/Burial, Honor/Honoring, Justice,
Japanese fan painting, Pregnancy Labor/Trades/Occupations, Light II, Zodiac
Japanese landscape gardening, Seasons Medieval stone engraving, Labyrinth/Maze
Japanese painting, Destruction of City, Seasons Medieval tapestries, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
Japanese prints, Bath/Bathing, Birth/Childbirth, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
Naked/Nude, Pregnancy Medieval wall painting, Avarice, Birth/Childbirth,
Jewish art, Judaism, Light I, Offering, Sanctuary, Zodiac Choice/Choosing, Grieving/Lamentation,
Korean paintings, Ecstasy Honor/Honoring, Humors,
Luristan metalwork, Birth/Childbirth Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Margins/Outsiders,
Mayan pottery, Sport Pregnancy, Sanctuary
Medieval architecture, Martyrdom, Patronage, Medieval wood carving, Comic, Crucifixion,
Sanctuary, Zodiac Labyrinth/Maze
Medieval drawings, Birth/Childbirth Medieval woodcuts, Betrayal, Death, Months,
Medieval embroideries, Margins/Outsiders Order/Chaos
Medieval ivories, Adultery, Apocalypse, Mesopotamian seals, Damned Souls
Choice/Choosing, Funeral/Burial, Mesopotamian terra-cottas, Damned Souls
Grieving/Lamentation, Madness, Melancholy, Minoan sculpture and reliefs, Arms Raised
Pregnancy, Zodiac Minoan vase painting, Laughter
Medieval manuscript illumination, Abandonment, Minoan wall painting, Sport
Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Annunciation, Mycenaean terra-cottas, Grieving/Lamentation
Apocalypse, Ascent/Descent, Avarice, Mycenaean paintings, Grieving/Lamentation
Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth, Native American masks and sculpture,
Communion,
Caricature/Cartoon, Comic, Metamorphosis, Naked/Nude
Dawn/Dawning, Death, Dreams/Visions, Neolithic architecture, Light II

Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fame, Fools/Folly, Neolithic sculpture and reliefs, Birth/Childbirth,

Funeral/Burial, Grieving/Lamentation, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Pregnancy, Sanctuary
Harvesting, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, New Guinea pottery, Laughter
Honor/Honoring, Humors, Nineteenth-century glass, Adultery, Labyrinth/Maze
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Imagination/Creativity, Nineteenth-century prints and graphics, Judgment,
Journey/Flight, Judaism, Judgment, Justice, Months, Pregnancy
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Labyrinth/Maze, and
Paleolithic sculpture Abundance,
reliefs,

Laughter, Light I, Madness, Margins/Outsiders, Birth/Childbirth, Gaze, Naked/Nude, Pregnancy

Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae, Melancholy, Paleolithic cave painting, Death,
Money, Months, Music, Night, Nightmare, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Reading, Sanctuary
Order/Chaos, Patronage, Peasantry, Pregnancy, Persian manuscript illumination, Ascent/Descent,
Reading, Sacrifice, Sanctuary, Seasons, Birth/Childbirth, Voyeurism
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, Philistine terra-cottas, Grieving/Lamentation
Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues, Voyeurism, Phoenician terra-cottas, Laughter
Zodiac Polynesian art, Naked/Nude, Sanctuary
IOI4 INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART

Portuguese prints, Communion Devotion/Piety, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Ecstasy,

Pre-Columbian sculpture, Sport Female Beauty and Adornment, Fools/Folly,
Renaissance architecture, Abandonment, Luxury, Funeral/Burial, Grieving/Lamentation,
Martyrdom Hair/Haircutting, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne,
Renaissance Cassone panels, Adultery, Honor/Honoring, Humors, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
Marriage/Betrothal Imagination/Creativity, Judaism, Labor/Trades/
Renaissance drawings, Pregnancy Occupations, Light I, Love and Death, Luxury,
Renaissance embroidery, Communion Marriage/Betrothal, Music, Naked/Nude, Night,
Renaissance gardens, Automata Offering, Path/Road/Crossroads, Patronage,
Renaissance ivories, Vanity/Vanitas Sacrifice, Sanctuary, Serpent's Bite, Seasons,

Renaissance majolica, Adultery, Birth/Childbirth Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping,

Renaissance manuscript illumination, Abduction/Rape, Virgin/Virginity, Voyeurism, Zodiac
Adultery, Ascent/Descent, Avarice, Birth/Childbirth, Roman wall painting, Abandonment,
Dreams/Visions, Expulsion, Fools/Folly, Humors, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Choice/Choosing, Destruction
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Journey/Flight, of City, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Journey/Flight,
Kiss/Kissing, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Light I, Luxury, Marriage/Betrothal, Music,
Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/Betrothal, Offering, Sacrifice, Sanctuary, Seasons, Self-
Peasantry, Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy, Portraits II, Shepherds/Shepherdesses,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Toilet Scenes, Voyeurism, Zodiac
Virtue/Virtues, Widowhood, Zodiac Romanesque manuscript illumination, Apocalypse,
Renaissance metalwork, Adultery Ecstasy, Envy, Funeral/Burial, Madness,
Renaissance oil and panel painting, Death, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sleep/Sleeping,
Marriage/Betrothal, Plague/Pestilence, Temptation
Toilet Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas, Virgin/Virginity, Romanesque sculpture and reliefs, Apocalypse,
Whiteness Ascent/Descent, Avarice, Damned Souls, Ecstasy,
Renaissance playing cards, Fools/Folly, Judgment, Evil Eye, Fame, Funeral/Burial, Margins/Outsiders,
Peasantry, Virtue/Virtues Sacrifice, Sin/Sinning, Vices/Deadly Sins,
Renaissance prints, Fortune, Visiting/Visitation, Zodiac
Hermaphrodite/ Androgyne, Judgment, Romanesque wall painting, Ascent/Descent,
Mirror/Reflection, Peasantry, Sleep/Sleeping, Margins/Outsiders, Night, Offering
Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac Seventeenth-century engraving, Ascent/Descent,
Renaissance sculpture and reliefs, Sleep/Sleeping
Grieving/Lamentation, Humors, Pregnancy Seventeenth-century metalwork, Communion,
Renaissance tapestries, Apocalypse, Fame, Destruction of City
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Journey/Flight, Seventeenth-century painting, Communion
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Peace, Peasantry, Seventeenth-century sculpture, Avarice, Pregnancy
Witchcraft/Sorcery Seventeenth-century tapestry, Journey/Flight
Renaissance wall paintings, Death, South Italian vase painting, Labor/Trades/Occupations
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Marriage/Betrothal, Sumerian clay tablets, Reading
Zodiac Swabian wood carving, Birth/Childbirth
Renaissance wood carving, Birth/Childbirth, Syrio-Palestinian ivories, Devotion/Piety
Margins/Outsiders Timurid miniatures, Voyeurism
Renaissance woodcuts, Abduction/Rape, Twentieth-century film, Artists/Art,
Ascent/Descent, Death, Dreams/Visions, Humors, Drunkenness/Intoxication
Madness, Months, Music, Pregnancy, Sacrifice, Twentieth-century mural painting, Ascent/Descent
Serpent's Bite, Sin/Sinning, Vanity/Vanitas,Zodiac Twentieth-century posters, Plague/Pestilence,
Roman architecture, Honor/Honoring, Patronage, Sin/Sinning, Sport
Sanctuary Twentieth-century printing, Ascent/Descent, Months
Roman cameos, Apotheosis/Deification Twentieth-century sculpture, Labyrinth/Maze
Roman graffiti, Caricature/Cartoon Twentieth-century theater, Automata
Roman glass, Ecstasy Twentieth-century woodworking, Communion
Roman ivories, Birth/Childbirth
Roman metalwork, Automata, Luxury, Voyeurism AACHEN, HANS VAN (German painter, 15 52-161 5),
Roman mosaics, Automata, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Judgment
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Labyrinth/Maze, ABBATE, NICCOLO DELL' (Italian painter, circa

Madness, Months, Music, Offering, Seasons, 1512-1571), Abduction/Rape

Zodiac ACHELOUS PAINTER (Greek vase painter, 6th century
Roman sculpture and reliefs, Abduction/Rape, B.C.), Damned Souls

Abundance, Apotheosis/Deification, Arms Raised, ACHILLES PAINTER (Greek vase painter, circa 450-420
Bacchanalia/Orgy, Bath/Bathing, Choice/Choosing, B.C.), Abandonment, Music
 INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART IOI 5

AELST, PIETER VAN see COECKE VAN AELST, PIETER I AMIENS SCHOOL (French painters, mid-i5th century),
AERTSEN, PIETER (Early Netherlandish painter, Pregnancy
1508-1575), Excess, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Luxury, AMMAN, JOST (Swiss painter, printmaker, in Germany,
Peasantry 1539-1591), Fools/Folly, Months
AGESANDROS OF RHODES (Greek sculptor, late AMSTEL, JAN VAN (Early Netherlandish painter, circa
2nd-early ist century B.C.), Journey/Flight 1500-before 1544), Journey/Flight
AGOSTINO DI DUCCIO (Italian sculptor, architect, AMULIUS (FAMULUS) (Roman painter, early first century

14 1 8-148 1?), Imagination/Creativity a.d.), Gaze

AGOSTINO VENEZIANO see MUSI, AGOSTINO ANDERSON, SOPHIE (British artist, 1823-circa 1898),
AKONADORUS (Greek sculptor, late ind-early ist century Abandonment
B.C.), Journey/Flight ANDREA DA FIRENZE (Italian artist, active circa

ALAUX, JEAN (LE ROMAIN) (French painter, 1786-1864), 1427-1447), Fame, Virtue/Virtues
Imagination/Creativity ANDREA DEL SARTO (Italian painter, 1486-1538),
ALBANI, FRANCESCO 578-1660),
(Italian painter, 1 Annunciation, Apotheosis/Deification, Artists/Art,
Abduction/Rape, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Birth/Childbirth, Fame, Hanging, Judgment, Justice,
Metamorphosis, Shepherds/Shepherdesses Sacrifice, Virtue/Virtues
ALBERTINELLI, MARIOTTO (Italian painter, 1474-15 15), ANDREA DI BARTOLO (Italian painter, active 1389, died
Offering, Sacrifice 1428), Annunciation
ALCIATI, ANDREAS see Index of Authors, Literary Texts, ANDREA DI BONAIUTO (ANDREA DA FIRENZE)
Composers, Filmmakers, and Folktales (Italian painter, active 1343, died circa 1388),
ALDEGREVER, HEINRICH (German painter, draftsman, Journey/Flight
designer, printmaker, goldsmith, 1502-circa 1560), ANGELI, HEINRICH VON (Austrian painter, 1 840-1925),
Bath/Bathing, Betrayal Penitence/Repentance
ALGARDI, ALESSANDRO (Italian sculptor, architect, ANGELICO, FRA (Italian painter, 1387-145 5),
1595/1601-1654), Sleep/Sleeping Abduction/Rape, Annunciation, Apotheosis/Deification,
ALKEN, HENRY (British artist, 1774-1815), Communion, Crucifixion, Damned Souls,
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress Dawn/Dawning, Death, Devotion/Piety, Judgment,
ALLAR, ANDRE-JOSEPH (French sculptor, 1845-1926), Martyrdom, Music, Pregnancy, Sleep/Sleeping,
Love and Death, Madness Visiting/Visitation
ALLORI, ALESSANDRO (Italian painter, 153 5-1607), ANGUISSOLA, SOFONISBA (Italian painter, circa
Adultery, Honor/Honoring, Sacrifice, Shipwreck, 1527/32-1625/26), Self-Portraits II

Visiting/Visitation ANSCHUTZ, THOMAS POLLACK (American painter,

ALLORI, CRISTOFANO (Italian painter, 1 577-1 621), 1851-1912), Labor/Trades/Occupations
Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, Fatal Woman/Femme ANTHEMIUS OF TRALLES (Carian architect, 6th century),
Fatale Sanctuary
ALLSTON, WASHINGTON (American painter, ANTHONISZ., CORNELISZ (Early Netherlandish
1 779-1 843), Night, Reading, Witchcraft/Sorcery painter, printmaker, cartographer, circa 1499-15 53),
ALMA-TADEMA, LAWRENCE (Dutch painter in Great Journey/Flight, Misfortune, Protestantism
Britain, 1 831-19 12), Bacchanalia/Orgy, Bath/Bathing, ANTICO (PIER JACOPO ALARI BONACOLSI) (Italian
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Reading sculptor, medalist, circa 1460-1528), Naked/Nude
ALSLOOT, DENIS VAN (Flemish painter, active ANTIPHILOS (Greek painter, 4th century B.C.), Calumny,
1599-1628), Humors Comic
ALT, JAKOB (German painter, draftsman, 1 789-1 872), ANTONAKOS, STEPHEN (American sculptor, born 1926),
Mirror/Reflection Light II

ALTDORFER, ALBRECHT (German painter, printmaker, ANTONELLO DA MESSINA (Italian painter, circa
circa1480-1538), Birth/Childbirth, Calumny, 1430-circa 1479), Pregnancy, Reading
Dawn/Dawning, Journey/Flight, Love and Death, Night, ANTONIANOS OF APHORDISIAS (Greek sculptor, 2nd
Visiting/Visitation century B.C., 2nd quarter), Apotheosis/Deification
ALTFORFER, ERHARD (German painter, architect, ANTONIO VENEZIANO (Italian painter, active 1369-circa
printmaker, circa 1485-circa 1562), Sin/Sinning 14 19), Bath/Bathing
AMAN-JEAN, EDMOND-FRANCOIS (French painter, APELLES (Greek painter, 4th century B.C.),

185 8-1936), Imagination/Creativity Apotheosis/Deification,, Artists/Art, Birth/Childbirth,

AMASIS PAINTER (Greek vase painter, circa 560-515 B.C.), Calumny, Comic, Envy, Fame, Imagination/Creativity,
Bacchanalia/Orgy, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fatal Peace, Physiognomy
Woman/Femme Fatale, Hair/Haircutting, APOLLODOROS OF DAMASCUS (Syrian architect,
Labor/Trades/Occupations engineer, in Rome, circa A.D. 50-130), Honor/Honoring
AMBERGER, CHRISTOPH (German painter, circa APOLLODORUS (Greek painter, flourished circa 415 B.C.),

1 505-1 561/62), Peasantry Artists/Art

AM ENDE, HAND (German painter, printmaker, sculptor, APOLLONIO DI GIOVANNI DI TOMMASO (Italian
1864-1918), Dawn/Dawning illuminator, painter, 1415/17-1465), Abduction/Rape,
IOI6 INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS Ol ART

Honor/Honoring, Journey/Flight, love and Death, BAMBOCCIANTI (painters of scenes of everyday life in

Mai riage Betrothal Rome, 17th century), Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry

APOl I ONIOS OF ATHENS (Greek sculptor, ist century BANDINELLI, BACCIO (Italian sculptor, 1493-1560),
B.C.), Sport Serpent's Bite
ARCHELAOS OF PRIENE (Greek sculptor, 2nd century BANKS, THOMAS (British sculptor, 1735-1805),
B.C.), Apotheosis/Deification, Devotion/Piety Grieving/Lamentation, Virtue/Virtues
ARCHIPENKO, ALEXANDRO (Russian sculptor, pointer BARBIERE,DOMENICO DEL see DOMENICO
in the United States, 188--1964), Sport FIORENTINO (DOMENICO RICOVERI)
ARCIMBOLDI, GIUSEPPE (Italian artist, i
5 27?-i593), BARLACH, ERNST (German painter, printmaker,
Caricature/Cartoon, Laughter 1870-1938), Devotion/Piety, Madness, Peasantry
ARISTIDES OF THEBES (Greek painter, 4th century B.C.), BARNA DA SIENA (Italian painter, active circa 1350-1355),
Destruction of City Betrayal
ARMSTRONG, THOMAS (British painter, 1835-1911), BAROCCI, FEDERICO (Italian painter, printmaker, circa

Mirror/Reflection 1 535-161 2), Journey/Flight, Reading

ARNTZ, GFRD (German artist, 20th century). Hanging BARRY, JAMES (Irish painter, 1741-1806), Love and Death,
ARP,JEAN (HANS) (French sculptor, painter, printmaker, Patronage
poet, 188--1966), Order/Chaos BARTOLOMEO DI BARTOLI (Italian scrihe, active 1374),

ARPINO, CAVALIER D' see CESARE, GIUSEPPE Virtue/Virtues

(CAVALIER D'ARPINO) BARTOLOMEO, FRA (Italian painter, 14-2-1517),
ASPERTINI, AMICO (Italian painter, circa 14-5-1552), Dreams/Visions
Love and Death BARTOLOZZI, FRANCESCO (Italian painter, printmaker,

ASTEAS (Greek vase painter, ^rd century B.C.), Comic circa 1727-18 15), Seasons
ATGET, JEAN-EUGENE-AUGUSTE (French photographer, BARY, HENDRICK (Dutch artist, 1 640-1 707),
1 856-1927), Automata Sleep/Sleeping
AUDRAN, BENOIT, THE ELDER (French artist, BARYE, ANTOINE-LOUIS (French sculptor, painter,
1(161-1-21), Pointing/Indicating goldsmith, 1796-1875), Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
AL'RORA PAINTER (Etruscan, Faliscan vase painter, active BASELITZ, GEORG (German painter, printmaker, born
circa 340), Dawn/Dawning 1938), Upside Down
AVED, JACQUES-ANDRE-JOSEPH-CAMELOT (French BASKIN, LEONARD (American sculptor, printmaker, born
painter, 1 -02-1-66), Female Beauty and Adornment 1922), Hanging, Judaism
AVERLINO, ANTONIO see FILARETE BASSANO, FRANCESCO I (FRANCESCO DA PONTE) I

(Italian painter, 1470/75-circa 1 541), Abduction/Rape,

BABUREN, DIRCK VAN (Dutch painter, 1590/95-1624), Bath/Bathing
Misfortune, Music, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, BASSANO, FRANCESCO II (FRANCESCO II DA PONTE)
Temptation (Italian painter, 1 549-1 592), Hair/Haircutting,
BACICCIO see GAULI.I, GIOVANNI BATTISTA Imagination/Creativity, Peasantry
(BACICCIO) BASSANO, JACOPO (JACOPO DA PONTE) (Italian
BACKER, JACOB ADRIAENSZ. (Dutch painter, painter, 15 10-1592), Adultery, Annunciation, Baptism,
1 608-1 651), Betrayal Peasantry, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
BACON, FRANCIS (British painter, 1 909-1992), BASTIEN-LEPAGE, JULES (French painter, printmaker,
Crucifixion 848-1 884), Peasantry, Sleep/Sleeping
sculptor, 1

BACON, JOHN HENRY FREDERICK (British painter, BATONI, POMPEO (Italian painter, 1708-1787),
1 868-1914), Marriage/Betrothal Path/Road/Crossroads, Penitence/Repentance
BACON, JOHN II (British sculptor, 1777-1859), BAUERNFEIND, GUSTAV (German painter, draftsman,
Funeral/Burial 1 848-1904), Sanctuary
BADALOCCHIO, SISTO (Italian painter, printmaker, BAZILLE, FREDERIC (French painter, 1 841-1870),
1581/85-1647), Calumny Apotheosis/Deification, Bath/Bathing,
BAILLY, DAVID (Dutch painter, draftsman, 1 584-1657), Imagination/Creativity
Vanity/Vanitas BAZIOTES, WILLIAM (American painter, 1912-1963), Night
BALDOVINETTI. ALESSO (Italian painter, 1425-1499), BEAL, JACK (American painter, born 1931),
Pregnancy Labor/Trades/Occupations
BALDUNG, HANS (HANS BALDUNG GRIEN) BEALE, MARY (English painter, 1632-1699), Self-Portraits II

(German painter, printmaker, 1484/85-1545), BEARDEN, ROMARE HOWARD (American painter,

Ascent/Descent. Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, Death, 1914-1988), Baptism, Destruction of City
Drunkenness/ Intoxication, Kiss/Kissing, Love and Death, BEARDSLEY, AUBREY VINCENT (British illustrator,
Mirror/Reflection, Music, Nightmare, Physiognomy, author, 1877-1898), Abduction/Rape, Adultery,
Serpent's Bite, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, Annunciation, Apotheosis/Deification, Artists/Art,
Vices/Deadly Sins, Witchcraft/Sorcery Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale,
BALLA, GIACOMO (Italian painter, 1871/74-1958), Hair/Haircutting, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Laughter,
Pointing/Indicating Masks/Personae
 INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART IOI7

BEATUS OF LIEBANA (Spanish illuminator, 8th century), BERGMAN, INGMAR (Swedish film director, 20th
Apocalypse century), Plague/Pestilence
BEAUX, CECILIA (American painter, 185 5-1942), BERLIN PAINTER (Greek vase painter, circa 500-475 B.C.),

Whiteness Bacchanalia/Orgy
BECCAFUMI, DOMENICO (Italian painter, sculptor, BERNARD, EMILE (French painter, printmaker, critic,

draftsman, designer, 1486-1551), Communion, Justice, 1 868-1 941), Dreams/Visions, Labor/Trades/Occupations

Virtue/Virtues BERNINI, GIAN LORENZO (Italian sculptor, architect,
BECKMANN, MAX (German painter, printmater, 1 598-1680), Abduction/Rape, Abundance,
sculptor,1884-1950), Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Beheading/Decapitation, Caricature/Cartoon, Comic,
Apocalypse, Ascent/Descent, Betrayal, Dreams/Visions, Damned Souls, Devotion/Piety, Ecstasy, Fatal
Expulsion, Funeral/Burial, Hanging, Journey/Flight, Woman/Femme Fatale, Humors, Journey/Flight,
Margins/Outsiders, Misfortune, Night, Order/Chaos, Martyrdom, Melancholy, Metamorphosis, Naked/Nude,
Self-Portraits I Self-Portraits I, Sublime
BEDFORD MASTER see MASTER OF THE DUKE OF BERNINI, PIETRO (Italian sculptor, 1 562-1629),
BEDFORD Virtue/Virtues
BEHAM, HANS SEBALD (German painter, printmaker, BERRETTINO, PIETRO (Italian artist, 18th century),
1 500-1 5 5 8), Fools/Folly, Melancholy, Misfortune, Pregnancy
Peasantry BERTHELEMY, JEAN-SIMON (French painter,
BEHRENS, PETER (German architect, painter, designer, 1743-1811), Pointing/Indicating
1 868-1940), Kiss/Kissing BERTINI, GIOVANNI (Italian painter, 1 825-1 898),
BELDAM PAINTER (Greek vase painter, 500-450 B.C.), Artists/Art
Witchcraft/Sorcery BERTOLDO DI GIOVANNI (Italian sculptor, medalist,
BELL, VANESSA (British painter, 1 874-1961), Artists/Art circa 1420-1491), Music
BELLINI, GENTILE (Italian painter, 1430/35-1507), BERTRAM VON MINDEN (German painter, sculptor,
Love and Death circa 1345-circa 1415), Visiting/Visitation
BELLINI, GIOVANNI (Italian painter, circa 1430-15 16), BERTUCCI, JACOPO or GIACOMO (IACOPANE DA
Bacchanalia/Orgy, Choice/Choosing, Crucifixion, Damned FAENZA) (Italian painter, circa 1500-circa 1579),
Souls, Death, Devotion/Piety, Ecstasy, Female Beauty and Laughter
Adornment, Journey/Flight, Love and Death, BEURON SCHOOL (German school of religious artists,
Metamorphosis, Path/Road/Crossroads, Reading, 19th century), Devotion/Piety, Protestantism
Sleep/Sleeping, Toilet Scenes, Voyeurism BEYER, EUGENE (French painter, printmaker, 1817-1893),
BELLINI, JACOPO (Italian painter, circa 1400-1478), Plague/Pestilence
Hanging BIBIENA, FRANCESCO GALLI (Italian painter, architect,
BELLIS, ANTONIO DE (Italian painter, 1621/23-1656), sceneographer, 1659-1737), Baptism
Penitence/Repentance BIDDLE, GEORGE (American painter, printmaker, sculptor,
BELLMER, HANS (German painter, draftsman, 1 88 5-1973), Labor/Trades/Occupations
photographer, 1902-197 5), Hermaphrodite/Androgyne BINGHAM, GEORGE CALEB, American painter,
BELLOWS, GEORGE WESLEY (American painter, 1811-1879), Dreams/Visions, Light II

printmaker, 1882-1925), Bath/Bathing, Hanging, BLAKE, WILLIAM (British printmaker, illustrator, painter,
Madness, Sport poet, 1757-1827), Apocalypse, Ascent/Descent, Damned
BELLY, LEON-ADOLPHE-AUGUSTE (French painter, Souls, Death, Dreams/Visions, Expulsion, Hanging,
1 827-1 877), Journey/Flight Journey/Flight, Judgment, Kiss/Kissing, Order/Chaos,
BENES, BARTON LIDICE (American sculptor, painter, born Plague/Pestilence, Sublime, Witchcraft/Sorcery
1942), Money BLAKELOCK, RALPH ALBERT (American painter,
BENING, SIMON (Early Netherlandish painter, illuminator, 1847-1919), Night
circa 1483-1561), Months, Peasantry BLECHEN, KARL (German painter, printmaker,
BENOIST, MARIE-GUILHELMINE (nee DE LAVILLE- 1798-1840), Dawn/Dawning
LEROUX) (French artist, 1768-1826), BLOCH, ALBERT (American painter, 1882-1961),
Choice/Choosing Hanging
BENSON, FRANK WESTON (American painter, BLOCKLAND, ANTONI VAN, Pointing/Indicating
1862-1951, Seasons, Whiteness BLOEMAERT, ABRAHAM (Dutch painter, 1 564-1651),
BENTON, THOMAS HART (American painter, Beheading/Decapitation, Destruction of City,
1889-1975), Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Dreams/Visions, Misfortune, Penitence/Repentance, Pointing/Indicating,
Hanging, Harvesting, Labor/Trades/Occupations Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues
BENTVUEGHELS (Northern expatriate artists painting BLOEMAERT, FREDERICK (Dutch draftsman, circa
scenes of peasant life, 17th century), Peasantry 1610-circa 1669), Months
BERAUD, JEAN (French painter, 1849-193 5), BLONDEEL, LANCELOT (Early Netherlandish painter,
Penitence/Repentance architect, circa 1495-circa 1561), Self-Portraits I

BERCHEM, NICOLAS (Dutch painter, printmaker, BOCCIONI, UMBERTO (Italian painter, sculptor,
1 620-1 68 3, Abduction/Rape 1882-1916), Laughter, Metamorphosis, Sport
I O 8
I INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OI ART

BOCKLIN, ARNOLD (Swiss painter, 1 8 27-1 901), Dreams/Visions, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Excess,

Apocalypse, Imagination/Creativity, Nightmare, Expulsion, Fools/Folly, Harvesting, Judgment,
Plague/Pestilence, Self-Portraits I, Temptation, Melancholy, Mirror/Reflection, Money, Music, Night,
Vanity/Vanitas Nightmare, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads,
BOECE A BELSWERT (Dutch printmaker, 17th century), Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Vanity/Vanitas,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses Vices/Deadly Sins, Witchcraft/Sorcery
BOECKHORST, JAN (Dutch painter, 1 605-1668), BOSCOLI, ANDREA. (Italian painter, 1 550-1606),
Abduction/Rape Honor/Honoring
BOGGS, J. S. G. (artist, 20th century), Money BOSMAN, RICHARD (American painter, printmaker, born
BOHROD, ASHROD (artist, 20th century), Laughter 1944), Night
BOILLY, LOUIS-LEOPOLD (French painter, 1761-1845), BOSSE, ABRAHAM (French printmaker, 1602-1676),
Imagination/Creativity, Whiteness Birth/Childbirth, Female Beauty and Adornment, Months,
BOISSARD DE BOISDENIER, JOSEPH FERNAND French Seasons
painter, author, musician, 18 13-1866), Journey/Flight BOTTICELLI (ALESSANDRO DI MARIANO FILIPEPI)
BOL, FERDINAND (Dutch painter, printmaker, (Italian painter, 1444/45-15 10), Adultery, Annunciation,
1616-1688), Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Judgment, Ascent/Descent, Baptism, Beheading/Decapitation,
Pointing/Indicating, Visiting/Visitation Calumny, Comic, Damned
Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth,
BOL, HANS (Early Netherlandish painter, printmaker, Souls, Death, Devotion/Piety,Fame, Fatal Woman/Femme
1634-1593), Months, Seasons, Sleep/Sleeping Fatale, Grieving/Lamentation, Hair/Haircutting, Hanging,
BOLDRINI, NICCOLO (Italian printmaker, painter, active Journey/Flight, Judgment, Melancholy, Naked/Nude,
1556), Serpent's Bite Peace, Penitence/Repentance, Reading, Seasons, Self-
BOLLER,JOHANN ADAM, Judaism Portraits I, Sleep/Sleeping, Temptation, Virtue/Virtues,
BONAIUTO, ANDREA DI see ANDREA DA FIRENZE Whiteness
BONASONE, GIULIO (Italian printmaker, active BOTTICINI, FRANCESCO (Italian painter, 1446-1497),
1 531-1574), Abduction/Rape Journey/Flight, Penitence/Repentance
BONHEUR, ROSA (French painter, 1822-1899), Artists/Art, BOUCHER, FRANgOIS (French painter, printmaker,
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Peasantry 1703-1770), Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Artists/Art,
BONIFACIO VERONESE (BONIFACIO DE' PITATI) Bath/Bathing, Death, Female Beauty and Adornment,
1487-1553), Annunciation
(Italian painter, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Imagination/Creativity,
BONNARD, PIERRE (French painter, 1 867-1 947), Judgment, Naked/Nude, Seasons,
Bath/Bathing, Dawn/Dawning, Female Beauty and Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sleep/Sleeping, Toilet Scenes,
Adornment, Shepherds/Shepherdesses Voyeurism
BONNART, NICOLAS (French printmaker, 1636-1712), BOUCICAUT MASTER (French illuminator, active circa
Months 1405-1420), Night, Visiting/Visitation
BONNART, ROBERT (French artist, 1652-circa 1719), BOUDIN, EUGENE-LOUIS (French painter, 1874-1898),
Months Dawn/Dawning
BONNAT, LEON (French painter, 1833-1922), Crucifixion BOUGUEREAU, ADOLPHE-WILLIAM (French painter,
BONVIN, FRANCOIS (French painter, printmaker, 1 825-1905), Abduction/Rape, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
1817-1887), Devotion/Piety Peasantry, Seasons, Sleep/Sleeping
BONZI, PIETRO PAOLO (GOBBO DEI CARRACCI) BOUGUEREAU, ELIZABETH JANE GARDNER (American
(Italian painter, circa 1573/84-circa 1633/44), Laughter painter in France, 1837-1922), Judaism
BOONS, P. VAN (Dutch artist, active circa 1627), BOULLONGE, LOUIS DE (French painter, printmaker,
Misfortune 1654-1733), Journey/Flight
BORCHT, PETER VAN DER IV (Flemish printmaker, active BOURDICHON, JEAN (French painter, illuminator, circa
circa 1600), Months 1457-1521), Reading
BORDONE, PARIS (Italian painter, 1 500-1 571), Baptism, BOURDON, SEBASTIEN (French painter, printmaker,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses sculptor, 1 808-1 879), Abandonment, Judgment, Sacrifice,
BORGIANNI, ORAZIO (Italian painter, circa 1578-1616), Witchcraft/Sorcery
Plague/Pestilence BOURGEOIS, LOUISE (American sculptor, born 191 1),
BORGLUM, JOHN GUTZON (American painter, sculptor, Martyrdom
author, 1871-1941), Path/Road/Crossroads BOUTS, DIRCK, THE ELDER (Early Netherlandish painter,
BORNEMANN, HINRICH, THE YOUNGER (German circa 141 5-1475), Adultery, Bath/Bathing, Betrayal,
painter, circa 1450-after 1499), Imagination/Creativity, Communion, Devotion/Piety, Judgment, Justice,
Self-Portraits I Martyrdom, Pregnancy, Upside Down
BORROMINI, FRANCESCO (Italian architect, 1 599-1 667), BOUVIER, JOSEPH-LAURENT-DANIEL (French painter,
Ecstasy, Martyrdom 1841-1901), Seasons
BOS, CORNELIS (Dutch printmaker, circa 1 506/1 o-circa BOWLER, HENRY ALEXANDER (British artist,

1564), Journey/Flight 1 824-1903), Death

BOSCH, HIERONYMUS (Early Netherlandish painter, circa BOYVIN, RENE (French printmaker, circa 151 5 -circa
1450-1516), Avarice, Comic, Damned Souls, Death, 1598), Witchcraft/Sorcery
 INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART ioiy

BRAMANTE, DONATO (Italian architect, painter, Caricature/Cartoon, Comic, Dance/Dancers/Dancing,

i444?-i5i4), Laughter, Patronage Death, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Envy, Excess,
BRAMER, LEONARD (Dutch painter, printmaker, Expulsion, Fools/Folly, Harvesting, Hunting/Hunter/
1 596-1694), Sacrifice Huntress, Journey/Flight, Justice, Labor/Trades/Occupations,
BRANCUSI, CONSTANTIN (Romanian sculptor, painter, in Madness, Marriage/Betrothal, Melancholy, Metamorphosis,
France, 1 876-1957), Kiss/Kissing Mirror/Reflection, Misfortune, Money, Months,
BRANDON, EDOUARD (French painter, 183 -1903), 1 Nightmare, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry,
Judaism Physiognomy, Protestantism, Seasons, Sin/Sinning,
BRANT, SEBASTIAN, see Index of Authors, Literary Texts, Sleep/Sleeping, Sport, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues,
Composers, Filmmakers, and Folktales Witchcraft/Sorcery
BRAQUE, GEORGES (French painter, printmaker, sculptor, BRUEGHEL, JAN, THE ELDER (BRUEGHEL DE
1882-1963), Order/Chaos, Patronage VELOURS) (Flemish painter, draftsman, 15 68- 1625),
BRAQUEMOND, MARIE (French painter, printmaker, Ascent/Descent, Journey/Flight, Labor/Trades/Occupations,
ceramist, 1841-1916), Whiteness Witchcraft/Sorcery
BRAY, JAN DE (Dutch painter, 16Z7-1697), Abandonment, BRUEGHEL, PIETER, THE YOUNGER (Flemish painter,
Vanity Amanitas circa 1564-circa 1638), Sacrifice, Witchcraft/Sorcery
BREENBERGH, BARTHOLOMEUS (Dutch painter, BRUNELLESCHI, FILIPPO (Italian architect, sculptor,

1599/1600-1657), Love and Death 1 377-1446), Abandonment, Artists/Art, Crucifixion,

BRENET, NICOLAS-GUY (French painter, printmaker, Sacrifice
1728-1792), Virtue/Virtues BRUYN, BARTHOLOMAUS, THE ELDER (German
BRESDIN, RODOLPH (French printmaker, 1822/25-1885), painter, 1493-1 555), Madness
Death BRY, THEODOR DE (Early Netherlandish printmaker,
BRETON, ANDRE 896-1 966),
(French artist, 1 publisher in Germany, 15 28-1 598), Fools/Folly
Automata, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne BRYGOS PAINTER (Greek vase painter, circa 500-475
BRETON, JULES-ADOLPHE-AIME-LOUIS (French painter, B.C.), Bacchanalia/Orgy, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
1927-1906), Devotion/Piety, Path/Road/Crossroads, Ecstasy
Peasantry BRIULLOV, KARL PAVLOVIC (Russian painter,
BREU, JORG, THE ELDER (German painter, circa 1799-1852), Sublime
1475-1537), Protestantism BUONTELENTI, BERNARDO (Italian painter, sculptor,
BRIL, PAUL (Flemish painter, printmaker, 1 554-1626), architect, 531-1608), Justice
1

Expulsion, Self-Portraits I, Shipwreck BURDEN, CHRIS (American conceptual artist, sculptor,

BRITTON, EDGAR (American muralist, sculptor, born Money

born 1946),
1901), Labor/Trades/Occupations BURGKMAIR, HANS, THE ELDER (German painter,
BRIULLOV, KARL (Russian painter, 1799-18 5 2), illuminator, 1473-1531), Betrayal, Crucifixion
Destruction of City, Toilet Scenes BURLIUK, DAVID DAVIDOVICH (Russian painter in the
BROEDERLAM, MELCHIOR (Early Netherlandish painter, United States, 1 882-1967), Labor/Trades/Occupations
active 1381-1409), Journey/Flight BURNE-JONES, EDWARD COLEY (British painter,
BRONZINO, AGNOLO 503-1 572),
(Italian painter, 1 1833-1896), Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Ascent/Descent,
Adultery, Martyrdom, Masks/Personae, Metamorphosis, Damned Souls, Death, Dreams/Visions, Expulsion,
Mirror/Reflection, Naked/Nude, Serpent's Bite Fame, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Fortune,
BROOKS, ROMAINE (American painter, 1 874-1970), Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Light II, Love and Death,
Self-Portraits II Metamorphosis, Mirror/Reflection, Misfortune, Music,
BROUWER, ADRIAEN (Flemish painter, 1605/06-1638), Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos, Sacrifice, Seasons,
Comic, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Sleep/Sleeping, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Laughter, Peasantry, BURRA, EDWARD JOHN (British painter, 1905-1976),
Sleep/Sleeping Hanging
BROWN, FORD MADOX 1821-1893),
(British painter, BUSCH, WILHELM (German painter, poet, 1 832-1908),
Artists/Art, Bath/Bathing, Comic, Expulsion, Caricature/Cartoon
Journey/Flight, Labor/Trades/Occupations, BUTLER, ELIZABETH SOUTHERDEN THOMPSON,
Mirror/Reflection, Shipwreck, Sublime LADY (British painter, 1844/46-1933), Sacrifice
BROWN, ROGER (American painter, born 1941), Upside BUYTEWECH, WILLEM PIETERSZ. (Dutch printmaker,
Down painter, 159 1/9 2-1 624), Seasons
BROWN & BIGELOW (American printers, i 9 th-2oth
century), Months CABANEL, ALEXANDRE (French painter, 1 823-1 889),
BROWNLOW, EMMA B. (British painter, flourished Birth/Childbirth
1 852-1 873), Abandonment CADMUS, PAUL (American painter, printmaker,
BROZIK, WENZEL VON (Czechoslovakian painter, 1 904-1 98 3), Bath/Bathing, Envy, Excess, Vices/Deadly
1851-1901), Metamorphosis Sins
BRUEGHEL, PIETER, THE ELDER (Flemish painter, CAILLEBOTTE, GUSTAVE (French painter, 1 848-1984),
1525/30-1569), Adultery, Ascent/Descent, Avarice, Labor/Trades/Occupations
1020 INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART

CALDERON, PHILIP HERMOGENES (British painter, CARRACCI, AGOSTINO (Italian painter, 1 557-1602),
1 83 3-1 898); Abandonment Caricature/Cartoon, Communion, Devotion/Piety, Envy
CAEEOT, JACQUES (French printmaker, 1592-1635), CARRACCI, ANNIBALE (Italian painter, 1 560-1609),
Comic, Destruction of City, Envy, Funeral/Burial, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Betrayal, Caricature/Cartoon,
Hanging, Masks/Personae, Months, Choice/Choosing, Comic, Devotion/Piety,
Path/Road/Crossroads, Witchcraft/Sorcery Drunkenness/Intoxication, Ecstasy, Fame,
CAMASSEI, ANDREA (Italian painter, 1 602-1 649), Grieving/Lamentation, Hair/Haircutting, Hanging,
Baptism Journey/Flight, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne,
CAMBIASO, EUCA (Italian painter, 1 527-1585), Honor/Honoring, Imagination/Creativity, Martyrdom,
Journey/Flight Masks/Personae, Path/Road/Crossroads, Plague/Pestilence,
CAMERON, J. (American artist, active circa 1866), Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy, Sacrifice, Self-Portraits I

Harvesting CARRACCI, LODOVICO 555-1619),

(Italian painter, 1

CAMERON, JULIA MARGARET (British photographer, Adultery, Calumny, Devotion/Piety, Madness, Night,
1815-1879), Adultery Plague/Pestilence, Sacrifice
CAMPAGNOLA, GIULIO (Italian painter, sculptor, CARRACCI CIRCLE, Calumny
1482-1515), Melancholy CARRIERA, ROSALBA (Italian painter, 1675-1757),
CAMPEN, JACOB VAN (Dutch painter, architect, Artists/Art, Self-Portraits II

1595-1657), Abduction/Rape, Journey/Flight CARRINGTON, LEONORA (British painter, author, in

CAMPI, BERNARDINO (Italian painter, 1522-1595), Mexico, born 19 17), Artists/Art, Hanging, Self-Portraits II

Self-Portraits II CARSTENS, ASMUS JAKOB (German painter, 1754-1798),

CAMPIN, ROBERT (MASTER OF FLEMALLE) (Early Night
Netherlandish painter, draftsman, circa 1 375-1444), CARUS, CARL GUSTAV (German painter, philosopher,
Annunciation, Birth/Childbirth, Funeral/Burial, physician, 1789-1869), Dawn/Dawning, Journey/Flight,
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Marriage/Betrothal, Night
Mirror/Reflection, Music, Patronage, Reading, CASONI, FELICE ANTONIO (Italian architect, sculptor,
Virgin/Virginity medalist, 15 59-1 634), Self-Portraits II

CANAVESIO, GIOVANNI (Italian artist, active 1458-1500) CASSINESE SCHOOL, Honor/Honoring

Hanging CASSATT, MARY (American painter in France, 1 844-1926),
CANO, ALONSO (Spanish painter, sculptor, architect, Bath/Bathing, Female Beauty and Adornment, Reading,
1601-1667), Crucifixion Visiting/Visitation
CANOVA, ANTONIO (Italian sculptor, painter, CASTAGNO, ANDREA DEL (Italian painter, 1423-1457),
1 757-1 822), Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, Crucifixion, Death, Devotion/Piety,
Grieving/Lamentation, Journey/Flight, Kiss/Kissing, Dreams/Visions, Fame, Hanging, Honor/Honoring
Labyrinth/Maze, Love and Death, Madness, CASTIGLIONE, FRANCESCO (Italian painter, died 1716),
Naked/Nude Journey/Flight
CANTOFOLI, GINEVRA (Italian painter, 1 608-1 672), CASTIGLIONE, GIOVANNI BENEDETTO (IL
Self-Portraits II GRECHETTO) (Italian painter, printmaker, circa
CARAVAGGIO, MICHELANGELO MERISI DA (Italian 1610-circa 1665), Journey/Flight, Sacrifice
painter, 573-1610), Arms Raised, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
1 CASTILLO Y SAAVEDRA, ANTONIO DEL (Spanish
Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, Comic, Communion, painter, 1616-1668), Adultery
Crucifixion, Devotion/Piety, Drunkenness/Intoxication, CAVACEPP, PAOLO (Italian sculptor, restorer, 1 723-1 804),
Ecstasy, Envy, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Fortune, Path/Road/Crossroads
Funeral/Burial, Grieving/Lamentation, Hair/Haircutting, CAVALLI, GIAN MARCO (Italian sculpture, goldsmith,
Imagination/Creativity, Light II, Martyrdom, born 1454, active 1495), Honor/Honoring
Mirror/Reflection, Money, Music, Night, CAVALLINI, PIETRO (Italian painter, circa 1250-circa
Path/Road/Crossroads, Penitence/Repentance, 1330), Birth/Childbirth, Grieving/Lamentation
Pointing/Indicating, Sacrifice, Self-Portraits I, CAVALLINO, BERNARDO (Italian painter, 1616-1654),
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sublime, Toilet Scenes, Expulsion
Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues CAVE, PETER DE (British artist, active circa 173 5-1 8 10),
CARESME, PHILIPPE (French artist, 1 734-1 796), Abandonment
Metamorphosis CAVEDONE, GIACOMO (Italian painter, 1 577-1660),
CARON, ANTOINE (French painter, circa 1 521-1599), Martyrdom
Widowhood CELLINI, BENVENUTO (Italian sculptor, goldsmith, author,
CARPACCIO, VITTORE (Italian painter, 1500-1571), Beheading/Decapitation, Fatal
1455/65-1525/26), Dreams/Visions, Journey/Flight, Woman/Femme Fatale, Fortune, Hair/Haircutting,
Music, Sleep/Sleeping Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
CARPEAUX, JEAN BAPTISTE (French sculptor, painter, CERRINI, GIOVANNI DOMENICO (CAVALIER
printmaker, 18 27-1 87 5), Dance/Dancers/Dancing PERUGINO) (Italian painter, 1 609-1 681), Self-Portraits II

CARRA, CARLO (Italian painter, 1881-1966), Automata, CESARE, GIUSEPPE (CAVALIER D'ARPINO) (Italian
Funeral/Burial painter, 1 568-1640), Virtue/Virtues
 INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART 102 1

CESARE DE SESTO (Italian painter, 1477-1521), CIGNANI, CARLO (Italian painter, 1628-1719), Adultery,
Birth/Childbirth Calumny
CEZANNE, PAUL (French painter, 1839-1906), CIGNAROLI, GIAMBETTINO (Italian painter, 1 706-1 770),
Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Apotheosis/Deification, Birth/Childbirth
Ascent/Descent, Bath/Bathing, Hanging, Masks/Personae, CIGOLI, LUDOVICO CARDI (Italian painter, architect,
Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos, Penitence/Repentance, 1559-1613), Envy, Honor/Honoring, Martyrdom
Reading, Self-Portraits I, Temptation CIMA DA CONEGLIANO, GIOVANNI BATTISTA
CHAGALL, MARC (Russian painter, printmaker in (Italian painter, circa 1459-circa 15 17), Love and Death,
France, 1887-1985), Abduction/Rape, Annunciation, Penitence/Repentance, Sleep/Sleeping
Ascent/Descent, Betrayal, Crucifixion, Dance/Dancers/ CIMABUE (CENNI DI PEPE) (Italian painter, circa
Dancing, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Ecstasy, Judaism, 1 240-circa 1301), Artists/Art, Crucifixion
Laughter, Marriage/Betrothal, Order/Chaos, Peasantry, CIRY, MICHEL (French painter, printmaker, born 1919),
Pregnancy, Self-Portraits I, Upside Down Martyrdom
CHAMPAIGNE, PHILIPPE DE (French painter, 1 602-1 674), CLAESZ, PIETER (Dutch painter, 17th century),
Devotion/Piety Abundance, Vanity/Vanitas
CHAPMAN, JOHN GADSBY (American painter, CLARKE, JOHN CLEM (American painter, born 1937),
printmaker, illustrator, 1 808-1 889), Baptism Bacchanalia/Orgy
CHAPU, HENRI-MICHEL-ANTOINE (French sculptor, CLARISSA (Scribe, 12th century), Self-Portraits II

medalist, 1833-1891), Abduction/Rape, Sleep/Sleeping CLARKE, MARTHA (American artist, director, 20th
CHARDIN, JEAN-BAPTISTE-SIMEON (French painter,
century), Damned Souls
1 699-1 779), Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, CLAUDE LORRAIN (French painter, 1 600-1 682), Betrayal,
Imagination/Creativity, Labor/Trades/Occupations
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Expulsion, Journey/Flight,
CHARLES, JAMES (British artist, 1851-1906),
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Metamorphosis, Seasons,
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Marriage/Betrothal
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sublime, Temptation,
CHARPENTIER, CONSTANCE-MARIE (French painter,
Visiting/Visitation
1767-1849), Melancholy, Whiteness
CLAUDEL, CAMILLE (French sculptor, 1864-1943),
CHASE, WILLIAM MERRITT (American painter,
Artists/Art
1849-1916), Whiteness
CLERCK, HENDRICK DE (Flemish painter, 1 570-1629),
CHASSERIAU, THEODORE (French painter, 1819-1856),
Expulsion, Humors
Abandonment, Adultery
CLEVE, JOOS VAN (Early Netherlandish painter, circa
CHAUVEAU, FRANQOIS (French miniaturist, printmaker,
1485-circa 1540), Crucifixion, Reading, Vanity/Vanitas
1613-1676), Seasons
CLODION, CLAUDE-MICHEL (French painter,
CHELSEA PORCELAIN MANUFACTORY (English,
1738-1814), Bacchanalia/Orgy
1 74 5-1 78 2), Shepherds/Shepherdesses
CHERON, ELISABETH-SOPHIE (French artist,
CLOSE, CHUCK (American painter, born 1940), Artists/Art,
Self-Portraits I
1648-1711), Self-Portraits II

CHERON, LOUIS (French painter, 1660-circa 1725),

CLOUET, FRANgOIS (French painter, before 1 522-1 572),
Toilet Scenes
Adultery, Laughter
CHIA, SANDRO (Italian painter, sculptor, born 1946),
COCK, HIERONYMUS (Early Netherlandish printmaker,
publisher, circa 15 10-1570), Serpent's Bite
Drunkenness/Intoxication
CHICAGO, JUDY (American painter, printmaker, sculptor,
CODAZZI, VIVIANO (Italian painter, circa 1 603-1 670),
born 1939), Birth/Childbirth, Pregnancy Temptation
CHIGOT, ALPHONSE (French painter, 19th century), COECKE VAN AELST, PIETER I (Early Netherlandish

Avarice painter, sculptor, architect, author, 1502-15 50), Adultery,

CHIRICO, GIORGIO DE (Italian painter, 1888-1978),
Betrayal, Journey/Flight, Seasons

Automata, Imagination/Creativity, Journey/Flight, COLE, THOMAS (American painter, 1 801-1848),

Judgment, Melancholy, Metamorphosis, Order/Chaos Ascent/Descent, Destruction of City, Ecstasy, Expulsion,

CHODOWIECKI, DANIEL NIKOLAUS (German painter, Journey/Flight, Path/Road/Crossroads, Protestantism,

printmaker, 1 726-1 801), Comic, Madness, Months Shepherds/Shepherdesses

CHOKI, EISHOSAI (Japanese painter, printmaker, active COLLAERT, ADRIAEN (Flemish printmaker, circa

1 760-1 800), Dawn/Dawning

1560-1618), Months
CHRISTUS, PETRUS (Early Netherlandish painter, active COLLANTES, FRANCESCO (Spanish painter, 1 599-1656),
1440, died 1472/73), Betrayal, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Destruction of City
Mirror/Reflection, Money, Pregnancy, Virgin/Virginity COLLIER, EVERT see COLYER, EDWAERT
CHRYSSA, VARDEA (American sculptor, born 1933), COLLIER, JOHN (British painter, 1850-1934),
Light II Journey/Flight
CHURCH, FREDEROC EDWIN (American painter, COLLINSON, JAMES (British painter, i82 5 ?-i88i),
1 26-1 908), Imagination/Creativity, Light II, Shipwreck
8 Expulsion
CIBBER, CAJUS GABRIEL (Danish sculptor, architect, in COLOGNE SCHOOL (German artists, i4th-i5th century),
Britain, 1 630-1 700), Destruction of City Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy
1022 INDFX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART

C.'OI OMBE, JEAN (French illuminator, circa 1430-1493), COTMAN, JOHN SELL (British painter, 1781-1842),
Funeral/Burial, Order/Chaos, Reading Judgment
COLOMBE, MICHEL (French sculptor, 1430-15 12), COURBET, GUSTAVE (French painter, 1 819-1877),
Virtue/Virtues Artists/Art, Bath/Bathing, Death, Funeral/Burial,
COLYER, EDWAERT (Dutch painter, active 1673-1782), Grieving/Lamentation, Imagination/Creativity,
Music Labor/Trades/Occupations, Margins/Outsiders,
CONNELLY, ARCH (American artist, born 1950), Money Naked/Nude, Path/Road/Crossro.ids, Peasantry, Self-
CONSTABLE, JOHN (British painter, 1776-1837), Portraits I, Sleep/Sleeping, Toilet Scenes, Voyeurism
Dawn/Dawning, Ecstasy, Harvesting, Light II, COURTEYS, PIERRE I (French painter, enamalist, circa
Path/Road/Crossroads, Sanctuary, 1520-circa 1586), Abduction/Rape, Judgment
Shepherds/Shepherdesses COUSIN, JEAN, THE ELDER (French painter, sculptor,
CONVAY, JEAN (French artist, 17th century), Seasons printmaker, circa 1490-circa 1560), Fortune
COORNHERT, DIRCK VOLCKERTSZ. (Netherlandish COUTURE, THOMAS (French painter, 1815-1879),
humanist, printmaker, 1522-1 590), Misfortune Bacchanalia/Orgy, Excess, Pregnancy, Sin/Sinning
COPLANS, JOHN (British photographer in the United COVERT, JOHN (American painter, 1 882-1 960),
States, born 1920), Naked/Nude Temptation
COPLEY, JOHN SINGLETON (American painter, circa COWPER, FRANK CODOGAN (British artist, 1 877-1958)
1738-1815), Self-Portraits I Hair/Haircutting, Martyrdom
CORBUSIER, LE (CHARLES-EDOUARD JEANNERET) COX, JAN (Dutch/Belgium painter, 1919-1980), Love and
(French architect, painter, 1887-1965), Arms Raised, Death
Light II COXIE, MICHIEL, THE ELDER (Early Netherlandish
CORINTH, LOVIS (German painter, printmaker, 1499-1592), Adultery, Serpent's Bite
painter,
1858-1925), Adultery, Beheading/Decapitation, COYPEL, ANTOINE (French painter, 1661-1722),
Crucifixion, Death, Devotion/Piety, Calumny, Journey/Flight, Laughter
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fatal Woman/Femme COYPEL, NOEL-NICOLAS (French painter, 1690-1734),
Fatale, Journey/Flight, Judgment, Laughter, Abduction/Rape, Love and Death
Penitence/Repentance, Pregnancy, Protestantism, COZENS, ALEXANDER (British painter, 1717-1786),
Self-Portraits I Dawn/Dawning
CORNELISZ. VAN AMSTERDAM, JACOB see CRAESBEECK, JOOS VAN (Flemish painter, circa
CORNELISZ. VAN OOSTSANEN, JACOB 1605-1654/61), Vanity/Vanitas
CORNELISZ. VAN HAARLEM, CORNELIS (Dutch CRANACH, LUCAS, THE ELDER (German painter,
painter, 562-1638), Bacchanalia/Orgy, Laughter,
1 draftsman, printmaker, 1472-1553), Adultery,
Misfortune, Temptation Apocalypse, Ascent/Descent, Beheading/Decapitation,
CORNELISZ. VAN OOSTSANEN, JACOB (Netherlandish Betrayal, Caricature/Cartoon, Choice/Choosing,
painter, printmaker, circa 1470-1533), Self-Portraits I, Comic, Communion, Crucifixion, Expulsion,
Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Judgment, Love and Death,
CORNELIUS, PETER (German painter, 1783-1867), Madness, Melancholy, Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos,
Destruction of City, Madness Penitence/Repentance, Protestantism, Serpent's Bite,
CORNELL, JOSEPH (American sculptor, 1903-1972), Sin/Sinning, Temptation
Dance/Dancers/Dancing CRANACH, LUCAS, THE YOUNGER (German painter,
COROT, JEAN-BAPTISTE-CAMILLE (French painter, draftsman, printmaker, 151 5-1 586), Ascent/Descent,
1796-1875), Journey/Flight, Laughter, Melancholy, Communion, Crucifixion, Protestantism
Serpent's Bite, Shepherds/Shepherdesses CRANE, WALTER (British painter, illustrator, designer,
CORREGGIO (ANTONIO ALLEGRI) (Italian painter, 1845-1915), Seasons
circa 1489/94-1534), Adultery, Abduction/Rape, CRAWFORD, THOMAS (American sculptor, 18 14-1857),
Apotheosis/Deification, Ecstasy, Gaze, Journey/Flight, Sleep/Sleeping
Justice, Light II, Money, Night, Pregnancy, Sublime, CREMER, FRITZ (German sculptor, printmaker, painter,
Virtue/Virtues born 1906), Hanging
CORTE, JOSSE DE (Flemish sculptor in Italy, 1627-1678), CRESPI, DANIELE (Italian painter, 1 590-1630), Baptism
Plague/Pestilence CRESPI, GIUSEPPE MARIA (LO SPAGNUOLO) (Italian
CORTESE, GUGLIELMO (Italian artist, 17th century), painter, printmaker, 1665-1747), Penitence/Repentance,
Martyrdom Plague/Pestilence, Visiting/Visitation
COSSA, FRANCESCO DEL (Italian painter, circa CRESTI, DOMENICO (PASSIGNANO) (Italian painter,
1435-circa 1477), Betrayal, Justice, Zodiac 1 559-1638), Pointing/Indicating
COSWAY, MARIA HADFIELD (British painter, printmaker, CRIVELLI, CARLO (Italian painter, 1430/35-1495),
1759-1838), Self-Portraits II Annunciation, Crucifixion, Death
COT, PIERRE-AUGUST (French painter, 1 837-1 883), CRONENBURG, ADRIEN VAN (Netherlandish painter,
Seasons circa 1525-circa 1604), Vanity/Vanitas
COTER, COLIJN DE (Netherlandish painter, circa CROSBY, WILLIAM (British artist, 1 830-1910),
1455-circa 1538), Imagination/Creativity Visiting/Visitation
 INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART IO23

CROWE, EYRE (British painter, 1824-1910), Grieving/Lamentation, Journey/Flight, Judgment,

Labor/Trades/Occupations Naked/Nude, Path/Road/Crossroads, Plague/Pestilence,
CRUIKSHANK, GEORGE (British illustrator, painter, Pointing/Indicating, Whiteness, Widowhood
1 791-1878), Caricature/Cartoon, Comic, DAVIE, ALAN (British painter, born 1920), Sacrifice
Margins/Outsiders DAVIES, ARTHUR BOWEN (American painter,
CRUIKSHANK, ISAAC (British caricaturist, painter, 1862-1928), Abduction/Rape, Serpent's Bite
1764-1810/11), Comic DAYBREAK PAINTER (Greek vase painter, late 6th century
CUNNINGHAM, IMOGEN (American photographer, B.C.), Witchcraft/Sorcery
1883-1976), Naked/Nude DE ANDREA, JOHN LOUIS (American sculptor, born
CURRAN, CHARLES COURTNEY (American painter, 1 Naked/Nude
941), Hair/Haircutting,
1861-1942), Whiteness DEBUCOURT, PHILIBERT-LOUIS (French painter,
CURRIER &
IVES (American artists Nathaniel Currier printmaker, 1755-1832), Seasons
[1813-1888) and James Merritt Ives, [1824-1895D, DECAMP (French artisan, 20th century), Automata
Harvesting DECAMPS, ALEXANDRE-GABRIEL (French painter,
CURRY, JOHN STEUART (American painter, 1897-1946), printmaker, 803-1 860), Shepherds/Shepherdesses
1

Baptism, Death, Dreams/Visions, Hanging, DEGAS, EDGAR (French painter, sculptor, 1 769-1 825),
Masks/Personae Abduction/Rape, Bath/Bathing, Dance/Dancers/Dancing,
Death, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Female Beauty and
DADD, RICHARD (British painter, 1817-1886), Madness Adornment, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Madness,
DADDI, BERNARDO (Italian painter, 14th century),
Masks/Personae, Mirror/Reflection, Naked/Nude,
Crucifixion
Reading, Toilet Scenes, Visiting/Visitation, Voyeurism
DAGLEY, RICHARD (British painter, printmaker,
DELACROIX, EUGENE (French painter, 1 798-1 863),
1765-1841), Death Abduction/Rape, Arms Raised, Artists/Art, Bath/Bathing,
DAGNAN-BOUVERET, PASCAL- ADOLPHE-JE AN (French
Crucifixion, Damned Souls, Dawn/Dawning, Death,
painter, printmaker, 1852-1929/31), Love and Death
Destruction of City, Excess, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale,
DAHL, JOHANN CHRISTIAN CLAUSEN (Norwegian Female Beauty and Adornment, Grieving/Lamentation,
painter in Germany, 1788-1857), Dawn/Dawning
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Imagination/Creativity,
DALAKAY, VEDAT (Turkish architect, 20th century), Light I
Journey/Flight, Love and Death, Luxury,
DALI, SALVADOR (Spanish painter, sculptor, printmaker,
Marriage/Betrothal, Order/Chaos, Reading, Sacrifice,
1904-1989), Apocalypse, Arms Raised, Ascent/Descent,
Shipwreck, Sleep/Sleeping, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Comic, Communion, Crucifixion, Dreams/Visions,
DELAROCHE, PAUL (French painter, 1797-1856),
Imagination/Creativity, Madness, Metamorphosis,
Beheading/Decapitation, Martyrdom
Order/Chaos, Sleep/Sleeping, Temptation
DELAUNAY, JULES-ELIE (French painter, 1828-1891),
DALMATION SCHOOL, Shipwreck
Misfortune, Plague/Pestilence
DALOU, JULES (French sculptor, 1838-1902),
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Labor/Trades/Occupations
DELAUNAY, NICOLAS, THE ELDER (French printmaker,

DANBY, FRANCIS (British painter,i793-i86i),

1 73 9-1 792), Drunkenness/Intoxication
Misfortune
DELLA BELLA, STEFANO (Italian printmaker, 16 10-1664),
Destruction of City
DANDRIDGE, BARTHOLOMEW (British painter,
1691-circa 1754), Whiteness
DELLA QUERCIA, JACOPO (Italian sculptor, circa

DANTON, FERDINAND, JR. (American artist, 19th

372-143 8), Drunkenness/Intoxication,
1

Labor/Trades/Occupations, Temptation
century), Money
DANUBE SCHOOL, Penitence/Repentance DELLA ROBBIA, ANDREA (Italian sculptor, ceramist,

D'ARCANGELO, ALAN (American painter, born 1930), 1435-1525/28), Abandonment

Path/Road/Crossroads DELLA ROBBIA, LUCA (Italian sculptor, ceramist, painter,

DARIUS PAINTER (Greek vase painter, late 4th century 1400-1482), Mirror/Reflection, Reading
B.C.), Funeral/Burial DELVAUX, PAUL (Belgian painter, printmaker, illustrator,

DAUMIER, HONORE (French painter, printmaker, born 1897), Arms Raised, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne,
sculptor, 808-1 879), Abandonment, Abduction/Rape,
1
Metamorphosis, Naked/Nude, Night, Sleep/Sleeping
Avarice, Bath/Bathing, Caricature/Cartoon, Comic, Death, DELVILLE, JEAN (Belgian painter, 1867-195 3),
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Grieving/Lamentation, Beheading/Decapitation, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne,
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Laughter, Margins/Outsiders, Nightmare
Masks/Personae, Metamorphosis, Misfortune, DE MORGAN, EVELYN (British artist, 1850/55-1919),
Order/Chaos, Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy Abandonment, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale
DAVID, GERARD (Early Netherlandish painter, circa DENIS, MAURICE (French painter, author, 870-1 943), 1

1450/60-1523), Expulsion, Journey/Flight, Judgment, Annunciation, Crucifixion, Dawn/Dawning,

Justice, Light II Devotion/Piety, Visiting/Visitation, Whiteness
DAVID, JACQUES-LOUIS (French artist, 1748-1825), DERAIN, ANDRE (French painter, sculptor, printmaker,
Abandonment, Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Arms Raised, 1880-1954), Bacchanalia/Orgy, Bath/Bathing,
Bath/Bathing, Calumny, Comic, Death, Funeral/Burial, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Masks/Personae
1024 INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART

DERUTA, CASTEL (Italian majolica designer, active circa DONNER, GEORG RAPHAEL (Austrian sculptor,
i
530), Love and Death 1 693-1741), Judgment
DESBOUTIN, MARCELLIN-GILBERT (French painter, DORE, GUSTAVE (French artist, 1 832-1 883), Adultery,
1 82.3-1902.), Drunkenness/Intoxication Ascent/Descent, Damned Souls, Journey/Flight,
DES GRANGES, DAVID (English miniaturist, printmaker, Judgment, Margins/Outsiders, Martyrdom, Seasons
painter, circa 1611-circa 1675), Birth/Childbirth DORNSEIF, FRANK (German painter, sculptor, 20th
DESIDEREO DE SETTIGNANO (Italian sculptor, century), Hermaphrodite/Androgyne
1428-1464), Honor/Honoring DOSSI, DOSSO (GIOVANNI DE LUTERO) (Italian

DESMAREES, GEORG (Swedish painter, 1697- 1776), painter, circa1490-1541), Bacchanalia/Orgy, Fame,
Self-Portraits I Journey/Flight, Labyrinth/Maze, Laughter
DESNOS, FERDINAND (French artist, active circa 1934), DOU, GERRIT (Dutch painter, 1613-1675), Betrayal,
Devotion/Piety Music, Penitence/Repentance, Vanity/Vanitas
DESORIA, JEAN-BAPTISTE-FRANgOIS (French painter, DOVE, ARTHUR GARFIELD (American painter,
1758-1832), Whiteness 1 880-1946), Night
DEVERELL, WALTER HOWELL (British painter, DRAPER, HERBERT JAMES (British artist, 1963/64-1920),
1827-1854), Expulsion Abandonment
DEVERIA, ACHILLE (French painter, printmaker, DRESDEN SCHOOL, Devotion/Piety
draftsman, 1 800-1 857), Sleep/Sleeping DROST, WILLEM (Dutch painter, 630-1 688), 1 Temptation
DEVERIA, EUGENE-FRANQOIS-MARIE-JOSEPH DROUAIS, FRANQOIS-HUBERT (French painter,
(French artist, 1 805-1 865), Birth/Childbirth 1 727- 1 775), Imagination/Creativity
DEVIS, ARTHUR 1 708-1 787),
(British painter, circa DRYANDER, JOHANNES (JOHANN FRIEDRICH)
Whiteness (German painter, 1756-1812), Pregnancy
DE WINT, PETER (British painter, 1784-1849), Harvesting DUBREUIL, TOUSSAINT (French painter, 1 561-1602),
DICKINSON, WILLIAM (British artist, 746-1 823), 1 Toilet Scenes
Madness DUBREUIL, VICTOR (American artist, active 1 888-1900),
DIDIER, JULES (French artist, 1831-after 1880), Money
Caricature/Cartoon DUBUFFET, JEAN (French painter, sculptor, printmaker,
DIEPRAEM, ABRAHAM (Dutch painter, 1 622-1 670), 1901-1985), Madness
Laughter DUCCIO DI BUONINSEGNA (Italian painter, circa
DIRCK, PHILIPPE VAN (Netherlandish painter, 17th 1225-before 13 19), Abandonment, Annunciation,
century), Music Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth, Crucifixion, Damned Souls,
DIX, OTTO (German painter, printmaker, 1 891-1969), Death, Grieving/Lamentation, Honor/Honoring,
Madness, Melancholy, Night, Order/Chaos, Pregnancy, Journey/Flight, Metamorphosis, Order/Chaos,
Sin/Sinning Temptation, Virgin/Virginity
DIXON, ALFRED (British artist, 1842-1919), DUCHAMP, MARCEL (French artist, 1 887-1968),
Abandonment Comic, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne,
Artists/Art,
DIZIANI, GASPARE (Italian painter, 1 689-1 767), Order/Chaos
Abduction/Rape DUCHAMP- VILLON, RAYMOND (French sculptor,
DOKIMASIA PAINTER (Greek vase painter, 500-475 B.C.), 1876-1918), Metamorphosis
Bath/Bathing DUKE, LODOVICO (Italian printmaker, 16th century),
DOLCI, CARLO (Italian painter, 1616-1686), Bath/Bathing, Pregnancy
Imagination/Creativity DUMON, PIERRE (French tapestry weaver, 17th century),
DOMENICHINO (DOMENICO ZAMPIERI) (Italian Journey/Flight
painter, 1481-1641), Betrayal, Communion, Crucifixion, DUNTHORN, JAMES (British painter, 18th century),
Devotion/Piety, Envy, Journey/Flight, Judgment, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
Martyrdom, Sacrifice, Shepherds/Shepherdesses DUPAIN, MAX (Australian artist, 20th century), Night
DOMENICO FIORENTINO (DOMENICO RICOVERI) DUQUESNOY, JEROME (Flemish sculptor, circa
(Italian sculptor, stucco artist, painter, printmaker in 1 570-1641), Penitence/Repentance
France, circa 1506-1570/75), Fame DURAMEAU, LOUIS-JEAN-JACQUES (French painter,
DOMENICO VENEZIANO (DOMENICO DI 1 73 3-1 796), Virtue/Virtues
BARTOLOMEO DA VENEZIA) (Italian painter, DURAND, ASHER BROWN (American painter, printmaker,
circa 1400-1461), Apotheosis/Deification, Betrayal, 1796-1886), Ecstasy
Birth/Childbirth, Hanging, Path/Road/Crossroads DURANTE, CASTEL (Italian painter of majolica, 16th
DONATELLO (DONATO DI NICCOIO DI BETTO century), Love and Death
BARDI) (Italian sculptor, circa 1386-1466), Arms Raised, DURER, ALBRECHT (German painter, printmaker,
Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, Death, Devotion/Piety, 1 471-15 20), Adultery, Abduction/Rape, Apocalypse,

Hair/Haircutting, Honor/Honoring, Martyrdom, Artists/Art, Ascent/Descent, Automata, Bacchanalia/Orgy,

Mirror/Reflection, Naked/Nude, Penitence/Repentance Bath/Bathing, Choice/Choosing, Comic, Crucifixion,
DONGEN, KEES VAN (Dutch painter, 1 877-1968), Damned Souls, Dawn/Dawning, Devotion/Piety, Dreams/
Dance/Dancers/Dancing Visions, Expulsion, Journey/Flight, Funeral/Burial, Gaze,
 INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART IO25

Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, ERETRIA PAINTER (Greek vase painter, 450-420 B.C.),

Imagination/Creativity, Journey/Flight, Kiss/Kissing, Ecstasy

Labor/Trades/Occupations, Melancholy, MirrorReflection, ERNST, MAX (German painter, collagist, author,
Music, Naked/Nude, Nightmare, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/ 891-1976), Arms Raised, Ascent/Descent, Bath/Bathing,
1

Crossroads, Peasantry, Penitence/Repentance, Physiognomy, Dreams/Visions, Journey/Flight, Hermaphrodite/

Plague/Pestilence, Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy, Androgyne, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Imagination/
Protestantism, Reading, Self-Portraits I, Shepherds/ Creativity, Night, Sanctuary, Self-Portraits I, Shipwreck,
Shepherdesses, Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Temptation, Voyeurism, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Visiting/Visitation, Voyeurism, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac ESCHER, MAURITS CORNELIS (Dutch printmaker,
DUSART, CORNELIS (Dutch painter, printmaker, 898-1972), Ascent/Descent, Expulsion, Order/Chaos,
1

r 660-1704), Harvesting, Months Upside Down

DUVENECK, FRANK (American painter, printmaker, ESCOULA, JEAN (French sculptor, 1851-1911), Love and
1 848-1919), Laughter Death
DUVET, JEAN (French printmaker, goldsmith, 1485-1570?), ESTES, RICHARD (American painter, born 1932),
Apocalypse Mirror/Reflection
DYCE, WILLIAM (British painter, 1 806-1 864), Artists/Art, ESTIENNE, CHARLES (French artist, 16th century),
Reading Pregnancy
DYCK, ANTHONY VAN (Flemish artist, 1 599-1641), ETTY, WILLIAM (British painter, 1 787-1 849), Fortune,
Adultery, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Bath/Bathing, Journey/Flight, Voyeurism
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Hair/Haircutting, EUPHRONIUS (Greek vase painter, active circa 510-490
Honor/Honoring, Humors, Melancholy, Plague/Pestilence, B.C.), Labor/Trades/Occupations, Pointing/Indicating
Self-Portraits I, Serpent's Bite, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, EUTHYMIDES (Greek vase painter, 530-500 B.C.),

Virgin/Virginity Abduction/Rape
EUTYCHIDES OF SICYON (Greek sculptor, active circa
EADWINE (English scribe, 12th century), 318 B.C.), Fortune, Virtue/Virtues
Labor/Trades/Occupations EVERDINGEN, CAESAR BOETIUS VAN (Dutch painter,
EAKINS, THOMAS (American painter, sculptor, 1606-1678), Female Beauty and Adornment,Harvesting
1844-1916), Labor/Trades/Occupations, Naked/Nude, EVERGOOD, PHILIP (American painter, printmaker,
Sleep/Sleeping 1901-1973), Laughter
EASTLAKE, CHARLES LOCK (British painter, art EWANOKI, MARY (American embroiderer, 20th century),
historian,1793-1865), Journey/Flight Pregnancy
EECKHOUT, GERBRAND VAN DEN (Dutch painter, EXEKIAS (Greek vase painter, circa 545-530 B.C.),
printmaker, 1 621-1674), Calumny, Sacrifice Drunkenness/Intoxication, Madness
EGG, AUGUSTUS LEOPOLD (British painter, 181 6-1 863), EYCK, JAN VAN (Netherlandish painter, circa 13 90-1 441),
Adultery, Mirror/Reflection Betrayal, Communion, Damned Souls, Devotion/Piety,
EHRENSTRAHL, DAVID KLOCKER (Swedish painter, art Funeral/Burial, Gaze, Judgment, Justice,
historian, 1628-1698), Self-Portraits I Marriage/Betrothal, Martyrdom, Mirror/Reflection,
EISEN, CHARLES-JOSEPH-DOMINIQUE (French painter, Music, Naked/Nude, Offering, Patronage, Pregnancy,
printmaker, 1 720-1 778), Seasons Sacrifice, Self-Portraits I, Sin/Sinning, Toilet Scenes,
ELHAFEN, IGNAZ (German ivory carver, 1685-1725), Upside Down, Virgin/Virginity, Whiteness
Abduction/Rape EYCK, HUBERT (Early Netherlandish painter, 1 366-1426),
ELKAN, BENNO (German sculptor, painter, author, Communion, Damned Souls, Devotion/Piety, Martyrdom,
1877-1960), Judaism Naked/Nude, Offering, Peace, Sacrifice, Sanctuary,
ELLENRIEDER, MARIE (German painter, 1 791-1863, Whiteness
Baptism
ELSHEIMER, ADAM (German painter, 1578-1610), FABRITIUS, CAREL (Dutch painter, 1 622-1654),
Destruction of City, Journey/Flight, Love and Death, Beheading/Decapitation
Martyrdom FAED, THOMAS (British painter, 1826-1900), Expulsion,
EMBRIACHI WORKSHOP (Family of Italian carvers, Virtue/Virtues
15th century), Judgment FALCK, JEREMIAS (Dutch printmaker, circa 1619-1677),
EMPOLI, JACOPO DA see JACOPO DA EMPOLI Months, Seasons
(JACOPO CHIMENTI) FALCONET, ETIENNE-MAURICE (French sculptor,
EMS, RUDOLF VON (Austrian illuminator, circa 1716-1791), Naked/Nude
1 200-1 254), Ascent/Descent FAMULUS see AMULIUS
ENDE, HANS AM see AM ENDE, HANS FANTIN-LATOUR, HENRI (French painter, printmaker,
ENGEL, JOSEF (Hungarian sculptor, 181 5-1 891), 1 836-1 904), Apotheosis/Deification, Dawn/Dawning,
Journey/Flight Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Imagination/Creativity,
ENSOR, JAMES (Belgium painter, printmaker, 1860-1949), Judgment, Night, Self-Portraits I

Death, Hanging, Masks/Personae, Nightmare, FAVRAY, ANTOINE DE (French painter, 1706-circa 1791),
Path/Road/Crossroads Pointing/Indicating
1026 INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART

FEDI, PIO (Italian sculptor, i 816-1892), Madness FONTAINFBLEAU, SCHOOL OF, Female Beauty and
FEDOTOV, PAVEL ANDREEVIC (Russian painter, poet, Adornment, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Toilet Scenes
181 5-1852), Widowhood FONTANA, LAVINIA (Italian painter, 1 552-1614),
FENTON, ROGER (British photographer, 1819-1869), Self-Portraits II, Serpent's Bite, Toilet Scenes,
Sacrifice Visiting/Visitation
FERNANDEZ, EGA1 (Philippine artist, 20th century), FORBES, STANHOPE ALEXANDER (British painter,

Order/Chaos 1 857-1947), Marriage/Betrothal

FERRARI, GAUDENZIO (Italian painter, sculptor, FORD, HENRY JUSTICE (British artist, 1 860-1 941),
1 470/80-1 546), Annunciation Abduction/Rape, Laughter
FERRARI, GIOVANNI ANDREA DE (Italian painter, FORSTER, JOSEPH WILSON (British artist, active

1598-1669), Betrayal 1889-1916), Seasons

FERRATA, ERCOLE (Italian sculptor, 1 610-1686), FOUNDRY PAINTER (Greek vase painter, circa 500-475
Martyrdom B.C.), Abandonment, Drunkenness/Intoxication
FERRI, GIRO (Italian painter, sculptor, 1 634-1 689), FOUQUET, JEAN (French painter, illuminator, circa
Communion 1420-circa 1480), Birth/Childbirth, Fools/Folly,
FERRISS, HUGH (American artist, architect, 1889-1962-), Funeral/Burial, Night, Sanctuary
Dreams/Visions FRAGONARD, JEAN-HONRE (French painter,
FERRUCCI, ROMOLO DI FRANCESCO (Italian sculptor, 1737-1806), Bacchanalia/Orgy, Betrayal,
died 1 621), Madness Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Kiss/Kissing, Marriage/Betrothal,
FETTI, DOMENICO (Italian painter, circa 1 589-1624), Naked/Nude, Reading, Sleep/Sleeping, Toilet Scenes,
Beheading/Decapitation, Melancholy Voyeurism, Whiteness
FEUERBACH, ANSELF FREDERICK (German painter, FRANCESCHINI, MARCANTONIO (Italian painter,

1 829-1 880), Imagination/Creativity 1 648-172.9), Birth/Childbirth

FICHERELLI, FELICE (FELICE RIPOSO) (Italian painter, FRANCESCO DI GIORGIO MARTINI (Italian

1 605-1669?), Protestantism architect, sculptor, painter, theorist, 143 9-1 501),

FILARETE (ANTONIO AVERLINO) (Italian sculptor, Penitence/Repentance, Temptation
architect, draftsman, circa1400-1469), Abduction/Rape, FRANCIA, FRANCESCO (FRANCESCO RAIBOLINI)
Fame, Journey/Flight, Love and Death (Italian goldsmith, medalist, painter, circa 1450-1517),
FILDES, LUKE (British painter, 1844-1927), Crucifixion
Margins/Outsiders, Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation FRANCIABIGIO (FRANCESCO DI CRISTOFANO) (Italian

FINI, LEONOR (Italian painter, scenographer in France, artist, 1482/8^-1525), Adultery

born 1908), Nightmare FRANCKEN, FRANS, THE YOUNGER (Flemish painter,
FINIGUERRA, MASO (Italian goldsmith, sculptor, 1581-1642), Avarice, Judgment, Witchcraft/Sorcery
printmaker, 1426-1464), Labyrinth/Maze FRANCKEN, HIERONYMOUS III (Flemish painter, born
FINLEY, KAREN (American performance artist, active 1611), Money
Naked/Nude
1990s), FRANCO, GIACOMO (Italian printmaker, publisher,
FISCHL, ERIC (American artist, born 1948), Naked/Nude 1 5
50-1 620), Toilet Scenes
FLAGG, JAMES MONTGOMERY (American illustrator, FRANQUE, JOSEPH (French painter, 1774-1833),
painter, author, 1 877-1 960), Pointing/Indicating Misfortune
FLAMAND, PIERRE LA (French metalworker), Adultery FRATELLINI, GIOVANNI (Italian painter, 1 666-1 731),
FLANDRIN, HIPPOLYTE-JEAN (French painter, Self-Portraits II

809-1 864), Crucifixion, Virgin/Virginity

1 FREUD, LUCIEN (British painter, born 1922), Naked/Nude
FLAVIN, DAN (American artist, author, born 1933), Light II FRIEDRICH, CASPAR DAVID (German painter,
FLAXMAN, JOHN (British sculptor, designer, 1755-1826), 1 774-1 840), Crucifixion, Dawn/Dawning,
Damned Souls, Death, Dreams/Visions, Journey/Flight, Devotion/Piety, Funeral/Burial, Margins/Outsiders,
Kiss/Kissing, Madness, Reading Melancholy, Mirror/Reflection, Night, Protestantism,
FLEISHNER, RICHARD (American artist, 20th century), Shipwreck, Sublime
Labyrinth/Maze FRIEDRICH, OTTO (German artist, 1 862-1 937),
FLEMISH SCHOOL, Martyrdom Penitence/Repentance
FLETCHER, WILLIAM TEULON BLANFORD (British FRISIUS,SIMON WYNOUTS see VRIES, SIMON
1858-1936), Expulsion
painter, WYNHOUTSZ.
FLINCK, GOVAERT (Dutch painter, 161 5-1660), Betrayal, FRITH, WILLIAM POWELL (British painter, 819-1909), 1

Sacrifice Avarice, Margins/Outsiders, Physiognomy

FLORIS, FRANS, THE ELDER (Early Netherlandish painter, FUGER, HEINRICH (German painter, 1751-1818), Death
printmaker, circa 15 19-1570), Betrayal, Expulsion, FUJIWARA NOBUZANE (Japanese scroll painter, 13th
Judgment, Music, Self-Portraits I, Serpent's Bite century), Damned Souls
FOGEL, SEYMOUR (American painter, sculptor, born FULLER, GEORGE (American painter, 822-1 884), 1

191 1), Labor/Trades/Occupations Witchcraft/Sorcery

FOGOLINO, MARCELLO (Italian painter, printmaker, FUNGAI, BERNARDINO (Italian painter, 1460-15 16),
active 1 519-1548), Hunting/Hunter/Huntress Choice/Choosing
 INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OI ART IO27

FURINI, FRANCESCO (Italian painter, poet, 1603-1646), GENELLI, BONAVENTURA (German painter, 1798-1868),
Abduction/Rape Madness
FURTENAGEL, LAUX/LUKAS (German painter, 1505-cnva GENTILE DA FABRIANO (GENTILE DI NICCOLO DE
1546), Mirror/Reflection GIOVANNI MASSI) (Italian painter, 370-1427), 1

FURTMEYR, BERTHOLD (German illuminator, circa Annunciation, Birth/Childbirth, Devotion/Piety,

1435/40-after 1 501), Sin/Sinning Journey/Flight, Kiss/Kissing, Light II, Margins/Outsiders,
FUSELI, HENRY (Swiss painter in Great Britain, Night, Path/Road/Crossroads
1741-1825), Dreams/Visions, Madness, Night, GENTILESCHI, ARTEMISIA (Italian painter, 1593-after
Nightmare, Pointing/Indicating, Shipwreck, 1 651), Adultery, Artists/Art, Bath/Bathing,
Witchcraft/Sorcery Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, Calumny,
FYT, JAN (Flemish painter, 1611-1661), Hunting/Hunter/ Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale,
Huntress Hair/Haircutting, Imagination/Creativity, Judaism,
Naked/Nude, Night, Penitence/Repentance, Self-Portraits
GADDI, AGNOLO (Italian painter, died 1396), Sacrifice, II, Temptation, Toilet Scenes, Voyeurism

Witchcraft/Sorcery GENTILESCHI, ORAZIO (Italian painter, 1563-1639),

GADDI, TADDEO (Italian painter, circa 1300-13 66), Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, Hunting/Hunter/
Arms Raised, Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth, Crucifixion, Huntress, Imagination/Creativity, Money, Naked/Nude
Devotion/Piety, Night, Sacrifice, Visiting/Visitation GERARD, FRANgOIS-PASCAL-SIMON (French painter,
GAINSBOROUGH, THOMAS (British painter, 1727-1788), 1 770-1837), Love and Death, Naked/Nude
Artists/Art, Marriage/Betrothal, Patronage, GERICAULT, JEAN-LOUIS-ANDRE-THEODORE (French
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Whiteness painter, sculptor, 1791-1824), Arms Raised, Death,
GALIZIA, FEDE (Italian painter, 1578-circa 1638), Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fools/Folly, Hanging,
Beheading/Decapitation Journey/Flight, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Madness,
GALLE, PHILIP (Netherlandish printmaker, 15 37-1 6 12), Margins/Outsiders, Melancholy, Misfortune,
Journey/Flight, Penitence/Repentance, Seasons, Physiognomy, Pointing/Indicating, Self-Portraits I,

Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping Shipwreck

GALLE, THEODOR (Flemish printmaker, 1571-1633), GEROME, JEAN-LEON (French painter, sculptor,
Imagination/Creativity 824-1 904), Bacchanalia/Orgy, Death, Luxury,
1

GAMBELLO, ANTONIO (Italian architect, sculptor, died Metamorphosis, Plague/Pestilence, Sport, Voyeurism
circa 148 1), Justice GERUNG, MATTHIAS (German painter, printmaker,
GARGIULO, DOMENICO (MICCO SPADARO) (Italian tapestry designer, circa 1500-1568/70), Melancholy
painter, 161 2-1675), Plague/Pestilence, Temptation GERVEX, HENRI (French painter, 1 852-1929),
GAROFALO, BENVENUTO TISI DA (Italian painter, Sleep/Sleeping
1481-1559), Misfortune GHEERAERTS, MARCUS, THE YOUNGER (Flemish
GASSEL, LUCAS (Netherlandish painter, active 1 538-1 568), painter, 1561-1635), Whiteness
Journey/Flight, Labyrinth/Maze GHEYN, GUILLAUME DE (Dutch artist, 1610-circa 1650),
GAST, JOHN (American painter, 19th century). Dreams/ Seasons
Visions GHEYN, JACOB DE I (Early Netherlandish painter, glass
GAUDI' Y CORNET, ANTONIO (Spanish architect, painter, printmaker, circa 15 37-1 581), Humors, Toilet
1852-1926), Light II Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas
GAUFFIER, LOUIS (French painter, 1761-1801), Virtue/Virtues GHEYN, JACOB II DE (Dutch painter, printmaker,

GAUGUIN, PAUL (French painter, sculptor, printmaker, 1 565-1629), Money, Vanity/Vanitas, Witchcraft/Sorcery
1 848-1 903), Artists/Art, Birth/Childbirth, GHEZZI, PIER LEONE (Italian painter, 1 674-1755),
Choice/Choosing, Crucifixion, Dawn/Dawning, Death, Caricature/Cartoon
Dreams/Visions, Expulsion, Naked/Nude, Nightmare, GHIBERTI, LORENZO (Italian sculptor, theorist, circa

Peasantry, Self-Portraits I, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, 1381-1455), Artists/Art, Baptism, Betrayal,

Upside Down Drunkenness/Intoxication, Expulsion, Judaism,
GAULLI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (BACICCIO) (Italian Marriage/Betrothal, Naked/Nude, Patronage, Sacrifice,
painter, 1639-1709), Devotion/Piety, Sin/Sinning Self-Portraits I, Sleep/Sleeping
GEBHARDT, EDUARD KARL FRANZ VON (German GHIRLANDAIO, DOMENICO (DOMENICO BIGARDI)
painter, 1838-1925), Devotion/Piety, (Italian painter, 1449- 1494), Annunciation, Bath/Bathing,
Penitence/Repentance, Protestantism Betrayal, Devotion/Piety, Marriage/Betrothal, Sacrifice,
GEERAERTS, MARCUS THE YOUNGER see Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Visiting/Visitation
GHEERAERTS, MARCUS, THE YOUNGER GHISI, LUCA (Italian printmaker, 1 520-1 582),
GEERTGEN TOT SINT JANS (Netherlandish painter, circa Dreams/Visions
1465-circa 1495), Light II, Melancholy, Music, Night GIACOMETTI, ALBERTO (Swiss painter; sculptor,
GELDER, AERT DE (Dutch artist, draftsman, 1 645-1727), printmaker, 1901-1966), Crucifixion
Laughter, Visiting/Visitation GIAMBOLOGNA (JEAN BOULOGNE) (Flemish sculptor in

GELTON, TOUSSAINT (Dutch painter, circa 1630-1680), Italy, 529-1608), Abduction/Rape, Honor/Honoring.
1

Love and Death Journey/Flight, Melancholy, Virtue/Virtues

ioi8 IMIIX (M AKI ISIS AM) WORKS Ol AKI

GIANI, FELICE (Italian painter, illustrator, 1758-1823), Nightmare, Penitence/Repentance, Pregnancy,

Journey/Flight Sleep/Sleeping, Virtue/Virtues
GIBB, ROBERT II (British artist, 1 845-1931), Journey/Flight GLACKENS, WILLIAM (American painter, 1 870-1 938),
GIBSON, JOHN (British sculptor, 1790-1 866), Bath/Bathing
Abduction/Rape GLEIZES, ALBERT (French painter, author, 1881-1953),
GIGOLI, LUDOVICO (Italian artist, 16th century), Sport
Honor/Honoring GLEYRE, CHARLES (Swiss painter, 1 806-1874),
GILL, ERIC (British stone carver, engraver, typographer, Abandonment, Bacchanalia/Orgy
author, 1 882-1940), Ecstasy, Sport GODET, HENRI (French sculptor, 1863-1937),
GILLOT, CLAUDE (French painter, printmaker, Abduction/Rape
1673-1722), Masks/Personae GODING, HEINRICH (German painter, printmaker,
GILLRAY, JAMES (British caricaturist, 1757-1815), 1 531-1606), Communion
Caricature/Cartoon, Comic, Money, Sin/Sinning GOES, HUGO VAN DER (Early Netherlandish painter, circa
GINNER, CHARLES (British painter, 1878-195 2), 1440-1482), Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth, Choice/Choosing,
Labor/Trades/Occupations Devotion/Piety, Dreams/Visions, Expulsion, Martyrdom,
GIORDANO, LUCA (Italian painter, printmaker, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
163 2-1 705), Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Ascent/Descent, GOGH, VINCENT VAN (Dutch artist, 1853-1890),
Avarice, Damned Souls, Expulsion, Imagination/ Artists/Art, Communion, Dawn/Dawning, Death, Ecstasy,
Creativity, Journey/Flight, Judgment, Laughter, Love and Grieving/Lamentation, Harvesting, Labor/Trades/
Death, Plague/Pestilence, Self-Portraits I Occupations, Madness, Melancholy, Night, Order/Chaos,
GIORGIONE (GIORGIO DA CASTELFRANCO) (Italian Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry, Physiognomy,
1477/78-15 10), Beheading/Decapitation,
painter, Pregnancy, Reading, Self-Portraits I, Sin/Sinning
Judgment, Naked/Nude, Nightmare, Pointing/Indicating, GOINGS, RALPH LADELL (American painter, born 1928),
Self-Portraits I, Serpent's Bite, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Mirror/Reflection
Sleep/Sleeping GOLTZIUS, HENDRIK (Dutch painter, printmaker,
GIOTTO DI BONDONE (Italian painter, architect, circa 1558-1617), Adultery, Annunciation, Envy,
1 266-1 3 3 7), Annunciation, Apotheosis/Deification, Arms Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Humors, Laughter, Love and
Raised, Artists/Art, Betrayal, Choice/Choosing, Comic, Death, Luxury, Money, Penitence/Repentance,
Communion, Crucifixion, Damned Souls, Death, Devotion/ Pointing/Indicating, Seasons, Serpent's Bite, Vanity/Vanitas
Piety, Dreams/Visions, Fame, Fools/Folly, Funeral/Burial, GOLTZIUS, JULIUS (Dutch printmaker, active circa
Grieving/Lamentation, Hanging, Journey/Flight, Judgment, 1 575-1 595), Months
Justice, Kiss/Kissing, Labor/Trades/Occupations, GONJOU, JEAN (French sculptor, architect, printmaker,
Marriage/Betrothal, Path/Road/Crossroads, Reading, active 1540, died circa 1568), Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
Sacrifice, Sin/Sinning, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virgin/Virginity, GONZALES, EVA (French painter and pastellist,
Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation, Zodiac 1849-1883), Whiteness
GIOVANNI ANTONIO DA BRESCIA (Italian printmaker, GOODALL, FREDERICK (British painter, 1822-1904),
active 1490-circa 1528), Drunkenness/Intoxication Expulsion
GIOVANNI DA MILANO (Italian painter, active GORKY, ARSHILE (VOSDANIG MANOOG ADOIAN)
346-1369), Birth/Childbirth
1 (American 1904-1948), Martyrdom, Night
painter,
GIOVANNI DI PAOLO (Italian painter, illuminator, GORNIK, APRIL (American painter, born 1953), Night
1403-1482), Abduction/Rape, Ascent/Descent, GOSSAERT, JAN (MABUSE) (Early Netherlandish painter,
Dawn/Dawning, Journey/Flight, Margins/Outsiders, circa1472-153 3), Adultery, Betrayal,
Path/Road/Crossroads, Sacrifice, Shipwreck, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Money
Virgin/Virginity, Zodiac GOTCH, THOMAS COOPER (British painter, printmaker,
GIOVANNINI, GIACOMO MARIA (Italian painter, 1854-193 1 ), Hermaphrodite/Androgyne
printmaker, 1667-1717), Madness GOTTLIEB, ADOLPH (American painter, 1 903-1974),
GIRARDON, FRANgOIS (French sculptor, 1628-1715), Abduction/Rape, Journey/Flight, Night
Bath/Bathing, Seasons GOTZ, GOTTFRIED BERNHARD (German painter,
GIRODET-TRIOSON, ANNE-LOUIS (French painter, printmaker, 1 708-1 774), Pregnancy
printmaker, 1767-1824), Abduction/Rape, Envy, GOUJON, JEAN (French architect, printmaker, sculptor,
Funeral/Burial, Grieving/Lamentation, Judgment, Love active 1548, died 1564/68), Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
and Death, Money, Naked/Nude, Sleep/Sleeping GOW, ANDREW CARRICK (British artist, 1 848-1920),
GIROLAMO DA CARPI (Italian painter, architect, Journey/Flight
1501-15 56), Penitence/Repentance, Virgin/Virginity GOYA, FRANCISCO DE (Spanish painter, 1746-18 28),
GISLEBERTUS (French sculpture, 12th century), Judgment, Artists/Art, Beheading/Decapitation, Calumny,
Order/Chaos, Sin/Sinning, Temptation Caricature/Cartoon, Comic, Dreams/Visions,
GIULIO ROMANO (GIULIO PIPPI) (Italian painter, Fools/Folly, Gaze, Grieving/Lamentation, Hanging,
architect,1491/99-1546), Bath/Bathing, Comic, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Laughter, Madness,
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fame, Margins/Outsiders, Melancholy, Misfortune,
Journey/Flight, Love and Death, Luxury, Metamorphosis, Naked/Nude, Night, Nightmare, Order/Chaos,
 INDEX Ot AIM IS I S AND WORKS OF ART IOZ9

Path/Road/Crossroads, Penitence/Repentance, Self- GUSTON, PHILIP (American painter, 1913-1980), Hanging,

Portraits I, Witchcraft/Sorcery Labor/Trades/Occupations
GOZ, GOTTFRIED BERNHARD see GOTZ, GOTTFRIED GUTHRIE, JAMES (British painter, 1 859-1930), Whiteness
BERNHARD GUTTOSO, RENATO (Italian painter, author, 1912-1987),
GOZZOLI, BENOZZO (Italian painter, 1 420-1 497), Martyrdom
Abduction/Rape, Birth/Childbirth, Dance/Dancers/Dancing,
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, HAARLEM, CORNELIS VAN see CORNELISZ. VAN
Journey/Flight, Path/Road/Crossroads, Sacrifice, HAARLEM, CORNELIS
Visiting/Visitation HAAS, ERNST (American photographer, born 1921 I,

GRAEFLE, ALBERT (British painter, 1807-1889), Widowhood Order/Chaos

GRAF, URS, THE ELDER (Swiss painter, printmaker, HAAS, PHILIP (American photographer, active 18 39-1 857),
goldsmith, circa 1485-1527/29), Hanging Money
GRAMMATICA, ANTIVEDUTO (Italian painter, HABERLE, JOHN (American painter, 1856-1933), Money
1 571-1626), Betrayal HAECHT, WILLEM II VAN (Flemish painter, printmaker,
GRANDPIERRE-DEVERZY, ADRIENNE-MARIE-LOUISE 1599-1637), Imagination/Creativity
(French painter, 1798-185 5), Self-Portraits II HAGESANDROS see AGESANDROS OF RHODES
GRANDVILLE (JEAN-IGNACE-ISIDORE GERARD) HALLE, NOEL (French painter, printmaker, 1856-after
(French illustrator, cartoonist, printmaker, 1 803-1 847), 1908), Virtue/Virtues
Automata, Caricature/Cartoon, Nightmare, Seasons HALPRIN, ANN (artist, 20th century),
GRECO, EL (DOMENICO THEOTOCOPULI) (Greek Dance/Dancers/Dancing
painter in Spain, 1541-1614), Arms Raised, Crucifixion, HALS, FRANS (Dutch painter, 1 581/85-1666), Laughter,
Dreams/Visions, Ecstasy, Funeral/Burial, Luxury, Vanity/Vanitas
Grieving/Lamentation, Martyrdom, Money, Night, HAMILTON, GAVIN (British painter, antiquary,
Path/Road/Crossroads, Penitence/Repentance, 1723-1798), Death, Whiteness
Pointing/Indicating, Serpent's Bite, Virgin/Virginity HAMILTON, JAMES (American painter, 1819-1878),
GREUZE, JEAN-BAPTISTE (French painter, 1725-1805), Sublime
Death, Mirror/Reflection, Penitence/Repentance, HAMILTON, RICHARD (British artist, born 1922), Comic
Widowhood HAMILTON, WILLIAM (British painter, 1751-1801),
GRIBELIN, SIMON II (British printmaker, 1661-1733), Seasons
Choice/Choosing HAN KAN (Chinese painter, active 2nd and 3rd quarters of
GRIEN,HANS BALDUNG see BALDUNG, HANS 8th century), Luxury
GRIMSHAW, JOHN ATKINSON (British painter, HARNETT, WILLIAM (American painter, [848-1892),
1836-1893), Night Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Money
GRIS, JUAN (Spanish painter, 1887-1924), Artists/Art HART, SOLOMON ALEXANDER (British painter,
GROS, ANTOINE-JEAN, BARON (French painter, 1 806-1 88 1 ), Judaism
1771-1835), Death, Plague/Pestilence, Pointing/Indicating HARTLEY, MARSDEN (American painter, poet,
GROSZ, GEORGE (German painter, printmaker, 1 877-1943), Imagination/Creativity
1893-1958), Caricature/Cartoon, Dreams/Visions, HARUNOBU, SUZUKI (Japanese printmaker, circa
Funeral/Burial, Order/Chaos 1725-1770), Seasons
GROUX, HENRI DE (Belgium painter, sculptor, printmaker, HARVEY, ELISABETH (British artist, active 1802-18 12),
1867-1930), Apocalypse Widowhood
GRUNEWALD, MATTHIAS (German painter, circa HASENCLEVER, JOHANN PETER (German painter,
1480-1 520), Annunciation, Ascent/Descent, Crucifixion, 1 810-1853), Artists/ Art
Dawn/Dawning, Death, Grieving/Lamentation, Light II, HASSAM, CHILDE (American painter, printmaker,
Madness, Nightmare, Pointing/Indicating, Sacrifice, 1859-193 S), Night
Temptation HAUDEBOURT-LESCOT, ANTOINETTE-CECILE-
GU, HWAN YOUNG see HWAN YOUNG GU HORTENSE (French painter, 1784-1845), Self-Portraits II

GUARDI, GIOVANNI ANTONIO (Italian painter, HAUSMANN, RAOUL (Austrian painter, sculptor, author.
1 699-1 760), Artists/Art 1886-1971), Automata
GUARIENTO (Italian painter, circa 1310-circa 1370), Fame HAYDON, BENJAMIN ROBERT (British painter, author,
GUERCINO (GIOVANNI FRANCESCO BARBIERI) (Italian 1786-1846), Artists/Art
painter, 1 591-1666), Adultery, Calumny, Dawn/Dawning, HAYEZ, FRANCESCO (Italian artist, [791-1881), Adultery,
Funeral/Burial, Journey/Flight, Love and Death, Kiss/Kissing
Melancholy, Peace, Penitence/Repentance, Protestantism, HAYMAN, FRANCIS (British painter, 1700-1776 .

Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sleep/Sleeping, Virtue/Virtues Abandonment, Whiteness

GUIARD, LAURENT (French sculptor, 1723-1788), HEADE, MARTIN JOHNSON (American painter,
Journey/Flight 1819-1904), Light II, Night
GUISE MASTERsee MASTER OF THE GUISE HOURS HEARTFIELD, JOHN (German painter, printmaker,
GUMP, JOHANNES BAPTISTE, THE ELDER (German filmmaker, journalist, 1 891-1968), Hanging, Money
artist, 1 651-1728), Self-Portraits I HEATH, WILLIAM (British artist, 1 795-1848), Hanging
1030 INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART

HECKFL, ERICH (German painter, printmaker, 1 1IKSCI HELD, AL (American cartoonist, 20th century),
1883-1970), Bath/Bathing, Madness Caricature/Cartoon
HEDA, WILLEM CEAESZ. (Dutch painter, 1594-1680/82), HOBBEMA, MFINDERT (Dutch painter, draftsman,
VanityAmanitas 1638-1 709), Path/Road/Crossroads
HEEM, JAN DAVIDSZ. DE (Dutch painter, 1606-cnca HOCH, HANNAH (German artist, 889-1 978), 1

1684), Abundance, Vanity/Vanitas Hermaphrodite/Androgyne

HEEMSKERCK, MAERTEN VAN (Early Netherlandish 11( )( k\I Y, >AV ID (British painter, printmaker, photographer
1

painter, printmaker, 1498-1 574), Abduction/Rape, collagist, sceneographer, born 1937), Bath/Bathing
Adultery, Betrayal, Humors, Imagination/Creativity, HODLER, FERDINAND 1853-19 18),
(Swiss painter,
Journey/Flight, Music, Peasantry, Sacrifice, Seasons, Dawn/Dawning, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Night,
Self-Portraits I, Serpent's Bite Nightmare, Protestantism
HEINTZ, JOSEPH, THE ELDER (Swiss painter, architect, HOERLE, HEINRICH (German painter, 1 895-1936),
1 564-1 609), Abandonment, Abduction/Rape Dreams/Visions
HEMESSEN, JAN VAN (Early Netherlandish painter, circa HOFFMAN, MALVINA (American sculptor, 1 887-1966),
1 500-1 575), Journey/Flight Kiss/Kissing
HEMESSEN, KATHARINA VAN (Netherlandish painter, HOFMANN, HANS (German painter in the United States,
1527/28-circa 1587), Self-Portraits II 1880-1956), Bacchanalia/Orgy
HENFENFELD, MARTIN PFINZING VON (German HOGARTH, WILLIAM (British painter, 1 697-1 764),
painter, 521-1572), Misfortune
1 Abandonment, Adultery, Artists/Art, Caricature/Cartoon,
HENRI, ROBERT (American painter, 1 865-1929), Comic, Death, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Laughter Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Laughter, Madness,
HERACLITLIS (Roman copyist, 2nd century), Comic Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/Betrothal, Money,
HERDMAN, ROBERT (British painter, 1 829-1 888), Order/Chaos, Self-Portraits I, Sin/Sinning, Whiteness,
Beheading/Decapitation, Expulsion, Journey/Flight Widowhood, Witchcraft/Sorcery
HERING, LOY (German sculptor, circa 1484-after 1554), HOGENBERG, FRANS (Early Netherlandish painter,
Betrayal printmaker, and publisher, before 1 540-1 590?),
HERKOMER, HUBERT VON (British painter, printmaker, Fools/Folly
1 849-1914), Margins/Outsiders, Virtue/Virtues HOIN, CLAUDE-JEAN-BAPTISTE (French painter,
HERNEISEN, ANDREAS (German painter, 1 538-1610), pastelist, printmaker, 1750-1817), Whiteness
Protestantism HOKUSAI, KATSUSHIKA (Japanese printmaker,
HERRAD VON LANDSBERG (German abbess, author, 1760-1849), Dawn/Dawning, Sport
illuminator, active 11 68, died 1195), Ascent/Descent, HOLBEIN, HANS, THE YOUNGER (German painter,
Fortune printmaker, circa 1492-1543), Dance/Dancers/Dancing,
HERRI MET DE BLES (Early Netherlandish painter, circa Death, Fools/Folly, Luxury, Money, Music,
1510-circa 1550), Labor/Trades/Occupations Plague/Pestilence, Protestantism, Sin/Sinning,
HERRING, JOHN FREDERICK, I (British painter, Vanity/Vanitas
1795-1865), Harvesting HOLIDAY, HENRY (British artist, 1839-1927),
HESDIN, JACQUEMART DE (French illuminator, active Hair/Haircutting
1380-1411), Fools/Folly, Funeral/Burial, Journey/Flight HOLL, FRANK (British painter, 1845-1888), Abandonment
HEY, JEAN see MASTER OF MOULINS HOLLAR, WENCESLAS (Bohemian printmaker,
HEYDEN, PIETER VAN DER (Netherlandish printmaker, 1 607-1 677), Destruction of City, Seasons, Self-Portraits I

circa 1530-circa 1575), Seasons HOLZER, ELIZABETH (American artist, 20th century),
HICKS, EDWARD (American painter, 1 780-1 849), Grieving/Lamentation
Order/Chaos, Peace HOMER, WINSLOW (American painter, 1836-1910),
HICKS, GEORGE ELGAR (British painter, 1 824-1 914), Harvesting, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
Abandonment Labor/Trades/Occupations, Night, Reading,
HIERON (Greek vase painter, circa 400 B.C.), Adultery Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Shipwreck
HIGHMORE, JOSEPH (British painter, 1 692-1 780), HONDIUS, HENDRIK II (Dutch artist, active circa 1597),
Abandonment, Whiteness Seasons, Vanity/Vanitas
HILDEBERT (German illuminator, 12th century), HONTHORST, GERRIT VAN (Dutch painter, 1 590-1656),
Labor/Trades/Occupations Adultery, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Laughter,
HILDEGARD VON BINGEN (German illuminator, author, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
active 1142-1152), Birth/Childbirth HOOGE, ROMEYN DE (Dutch painter, sculptor,
HILDENBRAND, ADOLF (German painter, printmaker, printmaker, 1645-1708), Funeral/Burial
enamelist, 1881-1944), Self-Portraits I HOOGSTRATEN, SAMUEL VAN (Dutch painter,
HILLIARD, NICOLAS (British painter, 547 ?-i6i9), i printmaker, poet, 1 627-1 678), Betrayal, Pregnancy
Melancholy, Widowhood, Virgin/Virginity HOOKE, ROBERT (British scientist, architect, inventor,
HIROSHIGE (Japanese printmaker, 1797-1858), 1635-1703), Destruction of City
Path/Road/Crossroads, Seasons HOPPER, EDWARD (American painter, 882-1967), 1

HIRSCH, JOSEPH (American painter, 1910-1981), Hanging Bath/Bathing, Light II, Melancholy, Night, Order/Chaos
 INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART 103 I

HOSMER, HARRIET GOODHUE (American sculptor in JANSSENS, ABRAHAM (Flemish painter, 1575-163 2),
Italy, 1 8 30-1908), Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Abundance
Hair/Haircutting JEAURAT, ETIENNE (French painter, printmaker,
HOUBRAKEN, ARNOLD (Dutch art historian, painter, 1699-1789), Female Beauty and Adornment
printmaker, 1660-1719), Self-Portraits I JEGHER, JAN CHRISTOFFEL (Flemish printmaker,
HOWARD, MICHAEL (British sculptor, 20th century), 1618-1667), Humors
Automata JERVAS, CHARLES (British painter, printmaker, circa
HOWE, OSCAR (American Sioux painter, 20th century), 1675-1739), Whiteness
Ecstasy JEWETT, WILLIAM SMITH (American painter,
HUBER, WOLF (German painter, printmaker, 1812-1873), Dreams/Visions
1485/90-1553), Hanging JIGOKU ZOSHI (Japanese scroll painter, 12th century),
HUGHES, ARTHUR (British painter, 1832-1915), Death, Sin/Sinning
Marriage/Betrothal JOEST, JAN (Netherlandish painter, circa 1450-1519), Night
HUGO, JEAN (French painter, designer, 1 894-1 984), Music JOHANNOT, TONY (French painter, printmaker,
HUGO, VICTOR (French author, draftsman, 1802-188 5), 1 803-1852), Nightmare
Hanging JOHN, AUGUSTUS EDWIN (British painter, 1 878-1961),
HUMBELOT, JEAN-BAPTISTE (French printmaker, active Serpent's Bite
163 5-1642), Female Beauty and Adornment JOHN, GWEN (British painter, 1876-1939), Artists/Art,
HUNT, RICHARD MORRIS (American architect, Reading, Self-Portraits II

1827-1895), Luxury JOHNS, JASPER (American painter, printmaker, born 1930),

HUNT, WILLIAM HOLMAN (British painter, 1827-1910), Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Grieving/Lamentation,
Death, Funeral/Burial, Hair/Haircutting, Light I, Mirror/Reflection, Patronage
Margins/Outsiders, Mirror/Reflection, Sacrifice, JOHNSON, EASTMAN (American painter, 1 824-1906),
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Temptation Labor/Trades/Occupations
HUTINOT, PIERRE (French sculptor, 1616-1679), Seasons JOHNSON, WILLIAM HENRY (American painter,
HUYS, PIETER (Early Netherlandish painter, printmaker, printmaker, 1901-1970), Crucifixion
circa 1519-1584), Witchcraft/Sorcery JONES, ALLEN (British painter, sculptor, printmaker, born
HWAN YOUNG GU (artist, 20th century), Sin/Sinning 1937), Upside Down
JONES, LOIS MAILOU (American painter, designer, born
IBBETSON, JULIUS CAESAR (British painter, printmaker, 1905), Martyrdom
1 759-1 8 1 7), Labor/Trades/Occupations JONES, THOMAS (British painter, 1 742-1 803), Sublime
INGRES, JEAN-AUGUSTE-DOMINIQUE (French painter, JOOS VAN GENT or GHENT (JOOS VAN
1780-1867), Apotheosis/Deification, Artists/Art, WASSENHOVE) (Early Netherlandish painter, draftsman,
Bath/Bathing, Fatal Woman/Femme
Honor/ Fatale, active1460-1475), Betrayal, Communion, Fame
Honoring, Kiss/Kissing, Luxury, Naked/Nude, Reading JORDAENS, JACOB (Flemish painter, 1 593-1678),
INNESS, GEORGE (American painter, 1 825-1 894), Abduction/Rape, Abundance, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Comic,
Harvesting, Night, Sublime Drunkenness/Intoxication, Expulsion, Journey/Flight,
INOUE, BUKICHI (Japanese architect, 20th century), Judgment, Laughter, Madness, Protestantism, Serpent's
Labyrinth/Maze Bite
IPOUSTEGUY, JEAN-ROBERT (French sculptor, painter, JOSEPH, SCRIBE OF PONTARLIER (French?, active circa
born 1920), Bath/Bathing 1300), Judaism
ISABEY, EUGENE (French painter, printmaker, 1 803-1 886), JUAN DE FLANDES (Netherlandish painter in Spain, active
Journey/Flight 1496-1519), Annunciation, Baptism, Dawn/Dawning,
ISIDORUS OF MILETUS (Carian architect, 6th century), Virgin/Virginity
Sanctuary JUANES, JUAN DE (VICENTE JUAN MACIP) (Spanish
ISRAELS, JOZEF (Dutch painter, 1824-1911), painter, circa 15 23-1 5 79), Communion
Shepherds/Shepherdesses JULIEN DE PARME, JEAN-ANTOINE (French painter,

1736-1799), Abduction/Rape
JACOBELLO DEL FIORE (Italian painter, 1370-1439), JURYSTA, GARY (American artist, 20th century),
Justice Communion
JACOBSZ., DIRK (Early Netherlandish painter, 1497-1567), JUSTUS VAN GHENT see JOOS VAN GENT
Vanity/Vanitas
JACOPO DA EMPOLI (JACOPO CHIMENTI) (Italian KAHLO, FRIDA (Mexican painter, 1907-1954),
painter, 1 554-1648), Toilet Scenes Artists/Art, Birth/Childbirth, Death, Dreams/Visions,
JACQUE, CHARLES-EMILE (French painter, printmaker, Hair/Haircutting, Nightmare, Self-Portraits II

181 3-1 894), Shepherds/Shepherdesses KALATES (Greek painter, 4th century Comic
B.C.),

JACQUET-DROZ FAMILY (French artists, metalworkers, KALF, WILLEM (Dutch painter, 1619-1693), Abundance
i6th-i7th century), Automata KALKAR, JAN JOEST VAN see JOEST, JAN
JANCO, MARCEL (Romanian painter, architect, born KANDINSKY, VASILIJ (Russian painter, 1 866-1 944),
1895), Order/Chaos Dreams/Visions, Night, Order/Chaos, Upside Down
IO32. INDEX Ol \Kllsls \\D WORKS OF ART

KANGAKU SI IINSUHITSU (Japanese screen painter, K I l\( 1 K, \1 \\ derma n painter, sculptor, printmaker,
1 l

1 6th century), Seasons 1 857- 920), Abduction/Rape, Beheading/Decapitation,

1

KAPROW, ALLAN (American artist, bom 1927), Betrayal, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Journey/Flight,
Funeral/Burial Madness, Misfortune, Nightmare, Plague/Pestilence,
KATZ, ALEX (American painter, printmaker, born 1927), Pointing/Indicating
Mirror/Reflection, Night KLOCKER-EHRENSTRAHL, DAVID see EHRENSTRAHL,
KAUFFMANN, ANGELICA (Swiss painter, printmaker DAVID KLOCKER
in Italy and Britain, 741-1807), Abandonment,
1 KLUMPKE, ANNA ELIZABETH (American painter,
Artists/Art, Choice/Choosing, Death, Journey/Flight, [856-1942), Artists/Art
light II, Love and Death, Melancholy, KLUTSIS, GUSTAV GUSTAVOVIC (Russian artist,

l'.ith/Road/Crossroads, Self-Portraits II 1895-1944), Sport

KAUFMANN, ISADOR (Hungarian painter, 1853-1911), KNUPFER, NIKOLAUS (Dutch painter, 1 603-1 665),
Judaism Marriage/Betrothal
KAULBACH, WILHELM VON (German architect, painter, KOCH, JOSEPH ANTON (Austrian painter, printmaker,
805-1874), Madness, Protestantism
illustrator, 1 1768-1839), Sublime
KAYE, OTIS (American artist, 1885-1974), Money KOCHERGIN, N. M. (Soviet poster artist, active circa

KEION, SUMIYOSHI (Japanese painter, 13th century). 1920), Peasantry

Destruction of City KOEHLER, ROBERT (German painter, printmaker, in the
KELLER, ALBERT VON (Swiss painter, 1 844-1 920), United States, 181 5-19 17), Margins/Outsiders
Devotion/Piety KOKOSCHKA, OSKAR (Austrian painter, printmaker,
KELLY, MARY (American artist, born 1954), 1886-1980), Ascent/Descent, Ecstasy, Madness,
Birth/Childbirth Misfortune, Temptation
KENT, WILLIAM (British painter, architect, landscape KOLLWITZ, KATHE (German printmaker, sculptor,
gardner,684-1748), Seasons
1 1867-1945), Abduction/Rape, Artists/Art, Death,
KETEL, CORNELIS (Dutch painter, architect, 1548-1616), Grieving/Lamentation, Peasantry, Pregnancy, Sacrifice,
Vanity/Vanitas Self-Portraits II, Visiting/Visitation
KEYSER, NICAISE DE (Belgian painter, 181 3-1887), KOLOSOV, AUDREY (artist, active circa 1990), Sin/Sinning
Imagination/Creativity KONINCK, SOLOMON (Dutch painter, printmaker,
KEYSER, THOMAS DE (Dutch painter, architect, 1609-1656), Sacrifice
1596/97-1667), Vanity/Vanitas KOSUT, TIVADAR (Yugoslav artist, 20th century),
KHNOPFF, FERNAND (Belgian painter, sculptor, designer, Devotion/Piety
author, 854-1921), Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale,
1 KRAEZYNA, SWIETLAN (artist, 20th century),
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Temptation, Whiteness Dance/Dancers/Dancing
KIEFER, ANSELM (German painter, born 1945), Apocalypse KRAEMER, DIETER (artist, active circa 1970), Melancholy
KIESLER, FREDERICK JOHN (Austrian architect, KRASNER, LEE (American painter, 1908-1984), Self-

sculptor, painter, in the United States, circa 1890-1965), Portraits II

Judgment KRATINOS (Greek sculptor, active 484-448 B.C.), Comic

KING,EMMA BROWNLOW see BROWNLOW, KRUGAR, BARBARA (American conceptual artist, film
EMMA B. critic, born 1945), Naked/Nude
KING, FRANK (FRANCIS SCOTT) (American painter, KTESILOCHOS (Greek painter, 4th century B.C.), Comic
sculptor, printmaker, illustrator, 1 850-1913), KUBIN, ALFRED (Austrian painter, illustrator, author,

Marriage/Betrothal 1 877-1959), Madness, Nightmare

KIRCHNER, ERNST LUDWIG (German painter,
printmaker, 1880-1938), Artists/Art, Bath/Bathing, LABILLE-GUIARD, ADELAIDE (French artist, 1 749-1 803),
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Masks/Personae, Naked/Nude, Artists/Art, Self-Portraits II

Sacrifice LACHAISE, GASTON (French sculptor, 1882-193 5),

KIYONAGA, TORII (Japanese printmaker, 1752-181 5), Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Imagination/Creativity, Upside
Bath/Bathing, Naked/Nude Down
KLEE, PAUL (Swiss painter, printmaker,
879-1 940), 1 LACOMBE, GEORGES (French painter, sculptor,
Avarice, Birth/Childbirth, Caricature/Cartoon, Fame, 1868-1916), Birth/Childbirth, Crucifixion
Madness, Night, Upside Down LACOUR, PIERRE (French painter, printmaker,
KLFITIAS (Greek vase painter, 575-560 B.C.), 1745-18 14), Love and Death
Beheading/Decapitation, Sport LAER, PIETER VAN (Dutch painter, printmaker,
KLEOPHRADES PAINTER (EPIKTETOS II) (Greek 1599-circa 1642), Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry,
vase painter, 500-475 B.C.), Destruction of City, Penitence/Repentance
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Ecstasy LA FARGE, JOHN (American painter, author, 183 5-1 9 10),
KI.IMT, GUSTAV (Austrian painter, 1 862-1918), Journey/Flight, Light II

Beheading/Decapitation, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, LAFITTE, LOUIS (French sculptor, 1 770-1828), Months
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Kiss/Kissing, Naked/Nude, LAGRENEE, LOUIS-JEAN-FRANgOIS (French painter,
Pregnancy, Sin/Sinning 1725-1805), Abduction/Rape, Envy
 INDEX Ol ARTISTS AND WORKS Ol AKI IO33

LAGUERRE, LOUIS (French painter in Great Britain, LEGER, FERNAND (French painter, 188 1-1955),
1 663-1721), Honor/Honoring Labor/Trades/Occupations, Mirror/Reflection
LA HYRE, LAURENT DE (French painter, printmaker, LEGROS, ALPHONSE (French painter, sculptor,
1 606-1 6 5 6), Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Music printmaker, 1837-1922), Devotion/Piety
LAIRESSE, GERARD DE (Flemish painter, printmaker, LE GROS, PIERRE, THE YOUNGER (French sculptor,
theorist, i 640-1 71 1), Serpent's Bite, Temptation, Upside architect, 1666-1719), Protestantism
Down LEHMBERGER, GEORG (German artist, 16th century),
LALA OF KYZIKOS (Roman painter from Asia Minor, 1st Protestantism
century B.C.), Mirror/Reflection LEIBL, WILHELM MARIA HUBERTUS (German painter,
LAMA, GIULIA (Italian painter, active 1728), Self-Portraits II 844-1 900), Devotion/Piety
printmaker, 1

LANCRET, NICOLAS (French painter, 1 690-1743), LEIGH, WILLIAM ROBINSON (American painter,
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Female Beauty and Adornment, 866-1955), Dreams/Visions
1

Masks/Personae LEIGHTON, FREDERIC, BARON (British painter, sculptor,

LANDRIANI, PAOLO CAMILLO (Italian painter, 1 830-1 896), Abandonment, Artists/Art, Bacchanalia/

1 5 60/70- 1618/19), Plague/Pestilence Orgy, Bath/Bathing, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Journey/

LANDSEER, EDWIN 802-1 873),
(British painter, 1 Flight, Judgment, Love and Death, Peace, Sacrifice
Marriage/Betrothal, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Shipwreck LE LORRAINE, LOUIS-JOSEPH (French painter,
LANE, FITZ HUGH (American painter, printmaker, printmaker, 171 5-1 759), Dawn/Dawning
1804-1865), Light II LEMOINE, MARIE- VICTORIE (French painter,
LANFRANCO, GIOVANNI (Italian painter, 1 582-1647), 1754-1820), Self-Portraits II

Betrayal, Envy, Sublime LE MOYNE, FRANCOIS (French painter, 688-1737), 1

LANG, FRITZ (German filmmaker, 20th century), Automata Abduction/Rape, Apotheosis/Deification, Journey/Flight,
LANGE, DORTHEA (American photographer, 1 895-1965), Metamorphosis, Naked/Nude
Dreams/Visions LE NAIN, LOUIS (French painter, 593-1648), 1

LANOUE, FELIX-HIPPOLYTE (French painter, Communion, Margins/Outsiders, Peasantry

1812-1872), Expulsion LENINGRAD PAINTER (Attic vase painter, circa 475-450
LARGILLIERRE, NICOLAS DE (French painter, B.C.), Self-Portraits II

1656-1746), Female Beauty and Adornment LE NOTRE, ANDRE (French landscape architect,
LASSALLE-BORDES, GUSTAVE (French artist, 1814-after 1 61 3-1 700), Path/Road/Crossroads
1868), Serpent's Bite LENZ, PETER (DESIDERIUS) (German sculptor, painter,
LASTMAN, PIETER PIETERSZ. (Dutch painter, architect, 183 2-1928), Protestantism
1 583-1633), Annunciation, Journey/Flight, Sacrifice, LEON, FREDERIC, Peasantry
Visiting/Visitation LEONARDO DA VINCI (Italian painter, sculptor,
LA TOUR, ETIENNE DE (French painter, 1 621-1692), architect, author, engineer, 1452-15 19), Annunciation,
Reading Apotheosis/Deification, Arms Raised, Artists/Art,
LA TOUR, GEORGES DE (French painter, 1 593-1652), Baptism, Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth, Caricature/Cartoon,
Comic, Fortune, Light II, Martyrdom, Mirror/Reflection, Comic, Communion, Devotion/Piety, Evil Eye, Excess,
Money, Night, Penitence/Repentance Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Hanging, Hermaphrodite/
LAURANA, FRANCESCO (Italian sculptor, architect, and Androgyne, Imagination/Creativity, Mirror/Reflection,
medalist, circa 1420-circa 1582), Fools/Folly, Peace Naked/Nude, Penitence/Repentance, Pointing/Indicating,
LAURENCIN, MARIE (French painter, printmaker, Pregnancy, Protestantism, Sacrifice, Sublime, Zodiac
1885—1 956), Artists/Art LE PAUTRE, PIERRE (French sculptor, printmaker,
LAVILLE-LEROUX, MARIE see BENOIST, MARIE 1660-1744), Journey/Flight
GUILHELMINE (nee DE LAVILLE-LEROUX) LEPICE, NICOLAS-BERNARD (French painter,
LAWRENCE, JACOB (American painter, draftsman, horn 1735-1784), Adultery
1 9 1
7), Journey/Flight LESLIE, ALFRED (American painter, born 1927),
LAWRENCE, THOMAS (British painter, 1765-1830), Mirror/Reflection
Whiteness LESSING, CARL FRIEDRICH (German painter,
LAWSON, ERNEST (American painter, 1 873-1939), Night 1808-1880), Devotion/Piety, Protestantism
LEAR, EDWARD (British painter, printmaker, author, LE SUEUR, EUSTACHE (French painter, 53 1-1606), 1

1812-1888), Upside Down Communion, Sacrifice

LE BRUN, CHARLES (French painter, designer, LEUTZE, EMMANUEL GOTTLIEB (German painter
1 6 19-1690), Abduction/Rape, Humors, in the United States, 1 816-1 868), Journey/Flight,
Mirror/Reflection, Penitence/Repentance, Seasons, Path/Road/Crossroads
Self-Portraits I LE VAU, LOUIS (French architect, i6i2?-i67o), Luxury
LECLERC, JEAN (French painter, printmaker, 1596-1 62s), LEVINE, JACK (American painter, born 191 5),
Death Caricature/Cartoon, Funeral/Burial
LECOMTE DU NOUY, JULES-JEAN-ANTOINE (French LEVY, ALPHONSE-JACQUES (French artist, [843-1918),
1842-1923?), Luxury
painter, sculptor, Pregnancy
LEFEVRE, RAOUL, Choice/Choosing LEVY, EMILE (French painter, 1 826-1 890I, Abandonment
1034 INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART

LEVY-DHURMEN, LUCIEN (French painter, sculptor, LORENZETTI, PIETRO (Italian painter, illuminator, active

1865-1953), Dreams/Visions, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale before 1307-1348?), Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth, Death,
LEWIS, GEORGE ROBERT (British painter, 1782-1872), Grieving/Lamentation, Honor/Honoring, Martyrdom,
Labor/Trades/Occupations Night, Virtue/Virtues
LEWES, WYNDHAM (British painter, author, 1 882-1957), LORENZI, BATTISTA (Italian sculptor, 1527/28-1594),
Dance/Dancers/Dancing Abduction/Rape
LEWIS PAINTER (POLYGNOTOS II) (Greek vase painter, LORENZO D'ALESSANDRO DA SAN SEVERINO (Italian
circa 475-450 B.C.), Abandonment painter, active 1462, died 1503), Annunciation,
LEYS, HENDRIK, BARON (Belgian painter, printmaker, Visiting/Visitation
181 5-1869), Protestantism LORENZO MONACO (Italian painter, circa 1 370-1425),
LEYSTER, JUDITH (Dutch painter, 1609/10-1660), Birth/Childbirth, Crucifixion, Dawn/Dawning, Light II,

Artists/Art, Laughter, Self-Portraits II, Vanity/Vanitas Night

LHERMITTE, LEON-AUGUSTIN (French painter, L'ORME, PHILIBERT DE (French architect, circa
printmaker, 1844-1925), Peasantry 151 5-1 570), Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
LHOTE, ANDRE (French painter, illustrator, critic, LOTH, JOHANN CARL (CARLOTTO) (German painter,
885-1962), Pregnancy
1 printmaker in Italy, 1632-1698), Abandonment
LICHTENSTEIN, ROY (American painter, sculptor, LOTTO, LORENZO (Italian painter, circa 1480-1556),
printmaker, 192 3-1997), Caricature/Cartoon, Adultery, Annunciation, Bath/Bathing, Dreams/Visions
Grieving/Lamentation, Madness, Marriage/Betrothal, LOUTHERBOURG, PHILIP-JAMES DE (French painter,
Night, Patronage, Pointing/Indicating scenographer in Great Britain, 1740-1812), Sublime
LIEBERMANN, MAX (German painter, printmaker, LOZOWICK, LOUIS (American painter, printmaker,
1 847-1 93 5), Labor/Trades/Occupations 1892-1973), Dreams/Visions
LIMBOURG BROTHERS (Flemish illuminators, active LUCAS VAN LEYDEN (Early Netherlandish painter,
1 400-1 4 1 6), Damned Souls, Expulsion, Harvesting, printmaker, 1494-153 3), Betrayal, Calumny, Crucifixion,
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Fools/Folly, Hair/Haircutting,
Months, Night, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, Martyrdom, Money, Virtue/Virtues
Patronage, Penitence/Repentance, Sacrifice, Upside Down, LUCKE, JOHANN CHRISTIAN LUDWIG (German
Zodiac sculptor, ivory carver, circa703-1 780), Laughter
1

LIN, MAYA YING (American sculptor, born 1959), LUINI, BERNARDINO (Italian painter, circa 1480-15 3 2?),
Grieving/Lamentation Drunkenness/Intoxication, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne,
LINDNER, RICHARD (American painter, 1901-1978), Love and Death, Sacrifice
Mirror/Reflection LUKS, GEORGE BENJAMIN (American painter,
LINGELBACH, JOHANNES (Dutch painter, 1622-1674), printmaker, 1866/67-1933), Night, Sport
Plague/Pestilence LU KUANG (Chinese painter, active 2nd quarter of the 14th
LIPCHITZ, JACQUES (French sculptor, 1891-1973), century), Seasons
Abduction/Rape, Penitence/Repentance LUTI, BENEDETTO (Italian painter, printmaker,
LIPPI, FILIPPINO (Italian painter, draftsman, circa 1666-1724), Plague/Pestilence
1457-1504), Dreams/Visions, Journey/Flight, Music, LYSIPPUS (Greek sculptor, circa 390-after 310 B.C.),

Reading, Whiteness Fortune, Naked/Nude, Sport

LIPPI, FRA FILIPPO (Italian painter, circa 1406-1469),
Annunciation, Artists/Art, Dawn/Dawning, MACDONALD, MARGARET (Scottish designer, painter,
Devotion/Piety, Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy, Reading, wife of Charles Rennie Mackintosh, 1865-1933),
Virgin/Virginity Pregnancy
LOCHNER, STEFAN (German painter, circa 1410-1451), MACDOWELL, PATRICK (Irish sculptor, 1 799-1 870),
Shepherds/Shepherdesses Love and Death
LODGE, JUDITH (American painter in Canada, born 1941), MACKINTOSH, MARGARET MACDONALD see
Sin/Sinning MACDONALD, MARGARET
LOMAZZO, GIOVANNI PAOLO (Italian painter, poet, MACMONNIES, FREDERICK WILLIAM (American
theorist, 153 8-1600), Imagination/Creativity sculptor, 1863-1937), Bacchanalia/Orgy, Martyrdom,
LOMI, AURELIO (Italian painter, 1556-1622), Bath/Bathing Sacrifice
LONG, RICHARD (British sculptor, born 1945), MACRINO D'ALBA (Italian painter, C.1465-C.1 528),
Path/Road/Crossroads Annunciation
LONGHI, PIETRO (Italian painter, 1702-178 5), MADERNO, STEFANO (Italian sculptor, circa 1 576-1636),
Masks/Personae Martyrdom
LONGUEIL, JOSEPH DE (French printmaker, 1730-1792), MADRAZO Y AGNUDO JOSE DE (Spanish painter,
Seasons printmaker, 1781-1859), Death
LORENZETTI, AMBROGIO (Italian painter, died circa MAES, NICOLAES (Dutch painter, 1 634-1 693),
1348), Hanging, Harvesting, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Melancholy, Protestantism, Sleep/Sleeping, Temptation
Justice, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Path/Road/Crossroads, MAGDALEN MASTER (Italian painter, 13th century),
Virtue/Virtues Hair/Haircutting, Penitence/Repentance
 INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART IO35

MAGNASCO, ALESSANDRO (LISSANDRINO) (Italian MARCO DEL BUONO GIAMBERTI (Italian painter,

painter, 1 667-1 749), Sin/Sinning, Temptation 1402-1489), Honor/Honoring, Love and Death
MAGNIER, PHILIPPE (French sculptor, 1647-1715), MAREES, HANS VON (German painter, 1837-1887),
Seasons Abduction/Rape
MAGRITTE, RENE (Belgian painter, 1898-1967), Comic, MARIANI, CARLO MARIA (Italian painter, printmaker,
Melancholy, Mirror/Reflection, Naked/Nude, Night, born 193 1 ), Abduction/Rape
Order/Chaos MARIETTE, JEAN (French painter, 1660-1742), Months
MAHU, CORNELIUS (Flemish painter, 1613-1689), MARINETTI, EMILIO (Italian artist, active 1919),
Margins/Outsiders Dreams/Visions
MAITANI, LORENZO (Italian sculptor, architect, circa MARINI, MARINO (Italian sculptor, painter, printmaker,

1275-1330), Damned Order/Chaos

Souls, 1901-1980), Arms Raised
MAKART, HANS (Austrian painter, 1 840-1 884), MARISA see MARCIA
Plague/Pestilence, Sin/Sinning MARISOL (MARISOL ESCOBAR) (American sculptor, born
MAKRON (Greek vase painter, circa 500-475 B.C.), 1930), Self-Portraits II
Bacchanalia/Orgy MARLAY PAINTER (Greek vase painter, circa 450-420
MALEVICH, KAZIMIR SEVERINOVIC (Russian painter, B.C.), Marriage/Betrothal
writer,1878-193 5), Dreams/Visions, MARMION, SIMON (Flemish painter, illuminator, circa
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Order/Chaos 1425-1489), Journey/Flight, Martyrdom, Whiteness
MANARA, BALDASSARE (Italian artist, active 15 26-1 547), MARSH, REGINALD (American painter, printmaker,
Love and Death 1898-1954), Bath/Bathing, Hair/Haircutting, Hanging
MANET, EDOUARD (French painter, 183 2-1 883), MARTIN, JOHN (British painter, 1789-1854), Destruction
Apotheosis/Deification, Choice/Choosing, Death, of City, Expulsion, Journey/Flight, Judgment,
Destruction of City, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Order/Chaos, Reading, Sublime
Funeral/Burial, Gaze, Journey/Flight, Masks/Personae, MARTINEAU, ROBERT BRAITHWAITE (British painter,
Melancholy, Mirror/Reflection, Naked/Nude, 1826-1869), Reading
Order/Chaos, Pregnancy, Seasons, MARTINO DI BARTOLOMMEO (Italian painter, active
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Whiteness 1389-1434/35), Dreams/Visions, Light II, Virgin/Virginity,
MANETTI, RUTILIO DI LORENZO (Italian painter, Virtue/Virtues
1571-1639), Madness MARY MAGDALEN MASTER see MAGDALEN MASTER
MANFREDI, BARTOLOMEO (Italian painter, 1582-circa MASACCIO (TOMMASO DI SER GIOVANNI DI MONE
1628), Money GUIDE) (Italian painter, 1401-circa 1428),
MANSHIP, PAUL (American sculptor, 1 885-1 966), Ascent/Descent, Birth/Childbirth, Choice/Choosing,
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Crucifixion, Death, Devotion/Piety, Expulsion,
Journey/Flight Margins/Outsiders, Naked/Nude, Patronage, Peace,
MANTEGAZZA, CHISTOFORO (Italian sculptor, Pointing/Indicating, Sin/Sinning, Upside Down
goldsmith, active 1470-1495), Expulsion MASKELYNE, JOHN NEVIL, Automata
MANTEGNA, ANDREA (Italian painter, sculptor, printmaker, MASOLINO DA PANICALE (TOMMASO FINI) (Italian

1431-1505), Abundance, Apotheosis/Deification, 83-1447?), Melancholy, Sin/Sinning,

painter, 13
Bacchanalia/Orgy, Beheading/Decapitation, Choice/ Temptation
Choosing, Crucifixion, Damned Souls, Death, Drunkenness/ MASRELIEZ, LOUIS- ADRIEN (French painter, architect,
Intoxication, Envy, Evil Eye, Excess, Fame, Fatal Woman/ 1748-1810), Love and Death
Femme Fatale, Funeral/Burial, Honor/Honoring, MASSON, ANDRE (French painter, author,
Imagination/Creativity, Journey/Flight, Justice, 1896-1987), Abduction/Rape, Dreams/Visions,
Love and Death, Martyrdom, Path/Road/Crossroads, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Imagination/Creativity,
Sacrifice, Sleep/Sleeping, Vices/Deadly Sins Journey/Flight, Metamorphosis
MANUEL, NIKLAS (NIKOLAUS DEUTSCH) (Swiss painter, MASSYS, CORNELIS (Early Netherlandish painter,
1454-1530), Imagination/Creativity
circa printmaker, 1510/1 1-1556-57), Annunciation
MANZU, GIACOMO (Italian sculptor, born 1908), MASSYS, JAN (Early Netherlandish painter, 1 509-1575),
Hanging Adultery, Betrayal, Comic
MAPPLETHORP, ROBERT (American photographer, 20th MASSYS, QUENTIN (Early Netherlandish painter,
century), Naked/Nude 1465/66-1530), Comic, Fools/Folly,
MARC, FRANZ (German painter, printmaker, 1 880-1916), Labor/Trades/Occupations, Mirror/Reflection, Money,
Dreams/Visions, Light II Sin/Sinning
MARCANTONIO see RAIMONDI, MARCANTONIO MASTER BERTRAM see BERTRAM VON MINDEN
MARCHANT, GUYOT (French artist, active circa 1485), MASTER E. S. (German printmaker, goldsmith, active
Death, Money 1450-circa 1467), Money, Visiting/Visitation
MARCHI, VIRGILIO (Italian architect, 1 895-1960), MASTER F B. (German printmaker, active circa
Dreams/Visions 1 550-1 563), Melancholy
MARCIA (MARISA; TAMARA), Imagination/Creativity, MASTER FRANCKE (German painter, active [424-1435),
Mirror/Reflection, Self-Portraits II Birth/Childbirth
IO36 INDF.X OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART

MASTER HUGO (English illuminator, sculptor, active MATISSE, HENRI (French painter, sculptor, printmaker,
1 13 5-1 150"), Ascent/Descent 1869-1954), Arms Raised, Bath/Bathing, Crucifixion,
MASTER I. B. WITHTI IE BIRD see PALUMBA, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Hair/Haircutting,
GIOVANNI BATTISTA Journey/Flight, Imagination/Creativity, Luxury,
MASTER I. D. C. (Belgian or French enamelist, active Mirror/Reflection, Path/Road/Crossroads, Patronage,
1580-1600), Abduction/Rape Reading, Self-Portraits I, Sleep/Sleeping
MASTER OF 151 5 (Italian printmaker, 1 6th century), MATTA (ROBERTO SEBASTIAN ANTONIO
Drunkenness/Intoxication ECHAURREN MATTA) (Chilean painter, printmaker,
MASTER OF FLEMALLE see CAMPIN, ROBERT born 191 1 ), Apocalypse, Night
MASTER OF FRANKFURT (Early Netherlandish painter, MATTEIS, PAOLO DE (Italian painter, 1 662-1 728),
1460-circa 1533), Fools/Folly Choice/Choosing, Pointing/Indicating
MASTER OF MOULINS (HEY, JEAN) (French painter, MATTEO DI GIOVANETTI (Italian artist, active
active circa 1478-15 10), Apocalypse 1343-1 366), Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
MASTER OF SAINT GILLES (Early Netherlandish painter, MAULBERTSCH, FRANZ ANTON (Austrian painter,
active circa 1500), Baptism draftsman, printmaker, 1724-1796), Abduction/Rape,
MASTER OF SAINT VERONICA (German painter, Calumny, Journey/Flight, Love and Death
active circa 1395-1415), Beheading/Decapitation, MAXIMOV, VASILI MAXIMOVICH (Russian painter,
Crucifixion printmaker, 1844-1911), Marriage/Betrothal
MASTER OF THE APOLLO AND DAPHNE LEGEND MAY, ERNST WILHELM (German painter, printmaker,
(Italian painter, active circa 1480-15 10), Calumny 1901-1968), Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale
MASTER OF THE BARBARA LEGEND (Early MCTAGGERT, WILLIAM (English painter, 1835-1910),
Netherlandish painter, active 1470-T500), Betrayal Seasons
MASTER OF THE BARBARINI PANELS (Italian painter, MECKENEM, ISRAHEL VAN, THE YOUNGER (German
architect, active 1445-1485), Pregnancy painter, printmaker, goldsmith, circa 14 50-1 503), Comic
MASTER OF THE BOUCICAUT HOURS see BOUCICAUT MEIDIAS PAINTER (Greek vase painter, circa 420-390
MASTER B.C.), Abduction/Rape, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
MASTER OF THE DUKE OF BEDFORD (French Drunkenness/Intoxication
illuminator, 15th century), Months MEIDNER, LUDWIG (German painter, printmaker,
MASTER OF THE FIRST PRAYER BOOK OF 1 8 84-1 966), Apocalypse, Dreams/Visions
MAXIMILIAN I (Early Netherlandish illuminator, MEISSONIER, JEAN-LOUIS-ERNST (French painter,
active 1470-1488), Martyrdom printmaker, sculptor, 181 5-1 891), Journey/Flight,
MASTER OF THE GOLD SCROLLS (Netherlandish Laughter
illuminator, active circa 1425-u 50), Journey/Flight MEIT, CONRAD (German sculptor, circa 1480-circa 1550),
MASTER OF THE GRISELDA LEGEND (Italian painter, Betrayal
active late i5th-early 16th century), Virgin/Virginity MELLAN, CLAUDE (French painter, printmaker,
MASTER OF THE GUISE HOURS (French illuminator, 1598-1688), Honor/Honoring
active circa 1410-1440), Journey/Flight MELLERY, XAVIER (Belgian painter, 1 845-1921),
MASTER OF THE HARVARD HANNIBAL (French Imagination/Creativity
illuminator, active circa 1410-1438), Whiteness MEMLINC, HANS see MEMLING, HANS
MASTER OF THE LAZZARONI MADONNA (Italian MEMLING, HANS (Early Netherlandish painter, draftsman,
painter, active 1395-1400), Justice circa 1433-1494), Baptism, Beheading/Decapitation,
MASTER OF THE LEGEND OF ST. LUCY (Early Choice/Choosing, Funeral/Burial, Journey/Flight, Luxury,
Netherlandish painter, active circa 1500), Music, Music, Nightmare, Path/Road/Crossroads, Widowhood
Virgin/Virginity MENAGEOT, FRANQOIS-GUILLAUME (French painter,
MASTER OF THE MAGDALEN LEGEND see 1 744-1 8 1 6), Death
MAGDALEN MASTER MENGS, ANTON RAPHAEL (German painter, critic,
MASTER OF THE MANSI MAGDALEN (Netherlandish 1728-1779), Apotheosis/Deification, Self-Portraits I

painter, draftsman, circa 15 10-1525), MENZEL, ADOLPH FRIEDRICH ERDMANN VON

Beheading/Decapitation (German painter, printmaker, 181 5-1905),
MASTER OF THE PLANET (printmaker, active circa Funeral/Burial
1460-65), Imagination/Creativity MERCURIO, SCIPIONE (printmaker, active circa 1596),
MASTER OF THE PRAYER BOOK (Flemish manuscript Pregnancy
illuminator, flourished circa 1500), Dance/Dancers/Dancing MERENGO, ARRIGO (Flemish sculptor in Italy, died 1723)
MASTER OF THE ROHAN HOURS (French illuminator, Ascent/Descent
active 1420-1440), Death MERIAN, MATTAUS, THE ELDER (Swiss printmaker,
MASTER S. I. (Netherlandish printmaker, 15th century), 1593-1650), Expulsion
Vanity Amanitas MERRILD, KNUD (Danish painter in the United States,
MASTER WILIGELMUS see WILIGELMO DA MODENA 1 8 94-1 9 54), Hermaphrodite/Androgyne
MATHAM, JACOB (Dutch printmaker, 1571-1631), MERYON, CHARLES (French printmaker, 1821-1868),
Humors, Money, Months, Pointing/Indicating, Seasons Avarice, Margins/Outsiders
 INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART IO37

MESSERSCHMIDT, FRANZ XAVER (German sculptor, MILLET, JEAN-FRANgOIS (French painter, 18 14-1875),
1736-1783), Madness, Physiognomy Abandonment, Abduction/Rape, Devotion/Piety,
METSU, GABRIEL (Dutch artist, 1 629-1 667), Adultery, Harvesting, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Night, Peasantry,
Betrayal, Female Beauty and Adornment Shepherds/Shepherdesses
METSYS, QUENTIN see MASSYS, QUENTIN MIRO, JOAN (Spanish painter, printmaker, sculptor,
MEURER, F. (artist, active circa 1970), ceramist, 1893-1983), Ascent/Descent, Dreams/Visions,
Path/Road/Crossroads Mirror/Reflection, Night, Peasantry
MEYER, CONRAD (Swiss painter, printmaker, 161 8-1 689), MOCETTO, GIROLAMO (Italian painter, printmaker, circa
Sleep/Sleeping 1448-1531), Melancholy
MEYRING, HEINRICH see MERENGO, ARRIGO MODERSOHN-BECKER, PAULA (German painter,
MICCO SPADARO see GARGIULO, DOMENICO printmaker, 1876-1907), Artists/Art, Naked/Nude,
(MICCO SPADARO) Pregnancy, Self-Portraits II

MICHALS, DUANE (American photographer, born 1932), MOHOLY-NAGY, LASZL6 (Hungarian painter, sculptor,
Voyeurism printmaker, designer, 189 5-1 946), Dreams/Visions
MICHEL, JEAN (French sculptor, active circa 1450), MOLA, PIER FRANCESCO (Italian painter, 161 2-1666),
Funeral/Burial Humors
MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI (Italian sculptor, MOLENAER, JAN MIENSE (Dutch painter, printmaker,
painter, architect, poet, 1475-1564), Abduction/Rape, 1610-1668), Female Beauty and Adornment,
Adultery, Arms Raised, Artists/Art, Ascent/Descent, Imagination/Creativity, Laughter, Music, Vanity/Vanitas
Bacchanalia/Orgy, Bath/Bathing, Beheading/Decapitation, MOMPER, BARTHOLOMAUS DE (Early Netherlandish
Betrayal, Caricature/Cartoon, Choice/Choosing, painter, printmaker, publisher, 1535-circa 1589),
Communion, Crucifixion, Damned Souls, Dawn/Dawning, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Death, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Envy, Expulsion, Fame, MOMPER, JOOS DE, THE YOUNGER (Flemish painter,
Funeral/Burial, Grieving/Lamentation, Hair/Haircutting, printmaker, 1564-1635), Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
Harvesting, Honor/Honoring, Imagination/Creativity, MONDRIAN, PIET (Dutch painter, 1 872-1944),
Judgment, Judaism, Luxury, Masks/Personae, Melancholy, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Dreams/Visions, Night,
Mirror/Reflection, Naked/Nude, Night, Order/Chaos, Order/Chaos
Patronage, Peace, Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy, MONET, CLAUDE (French painter, 1849-1926),
Protestantism, Reading, Sacrifice, Self-Portraits I, Apotheosis/Deification, Caricature/Cartoon,
Serpent's Bite, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Sublime, Dawn/Dawning, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Light II,

Temptation, Upside Down, Virtue/Virtues Whiteness

MICHELE DA VERONA (Italian painter, circa MONNIER, HENRY BONAVENTURE (French artist,

1 147-1 53 6/44 ), Marriage/Betrothal caricaturist, author, actor, 1 805-1 877), Caricature/Cartoon

MICKER, JAN CHRISTIAENSZ. (Dutch artist, 1598-1664), MONSIEL, EDMUND (Polish artist, 20th century),
Path/Road/Crossroads Devotion/Piety
MIEREVELD, MICHIEL JANSZ. VAN (Dutch painter, MONTICELLI, ADOLPHE-JOSEPH-THOMAS (French
1 567-1641), Pointing/Indicating painter, 1824-1886), Abduction/Rape, Offering
MIERIS, FRANS VAN, THE ELDER (Dutch painter, MOORE, HENRY SPENCER (British sculptor, 1 898-1986),
1 63 5-1 681), Artists/Art, Betrayal, Female Beauty and Order/Chaos
Adornment, Mirror/Reflection, Music, Sleep/Sleeping, MOR, ANTHONIS (Early Netherlandish painter,
Toilet Scenes 1 512/20-1575/77), Fools/Folly, Self-Portraits I

MIGNARD, NICHOLAS (MIGNARD D'AVIGNON) MORANDINI, FRANCESCO (IL POPPI) (Italian painter,
(French painter, printmaker, 1606-1668), 1 544-1 597), Virtue/Virtues
Journey/Flight MORBELLI, ANGELO (Italian painter, 1853-1919),
MIGNARD, PIERRE I (French painter, 1612-1695), Peasantry
Imagination/Creativity, Plague/Pestilence, Self-Portraits I, MOREAU, GUSTAVE (French painter, 1 826-1 898),
Serpent's Bite Abandonment, Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Beheading/
MIGNON, JEAN (French painter, printmaker, 1537-1552), Decapitation, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Fatal Woman/
Serpent's Bite Femme Fatale, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Music, Nightmare
MILLAIS, JOHN EVERETT (British painter, 1 829-1 896), MOREELSE, PAULUS (Dutch painter, architect,
Artists/Art, Communion, Death, Hair/Haircutting, 1571-1635), Female Beauty and Adornment,
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Madness, Martyrdom, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
Naked/Nude, Offering, Sacrifice, Seasons, Virtue/Virtues, MORGAN, BARBARA (American photographer, born
Widowhood 1900), Dance/Dancers/Dancing
MILLER, BRENDA (American artist, born 1941), Money MORGAN, EVELYN DE (British painter, 1 855-1919),
MILLES, CARL
(American sculptor, 1875-1955), Abandonment
Abduction/Rape MORGAN, FREDERICK (British painter, 1856-1927),
MILLET, JEAN-FRANgOIS I (FRANCISQUE MILLET) Harvesting
(Flemish painter, printmaker, 1642-1679), MORGAN, GERTRUDE (American artist, 20th century),
Plague/Pestilence Devotion/Piety
IO}8 IND1 X OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART

MOR1SOT, BIKINI- (French painter, 1 841-1895), Female NANNI DI BANCO (NANNI DANTONIO DI BANCO)
Beauty and Adornment, Pregnancy, Reading, Seasons, (Italian sculptor, circa 1 373-1421 ),

Self-Portraits II, Sleep/Sleeping, Whiteness Apotheosis/Deification, Martyrdom

MORLAND, GEORGE 1763-1804),
(British painter, NARDO CIONI (Italian painter, active circa 1365, died
DI
Money, Penitence/Repentance, Shipwreck 1365/66), Damned Souls, Journey/Flight
MORONOBU, HISHIKAWA (Japanese printmaker, NASH, PAUL (British painter, 1889-1946), Honor/Honoring
1625-1695), Voyeurism NASON, PIETER (Dutch painter, circa 1612-1688/90),
MOROT, AIME-NICOLAS (French painter, 1850-1913), Vanity/Vanitas
Crucifixion NAST, THOMAS (American cartoonist, illustrator,

MORRIS, ROBFRT (American sculptor, born 193 0, 1 840-1 902), Caricature/Cartoon, Money
Apocalypse, Money NATOIRE, CHARLES-JOSEPH (French painter, 1 700-1 777),
MORRIS, WILLIAM (British designer, author, 834-1 896), 1 Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Bacchanalia/Orgy
Adultery, Death, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, NATTIER, JEAN-MARC (French painter, 1 685-1766),
Mirror/Reflection, Sacrifice Female Beauty and Adornment, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (American painter, NAUMAN, BRUCE (American sculptor, born 1941),
807-1 868), Harvesting, Labor/Trades/Occupations
1 Hanging, Light II

MUKHINA, VERA (Russian sculptor, 1889-195 3), NECK, JAN VAN (Dutch painter, 1635-1714),
Peasantry Metamorphosis
MULLER, HERMAN JANSZ. (Dutch printmaker, circa NEEL, ALICE (American painter, 1900-1984), Artists/Art,
548-1617), Betrayal, Humors
1 Naked/Nude, Pregnancy, Self-Portraits II

MULLER, JAN HARMENSZ. (Dutch printmaker, NEGRI, PIETRO (Italian painter, 1 628-1 679),
r 571-1628), Pointing/Indicating Plague/Pestilence
MULLER, OTTO (Swiss sculptor, born 1905), Bath/Bathing NEROCCIO DI BARTOLOMMEO DE' LANDI (Italian

MULREADY, WILLIAM (British painter, 786-1 863), 1 1447-1550), Virgin/Virginity

painter, sculptor, designer,
Marriage/Betrothal NETTI, FRANCESCO (Italian painter, 1 832-1894), Death
MULTSCHER, HANS (German painter, sculptor, circa NEWMAN, BARNETT (American painter, 1905-1970),
1400-1467), Communion Crucifixion, Grieving/Lamentation, Path/Road/Crossroads
MUNCH, EDVARD (Norwegian painter, printmaker, NEWMAN, ROBERT LOFTIN (American painter,
863-1 944), Bath/Bathing, Choice/Choosing, Crucifixion,
1 1827-1912), Reading
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Dawn/Dawning, Death, Fatal NICCOLO (Italian sculptor, 12th century),
Woman/Femme Fatale, Gaze, Grieving/Lamentation, Labor/Trades/Occupations
Hair/Haircutting, Journey/Flight, Kiss/Kissing, Madness, NICCOLO FIORENTINO (Italian painter, 1404-1471),
Melancholy, Naked/Nude, Night Fortune
MUNNINGS, ALFRED JAMES (British painter, NICHOLAS OF VERDUN (Early Netherlandish goldsmith,
181 5-1959), Hunting/Hunter/Huntress enamelist, 12.th-1.3th century), Annunciation, Baptism,
MUNRO, ALEXANDER (British sculptor, 1 825-1 871), Communion, Funeral/Burial, Honor/Honoring, Shipwreck
Reading NICOL, ERSKINE (British painter, 1825-1904), Expulsion
MLJRER, CHRISTOPH (Swiss painter, glazier, printmaker, NICOL, JOHN WATSON (British painter, 1856-1926),
1 5
58-1 614), Path/Road/Crossroads Expulsion
MURILLO, BARTOLOME ESTEBAN (Spanish painter, NICOLO DA BOLOGNE (Italian illuminator, active

1617-1682), Apocalypse, Ascent/Descent, Devotion/Piety, 1351-1404), Virtue/Virtues

Ecstasy, Laughter, Penitence/Repentance, Sacrifice, NIEULANDT, ADRIAEN IVAN (Dutch painter,
Virgin/Virginity 1 587-1 658), Vanity/Vanitas

MURPHY, CATHERINE E. (American painter, born 1946), NOBLE, MATTHEW (British sculptor, 181 8-1 876), Fame
Self-Portraits II NOGUCHI, ISAMU (American sculptor, designer,
MURRAY, ELIZABETH (American painter, born 1940), 1904-1988), Hanging
Drunkenness/Intoxication NOLDE, EMILE (German painter, printmaker, 1 867-1956),
MUSI, AGOSTINO (AGOSTINO VENEZIANO) (Italian Betrayal, Communion, Dance/Dancers/Dancing,
printmaker, 1490-1548), Imagination/Creativity Devotion/Piety, Masks/Personae, Path/Road/Crossroads,
MUSIC,ZORAN (Yugoslav artist, born 1909), Hanging Penitence/Repentance, Sin/Sinning
MUYBRIDGE, EADWEARD (British photographer in the NONETTE, DONATIEN (DONOT) (French artist,

United States, 1 830-1 904), Automata, Naked/Nude 1708-1785), Whiteness

MYRON (Greek sculptor, active circa 450 B.C.), Sport NORTH NETHERLANDISH MASTER (Netherlandish
painter, late 15th century), Dreams/Visions
NADELMAN, ELIE (American sculptor, 1 882-1946),
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne OCHTERVELT, JACOB (Dutch painter, 1634-1682), Music
NAGEL, JAN (Dutch painter, born 1616), Misfortune OEHME, ERNST FERDINAND (German painter,
NAKIAN, REUBEN (American sculptor, 1897-1986), 1797-1855), Night
Abduction/Rape, Choice/Choosing, Destruction of City, O'KEEFFE, GEORGIA (American painter, 1 887-1986),
Ecstasy Ecstasy, Night
 INDEX Ol Aid ISIS AND WORKS OF ART IO39

OLDENBURG, CLAES THURE (American artist, born PALMA GIOVANF (JACOPO NEGRETTI) (Italian painter,

1 919), Comic 1 548-1628), Choice/C hoosing, Penitence/Repentance

OLTOS (Greek vase painter, 525-500 b.c), Abduction/Rape PALMA VECCHIO see PALMA, JACOPO IL VECCHIO
O'NEIL, HENRY NELSON (British artist, 1817-1880), PALMER, FRANCES FLORA BOND (American painter,
Journey/Flight printmaker, 18 12-1876), Harvesting
O'NEILL, GEORGE BERNARD (British painter, PALMER, SAMUEL (British painter, 1805-1881), Night,
1828-1917), Expulsion Shepherds/Shepherdesses
ORCAGNA (ANDREA DI CIONE) (Italian painter, PALUMBA, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (Italian engraver,
sculptor, architect, active 1 343-1 368), Birth/Childbirth printmaker, circa 1 425/1 51 5-circa 1525/1615),
OOST, JACOB VAN, LE JEUNE (Flemish painter, Mirror/Reflection
1 673-171 3), Plague/Pestilence PAMPHILOS (Greek painter, 4th century B.C.), Artists/Art
OOSTSAANEN, JACOB CORNELISZ VAN see PAN PAINTER (Greek vase painter, 475-450 B.C.),
CORNELISZ. VAN OOSTSANEN, JACOB Bath/Bathing, Metamorphosis
ORCHARD PAINTER (Greek vase painter, circa 475-450 PANNINI, GIOVANNI PAOLO (Italian painter,
B.C.), Ecstasy, Journey/Flight 1691-1765), Judgment, Serpent's Bite
ORCHARDSON, WILLIAM QUILLER (British painter, PAOLINI, GIULIO (Italian artist, author, born 1940),
1832-1910), Journey/Flight, Marriage/Betrothal Hermaphrodite/Androgyne
ORLEY, BERNART VAN (Netherlandish painter, PAOLO DI GIOVANNI FEI (Italian painter, 1 372-141 1 ),

draftsman, circa 1492.-1 541/42), Virgin/Virginity

Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Judgment, Months PARMIGIANINO (FRANCESCO MAZZOLA) (Italian
ORLEY, RICHARD VAN (Flemish artist, 1663-173 2), painter, 1 503-1 540), Artists/Art, Fatal Woman/Femme
Serpent's Bite Fatale, Martyrdom, Mirror/Reflection, Reading, Self-

ORMANI, SISTER MARIA (illuminator, 15th century), Portraits I, Sleep/Sleeping, Witchcraft/Sorcery

Self-Portraits II PARRHASIUS (Greek painter, flourished circa 400 B.C.),

OROZCO, JOSE CLEMENTE (Mexican painter, pnntmaker, Artists/Art

1 883-1949), Caricature/Cartoon, Order/Chaos PARROCEL, JACQUES-IGNACE (French painter,
ORSI, LELIO (LELIO DA NOVELLARA) (Italian painter, printmaker, 1667-1722), Journey/Flight
architect, 1511-1587), Path/Road/Crossroads PASSE, CRISPIJN II DE (Dutch pnntmaker, 1597-circa
OSTADE, ADRIAEN VAN (Dutch painter, printmaker, 1670), Abduction/Rape, Months,
1 610-1684), Drunkenness/Intoxication, Laughter, Money, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Vanity/Vanitas,
Peasantry, Sleep/Sleeping Witchcraft/Sorcery
O'SULLIVAN, TIMOTHY H. (American photographer, PASSIGNANO see CRESTI, DOMENICO (PASSIGNANO)
1840-1882), Sacrifice PATEL, PIERRE (French painter, 648-1 707),
I 1

OTIS, BASS (American painter, printmaker, 1784-1861), Abandonment

Labor/Trades/Occupations PATEL, PIERRE-ANTOINE II (French painter, 1 648-1 707),
OTTERN, THOMAS (American painter, active circa i860), Months
Path/Road/Crossroads PATER, JEAN-BAPTISTE-JOSEPH (French painter,
OU DEHUA (MIAO) (Chinese painter, 20th century), 1695-1736), Seasons
Peasantry PATINLR, JOACHIM (Early Netherlandish painter,
OUDRY, JEAN-BAPTISTE (French painter, 1686-1755), draftsman, circa 1455-1524), Journey/Flight,
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress Path/Road/Crossroads
OVERBECK, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (German painter, PAUSON (Greek painter, 5th century B.C.), Comic
1789-1869), Betrayal, Devotion/Piety, Kiss/Kissing, PEALE,CHARLES WILLSON (American painter,
Melancholy 1741-1827), Journey/Flight, Self-Portraits I

PEALE, JAMES (American painter, 1747-1831), Whiteness

PACHECO, FRANCESCO (Spanish painter, author, PEALE, SARAH MIRIAM (American painter, 1800-1885),
1 564-1644), Crucifixion Self-Portraits II

PACHER, MICHAEL (Austrian sculptor, printmaker, PEARLSTEIN, PHILIP (American painter, printmaker, born
1430/35-1498), Expulsion 1924), Naked/Nude
PACINO DI BONAGUIDA (Italian illuminator and painter, PECHSTEIN, MAX (German painter, pnntmaker,
active circa 1303-1330S), Ascent/Descent 1881-1955), Naked/Nude
PADOVANINO (ALESSANDRO VAROTARI) (Italian PEETERS, BONAVENTURA (Flemish painter, printmaker,
painter, 1588-1648), Love and Death 1614-1652), Sublime
PAIK, NAM JUNE (American artist, born 1932), Light II PEETERS, CLARA (Dutch painter, circa 1 590-after 1657),
PAINTER OF RUVO (Apulian vase painter, circa 410-400 Abundance, Self-Portraits II
B.C.), Beheading/Decapitation PELLEGRINI, GIOVANNI ANTONIO (Italian painter,

PAJOU, AUGUSTINE (French sculptor, 1730-1809), 1 67 5-1 741), Abduction/Rape

Abandonment, Seasons PENNI, LUCA (Italian painter, died 1556), Dreams/Visions
PALMA, JACOPO IL VECCHIO (Italian painter, PENSIONANTE DEL SARACENI (Italian painter, active
1 4 80-1 5 28), Sacrifice, Visiting/Visitation 161 5-1620), Betrayal
I 040 INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART

PENTHESILIA PAINTER (Greek vase painter, 5th century Fame, Justice, Marriage/Betrothal, Night, Pregnancy,
B.C.), Gaze Sleep/Sleeping, Virgin/Virginity, Visiting/Visitation
PENCZ, GEORG (German painter, printmaker, circa PIERO DI COSIMO (Italian painter, 1462-1521), Adultery,
1 soo-i 5 so). Melancholy Bacchanalia/Orgy, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
PEPLOE, SAMUEL JOHN (British painter, 1871-1935), Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Love and Death,
Laughter Sleep/Sleeping, Visiting/Visitation
PERINO DEL VAGA (PIETRO BUONACCORSI) (Italian PIERRE LE FLAMAND (Flemish metalworker, active late
painter, 1 500/01-1547), Fame, Judgment, Love and i5th-early 16th century). Adultery
Death, Peace, Penitence/Repentance, Virtue/Virtues PIETRO DA CORTONA (PIETRO BERRETTINI) (Italian
PERMEKE, CONSTANT (Belgian painter, printmaker, painter, architect, 1 596-1669), Abduction/Rape,
sculptor, 1886-T952), Peasantry Judgment, Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence
PERSEPHONE PAINTER, Greek vase painter, circa PIETRO DI EMBOLI (Italian illuminator, active circa 1200),
450-420 B.C.), Damned Souls Labor/Trades/Occupations
PERUGINI, CHARLES EDWARD (CARLO) (British painter, PIETRO DI PUCCIO (Italian painter, active 1 364-1 394),
18^9-1918), Widowhood Drunkenness/Intoxication
PERUGINO (PIETRO DI CRISTOFORO VANNUCCI) PILS, ISIDORE-ALEXANDRE-AUGUSTIN (French painter,
(Italian painter, illuminator, circa 1450-1523), 1 8 13-1975), Devotion/Piety
Crucifixion, Death, Devotion/Piety, PINE, ROBERT EDGE (British painter, i 7 3o?-i 7 88), Madness
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Journey/Flight, Vices/Deadly PINTURICCHIO (BENARDINO DI BRETTO)
Sins, Visiting/Visitation (Italian painter, circa 1454-15 13), Annunciation,
PERUZZI, BALDASSARE (Italian painter, architect, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Journey/Flight
1481-1536), Beheading/Decapitation, PIOT, RENE (French painter, 1869-1934), Martyrdom
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Virtue/Virtues PIRANESI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (Italian printmaker,
PESELLINO, FRANCESCO (FRANCESCO DI STEFANO) architect, 1 720-1 778), Labyrinth/Maze
(Italian painter, 1422-1457), Hair/Haircutting, Sacrifice, PISANELLO (ANTONIO PISANO) (Italian painter,
Virtue/Virtues draftsman, medallist, sculptor, circa 1395-1455), Excess,
PETIT,GILLES-EDME (French designer and printmaker, Hanging, Honor/Honoring, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
694-1 760), Female Beauty and Adornment
1 PISANO, ANDREA (Italian sculptor, architect, circa
PETO, JOHN FREDERICK (American painter, 1854-1907), 1290-circa 1348), Artists/Art, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Baptism,
Money Labor/Trades/Occupations, Virtue/Virtues
PETRINI, GIUSEPPE ANTONIO (Swiss painter, 1677-circa PISANO, GIOVANNI (Italian sculptor, architect, circa

1758), Seasons 1240-circa 1320), Bath/Bathing, Fame, Naked/Nude,

PEYRON, JEAN-FRANQOIS-PIERRE (French painter, Virtue/Virtues
printmaker, 1744-1814), Love and Death, Sacrifice PISANO, NICOLA (Italian sculptor, active 1 258-1 278),
PHIDIAS (Ancient Greek sculptor, architect, active circa Baptism, Bath/Bathing, Birth/Childbirth,
450-430 B.C.), Apotheosis/Deification, Artists/ Art, Choice/Choosing, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fame,
Dawn/Dawning, Excess, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Judgment, Naked/Nude, Virtue/Virtues
Whiteness PISSARRO, CAMILLE (French painter, 1830-1903),
PHILIPON, CHARLES (French publisher, journalist, Dawn/Dawning, Night, Peasantry, Sleep/Sleeping
printmaker, caricaturist, 1 806-1 862), Caricature/Cartoon PITATI, BONIFACIO see BONIFACIO VERONESE
PIATTOLI, ANNA BACHERINI (Italian painter, PITTONI, FRANCESCO (Italian painter, circa 1654-before
1720-1788), Self-Portraits II 1735), Serpent's Bite, Visiting/Visitation
PICABIA, FRANCIS (French painter, 1879-1953), PLASTOV, ARKADY ALEKSANDROVICH (Russian artist,

Dance/Dancers/Dancing born 1893), Peasantry

PICASSO, PABLO (Spanish painter, printmaker, sculptor, PLATZER, JOHANN GEORG (Austrian painter,
ceramist, 1881-1973), Abduction/Rape, Apocalypse, 1 704-1 761), Abduction/Rape
Arms Raised, Artists/Art, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Bath/Bathing, PLUDDEMANN, HERMANN FREIHOLD (German
Caricature/Cartoon, Comic, Communion, Crucifixion, painter, 1809-1868), Penitence/Repentance
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Death, Destruction of City, POIRTERS, ADRIAEN (Netherlandish printmaker,
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, 1 6th century), Vanity/Vanitas
Fools/Folly, Funeral/Burial, Grieving/Lamentation, POLENOV, VASILIJ DMITRIEVIC (Russian artist,

Hair/Haircutting, Imagination/Creativity, Judaism, 1844-1927), Sin/Sinning

Labor/Trades/Occupations, Love and Death, POLICORO PAINTER (South Italian vase painter, 4th
Masks/Personae, Mirror/Reflection, Music, Naked/Nude, century B.C.), Betrayal
Night, Order/Chaos, Patronage, Peace, Pregnancy, POLIDORO DA CARAVAGGIO (POLIDORO CALDARA)
Reading, Self-Portraits I, Serpent's Bite, Sleep/Sleeping, (Italian painter, 1495/1500-circa 1543), Fame
Toilet Scenes, Visiting/Visitation POLLAIUOLO, ANTONIO DEL (Italian painter, sculptor,
PIERO DELLA FRANCESCA (Italian painter, circa printmaker, goldsmith, 14} 1/3 2-1 498), Abduction/Rape,
1420-1492), Baptism, Birth/Childbirth, Comic, Fame, Martyrdom, Metamorphosis, Naked/Nude,
Dawn/Dawning, Death, Dreams/Visions, Devotion/Piety, Virtue/Virtues
 INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS Of ART I 04 I

POLLAIUOLO, PIERO DEL (Italian painter, sculptor, PRIMATICCIO, FRANCESCO (Italian artist, 504-1 570), 1

1 443-1496), Justice, Mirror/Reflection Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Destruction

POLLOCK, JACKSON (American painter, 1912-1956), of City, Imagination/Creativity, Pregnancy
Abduction/Rape, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, PRUD'HON, PIERRE-PAUL (French painter, 1758-1823),
Imagination/Creativity, Order/Chaos Abduction/Rape, Crucifixion, Justice, Night, Whiteness
POLYCLETUS (gem carver, post 86/ante 47 B.c.-post 20 PUCELLE, JEAN (French artist, illuminator, active 1320),
B.c./ante a.d. 14), Artists/Art Betrayal, Communion, Funeral/Burial, Harvesting,
POLYDORUS OF RHODES (Greek sculptor, late ist/early Labor/Trades/Occupations, Music, Virtue/Virtues
2nd century B.C.), Journey/Flight PUGET, PIERRE (French sculptor, painter, architect,
POLYGNOTOS (Greek painter, active 469-447 B.C.), 1 620-1 694), Abduction/Rape
Comic, Destruction of City PUKIREV, VASILI VLADIM1ROVICH (Russian painter,
PONTORMO (JACOPO CARRUCCI) (Italian painter, 1832-1890), Marriage/Betrothal
1494-1557), Adultery, Crucifixion, Death, PULSA GROUP (American artists group, 20th century),
Grieving/Lamentation, Mirror/Reflection, Pregnancy, Light II

Visiting/Visitation PUVIS DE CHAVANNES, PIERRE (French painter,

POORTER, WILLEM DE (Dutch painter, 1608-after 1648), 1 824-1 898), Dreams/Visions, Imagination/Creativity,
Sacrifice Labor/Trades/Occupations, Martyrdom,
POPPI,FRANCESCO MORANDI see MORANDINI, Penitence/Repentance, Seasons, Whiteness
FRANCESCO (IL POPPI)
POPOVA, LJUBOV SERGEERNA (Russian painter, QUARTON, ENGUERRAND (French painter, illuminator,
1 889-1924), Journey/Flight circa 1410-after 1466), Death, Grieving/Lamentation
PORTA, GIUSEPPE (GIUSEPPE SALVIATI) (Italian painter, QUELLINUS, ARTUS, THE ELDER (Flemish sculptor,
circa 520-1 575), Abduction/Rape
1 1609-1668), Madness
POST, FRANS JANSZ. (Dutch painter, 1612-1618), QUELLINUS, ERASMUS II (Flemish painter, printmaker,
Sacrifice 1607-1678), Serpent's Bite
POT, HENDRIK GERRITSZ. (Dutch painter, circa QUIDOR, JOHN (American painter, 1800/01-1881),
1 585-1657), Avarice, Drunkenness/Intoxication Dreams/Visions, Expulsion, Night
POUSSIN, NICOLAS (French painter, 1 594-1665),
Abandonment, Abduction/Rape, Abundance, Apotheosis/ RADZIWIL, FRANZ (German painter, 1895-1983),
Deification, Artists/Art, Ascent/Descent, Avarice, Bacchanalia/ Misfortune
Orgy, Betrayal, Choice/Choosing, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, RAE, HENRIETTA (British artist, 1859-1928),
Dawn/Dawning, Death, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Envy, Abandonment
Funeral/Burial, Grieving/Lamentation, Honor/Honoring, RAIMONDI, MARCANTONIO (Italian printmaker, circa

Imagination/Creativity, Journey/Flight, Judaism, 1480-circa 1534), Bath/Bathing, Betrayal, Love and

Judgment, Madness, Metamorphosis, Music, Death, Naked/Nude, Night, Nightmare, Sin/Sinning,
Night, Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence, Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Pointing/Indicating, Seasons, Self-Portraits I, RAINALDI, CARLO (Italian architect, 1611-1691),
Self-Portraits II, Serpent's Bite, Shepherds/ Martyrdom
Shepherdesses, Sublime, Virgin/Virginity RAINALDI, GIROLAMO (Italian architect, 570-1655), 1

POYNTER, EDWARD JOHN (British painter, 1836-1919), Martyrdom

Fortune, Mirror/Reflection, Sacrifice RAINER, ARNULF (Austrian artist, born 1929), Madness
POZZO, ANDREA DEL (Italian architect, painter, RAMBERG, JOHANN HEINRICH (German painter,

1 642-1709), Devotion/Piety printmaker, 1 763-1 840), Comic

PRATO, FRANCESCO ORTENSI DI GIROLAMO DAL RANKLEY, ALFRED (British artist, 18 19-1872),
(Italian artist, 15 12-1562), Peace Visiting/Visitation
PRATT, HENRY CHEEVER (American painter, 1 803-1 880), RAOUX, JEAN (French painter, 1677-1734), Female Beauty
Ascent/Descent, Sublime and Adornment
PRAXITELES (Greek sculptor, active circa 370-330 B.C.), RAPHAEL (RAFFAELLO SANZIO) (Italian painter, architect,

Bath/Bathing, Female Beauty and Adornment, Gaze, 1483-1528), Apotheosis/Deification, Artists/Art, Beheading/

Naked/Nude, Voyeurism Decapitation, Betrayal, Caricature/Cartoon, Dance/Dancers/

PREAULT, AUGUSTE (French sculptor, 1 809-1 879), Dancing, Destruction of City, Expulsion, Fame,
Crucifixion Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Honor/Honoring, Imagination/
PRELL, HERMANN (German artist, 1854-1922), Justice Creativity, Journey/Flight, Justice, Light II, Love and
PRELLER, FRIEDRICH, THE ELDER (German painter, Death, Marriage/Betrothal, Martyrdom, Masks/Persou.ie,
printmaker, 1 804-1 878), Journey/Flight Melancholy, Metamorphosis, Music, Naked/Nude, Night,
PRETI, MATTIA (CAVALIER CALABRESE) (Italian painter, Nightmare, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads.
1613-1699), Beheading/Decapitation, Madness, Patronage, Peace, Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence,
Martyrdom Pregnancy, Protestantism, Sanctuary, Seasons, Self-

PRIEUR, BARTHELEMY (French sculptor, 1 536-161 1), Portraits I, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Upside Down,
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation, Zodiac
IO42. INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART

RATTNER, ABRAHAM (American painter, printmaker, and Adornment, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,

Hanging
designer, 1895—1978), I.abor/Trades/Occupations, Marriage/Betrothal,
RAUCHMII.LFR, MATTHIAS (German sculptor, Naked/Nude, Sleep/Sleeping, Whiteness
draftsman, painter, ivory carver, architect in Austria, RESTOUT, JEAN II (French painter, 1692-1768),
645—1 686), Abduction/Rape
1 Journey/Flight, Love and Death
RAUSCHENBERG, ROBERT (American painter, REVERDY, GEORGES (GEORGES REVERDINO) (Italian

photographer, born 1925), Damned Souls, Journey/Flight, printmaker in France, active 153 1-1564/70), Betrayal
Mirror/Reflection, Patronage, Reading REYMERSWAELE, MARINUS VAN (Netherlandish painter,
RAY, MAN (American painter, photographer, sculptor in circa 1493-circa 1567), Money
France, 1 890-1976), Dance/Dancers/Dancing, REYNOLDS, JOSHUA (British painter, writer, 1723-1792),
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne Artists/Art, Choice/Choosing, Fortune,
RAYSKI, FERDINAND VON (German painter, 1 806-1 898), Path/Road/Crossroads, Sacrifice, Whiteness
Hanging RIBERA, JUSEPE DE (LO SPANGNOLETO) (Spanish
REDGRAVE, RICHARD (British painter, author, educator, painter, printmaker in Italy, circa 1590-163 2),
1804-1888), Expulsion, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Ascent/Descent, Communion, Damned Souls,
Widowhood Devotion/Piety, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
REDON, ODILON (French painter, printmaker, Grieving/Lamentation, Laughter, Music
1840-1916), Apocalypse, Birth/Childbirth, RICCI, SEBASTIANO (Italian painter, 1654-1734),
Dreams/Visions, Journey/Flight, Melancholy, Night, Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Judgment,
Nightmare, Sleep/Sleeping, Temptation Plague/Pestilence
REGNAUDIN, THOMAS (French sculptor, 1 622-1 706), RICCIO, ANDREA (ANDREA BRIOSCO) (Italian sculptor,

Abduction/Rape, Seasons architect, goldsmith, medalist, 1470-15 3 2), Love and

REGNAULT, HENRI (French painter, 1843-1871), Death
Beheading/Decapitation RICHIER, GERMAINE (French sculptor, 1904-1959),
REGNAULT, JEAN-BAPTISTE, BARON (French painter, Crucifixion
printmaker, 1754-1829), Abduction/Rape, Journey/Flight RICHMOND, GEORGE (British painter, printmaker,
REICHLICH, MARX (Austrian or German painter, active 1 809-1 896), Shepherds/Shepherdesses
1494-1508), Visiting/Visitation RICHMOND, WILLIAM BLAKE (British painter,

REID, JOHN ROBERTSON (British artist, 1851-1926), 1842-1921), Abandonment, Bath/Bathing

Harvesting RICKERT, PAUL (artist, 20th century), Night
REID, ROBERT (American painter, 1862-1929), Whiteness RICKETTS, CHARLES DE SOUSY (British painter,
REMBRANDT HARMENSZ VAN RIJN (Dutch painter, designer, author, 1 866-1931), Fatal Woman/Femme
printmaker, 1 606-1 669), Abandonment, Abduction/Rape, Fatale
Adultery, Annunciation, Artists/Art, Ascent/Descent, RIGGS, ROBERT (American printmaker, 1 896-1 970),
Bath/Bathing, Betrayal, Calumny, Comic, Crucifixion, Madness
Devotion/Piety, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Fools/Folly, RIJCKAERT, DAVID III see RYCKAERT, DAVID III
Grieving/Lamentation, Hair/Haircutting, Hanging, RIMINALDI, ORAZIO (Italian painter, 1 593-1630),
Humors, Imagination/Creativity, Journey/Flight, Honor/Honoring
Judgment, Kiss/Kissing, Labor/Trades/Occupations, RIPA, CESARE, see Index of Authors, Literary Texts,
Laughter, Light II, Madness, Marriage/Betrothal, Composers, Filmmakers, and Folktales
Martyrdom, Melancholy, Music, Naked/Nude, Night, RIPPER, RUDOLPH CHARLES VON (Austrian painter,
Penitence/Repentance, Pregnancy, Protestantism, Reading, 904-1 960), Hanging
printmaker, 1

Sacrifice, Self-Portraits I, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, RIVERA, DIEGO (Mexican painter, 1886-1957), Artists/Art,

Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Toilet Scenes, Birth/Childbirth, Caricature/Cartoon, Death,
Visiting/Visitation Dreams/Visions, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Peasantry,
REMINGTON, FREDERIC (American painter, sculptor, Pregnancy, Self-Portraits II

1 861-1909), Hunting/Hunter/Huntress RIVERS, LARRY

(American painter, sculptor, born 1923),
REMP, FRANZ CARL (German or Austrian painter, Comic, Hanging, Mirror/Reflection
1674-1 7 18), Dance/Dancers/Dancing RIVIERE, THEODORE (French sculptor, 1857-1912),
RENI, GUIDO (Italian painter, 1 575-1642), Dance/Dancers/Dancing
Abduction/Rape, Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, RIVIUS, GUALTHER HERMENIUS (author, engraver, circa
Dawn/Dawning, Devotion/Piety, Journey/Flight, 1500-mid 1 6th century), Pregnancy
Path/Road/Crossroads, Penitence/Repentance, RIXENS, JEAN-ANDRE (French painter, 1846-1924),
Plague/Pestilence, Sacrifice, Serpent's Bite, Virgin/Virginity, Serpent's Bite
Virtue/Virtues ROBERT, LOUIS-LEOPOLD (French painter, printmaker,
RENIER DE HUY (Early Netherlandish goldsmith, active 1794-183 5), Peasantry
1107-1144), Baptism ROBERTI, ERCOLE DI (Italian painter, circa 1456-1496),
RENOIR, PIERRE-AUGUSTE (French painter, sculptor, Judgment
1841-1919), Apotheosis/Deification, Bath/Bathing, ROBERTS, WILLIAM PATRICK (British painter,
Choice/Choosing, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Female Beauty 1 89 5-1 980), Dance/Dancers/Dancing
 INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART IO43

ROBETTA, CRISTOFANO (Italian printmaker, goldsmith, ROTA, MARTINO (Italian printmaker, circa 1 520-1583),
1462-after 1522), Choice/Choosing, Envy Comic
ROBUS, HUGO (American sculptor, painter, 1885-1964), ROTHKO, MARK (American painter, 1903-1978),
Hair/Haircutting Funeral/Burial, Order/Chaos
ROBUSTI, MARIETTA see TINTORETTO, MARIETTA ROUAULT, GEORGES (French painter, printmaker,
(MARIETTA ROBUSTI) 1871-1958), Crucifixion, Justice, Night
ROCKWELL, NORMAN (American illustrator, ROUBAUD, FRANgOIS-FELIX (French sculptor,
1 894-1978), Order/Chaos, Self-Portraits I 1 825-1 876), Serpent's Bite
RODIN, AUGUST (French sculptor, 1848-19 17), Arms ROUGE, NICOLAS LE (French printmaker, 17th? century),
Raised, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Choice/Choosing, Damned Music
Souls, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Destruction of City, ROUSSEAU, HENRI (LE DOUANIER) (French painter,
Imagination/Creativity, Journey/Flight, Kiss/Kissing, 1844-1910), Apocalypse, Dreams/Visions,
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Love and Death, Melancholy, Imagination/Creativity, Night, Self-Portraits I,

Order/Chaos, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning Sleep/Sleeping

ROGERS, JOHN (American sculptor, 1829-1904), ROUSSEL, KER XAVIER (French painter, 1867-1944),
Marriage/Betrothal Abduction/Rape
ROHAN MASTER see MASTER OF THE ROHAN ROVERE, GIOVANNI MAURO DELLA
HOURS (FIAMMENGHINO) (Italian painter, 1575-1640),
ROMANELLI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO (Italian painter, Penitence/Repentance
1610-1662), Abduction/Rape ROWLANDSON, THOMAS (British painter, illustrator,
ROMANINO (GIROLAMO DI ROMANO) (Italian painter, 1756-1827), Caricature/Cartoon, Comic,
caricaturist,

1484/87-1562), Bath/Bathing, Hair/Haircutting, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Death, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,

Judgment Money, Naked/Nude, Physiognomy
ROMANO, GIULIO see GIULIO ROMANO (GIULIO ROYMERSWAELE, MARINUS VAN see
PIPPI) REYMERSWAELE, MARINUS VAN
ROMNEY, GEORGE (British painter, 1734-1802), RUBENS, PETER PAUL (Flemish painter, draftsman,
Bacchanalia/Orgy 577-1640), Abduction/Rape, Adultery,
collector, writer, 1

ROPS, FELICIEN JOSEPH VICTOR (Belgian painter, Annunciation, Apocalypse, Apotheosis/Deification,

printmaker, 1833-1898), Hanging, Nightmare, Peasantry, Artists/Art, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Bath/Bathing,
Temptation Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth,
ROSA, SALVATOR 161 5-1 673),
(Italian painter, printmaker, Calumny, Choice/Choosing, Communion, Crucifixion,
Abandonment, Baptism, Crucifixion, Dreams/Visions, Damned Souls, Dance/Dancers/Dancing,
Envy, Fortune, Hanging, Laughter, Masks/Personae, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Envy, Fatal Woman/Femme
Melancholy, Money, Pointing/Indicating, Sacrifice, Self- Fatale, Grieving/Lamentation, Hair/Haircutting,
Portraits I, Sin/Sinning, Sublime, Vanity/Vanitas, Harvesting, Honor/Honoring, Humors,
Witchcraft/Sorcery Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Judgment, Laughter, Light II,

ROSENDAEL, NICOLAS (Dutch painter, 1634/35-1686), Love and Death, Madness, Marriage/Betrothal,
Calumny Misfortune, Naked/Nude, Path/Road/Crossroads,
ROSLIN, ALEXANDRE (Swedish painter, 1718-1793), Patronage, Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence,
Whiteness Pregnancy, Reading, Sacrifice, Self-Portraits I, Self-

ROSSELLI, MATTEO (Italian painter, 1 578-1650), Portraits II, Serpent's Bite, Shepherds/Shepherdesses,
Journey/Flight Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Toilet Scenes,
ROSSELLINO, ANTONIO (Italian sculptor, 14 27-1 479), Upside Down, Virgin/Virginity, Visiting/Visitation,
Honor/Honoring, Sacrifice Voyeurism, Widowhood
ROSSELLINO, BERNARDO (Italian sculptor, architect, RUEFF,JACOB (German artist, 16th century), Pregnancy
1409-1464), Honor/Honoring RUISDAEL, JACOB VAN (Dutch painter, circa 1628-1632),
ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL (British painter, poet, Light II, Night, Sublime
1820-1882), Adultery, Annunciation, Artists/Art, RUIZ, ANTONIO (Mexican painter, born 1897),
Beheading/Decapitation, Damned Souls, Death, Dreams/Visions
Dreams/Visions, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Gaze, RUNGE, PHILIP OTTO (German painter, 1777-1810),
Hair/Haircutting, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Dawn/Dawning, Journey/Flight, Marriage/Betrothal,
Kiss/Kissing, Martyrdom, Mirror/Reflection, Night
Penitence/Repentance, Reading, Sacrifice, Toilet Scenes RUSSELL, CHARLES MARION (American painter,
ROSSI, PROPERZIA DE' (Italian sculptor, before sculptor, 1864-1926), Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
1491-1530), Adultery, Betrayal RUSSOLO, LUIGI (Italian painter, printmaker, musician,
ROSSLIN, EUCHARIUS (16th century), Pregnancy 1885-1947), Madness
ROSSO FIORENTINO (GIOVANNI BATTOSTA DI RYCKAERT, DAVID III (Flemish painter, 1 587-1631),
JACOPO) (Italian painter, 1494-1540), Witchcraft/Sorcery
Apotheosis/Deification, Ascent/Descent, RYDER, ALBERT PICKHAM (American painter,
Comic, Fame, Love and Death, Pregnancy 1747-1917), Apocalypse, Death, Night, Shipwreck
1044 INDEX Ol ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART

RYFF, WALT! II R HERMANN see RIVIUS, GUALTHER SCHALCKEN, GODFRIED (Dutch painter, printmaker,
HERMENIUS 1643-1706), Masks/Personae, Pregnancy
RYSBRACK, JOHN MICHAEL (Flemish sculptor in Great SCHEFFER, ARY (Dutch painter, printmaker, sculptor in
Britain, 1694-1770), Abandonment France, 1795-1858), Abduction/Rape, Love and Death,
Serpent's Bite
SABATINI, LORENZO (Italian painter, [530-1576), SCHIAVONE, ANDREA (Italian painter, printmaker,
Abduction/Rape draftsman, circa 1500-1563), Abduction/Rape,
SACCHI, ANDREA (Italian painter, 1599-1661), Destruction of City, Judgment, Marriage/Betrothal
Annunciation, Honor/Honoring, Music, Sacrifice, SCHICK, CHRISTIAN GOTTLIEB (German painter,
Virtue/Virtues printmaker, 1776-18 12), Sacrifice
SADELER, JEAN I (Flemish designer, printmaker, SCHIDONE, BARTOLOMEO (Italian painter, circa

1 5 50-1 600), Serpent's Bite 1 570-1 6 1 6), Betrayal

SADLER, WALTER DENDY (British painter, 1854-1923), SCHIELE, EGON (German painter, draftsman, 1890-19 18),
Marriage/Betrothal Naked/Nude
SAENREDAM, JAN PIETERSZ. (Dutch printmaker, SCHINKEL, KARL FRIEDRICH (German architect, painter,
1565-1607), Pregnancy, Seasons printmaker, 1781-1841), Dawn/Dawning, Light II

SAINT-GAUDENS, AUGUSTUS (American sculptor, SCHLEMMER, OSKAR (German painter, sculptor,

1 848-1 907), Imagination/Creativity 1 888-1 943), Dance/Dancers/Dancing
SAINT-PHALLE, NIKI (French sculptor, born 1930), SCHMIDT-ROTTLUFF (German painter, sculptor,
Birth/Childbirth printmaker, 1 884-1976), Dawn/Dawning, Devotion/Piety,
SALIMBENI DA SAN SEVERINO, LORENZO (Italian Kiss/Kissing
painter, circa 1374-1420), Birth/Childbirth SCHNEEMANN, CAROLEE (American artist, born 1939),
"SALOME" (Performance artist, 20th century), Self-Portraits II

Hermaphrodite/Androgyne SCHNORR VON CAROLSFELD, JULIUS (German

SALOMON, BERNARD (French painter, printmaker, painter, 1 794-1 872), Death, Devotion/Piety,
1 506/10-circa 1 561), Adultery Madness, Pointing/Indicating
SALVIATI, FRANCESCO (FRANCESCO DE' ROSSI) SCHOEN, ERHARD (German painter, printmaker, circa
(Italian artist, 1510-1563), Adultery, Artists/Art, Excess, 1491-1 542), Peasantry
Fame, Justice, Mirror/Reflection, Virtue/Virtues SCHOLTEN, HENDRIK JACOBUS (Dutch painter,
SANDYS, FREDERICK (British painter, illustrator, 1 8 24-1 907), Imagination/Creativity
1829-1904), Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, SCHON, ERHARD (German painter, printmaker, circa
Witchcraft/Sorcery 1491-1 542), Caricature/Cartoon
SANGALLO, BASTIANO DA (ARTISTOTILE) (Italian SCHONFELDT, JOHANN HEINRICH (German painter,
painter, architect, sceneographer, 1481-1551), 1609-1682), Abduction/Rape, Judgment
Bath/Bathing SCHONGAUER, MARTIN (German painter, printmaker,
SANSOVINO, ANDREA (Italian architect, sculptor, circa circa1450-1491), Betrayal, Journey/Flight, Nightmare,
1460-1529), Bacchanalia/Orgy, Melancholy, Peace Temptation
SANTACROCE, GIROLAMO DA (Italian painter, active SCHOUBROECK, PIETER (Netherlandish painter, circa
1 503-1 556), Melancholy 1 570-1607), Destruction of City
SANT'ELIAS, ANTONIO (Italian artist, architect, SCHUPPEN, JACQUES VAN (French painter in Austria,

1 888-1916), Dreams/Visions 1670-175 1 ), Self-Portraits I

SANTI DI TITO (Italian painter, 1 536-1603), Bath/Bathing, SCHWIND, MORITZ VON (Austrian painter, printmaker,
Hair/Haircutting, Madness draftsman, 1 804-1871), Devotion/Piety
SANTVOORT, DIRCK DIRCKSZ. (Dutch painter, SCHWITTERS, KURT (German painter, draftsman, author,
1610/1 1-1680), Shepherds/Shepherdesses 1887-1948), Order/Chaos
SARACENI, CARLO (Italian painter, circa 1 579-1620), SCIPIONE, GINO BONICHI (Italian artist, 1 904-1933),
Abandonment Judgment
SARGENT, JOHN SINGER (American painter, 1856-1925). SCOREL, JAN VAN (Netherlandish painter, 1495-1562),
Choice/Choosing, Judgment, Night Betrayal, Serpent's Bite
SASSETTA (STEFANO DI GIOVANNI DI CONSOLO) SCOTT, WILLIAM BELL (British painter, author,
(Italian painter, designer, 1392-1450), Abandonment, 1 8 1 1-1 890), Labor/Trades/Occupations
Journey/Flight, Virgin/Virginity SEBASTIANO DEL PIOMBO (SEBASTIANO LUCIANI)
SAUL, PETER (American painter, born 1934), Comic (Italian painter, 1485-1547), Love and Death,
SAUVAGE, PI AT JOSEPH (Flemish painter, 1744-18 18), Martyrdom
Seasons SEGAL, GEORGE (American sculptor, born 1924),
SAVERY, PIETER see XAVERY, PIETER Hanging, Judaism, Mirror/Reflection, Patronage
SCHADOW, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (German sculptor, SEGANTINI, GIOVANNI (Italian painter, 1 858-1899),
1864-1850), Sleep/Sleeping Dawn/Dawning, Peasantry
S( I IAFFNER, MARTIN (German painter, printmaker, SEITZ, GUSTAV (German sculptor, 1 906-1969),
medalist, 1478/79-1546), Pointing/Indicating Choice/Choosing, Judgment
 INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART IO45

SELLAIO, JACOPO DEL (Italian painter, 1441/42-1493), SLEIGH, SYLVIA (British painter in the United States,
Journey/Flight, Music 20th century), Naked/Nude
SEON, ALEXANDRE (French painter, printmaker, SLEVOGT, MAX (German painter, printmaker, 1 868-1 932),
1855-1917), Love and Death Madness, Penitence/Repentance
SERMIDI, SERGIO (performance artist, 20th century), SLOAN, JOHN (American painter, 1871-1951),
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne Bath/Bathing, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Hair/Haircutting,
SERRANO, ANDRES (American artist, photographer, bom Night
1953), Crucifixion SLUIJTERS, JOHANNES CAROLUS BERNARDUS
SERRUR, HENRI-AUGUSTE-CALIXTE-CESAR (French (Dutch painter, printmaker, draftsman, 881-1957), 1

artist, 1794-1865), Arms Raised Kiss/Kissing

SERVAES, ALBERT (Belgian painter, 1885-1966), Peasantry SLUTER, CLAUS (Netherlandish sculptor, active

SERUSIER, PAUL (Swiss painter, 1864-1917), 1379-1405/06), Funeral/Burial, Judaism, Patronage

Devotion/Piety, Melancholy SLUYTERS, JAN see SLUIJTERS, JOHANNES CAROLUS
SEURAT, GEORGES-PIERRE (French painter, 1859-1891), BERNARDUS
Bath/Bathing, Comic, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Female SMITH, ANDRE (American painter, etcher, architect,

Naked/Nude teacher, and born 1880), Hanging

writer,
Beauty and Adornment, Light II,

SEVERINI, GINO (Italian painter, 1 883-1 966), SMITH, DAVID (American sculptor, 1906-1965),
Abduction/Rape
Dance/Dancers/Dancing
SHAHN, BEN (American painter, printmaker, photographer,
SMITH, W. EUGENE (American photographer, 191 8-1978),
Grieving/Lamentation
1 898-1969), Funeral/Burial, Judaism,

Labor/Trades/Occupations, Martyrdom, Sport

SNYDERS, FRANS (Flemish painter, 579-1657), 1

Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Misfortune
SHARPLES, ROLINDA (British artist, 1794-1838), Self-
SODOMA, IL (GIOVANNI ANTONIO BAZZO) (Italian
Portraits II
painter, 1477—1549), Envy, Journey/Flight, Laughter,
SHEELER, CHARLES (American painter, photographer,
Marriage/Betrothal
1883-1965), Dreams/Visions
SOLIMENA, FRANCESCO (Italian painter, 1657-1747),
SHERMAN, CINDY (American photographer, born 1954),
Abduction/Rape, Beheading/Decapitation,
Comic, Self-Portraits II
Plague/Pestilence
SHRAMCHENKO, MYKOLA (Jewish artist, active circa
SOLOMON, SIMEON (British painter, 1 840-1905),
1962), Order/Chaos
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne
SICIOLANTE, GIROLAMO (GIROLAMO DA SONNETTE, GEORGES DE LA (French sculptor, active
SERMONETA) (Italian painter, circa 15 14-1575),
circa 1450), Funeral/Burial
Annunciation
SOSTOS OF PERGAMON (Greek mosaicist, 2nd century
SICKERT, WALTER RICHARD (British painter,
B.C.), Comic
1860-1942), Naked/Nude
SPADA, LIONELLO (Italian painter, 1 576-1622), Envy
SIDDAL, ELIZABETH ELEANOR (British artist,
SPADARO, MICCO see GARGUILO, DOMENICO
1834-1862), Artists/Art, Death, Dreams/Visions, (MICCO SPADARO)
Hair/Haircutting, Mirror/Reflection
SPENCER, LILLY MARTIN (American painter, 822-1902), 1

SIENESE SCHOOL, Choice/Choosing, Temptation Vanity/Vanitas

SIGNORELLI, LUCA (Italian painter, 1445/50-1523), SPENCER, STANLEY (British painter, 1 891-1959),
Damned Souls, Journey/Flight, Judgment, Music Artists/Art, Bath/Bathing, Betrayal, Crucifixion,
SIGNORINI, TELEMACO (Italian painter, printmaker, Harvesting, Judgment, Labor/Trades/Occupations,
1835-1901), Madness Naked/Nude
SILVANI, P. S. (Italian metalworker), Communion SPERLING, HIERONYMUS (German printmaker,
SIMONE MARTINI (Italian painter, circa
284-1344), 1
1 695-1777), Labyrinth/Maze
Devotion/Piety, Dreams/Visions, Path/Road/Crossroads, SPIEGEL, ANDRIAN (artist, 17th century). Pregnancy
Reading SPIEGELMAN, ART (American cartoonist, 20th century),
SIQUIEROS, DAVID ALFARO (Mexican painter, Judaism
1 896-1974), Grieving/Lamentation SPINELLO ARETINO (Italian painter, circa 1 346-1410),
SIRANI, ELIZABETTA (Italian painter, printmaker, Crucifixion
1638-1665), Baptism, Beheading/Decapitation, Fatal SPR ANGER, BARTHOLOMAEUS (Flemish painter,
Woman/Femme Fatale, Penitence/Repentance draftsman, printmaker, 1 546-1 61 1 ), Abandonment,
SITTOW, MICHEL (Early Netherlandish painter, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Honor/Honoring, Judgment,
1468-1525/26), Virgin/Virginity Music
SjOO, MONICA (American artist, active late twentieth STAINBURGER VON SPRINZENSTI, J. (miniaturist),
century), Birth/Childbirth Masks/Personae
SKOPAS (Greek sculptor, 4th century B.C.), Ecstasy, STALEY, EARL (American painter, born C938), Love and
Naked/Nude Death, Metamorphosis
SKRETA, KAREL (Bohemian painter, 1610-1674), STALLAERT, JOSEPH (Belgian painter, 1 825-1903), Love
Plague/Pestilence and Death
IO46 INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART

STANHOPE, JOHN RODDAM SPENCER (British painter, Beheading/Decapitation, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale,
1829-1908), Hair/Haircutting Judgment
STANZIONE, MASSIMO (Italian painter, 1 585-1656), STUDIUS (Roman painter, si centurj B.< .), omic
1 (

Bacchanalia/Orgy STURGIS, PRESTON (American film director, 20th

STEEN, JAN (Dutch painter, 1626-1679), Betrayal, Comic, century), Money
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Drunkenness/Intoxication, SUBLEYRAS, PIERRE-HUBERT (French painter,
Female Beauty and Adornment, Gaze, Journey/Flight, 1 699-1 749), Damned Souls, Dreams/Visions, Self-

Laughter, Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae, Portraits I

Melancholy, Money, Music, Self-Portraits I, Sacrifice, SULLY, THOMAS (American painter, 1783-1872),
Sleep/Sleeping, Toilet Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas, Whiteness
Visiting/Visitation SUSTRIS, FRIEDRICH (Netherlandish painter, draftsman,

STEENWYCK, HARMEN (Dutch painter, 1612-circa architect, circa 1 540-1 599), Path/Road/Crossroads,
1656), Vanity/Vanitas Serpent's Bite

STEICHEN, EDWARD JEAN (American, born in SUSTRIS, LAMBERT (Netherlandish painter in Italy, circa

Luxembourg, photographer, artist, 1 879-1973), 1515-circa 1584), Destruction of City

Dance/Dancers/Dancing SUTHERLAND^ GRAHAM VIVIAN (British painter,

STEINBERG, SAUL (American cartoonist, born 19 14), printmaker, 1903-19 80), Ascent/Descent, Crucifixion,

Ascent/Descent, Caricature/Cartoon Laughter

STEINLEN, THEOPHILE ALEXANDRE (Swiss painter, SWANENBURGH, ISAAC VAN (North Netherlandish
painter and draftsman, circa 1538-1614), Automata
printmaker, 1859-1923), Peasantry
STELLA, FRANK (American painter, born 1936), Patronage SWANENBURGH, JACAB ISAACSZ. VAN (Dutch painter,

STELLA, JACQUES (French painter, printmaker, circa 1571-1638), Damned Souls

1 596-1657), Judgment
SWART VAN GRONINGEN, JAN (Early Netherlandish
painter, printmaker, circa 1500-after 1562), Adultery
STELLA, JOSEPH (American painter, 1877-1947), Laughter
STERNBERG, JOSEF VON (filmmaker), Fatal SWEERTS, MICHAEL (Flemish painter, printmaker,
61 8-1 664), Female Beauty and Adornment
1
Woman/Femme Fatale
SYLEUS PAINTER (Greek vase painter, circa 500-475 B.C.),
STEVENS, ALFRED EMILE LEOPOLD JOSEPH VICTOR
Abandonment
(Belgian painter, 1823-1908), Seasons
STIEGLITZ, ALFRED (American photographer,
TADDEO DI BARTOLO (Italian painter, illuminator, circa
1 864-1946), Ecstasy
1367-1422), Annunciation
STIFTER, ADELBERT (Austrian painter, poet, 1 805-1 868),
Dawn/Dawning
TAMARA see MARCIA
TAMAYO, RUFINO (Mexican painter, printmaker, born
STIMMER, TOBIAS (Swiss painter, printmaker,
1899), Apocalypse, Laughter
1 539-1 584), Money
TAMECHIKA, RAIZEI (Japanese scroll painter,
STOLKER, JAN (Dutch painter, draftsman, 1724-1785),
1823-1864), Seasons
Imagination/Creativity
TANGUY, YVES (French painter, 1900-195 5),
STONE, FRANK (British painter, 1 800-1 853),
Dreams/Visions, Imagination/Creativity
Visiting/Visitation
TANNER, HENRY OSSAWA (American painter,
STOREY, GEORGE ADOLPHUS (British painter,
1859-1937), Annunciation
1834-1919), Abandonment TANSEY, MARK (American painter, born 1949), Order/Chaos
STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (American sculptor,
TAO-CHI (Chinese painter, 1814-1865),
1819-1895), Sacrifice Drunkenness/Intoxication
STRADANUS, GIOVANNI or JOHANNES see STRAET, TARDIEU, NICOLAS-HENRI (French printmaker,
JAN VAN DER 1674-1749), Seasons
STRAET, JAN VAN DER (JOHANNES STRADANUS; TASSI, AGOSTINO (Italian painter, circa 579-1664),
1
GIOVANNI STRADANO) (Netherlandish painter, Betrayal, Calumny, Expulsion
draftsman, printmaker, 1 523-1605), Hunting/Hunter/ TAUNAY, NICOLAS-ANTOINE (French painter,
Huntress, Luxury, Metamorphosis, Music
175 5-1 830), Path/Road/Crossroads
STRANG, WILLIAM (British painter, printmaker, TEMPEL, ABRAHAM LAMBERTSZ. VAN DEN (Dutch
18 12-1 872), Expulsion painter, 1622/23-1672), Music
STROZZI, BERNARDO (Italian painter, 1 581-1664), TEMPESTA, ANTONIO (Italian painter, printmaker,
Bath/Bathing, Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, Fame, 555—163 8), Birth/Childbirth, Envy, Plague/Pestilence
1
Female Beauty and Adornment, Pointing/Indicating TENERANI, PIETRO (Italian sculptor, 1 789-1 869),
STUART, GILBERT (American painter, 1755-1828), Abandonment
Melancholy TENIERS, DAVID (II), THE YOUNGER (Flemish painter,
STUBBS, GEORGE (British painter, 1 824-1 806), Harvesting, 1 6 10-1690), Abduction/Rape, Laughter, Nightmare,
Reading Peasantry, Metamorphosis, Witchcraft/Sorcery
STUCK, FRANZ VON (German painter, sculptor, designer, TENNIEL, JOHN (British painter, illustrator, 1820-1914),
1 863-1928), Abduction/Rape, Ascent/Descent, Margins/Outsiders
 INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART IO47

TERBORCH, GERARD (Dutch painter, 1 617-1681), Female Bacchanalia/Orgy, Bath/Bathing, Beheading/Decapitation,

Beauty and Adornment, Marriage/Betrothal Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth, Crucifixion, Damned Souls,
TERBRUGGHEN, HENDRICK (Dutch painter, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
1588-1629), Comic, Crucifixion, Excess, Expulsion, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Female
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Laughter, Martyrdom, Beauty and Adornment, Fortune, Funeral/Burial,
Melancholy, Money, Music, Reading Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Imagination/Creativity,
TESTA, GIOVANNI CESARE (Italian printmaker, active Journey/Flight, Love and Death, Martyrdom,
circa 1630/40-1655), Envy Metamorphosis, Mirror/Reflection, Misfortune, Money,
TESTA, PIETRO (IL LUCCHESINO) (Italian painter, Music, Naked/Nude, Penitence/Repentance, Pregnancy,
printmaker, 1612-1650), Envy, Journey/Flight Reading, Sacrifice, Seasons, Self-Portraits I, Serpent's Bite,
TEUNISSEN, CORNELIS see ANTHONISZ. CORNELIS Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sleep/Sleeping, Sublime,
THANATOS PAINTER (Greek vase painter, circa 450-420 Temptation, Toilet Scenes, Virtue/Virtues
B.C.), Sleep/Sleeping see SANTI DI TITO
TITO, SANTI DI
THEODOROS OF SAMOS (Greek architect and sculptor, TOBEY, MARK (American painter, 1 890-1 976), Night
active circa 560 B.C.), Artists/Art TOEPUT, LODEWIJK (POZZOSERRATO) (Flemish painter,
THIRY, LEONARD (Flemish painter, draftsman, died circa printmaker, draftsman, poet in Italy, circa 1550-1603/35),
1550), Witchcraft/Sorcery Labyrinth/Maze
THOMA, HANS (German painter, printmaker, 1839-1924), TOMKINS, PELTRO WILLIAM (British artist,
Devotion/Piety, Fortune, Self-Portraits I 1759/60-1840), Seasons
THORNHILL, JAMES (British painter, 1675-1734), TOMLIN, BRADLEY WALKER (American painter,
Dawn/Dawning 1899-1953), Night
THORWALDSEN, BERTEL (Danish sculptor, 1770-1844), TOOKER, GEORGE (American painter, born 1930),
Abduction/Rape Bath/Bathing
THULDEN, THEODOR VAN (Dutch painter, printmaker, TOOROP, CHARLEY (ANNIE CAROLINE PONTIFEX)
606-1 669), Music, Pointing/Indicating
1 (Dutch painter, 1 891-195 5), Beheading/Decapitation
THURBER, JAMES (American cartoonist, 1 894-1 961), TOPFFER, RODOPHE (Swiss author, draftsman,
Caricature/Cartoon 1 799-1 846), Caricature/Cartoon
TIBALDI, PELLEGRINO (Italian painter, sculptor, architect, TOPHAM, FRANK WILLIAM WARWICK (British painter,

1 527-1 596), Virgin/Virginity 1838-1924), Plague/Pestilence

TIEPOLO, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (Italian painter, TORRENTIUS, JAN SYMOONISZ. (JOHANNES
printmaker, 696-1 770), Abduction/Rape,
1 SYMOONISZ. VAN DER BEECK) (Dutch painter,
Annunciation, Apotheosis/Deification, Honor/Honoring, 1 599-1644), Virtue/Virtues
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Journey/Flight, Judgment, TORY, GEOFFROY (French painter, printmaker, publisher,
Love and Death, Martyrdom, Metamorphosis, orthographer, circa 1485-1553/54),
Plague/Pestilence, Sacrifice Path/Road/Crossroads
TIEPOLO, GIOVANNI DOMENICO (Italian painter, TOULOUSE-LAUTREC, HENRI DE (French painter,
1727-1804), Adultery, Grieving/Lamentation, Hanging, printmaker, 1864-1901), Abduction/Rape, Artists/Art,
Journey/Flight, Masks/Personae, Upside Down Caricature/Cartoon, Dance/Dancers/Dancing,
TINO DI CAMAINO (Italian sculptor, circa 128 5-1 3 3 7), Masks/Personae, Naked/Nude
Virtue/Virtues TOSA, MITSUOKI (Japanese screen painter, 1617-1691),
TINTORETTO, JACOPO (JACOPO ROBUSTI) (Italian Seasons
18-1594), Abduction/Rape, Adultery,
painter, 15 TOYOKUMI III (UTAGAWA KUNISADA) (Japanese
Annunciation, Ascent/Descent, Baptism, Bath/Bathing, printmaker, 1786-1864), Seasons
Birth/Childbirth, Calumny, Communion, Crucifixion, TOYOKUNI, UTAGAWA (Japanese painter, printmaker,
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Expulsion, Funeral/Burial, 1 769-1 825), Bath/Bathing
Grieving/Lamentation, Hair/Haircutting, Humors, TRAINI, FRANCESCO (Italian painter, active [321-1368),
Judgment, Labyrinth/Maze, Light II, Love and Death, Choice/Choosing, Death, Damned Souls,
Martyrdom, Mirror/Reflection, Order/Chaos, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
Penitence/Repentance, Sacrifice, Sin/Sinning, Temptation, TRIBOLO, NICCOLO (Italian sculptor, architect,
Toilet Scenes, Upside Down, Visiting/Visitation 1 500-1 5 50), Abduction/Rape
TINTORETTO, MARIETTA (MARIETTA ROBUSTI) TRINQUESSE, LOUIS-ROLLAND (French painter,
(Italian painter, circa 1550-1590), Self-Portraits II 1746-1800), Whiteness
TISCHBEIN, JOHANN HEINRICH, THE ELDER (German TRIPP, JAN PETER (German painter, printmaker, born
painter, printmaker, 1 722-1789), Abduction/Rape 1945), Madness
TISSOT, JAMES JACQUES JOSEPH (French painter, TROGER, PAUL (Austrian painter, printmaker, 1690-1762),
printmaker in Britain, 1836-1902), Journey/Flight, Dawn/Dawning
Seasons TROUVAIN, ANTOINE (French printmaker, 1656-1708),
TITIAN (TIZIANO VECELLIO) (Italian painter, Months
1488/90-1576), Abduction/Rape, Adultery, TROVA, ERNST TINO (American sculptor, painter, bom
Apotheosis/Deification, Artists/Art, Ascent/Descent, 1927), Arms Raised
1048 INDEX Ol- ARTISTS AND WORKS Ol ART

TROY, JFAN-FRANQOIS DF. (French painter in Italy, VANNI, FRANCESCO (Italian painter, printmaker,
1679-1752), Abduction/Rape, Bath/Bathing, Female 563-1610), Communion
1

Beauty and Adornment, Whiteness VANNI, PIETRO (Italian artist, 1845-1905), Misfortune
TRUMBULL, JOHN (American painter, 1 751-1843), VARO, RFMEDIOS (Spanish painter in Mexico, 908-1963), 1

Adultery Ascent/Descent, Journey/Flight, Metamorphosis

TUBY, JEAN-BAPTISTE (French sculptor, [635-1700), VAROTARI, ALESSANDRO see PADONANINO
Humors (ALESSANDRO VAROTARI)
TURA, COSIMO (Italian painter, illuminator, circa VASARI, GIORGIO (Italian painter, architect, writer,

1430-1495), Death, Excess, Journey/Might, 1511-1574), Abundance, Apotheosis/Deification,

Sleep/Sleeping, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues Evil Eye, Fame, Fortune, Honor/Honoring,
TURCHI, ALESSANDRO (ORBFTTO) (Italian painter, Imagination/Creativity, Judgment, Love and Death,
1 578-1649), Madness Masks/Personae, Metamorphosis, Peace, Sacrifice, Self-
TURNER, JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM (British Portraits II, Virtue/Virtues
painter,1775-1851), Abduction/Rape, Artists/Art, VAUCANSON, JACQUES DE (French maker of automata,
Ascent/Descent, Choice/Choosing, Dawn/Dawning, 1709-1782), Automata
Destruction of City, Journey/Flight, Light II, Misfortune, VAUTIER, BENJAMIN, THE YOUNGER (Swiss painter
Patronage, Peace, Shipwreck, Sublime, Temptation born 1895), Devotion/Piety
VEDDER, ELIHU (American painter, 1 836-1 923),
UCCELLO, PAOLO (PAOLO DI DONO) (Italian Choice/Choosing, Hair/Haircutting, Plague/Pestilence,
painter,1397-1475), Artists/Art, Betrayal, Madness
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Hanging, Honor/Honoring, VEEN, OTTO VAN (Flemish painter, 1 556-1629),
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Journey/Flight, Sacrifice Penitence/Repentance, Seasons, Serpent's Bite
UHDE, FRITZ KARL HERMANN VON (German painter, VELA, VINCENZO (Italian sculptor, 1820-1891),
1848-1911), Devotion/Piety Labor/Trades/Occupations
UNDERWORLD PAINTER (Apulian vase painter, circa VELAZQUEZ, DIEGO (Spanish painter, 1 599-1660),
330-320 B.C.), Witchcraft/Sorcery Artists/Art, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Betrayal, Comic,
UPPER RHENISH MASTER (German painter), Communion, Crucifixion, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
Birth/Childbirth Excess, Fools/Folly, Gaze, Imagination/Creativity,
UTAMARO, KITAGAWA (Japanese prmtmaker, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Laughter, Naked/Nude,
175 3-1 806), Bath/Bathing, Dawn/Dawning, Kiss/Kissing, Physiognomy, Self-Portraits I, Sport, Toilet Scenes,
Seasons Virgin/Virginity
VELDE, ESAIAS I VAN DE (Dutch painter, printmaker,
VAITH, GREGORIOUS (German silversmith, active circa 587-1630), Bath/Bathing
1

1707), Communion VELDE, JAN II VAN DE (Dutch printmaker, circa

VALADON, SUZANNE (French painter, printmaker, artists' 1593-1641), Harvesting, Months, Seasons
model, 1865-1938), Self-Portraits II VELDE, WILLEM VAN DE, THE YOUNGER (Dutch
VALCKENBORCH, FREDERICK VAN (Flemish painter, painter, 1633-1707), Journey/Flight
circa 1 570-1623), Serpent's Bite VELLANI, FRANCESCO (Italian painter, circa 1 688-1768),
VALCKENBORCH, LUCAS VAN (Netherlandish painter, Virtue/Virtues
1 530/3 5-1 597), Path/Road/Crossroads VENEZIANO, AGOSTINO see MUSI, AGOSTINO
VALDES LEAL, JUAN DE (Spanish painter, printmaker, VENEZIANO, DOMENICO see DOMENICO
sculptor, architect, 1 622-1 690), Money VENEZIANO (DOMENICA DI BARTOLOMEO DA
VALDESTEIN, MARIANA (MARCHESA DE SANTA VENEZIA)
CRUZ) see WALDSTEIN, MARIE ANNE, MARQUESA VERBEEK, PIETER (Dutch painter, active 1 664-1 674),
DE SANTA CRUZ Witchcraft/Sorcery
VALENCIENNES, PIERRE-HENRI DE (French painter, VERESHCHAGIN, VASSILI VASILIEVITCH (Russian
1750-18 19), Destruction of City painter, 1 842-1904), Destruction of City
VALENTIN DE BOULOGNE (French painter, 1 594-1632), VERHOUT, CONSTANTIJN (Dutch painter, active
Money 1663-1667), Sleep/Sleeping
VALERIANI, GIUSEPPE (Italian ecclesiastic, architect, VERMEER, JAN (Dutch painter, 163 2-1 67 5), Artists/Art,
painter, 1 542-1 596), Pointing/Indicating Bath/Bathing, Female Beauty and Adornment,
VALLERAN^ BONNART (French printmaker), Months Labor/Trades/Occupations, Laughter, Melancholy,
VALLERAN, PIERRE (French printmaker), Months Mirror/Reflection, Money, Music, Order/Chaos,
VALLOTTON, FELIX EDOUARD (Swiss artist, Pregnancy, Protestantism, Reading, Sin/Sinning,
1865-1925), Abandonment, Abduction/Rape, Adultery Sleep/Sleeping, Temptation
VANDERLYN, JOHN (American painter, 1776-1852), VERNET, CLAUDE-JOSEPH (French painter, 1714-1789),
Abandonment, Sublime Offering, Shipwreck
VANLOO, CARLE (French painter, printmaker, 1 705-1765) VERNET, HORACE (French painter, 1 759-1 863),
Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Apotheosis/Deification, Artists/Art,
Journey/Flight Path/Road/Crossroads, Upside Down, Whiteness
 INDEX OF ARTISTS AND WORKS OF ART IO49

VERONESE (PAOLO CALIARI) (Italian painter, VRIES, SIMON WYNHOUTSZ. (Dutch draftsman, circa
1528-1588), Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Ascent/Descent, 1 588-1629), Seasons
Beheading/Decapitation, Calumny, Choice/Choosing, VUILLARD, EDOUARD (French painter, printmaker,
Dreams/Visions, Envy, Excess, Hair/Haircutting, 1 868-1 940), Labor/Trades/Occupations
Honor/Honoring, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
Imagination/Creativity, Kiss/Kissing, Love and Death, WAEL, JAN BAPTISTE DE (Flemish painter, printmaker,
Marriage/Betrothal, Martyrdom, Metamorphosis, Music, 1632-after 1658), Journey/Flight
Sacrifice, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, Toilet WAGENFELDT, OTTO (German painter, circa 1610-1671),
Scenes, Visiting/Visitation Protestantism
VERROCCHIO, ANDREA DEL (Italian painter, WALDMULLER, FERDINAND GEORG (Austrian painter,
sculptor, goldsmith, 143 5-1488), Baptism, 1793-1865), Peasantry
Beheading/Decapitation, Birth/Childbirth, WALDSTEIN, MARIE ANNE, MARQUESA DE SANTA
Honor/Honoring CRUZ (Austrian painter, 1 763-1 808), Self-Portraits II

VESALIUS, ANDREAS see Index of Authors, Literary Texts, WALKER, ROBERT (British painter, 1607-1658/60),
Composers, Filmmakers, and Folktales Melancholy
VEYRIER, CHRISTOPHE (French sculptor, 1637-1689), WALLIS, HENRY (British painter, 1830-1916),
Abduction/Rape Labor/Trades/Occupations
VICO, ENEA (Italian printmaker, draftsman, numismatist, WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (British painter,
author, 1 52.3-1 567), Misfortune 1816-1897), Artists/Art, Imagination/Creativity
VICTORS, JAN (Dutch painter, 1619-1676), Sacrifice WARHOL, ANDY (American painter, printmaker, filmmaker,
VIEN, JOSEPH-MARIE (French painter, printmaker, 1928-1987), Artists/Art, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Fame,
1716-1809), Virtue/Virtues Hanging, Kiss/Kissing, Luxury, Melancholy,
VIGEE-LEBRUN, MARIE-LOUISE-ELISABETH (French Mirror/Reflection, Misfortune, Money, Order/Chaos,
1755-1842), Artists/Art, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
painter, Patronage, Self-Portraits I, Sleep/Sleeping
Calumny, Honor/Honoring, Patronage, Peace, Self- WARREN, CORNELIA (American landscapist, active late

Portraits II, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Whiteness 19th century), Labyrinth/Maze

VILLALPANDA, JUAN BAUTISTA (Spanish illustrator and WASER, ANNA (Swiss artist, 1 648-171 1), Self-Portraits II

author, 1 552-1608), Sanctuary WATERHOUSE, JOHN WILLIAM (British painter,

VILLARD DE HONNECOURT (French architect and 1849-1917), Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Hair/Haircutting
draftsman, active 11 90-1 240), Fortune, Upside Down WATTEAU, JEAN-ANTOINE (French painter, 1684-1725),
VINCKEBOONS, DAVID (Dutch painter, 1 576-1632), Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Death, Female Beauty and
Peasantry, Seasons Adornment, Hanging, Journey/Flight, Judgment,
VINNE, VINCENT VAN DER (French painter, active circa Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae, Music,
1600), Vanity/Vanitas Naked/Nude, Seasons
VIOLA, BILL (American video artist, born 195 1), Upside WATTS, GEORGE FREDERIC (British painter, sculptor,
Down 1817-1904), Abandonment, Artists/Art, Expulsion,
VISCHER, PETER, THE YOUNGER (German sculptor, Order/Chaos, Temptation, Virtue/Virtues
printmaker, 1487-1528), Fortune, Music WEBB, PHILIP (British architect, designer, 1831-1915),
VIVARINI, ANTONIO (Italian painter, circa Sacrifice
1415-1476/84), Adultery, Journey/Flight WEENIX, JAN (Dutch painter, circa 1 642-1719),
VLAMINCK, MAURICE DE (French painter, 1876-1958), Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
Bath/Bathing WEHRLE, JOHANN (German clockmaker, 1 8th century),
VOGTHERR, HEINRICH, THE YOUNGER (German Automata
painter, printmaker, 15 13-1568), Pregnancy WEINGART, U. (artist, 20th century), Path/Road/Crossroads
VOIS, ARY DE (Dutch painter, circa 163 2-1 680), WEIR, JOHN FERGUSON (American sculptor, painter,
Marriage/Betrothal 1841-1926), Labor/Trades/Occupations
VOLAIRE, PIERRE-JACQUES (French painter, 1729-before WEIR, JULIAN ALDEN (American painter, printmaker,
1882), Sublime 1852-1919), Whiteness
VOLLENHOVEN, HERMAN VAN (Dutch artist, WERTMULLER, ADOLPH ULRIC (Swedish painter,
1611-1627), Self-Portraits I 1751-1811), Patronage
VOLTERRA, DANIELE DA (Italian painter, sculptor, WESSELMAN, TOM
(American painter, sculptor, born
1 509-1 566), Abandonment 1 931), Naked/Nude
VON HOLST, THEODOR M. (British painter, illustrator, WEST, BENJAMIN (American painter in Great
1810-1844), Nightmare Britain,1738-1820), Abandonment, Apocalypse,
VOS, MAARTEN DE (Flemish painter, 1 532-1603), Apotheosis/Deification, Baptism, Choice/Choosing,
Judgment, Melancholy, Peasantry, Vanity/Vanitas, Death, Grieving/Lamentation, Kiss/Kissing, Love and
Witchcraft/Sorcery Death, Peace, Reading, Self-Portraits I, Serpent's Bite,
VOSTRE, SIMON (French printer, 15th century), Death Widowhood, Witchcraft/Sorcery
VOUET, SIMON (French painter, 1 590-1649), WET, JACOB WILLEMSZ. DE (Dutch painter, circa
Abduction/Rape, Laughter, Mirror/Reflection, Sacrifice 16 1 0-167 1/72), Destruction of City
IO5O INDEX Ol AH I IS IS AND WORKS OF ART

WEYDEN, ROGIER VAN DER (Early Netherlandish WOUTF.RS, RIK (Belgian painter, printmaker, sculptor,
painter, 1
$99/ 1400-1464), Artists/Art, 1 Madness
882-1 9 1 6),
Beheading/Decapitation, Damned Souls, Death, WOUWERMAN, PHILIPS (Dutch painter, 161 9-1 668),
Devotion/Piety, Dreams/Visions, Funeral/Burial, Gaze, Path/Road/Crossroads
Grieving/Lamentation, Imagination/Creativity, Judgment, WREN, CHRISTOPHER (British architect, 1632-1723),
Justice, Labor/Trades/Oecupations, Penitence/Repentance, Destruction of City
Pregnancy, Self-Portraits I, Sin/Sinning WRIGHT, JOHN BUCKLAND (British artist, 1897-1954),
WHEATLEY, FRANCIS (British painter, 1 747-1 801), Laughter
Virtue/Virtues WRIGHT, JOSEPH (WRIGHT OF DERBY) (British
WHISTLER, JAMES ABBOTT MCNEILL (American painter, 1734-1 797), Death, Labor/Trades/Occupations,
painter, printmaker in Britain, 1 834-1903), Calumny, Light II, Melancholy, Metamorphosis, Sublime,
Night, Self-Portraits I, Whiteness Widowhood
WIERIX, HIERONYMOUS (Flemish printmaker, circa WTEWAEL, JOACHIM ANTONISZ (Dutch painter,
1 553-1619), Luxury circa1566-1638), Adultery, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
WIERTZ, ANTOINE JOSEPH (Belgian painter, 1806-1865), Humors, Love and Death, Metamorphosis, Money,
Apotheosis/Deification, Madness Shepherds/Shepherdesses
WILDING, FAITH (American painter, 20th century). WUNDERLICH, PAUL (German painter, printmaker,
Pregnancy sculptor, born 1927), Hanging
WILFRED, THOMAS (American artist, 1889-1968), Light II WYETH, ANDREW NEWELL (American painter, born
WILIGELMO DA MODENA (Italian sculptor, active 1917), Order/Chaos
1099-1110), Fame, Labor/Trades/Occupations
WILKINS, JAMES F. (British painter in America, active XAVERY, PIETER (Flemish artist, 18th century), Madness
1
83 5-1 849), Dreams/Visions
WILLIAM DE BRAILES (English illuminator, active circa YI CH'ANY-WU (Chinese painter, i6th-i7th century),
1230), Sin/Sinning Drunkenness/Intoxication
WILLIS, GEORGE BRANDER (British painter, active YOUNG, MAHONRI MACINTOSH (American painter,
1809-1866), Sublime sculptor, printmaker, 1 877-1957), Sport
WILLS, JAMES (British painter, active 1746, died 1777),
Abandonment ZADKINE, OSSIP (Russian sculptor in France, 1890-1967),
WILSON, JOHN (American sculptor, printmaker, born Hermaphrodite/Androgyne
1922), Martyrdom ZAMPIERI, DOMENICO see DOMENICHINO
WILSON, RICHARD (British painter, 1714-1782), (DOMENICO ZAMPIERI)
Abandonment, Sublime ZANCHI, ANTONIO (Italian painter, 1631-1722),
WINCHESTER SCHOOL (British illuminators, 12th Drunkenness/Intoxication, Misfortune
century), Masks/Personae ZEITBLOM, BARTHOLOMAUS (German painter,
WINGHE, JODOCUS VAN (Netherlandish painter, 1455/60-1522), Birth/Childbirth
1 544-1 603), Music ZENALE, BERNARDO (Italian painter, architect, circa

WINTERHALTER, FRANZ XAVER (German painter, 1436-1526), Judgment

printmaker, 1 805-1 873), Seasons, Whiteness ZENIL, NAHUM BERNARE (Mexican painter,
WISLICENUS, HERMANN (German painter, 19th century), born 1947), Hanging
Penitence/Repentance, Protestantism ZEUXIS (Greek painter, 5th century B.C.), Artists/Art,

WIT, JACOB DE (Dutch painter, 1695-1751), Imagination/Creativity, Laughter, Self-Portraits I,

Metamorphosis Self-Portraits II

WITTE, PIETER DE (PIETRO CANDIDO) (Flemish painter, ZIX, BENJAMIN (French painter, draftsman, 1772-1811),
1548-1628), Music Love and Death
WOEIRIOT, PIERRE II (French artist, 1532-after 1596), ZOFFANY, JOHANN JOSEPH (German painter in
Witchcraft/Sorcery Great Britain, 1733-1818), Patronage, Self-Portraits I

WOLFLI, ADOLF (Swiss painter, 1864-1930), ZUCCARO, FEDERICO (Italian painter, architect,

Margins/Outsiders draftsman, 1540/43-1609), Imagination/Creativity,

WOOD, GRANT (American painter, 1891-1942), Plague/Pestilence, Virtue/Virtues
Dreams/Visions, Harvesting, Night ZUCCARO, TADDEO (Italian painter, 1 529-1 566),
WOODVILLE, RICHARD CATON (American painter, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Witchcraft/Sorcery
1825-1855), Reading ZURBARAN, FRANCISCO DE (Spanish painter,
WOOLNER, THOMAS (British sculptor, poet, 1 825-1 892), 1 598-1 664), Beheading/Decapitation, Crucifixion,
Artists/Art, Expulsion Devotion/Piety, Martyrdom, Virgin/Virginity
 INDEX OF AUTHORS, LITERARY
TEXTS, COMPOSERS, FILMMAKERS,
AND FOLKTALES

The titles which the subject is found. See citations refer the reader
after the index term refer to the essays in
to the term within the index or to other indexes where primary information can be found. See also citations
refer the reader to other terms within the index or to other indexes where additional information can be
found. Authors listed in the Further Readings are not included.

ABRANTES, Duchesse d', Whiteness AMBROSE, Bishop of Milan, St. (see also Index of Judeo-
ADSO OF MONTIER-EN-DER Christian Personages, Places, and Concepts), Avarice,
Libellus de ortu et de tempore Antichristi, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues

Birth/Childbirth Abraham, Virtue/Virtues

AESCHYLUS, Apotheosis/Deification In Lucan, Virtue/Virtues

Agamemnon, Bath/Bathing, Sacrifice De paradiso, Virtue/Virtues

Persae, Luxury AMIS, Martin

AESOP, Evil Eye Money, Money
Fables, Path/Road/Crossroads
AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS, Gaze
AGRIPPA, Henry Cornelius, Melancholy AMPELIUS, Lucius, Patronage

ALBERTI, Leon Battista, Fortune, Imagination/Creativity,

ANACREON, Fortune
Love and Death, Mirror/Reflection,
ANDERSON, Maxwell
Winterset, Martyrdom
Penitence/Repentance, Self-Portraits I
APOLLINARE, Guillaume, Caricature/Cartoon
De pictura (Delia pittura), Artists/Art, Calumny,
APOLLODORUS, Sleep/Sleeping
Imagination/Creativity
Biblioteca (Library), Sacrifice, Sleep/Sleeping
Ten Books on Architecture, Abundance
APOLLONIUS, Virtue/Virtues
ALCIATI, Andreas
APPIAN, Honor/Honoring
Emblematus, Abduction/Rape, Fame, Fortune, APULEIUS, Lucius, Luxury, Penitence/Repentance
Honor/Honoring, Imagination/Creativity, Apologia, Fools/Folly, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Journey/Flight, Love and Death, Peace, Serpent's Golden Ass, Fortune, Journey/Flight, Love and
Bite, Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues Death, Penitence/Repentance, Sleep/Sleeping,
ALEXANDER ROMANCE see ISKANDAR-NAMA Witchcraft/Sorcery
ALEXIS, Guillaume Metamorphosis, Luxury, Marriage/Betrothal
Passe-temps de tout homme, Birth/Childbirth AQUINAS, Thomas see THOMAS AQUINAS, St.

ALFIERI, Vittorio ARATUS, Virtue/Virtues

Bruto Primo, Judgment Phaenomena, Zodiac

1051
IO52 INDEX OF AUTHORS, [ I TF.RARY II X IS, COMPOSERS, FILMMAKERS, AND I ()l K I A I I S

ARETINO, Pietro BACON, Francis, Laughter, Voyeurism

La Talania, Peace Of Studies, Reading
ARIOSTO, Ludovico BALZAC], Honore de, Adultery, Avarice, Money
Orlando Furioso, Abandonment, Abduction/Rape, Eugenie Grandet, Money
Madness BARGAGLI, Girolamo
ARISTOPHANES, Eaughter, Whiteness La Pellegrina, Justice
Birds, Arms Raised, Masks/Personae BASIL THE GREAT,' St., Laughter, Light II

Clouds, Masks/IYrsonae Concerning Envy, Envy

I roiis, Masks/Personae BAUDELAIRE, Charles, Caricature/Cartoon,
Lysistrata, Laughter Dreams/Visions, Melancholy, Naked/Nude,
Wasps, Masks/Personae Plague/Pestilence
ARISTOTLE, Abundance, Artists/Art, Fortune, Humors, Fleurs du Mai, Damned Souls, Sin/Sinning,
Imagination/Creativity, Laughter, Melancholy, Temptation
Order/Chaos, Sport, Virtue/Virtues L'lnvitation au Voyage, Luxury
Generation of Animals, Pregnancy BAUMGARTNER, Karl Heinrich, Madness
Metaphysics, Order/Chaos BEARDSLEY, Aubrey
Physiognomies, Arms Raised Under the Hill, Artists/Art

Comic
Poetics, BEATLES, The (Songs), Labyrinth/Maze
Problemata, Humors BEAUTY AND THE BEAST, Abduction/Rape,
ARS MORIENDI, Money, Sin/Sinning Kiss/Kissing
ART OF GOOD LYWYING AND GOOD EEYING, BEDE THE VENERABLE
Death De rerum natura, Labor/Trades/Occupations
ARTHURIAN LEGENDS (see also MALORY, Thomas, De temporum ratione, Humors
Le Morte D'Arthur; MEDIEVAL ROMANCES; BEETHOVEN, Ludwig van
TENNYSON, Alfred Lord, Idylls of the King), Ninth Symphony, Order/Chaos
Abandonment, Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Fatal BELL, Charles
Woman/Femme Fatale, Madness, Mirror/Reflection, Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression,
Nightmare, Pointing/Indicating, Reading Physiognomy
ASHTON, Frederick BELLORI, Giovanni Pietro, Self-Portraits I

Judgment of Paris, Judgment BENEDITTI, Alessandro

ATHENAEUS, Excess De re medica, Birth/Childbirth
AUBERT, David see VISIONS OF TONDAL BERDYAEV, Nicolas, Imagination/Creativity
AUGUSTINE, St. (see also Index of Judeo-Christian BERGSON, Henri
Personages, Places, and Concepts), Avarice, Laughter, Laughter, Automata, Laughter
Light II, Mirror/Reflection, Penitence/Repentance, BERKELEY, George
Virtue/Virtues On the Prospect . . . , Path/Road/Crossroads
De Civitate Dei (City of God), Fools/Folly, Justice, BERKELEY, Lennox
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Luxury, Judgment of Paris, Judgment
Path/Road/Crossroads, Vices/Deadly Sins, BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX, St. (see also Index of Judeo-
Witchcraft/Sorcery Christian Personages, Places, and Concepts), Avarice,
Confessions, Temptation Devotion/Piety
Enchridion, Virtue/Virtues BERNARDIN DE SAINT-PIERRE, Jacques Henri
Faustum, Witchcraft/Sorcery Paul and Virginia, Sleep/Sleeping
De Haeresibus, Witchcraft/Sorcery BEVERLY HILLBILLIES, Luxury
De Musica, Music BIBLE MORALISEES, see Witchcraft/Sorcery
Sermons, Witchcraft/Sorcery BIBLIA PAUPERUM, Baptism, Betrayal, Serpent's Bite,
De Trinitate, Sin/Sinning Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Virtue/Virtues
AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO, Damned Souls BILLI, Antonio, Artists/Art
AUGUSTODENISIS, Honorius BION
Elucidarius, Birth/Childbirth Lament for Adonis, Kiss/Kissing
AUSTEN, Jane BIRKNER, Wolfgang
Northanger Abbey, Bath/Bathing Jacht Bitch, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
Persuasion, Bath/Bathing BLAKE, William
Pride and Prejudice, Marriage/Betrothal, Eternity, Kiss/Kissing
Visiting/Visitation Jerusalem, Ascent/Descent
"The Lamb," Sacrifice
BACH, Johann Sebastian, Labyrinth/Maze BOCCACCIO, Giovanni, Artists/Art, Death, Fame,
BACHOFEN, Johann Jakob Marriage/Betrothal, Melancholy, Plague/Pestilence
Mutterrecht, Self-Portraits II Comedia . . . (Ameto), Judgment
 INDEX OF AUTHORS, LITERARY TEXTS, COMPOSERS, FILMMAKERS, AND FOLKTALES IO53

De Claris Mulieribus, Birth/Childbirth, BULWER, John

Mirror/Reflection, Self-Portraits Widowhood
II, Chirologia or Natural Language of the Hands, Arms
Genealogy of the Gods, Dawn/Dawning Raised
Giornata, Sleep/Sleeping BUNYAN, John
Noble and Famous Women, Imagination/Creativity, Pilgrim's Progress, Path/Road/Crossroads

Labor/Trades/Occupations BURCHARD, Bishop of Worms

BOCCHI, Achille Burchardi Wormacienesis Decretum,

Symbolicarum . . . , Abduction/Rape Witchcraft/Sorcery

BODIN, Jean BURKE, Edmund

Philosophical Enquiry, Sublime
De la demonomania de sorciers
Witchcraft/Sorcery
BURTON, Robert
Anatomy of Melancholy, Envy, Melancholy
BOEHM, Jacob
BYRON, LORD, SACRIFICE
Der Weg zu Christo, Devotion/Piety
Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, Journey/Flight
BOETHIUS (BOETIUS), Music
Don Juan, Journey/Flight, Shipwreck
De Consolatione pbilosopbiae, Fortune
Manfred, Journey/Flight
BOILEAU-DESPREAUX, Nicolas, Apotheosis/Deification
Sardanapalus, Excess
BONAVENTURA (BONAVENTURE), St. (see also Index
of Judeo-Christian Personages, Places, and Concepts),
CABINET OF DR. CALIGARI (film). Upside Down
Virtue/Virtues
CAGE, John, Order/Chaos
Itinerarium Mentis in Deum, Path/Road/Crossroads CALLINUS OF EPHESUS, Excess
Laus Virginus, Light II
CALVIN, John {see also Index of Judeo-Christian
BOOK OF THE DEAD, Order/Chaos Personages, Places, and Concepts)
BORGES, Jorge Luis, Labyrinth/Maze Commentaries, Protestantism
BORGHESI, Antonio, Peace CAMUS, Albert, Choice/Choosing, Order/Chaos,
BOUELLES (BOVILUS), Charles de Plague/Pestilence
Liber de Intellectu, Ascent/Descent CANON EPISCOPI, Witchcraft/Sorcery
BRACCIOLINI, Poggio CAPEK, Karel
Facetiae, Laughter R.U.R., Automata
BRANDT, Sebastian see BRANT, Sebastian CAPELLA, Martianus, Music, Serpent's Bite
BRANT, Sebastian CAPRA, Frank, Marriage/Betrothal
Narrenschiff (Ship of Fools), Dreams/Visions, CARACCIOLO DA LECCE, Roberto, Pregnancy
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fools/Folly, Music, CARO, Annibale, Peace, Self-Portraits II
Path/Road/Crossroads, Shipwreck CARO, Rodrigo, Dreams/Visions
BRETON, Andre, Arms Raised, Automata, Dreams/Visions, CARROLL, Lewis (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson)
Nightmare, Self-Portraits I
Alice in Wonderland, Bath/Bathing, Mirror/Reflection

Les Vases Communicants, Dreams/Visions, CARTARI, Vincenzo, Peace

Imagini delli Dei de gli'Antichi, Abundance, Fortune,
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne
BRIDGET OF SWEDEN, St. {see also Index of Judeo-
Love and Death, Virtue/Virtues
Christian Personages, Places, and Concepts)
CARY, Joyce
Horse's Mouth, Artists/Art
Rei'elations, Birth/Childbirth, Light II

BROME, Richard
CASANOVA DE SEINGALT, Giovanni Giacomo
Memoirs, Voyeurism
Antipodes, Upside Down
CASSIODORUS, Music
BRONTE, Anne
Institutiones divinarum Music
. . . ,

The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, Artists/Art

CASTENEGA, Father, Dreams/Visions
BRONTE, Charlotte
CASTIGLIONE, Baldassare
Jane Eyre, Artists/Art
Book of the Courtier, Fame, Justice, Self-Portraits I
BRONTE, Emily CATS, Jacob, Self-Portraits II, Shipwreck, Vanity/Vanitas,
Wuthering Heights, Marriage/Betrothal Virtue/Virtues
BROUGHTON, Rhoda Proteus, Misfortune
Mrs. Bligh, Artists/Art Zinne-en Minne-beelden, Abundance, Music,
BROWNING, Robert, Artists/Art Vanity/Vanitas
BRUMMEL, Beau, Whiteness CATULLUS, Love and Death
BRUNE, Johan de Carmina, Bacchanalia/Orgy
Emblemata of zinnewerk, Vanity/Vanitas CAULIBUS, Giovanni (Pseudo-Bonaventura),
BRUNI, Domenico Birth/Childbirth, Penitence/Repentance
Difese delta donne, Self-Portraits II CEBES OF THEBES, Excess
BRUNO, Giordano, Fortune CENNINI, Cennino
BRYAN, William Jennings, Crucifixion // Libra dell'arte, Artists/Art
1054 INDEX OF AUTHORS, LITERARY TEXTS, COMPOSERS, FILMMAKERS, AND FOLKTALES

CERVANTES SAAVADRA, Miguel de Kiss/Kissing, Labyrinth/Maze

Don Quixote, Judgment, Laughter // Convivio, Music
CHAMADE, Peasantry Divine Comedy, Ascent/Descent, Avarice, Damned
CHAMPELEURY (Jules Francois Felix Husson), Souls, Destruction of City, Envy, Fame, Fatal
Caricature/Cartoon Woman/Femme Fatale, Hanging, Journey/Flight,
CHANSON DE ROLAND, Madness Justice, Kiss/Kissing, Mirror/Reflection, Money,
CHARCOT, Jean Martin Music, Path/Road/Crossroads, Reading,
Nouvelle iconographie Salpetriere, Madness Sin/Sinning, Widowhood
CHAUCER, Geoffrey, Fortune, Laughter, Melancholy, DARWIN, Charles, Physiognomy
Widowhood Origin of Species, Ascent/Descent
Parlement of Foules, Dreams/Visions DEFOE, Daniel
"Merchant's Tale," Marriage/Betrothal Moll Flanders, Marriage/Betrothal, Money
"Pardoner's Tale," Money Robinson Crusoe, Shipwreck
CHESTERFIELD, Lord, Laughter DEMOCRITUS, Laughter
CHRYSOLORAS, Manuel, Love and Death DEMOSTHENES
CICERO, Caricature/Cartoon, Envy, Fame, Fools/Folly, Against Macartatus, Grieving/Lamentation
Fortune, Justice, Laughter, Virtue/Virtues DESCARTES, Rene, Laughter
De finibus bonorum et malorus. Love and Death DICKENS, Charles, Artists/Art, Hanging
De oratore, Physiognomy Bleak House, Avarice
De Republic: Dream of Scipio, Dreams/Visions, Christmas Carol, Avarice
Justice Little Dorrit, Artists/Art

On Duties, Choice/Choosing Martin Chuzzlewick, Avarice

pro L. Murena, Luxury Our Mutual Friend, Avarice
Somnium scipionis, Virtue/Virtues Pickwick Papers,Widowhood
Tuscan Disputations, Envy, Luxury DIONYSIUS, Fools/Folly
CLOSE ENCOUNTERS OF THE THIRD KIND, DISNEY, Walt, Laughter
Ascent/Descent DISRAELI, Benjamin
COCLES, Bartelomeo, Physiognomy Lothair, Artists/Art
COLE, Samuel DTTTAMUNDO, IL, Widowhood
In April, Martyrdom DODGSON, Charles Lutwidge see CARROLL, Lewis
COLERIDGE, Samuel Taylor, Artists/Art, DOLCI, Carlo
Imagination/Creativity Dialogue on Painting, Imagination/Creativity
COLLINS, Wilkie DOLLINGER, Joann
Hide and Seek, Artists/Art Papstfabeln des Mittelalters, Birth/Childbirth
COLONNA, Francesco, Peace, Sleep/Sleeping DOMENICHI, Lodovico
Hypnertomacbia Polipbili, Virtue/Virtues Nobilita delle donne, Self-Portraits II

CONRAD, Joseph, Whiteness DONNE, John

CONSTANTINE VII PORPHYROGENITUS Anatomie of the World, Order/Chaos
Agricultus, Envy Divine Poems, Humors
COOLS, Eugene Good Friday, 1613, Riding Westward, Crucifixion
Jugement de Midas, Judgment Holy Sonnet #11, Crucifixion
COOPER, James Fenimore, Dreams/Visions Second Anniversary of the Progres of the Soule,
CORNEILLE, Pierre, Apotheosis/Deification Humors
CORROZET, Gilles DOSTOYEVSKY, Fedor Mikhailovich, Choice/Choosing,
Hecatomgraphie, Misfortune Self-Portraits I

COVARRUBIAS, Sebastian de Orozco Brothers Karamazov, Martyrdom

Emblemas morales, Misfortune DU BOS, Abbe Jean-Baptiste, Imagination/Creativity
CRANE, Stephen DU MAURIER, George Louis Palmella Busson
The Third Violet, Artists/Art Trilby, Artists/Art
CREATION (mystery play), Masks/Personae DUPUIS, Charles Francois, Zodiac
CROCE, Benedetto, Imagination/Creativity DURER, Albrecht, Imagination/Creativity
CUREAU, Marin DURIS OF SAMOS, Artists/Art
L'art de connoistre les homines, Humors DUTCH MARTYR'S MIRROR, Protestantism
CYPRIA, Choice/Choosing
ECKHART, Meister, Devotion/Piety
DAMIAN, Peter, Avarice ELIOT, George, Artists/Art
DANIEL, Samuel Daniel Deronda, Artists/Art
Queene's Arcadia, Shepherds/Shepherdesses Middlemarch, Artists/Art
DANTE, Apotheosis/Deification, Artists/Art, Romola, Artists/Art
Ascent/Descent, Ecstasy, Fortune, Imagination/Creativity, Silas Marner, Temptation
 INDEX OF AUTHORS, LITERARY TEXTS, COMPOSERS, FILMMAKERS, AND FOLKTALES IO55

ELIOT, T. S. FOLKLORE AND FOLKTALES (see also FAIRY

Cocktail Party, Martyrdom TALES), Abduction/Rape, Ascent/Descent,
Four Quartets, Journey/Flighr Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Dreams/Visions,
Wasteland, Temptation Hair/Haircutting, Judaism, Judgment
ELLIS, Havelock FONTEO, G. B., Laughter
The Criminal, Margins/Outsiders FOXE, John
ELUARD, Paul, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Book of Martyrs, Martyrdom, Protestantism
Imagination/Creativity, Self-Portraits I
FRANCIS, St. (see also Index of Judeo-Christian Personages,
EMERSON, Ralph Waldo, Light II Places, and Concepts)
EPHOROS, Abduction/Rape Canticle of the Sun, Devotion/Piety

ERASMUS, Caricature/Cartoon, Laughter, Physiognomy, Little Flowers of St. Francis, Devotion/Piety

Virtue/Virtues, Voyeurism FRANCIS OF SALES, St. (see also Index of Judeo-Christian

Enchiridion Militis Christian!, Path/Road/Crossroads Personages, Places, and Concepts)

Opera omnia, Music Devout Life, Devotion/Piety

Praise of Folly, Fools/Folly, Sin/Sinning FRANKLIN, Benjamin, Money

ERATOSTHENES, Virtue/Virtues
FREDERICK II, Holy Roman Emperor
Star Placements, Virtue/Virtues
De Arte Venendi cum Avibus,
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
ESQUIROL,J. E., Madness
ETIENNE DE BOURDON, Birth/Childbirth
FREUD, Sigmund, Artists/Art, Automata, Choice/Chocsing,
Comic, Dreams/Visions, Imagination/Creativity, Laughter,
EUCLID, Order/Chaos
Melancholy, Naked/Nude, Nightmare, Widowhood
EURIGENA, John Scotus, Light II
FRISCH, Max, Choice/Choosing
EURIPIDES, Sacrifice
FROBENIUS, Leo, Sacrifice
Alcestis, Love and Death, Sacrifice
FROISSART, Jean
Bacchae, Abandonment, Ecstasy
Grandes Chroniques de France, Funeral/Burial
Cyclops, Drunkenness/Intoxication
FROST, Robert, Order/Chaos
Hippolytos, Arms Raised
Birches, Ascent/Descent
Medea, Witchcraft/Sorcery
FUJIWARA NOBUZANE, Damned Souls
Trojan Women, Destruction of City
FULGENTIUS, Fabius Planciades, Adultery
EUSEBIUS
Life of Constantine, Sleep/Sleeping
GALEN, Fools/Folly, Humors, Serpent's Bite
Simoni deo Sancto, Witchcraft/Sorcery
GALSWORTHY, John
EYCK, Jacob Van, Music
Villa Rubein, Artists/Art
GARDEN OF EDEN (mystery play), Masks/Personae
FABRICIUS, Johannes
GARTENLA UGE, Penitence/Repentance
Disputatio Theologica, Sin/Sinning
GASTON III, Count of Foix (Gaston Phebus)
FAIRY TALES (see also FOLKLORE AND FOLKTALES), Livre de la Chasse, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
Abduction/Rape, Judgment, Penitence/Repentance
GAUTIER, Theophile, Order/Chaos
FAITS DES ROMAINS, Birth/Childbirth Le Roi Candule, Voyeurism
FEIJOO, Benito Jeromimo GELLI, Battista, Artists/Art
Cantos Erudiatas y Curiosas . . . , Witchcraft/Sorcery GERARD, John
FERRIERE, Henri de The Herbal, Humors
Livre du Roy Modus .... Hunting/Hunter/Huntress GHIBERTI, Lorenzo, Artists/Art
FICINO, Marsilio, Fortune, Imagination/Creativity, Love GHISLIERO, Federico
and Death, Melancholy, Mirror/Reflection, Music, Regole . . . , Sport
Virtue/Virtues GIBBON, Edward
De amore, Love and Death Decline and Fall . . . , Excess, Martyrdom
Opera, Music GIOVIO, Paolo, Fame, Peace
Theologica Platonica, Imagination/Creativity, Music Dialogo .... Peace
FILOCALUS, Months GIRAUD, Albert
FIRENZUOLA, Agnolo, Marriage/Betrothal Hanging
Pierrot Lunaire,
FIRMICUS MATERMUS, Julius GISSING, George, Artists/Art
Mathesis, Zodiac The Emancipated, Artists/Art
FLAUBERT, Gustave, Melancholy Thyrza, Artists/Art
Temptation of St. Anthony, Temptation GODFREY OF VITERBO, Adultery
FLETCHER, Phineas GOETHE, Johann Wolfgang von, Hair/Haircutting,
The Purple Island, Humors Harvesting, Light II

FLUDD, Robert, Ascent/Descent, Zodiac Conversations with Eckermann, Witchcraft/Sorcery

Utriusque Cosmi Historia, Order/Chaos Faust, Excess, Madness, Marriage/Betrothal,
1056 INDEX OF AUTHORS, LITERARY TEXTS, COMPOSERS, FILMMAKERS, AND FOLKTALES

Witchcraft/Sorcery HILDEGARD VON BINGEN, Devotion/Piety, Ecstasy,

Sorrows of Wert her, Hanging, Marriage/Betrothal Melancholy, Sin/Sinning
GOGH, Vincent van, Caricature/Cartoon Scrwias, Birth/Childbirth
GOHORY, Jacques HINCMAR, Avarice
Livre de la conqueste . . . , Witchcraft/Sorcery HIPPOCRATES, Humors, Melancholy, Physiognomy
GOLDEN LEGEND see JACOBUS DA VORAGINE HIPPOLYTUS OF ROME, Zodiac
GOLDING, William H1STOIRE ANCIENNE, Birth/Childbirth
Free Fall, Artists/Art HOBBES, Thomas, Laughter
GOLDSMITH, Oliver HOFFMAN, Ernst Theodor Amadeus
The Vicar of Wakefield, Artists/Art "The Sandman," Automata
GONCOURT, Edmond and Jules de HOGARTH, William
Manette Solomon, Artists/Art Analysis of Beauty, Artists/Art
GRAND CALENDRIER DES BERGERS, Vices/Deadly Sins HOLLAND, Clive
GRAY, Thomas Marcelle of the Latin Quarter, Artists/Art
Ode on the Spring, Dreams/Visions HOMER, Ascent/Descent, Birth/Childbirth, Excess,
GREGORY (THE GREAT), St. (pope) (see
I also Index of Honor/Honoring, Laughter, Light I, Plague/Pestilence,
Judeo-Christian Personages, Places, and Concepts), Sublime, Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness
Avarice "Hymn to Hermes," Shepherds/Shepherdesses
Dialogues, Whiteness Iliad, Adultery, Apotheosis/Deification, Arms Raised,
Moralia in job, Labor/Trades/Occupations Automata, Birth/Childbirth, Excess, Fame,
GREGORY OF NYSSA, Music Grieving/Lamentation, Journey/Flight, Laughter,
GRETRY, Andre Metamorphosis, Reading, Sleep/Sleeping, Sport,
Jugement de Midas, Judgment Temptation
GUARINI, Guarino Odyssey, Adultery, Apotheosis/Deification,
// Pastor Fido, Shepherds/Shepherdesses Arms Raised, Bath/Bathing, Damned Souls,
GUEULLETTE, Thomas-Simon, Masks/Personae Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fatal Woman/Femme
GUILLAUME DE DEGUILEVILLE Fatale, Grieving/Lamentation, Hair/Haircutting,
Pelerinage de la vie humaine, Choice/Choosing, Journey/Flight, Kiss/Kissing, Laughter, Logos/Word,
Drunkenness/Intoxication Luxury, Metamorphosis, Reading, Shipwreck,
Pelerinage de Fame, Choice/Choosing Temptation, Witchcraft/Sorcery
HOOFT, Pieter Cornelisz.
HAIR (musical), Hair/Haircutting Granida, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
HANDEL, George Frederic HOPKINS, Gerald Manly
Messiah, Sacrifice Wreck of the Deutschland, Shipwreck
HARDY, Mary Anne HORACE, Excess, Fools/Folly, Honor/Honoring,
The Artist's Family, Artists/Art Imagination/Creativity
HARDY, Thomas, Artists/Art Ars poetica, Nightmare
The Well-Beloved, Artists/Art Epodes, Witchcraft/Sorcery
HARTLEBEN, Otto Erich, Hanging Epistles, Envy, Peasantry
HATTON, Joseph Odes, Fortune, Virtue/Virtues
The Tallants of Barton, Artists/Art HORAPOLLO
HAWTHORNE, Nathaniel Hieroglyphics, Serpent's Bite, Virtue/Virtues
Scarlet Letter, Temptation HOWARD, Blanche Willis
HAYDN, Franz Joseph Guenn, Artists/Art
Creation, Order/Chaos HOUBRAKEN, Arnold, Comic
HEGEL, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, Dawn/Dawning, HUGH OF ST. VICTOR, Light II

Devotion/Piety HUGO, Victor, Fools/Folly

HEIDEGGER, Martin, Choice/Choosing, Devotion/Piety Denier Jour d'un Condamne, Hanging
HERACLITUS, Laughter HUMBELOT, Jean
HERO OF ALEXANDRIA Female Beauty and Adornment
Veiie,

Spiritualia, Automata HUNTER, William

HERODOTUS, Voyeurism Anatony of the Human Gravid Uterus, Pregnancy
Histories, Abundance, Crucifixion, Envy, Excess, HUYSMANS, Joris Karl, Luxury
Labyrinth/Maze A Rebours, Dreams/Visions
HESIOD, Dawn/Dawning, Excess, Expulsion, Love and HYGINUS, Sleep/Sleeping
Death, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, Whiteness Fables, Fame
Theognony, Fame, Fortune, Justice, Night, Poetic Astronomy, Virtue/Virtues
Order/Chaos, Patronage, Sleep/Sleeping,
Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery IBN KHALDUN, Offering
Works and Days, Justice, Luxury IGNATIUS LOYOLA, St. (see also Index of Judeo-Christian
 INDEX OF AUTHORS, LITERARY TEXTS, COMPOSERS, FILMMAKERS, AND FOLKTALES IO57

Personages, Places, and Concepts) KAFKA, Franz, Order/Chaos

Spiritual Exercises, Devotion/Piety KALLIMACHOS
ILLUSTRATED LONDON NEWS, Expulsion Hymnus in Delum, Arms Raised
INDEPENDENT CURATORS INCORPORATED (ICI) KANT, Immanuel, Ascent/Descent, Dawn/Dawning,
Eye for I, Self-Portraits I Devotion/Piety, Imagination/Creativity, Laughter
IRVING, George Washington, Dreams/Visions KAZANZAKIS, Nikos
Sketch Book, Sleep/Sleeping Last Temptation, Temptation
Tales of a Traveller, Night KEATS, John, Artists/Art, Communion, Death
ISKANDAR-NAMA, Voyeurism Belle Dame Sans Merci, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale,
IVO OF CHARTRES, Avarice Hair/Haircutting
Ode on a Grecian Urn, Metamorphosis
JACOBUS DA TERAMO, Masks/Personae On First Looking into Chapman's Homer, Reading
JACOBUS DA VORAGINE, Mirror/Reflection KEPLER, Johannes, Zodiac
Golden Legend, Baptism, Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth, KIERKEGAARD, Soren, Choice/Choosing, Death,
Devotion/Piety, Expulsion, Grieving/Lamentation, Laughter
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Journey/Flight, Music, KIPLING, Rudyard, Artists/Art
Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence, Light That Failed, Artists/Art
Shipwreck, Witchcraft/Sorcery KIRCHER, Athanasius, Zodiac
Omne femmes nobles et renommees, KLEIN, Melanie, Envy, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne
Labor/Trades/Occupations KORDA, Alex, Dreams/Visions
JACOBUS DE CESSOLIS KRAMER, Heinrich Institor, and Jakob Sprenger
Le jeu des echecs moralisee, Malleus Maleficarum, Sin/Sinning, Vices/Deadly Sins,
Labor/Trades/Occupations Witchcraft/Sorcery
JAMES, Henry, Order/Chaos
Europeans, Artists/Art LA FONTAINE, Jean de, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
Madonna of the Future, Artists/Art LA FRERY, Antoine
Private Life, Artists/Art Speculum Romanae Magnificentiae,
Roderick Hudson, Artists/Art Drunkenness/Intoxication
Story of a Masterpiece, Artists/Art LAIRESSE, Gerard de, Comic, Vanity/Vanitas
Tragic Muse, Artists/Art LA PERRIERE, Gilliume de
JENSEN, Wilhelm Les Considerations . . . , Fools/Folly
Gravida, Imagination/Creativity La Morosophie, Drunkenness/Intoxication
JEROME, St. (see also Index of Judeo-Christian Personages, LAUGHING FIT (Japanese folktale). Laughter
Places, and Concepts), Virgin/Virginity LAVATER, Johann Kasper
JEWSBURY, Geraldine L'Art de connaitre .... Physiognomy
Half Sisters, Artists/Art Essai sur la Physiognomie, Arms Raised

JOACHIM OF FIORE, Ascent/Descent Physiognomische Fragments, Humors

JOHANNES DE INDAGINE, Physiognomy LAVOISIER, Antoine Laurent, Order/Chaos
JOHN CHRYSOSTOM, St. (see also Index of Judeo- LEE, Charles
Christian Personages, Places, and Concepts), Logos/Word Cynthia in the West, Artists/Art
JOHN CLIMACOS (Climax, Scholasticus), St. LEE, Vernon (Violet Paget)
The Ladder of Paradise, Ascent/Descent Dionea, Artists/Art
JOHN OF SALISBURY, Avarice Miss Brown, Artists/Art
JOHN OF THE CROSS, St. (see also Index of Judeo- Oke of Okehurst, Artists/Art
Christian Personages, Places, and Concepts), LEFEBRE, Jean, Plague/Pestilence
Devotion/Piety LE GALLIENNE, Richard
JONSON, Ben Worshipper of the Image, Artists/Art
"To Cecilia," Kiss/Kissing LEGEND A AUREA see JACOBUS DA VORAGINE
Time Vindicated, Upside Down LEIBNITZ, Gottfried Wilhelm, Automata
JOSEPHUS, Crucifixion LEIDESDORF, Maximilian, Madness
JOUBERT, Laurent LENAU, Nikolaus, Madness
Trade du Ris, Laughter LEO, Bishop of Neapolis, Logos/Word
JOYCE, James LEONARDO DA VINCI, Imagination/Creativity,
Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, Artists/Art Mirror/Reflection, Physiognomy
Ulysses, Journey/Flight LESSING, Gotthold Ephraim, Choice/Choosing
JUNG, Carl Gustave, Ascent/Descent, Fatal Woman/Femme LEVER, Charles
Fatale, Journey/Flight, Toilet Scenes Martins of Cro 'Martin, Artists/Art
JUNIUS, Hadrianus, Vanity/Vanitas LEWIS, C. S.

JUVENAL, Fools/Folly, Luxury, Great Divorce, Damned Souls

Satires, Physiognomy, Sin/Sinning Screwtape Letters, Damned Souls
IO58 INDEX OF AUTHORS, LITERARY TEXTS, COMPOSERS, FILMMAKERS, AND FOLKTALES

LIBAVIUS, Ancreas MALVASIA, Carlo Cesare

Alchymia .... Abduction/Rape Felsina Pittrice, Comic
LICHTENBERGER, Johannes MANCINI, Giulio
Prognasticatio in Latino, Birth/Childbirth Considerazioni Sulla Pitture, Comic
I.I PO, Drunkenness/Intoxication MANDER, Carel van, Evil Eye, Plague/Pestilence,
LIVY, Adultery, Marriage/Betrothal Vanity/Vanitas
History of Rome, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Betrayal Het Schilderboek, Adultery, Comic
LOMAZZO, Giovanni Paolo MANILIUS, Marcus
Trattato dell arte . . . , Imagination/Creativity Astronomica, Zodiac
LOMBARD, Peter MANTOVANO, Music
Sententiate, Virtue/Virtues MANUTIUS, Aldus, Virtue/Virtues •

LOMBROSO, Cesar, Artists/Art MANZONI, Alessandro

LONGFELLOW, Henry Wadsworth Betrothed, Marriage/Betrothal

Vittoria Colonna, Martyrdom MARCHANT, Guy

Wreck of the Hesperus, Shipwreck Dance of Death, Dance/Dancers/Dancing
LONGINUS MARLIANO, Luigi, Peace

Peri uyous (On the Sublime), Sublime MARLOWE, Christopher

LONGUS Dr. Faustus, Damned Souls, Kiss/Kissing,

Witchcraft/Sorcery
Daphnis and Chloe, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
LOOS, Anita
MAROLLES, Michel de, Hanging
Gentlemen Prefer Blonds, Kiss/Kissing MARTIAL, Fools/Folly
LORRAIN, Jean
MATTHEW (OF) PARIS
Life of St. Alban, Labor/Trades/Occupations
Monsieur de Phocas, Masks/Personae
LORRIS, Guillaume MAUGHAM, William Somerset

Roman de la Rose, Dance/Dancers/Dancing

Moon and Sixpence, Artists/Art

LOSSKI, Nikolai O., Imagination/Creativity

MAURIAC, Francois
Nest of Vipers, Avarice
LUCIAN, Artists/Art
Calumniae Non Temere Credendurn, Calumny
MEAD, Margaret
Coming of Age in Samoa, Order/Chaos
Carousal, Fools/Folly
MEDIEVAL ROMANCES (see also ARTHURIAN
De Syria dea, Automata, Gaze
LEGENDS), Abduction/Rape, Fatal Woman/Femme
Dialogues on the Gods, Sleep/Sleeping
Fatale
On Funerals, Grieving/Lamentation
MELCHIORI, Francesco, Peace
LUCIFER'S FALL (mystery play), Masks/Personae
MENA, Juan de
LUCILIUS, Caius, Luxury
El Laberinto, Labyrinth/Maze
LUCRETIUS
MERCIER, Sebastien, Whiteness
De rerum natura, Luxury
MERCURIO, Scipione
LULL, Ramon, Ascent/Descent
Le Comare, Pregnancy
De novi logica, Ascent/Descent
MERTON, Thomas
LYDGATE, John Seven-Storeu Mountain, Ascent/Descent
Dance of Death, Dance/Dancers/Dancing
METAPHRASTES, Simeon, Grieving/Lamentation
LYLY, John
MEUN, Jean de
Midas, Judgment
Roman de la Rose, Dance/Dancers/Dancing
MICHELET, Jules
MACHIAVELLI, Niccolo, Fortune La Femme, Pregnancy
The Prince, Masks/Personae MILTON, John, Artists/Art, Sublime
MACROBIUS, Evil Eye, Melancholy Ad Patrem, Imagination/Creativity
Commentarii in Somnium Scipionis, Dreams/Visions, Paradise Lost, Damned Souls, P'xpulsion,
Music, Virtue/Virtues Sin/Sinning
Saturnalia, Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery Paradise Regained, Expulsion, Order/Chaos
MAGLIABECHINIAN, Antonio, Artists/Art Samson Agonistes, Hair/Haircutting
MAIER, Michael MITCHELL, Margaret
Symhola aureae mensae . . . , Gone with the Wind, Destruction of City
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne MOLIERE, Jean Baptiste, Apotheosis/Deification
MALLEUS MALEFICARUS see KRAMER, Heinrich Don Juan, Masks/Personae
Institor, and Jakob Sprenger Miser, Avarice
MALORY, Thomas MOLITOR, Ulrich
Le Morte D 'Arthur, Adultery, Fatal Woman/Femme De Lanijs . . . , Witchcraft/Sorcery
Fatale (see also ARTHURIAN LEGENDS; MONTAIGNE, Michel de
TENNYSON, Alfred Lord, Idylls of the King) "On Some Verses of Virgil," Humors
 INDEX OF AUTHORS, LITERARY TEXTS, COMPOSERS, FILMMAKERS, AND FOLKTALES IO59

MONTESQUIEU Ars Amatoria, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,

Considerations . . . , Excess Kiss/Kissing
MONTEVERDI, Claudio Epistulae ex Ponto, Justice
The Return of Ulysses, Journey/Flight Fasti, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Evil Eye, Music,
MOORE, George, Artists/Art Witchcraft/Sorcery
Celibates, Artists/Art Heroides, Love and Death, Sleep/Sleeping
Confessions of a Young Man, Artists/Art Metamorphoses, Adultery, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
A Modern Lover, Artists/Art Dawn/Dawning, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
MOREAU, Jean, Dreams/Visions Envy, Fame, Fatal Woman/Femme
MORISON, Alexander, Madness Fatale, Hermaphrodite/ Androgyne,
MORREALL, John, Laughter Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Journey/Flight,
MORRIS, William, Journey/Flight Love and Death, Metamorphosis, Music,
Earthly Paradise, Sacrifice Order/Chaos, Pregnancy, Sacrifice, Serpent's Bite,

MOSCHION, Pregnancy Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sleep/Sleeping,

MURASAKI SHIKUBU, LADY Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Tale of Genji, Seasons, Voyeurism Metamorphoses Englished, Humors
MURGER, Henry Moralisee, Music, Vanity/Vanitas
Scenes de la vie de Boheme, Artists/Art
MURIS, Johanes (Jean de) PACHECO, Francisco
Summa Musica, Music Arte de la Pintura, Comic
MURNER, Thomas PAGET, Violet see LEE, Vernon
Of the Great Lutheran Fool, Fools/Folly PAITA-SHUN, Seasons
MYLIUS PALEOTTI, Gabriele
Chymica: Bascilica philosophica, Trattato, Comic
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne PAMPHILOS, Artists/Art
PARACELSUS, Philippus Aureolus (Theophrastus
NATIVITY (mystery play), Masks/Personae Bombastus von Hohenheim), Nightmare
NEPOS, Envy PASCAL, BLAISE, Devotion/Piety
NESBIT, Edith PATER, Walter
Incomplete Amorist, Artists/Art Imaginary Portraits, Artists/Art
NEWTON, Isaac, Order/Chaos, Zodiac PAUL THE SILENTIARY, Light I

NIBELUNGENLIED (see also WAGNER, Richard, PAUSANIAS, Destruction of City, Love and Death,
Ring of the Nihelungen), Pointing/Indicating Patronage
NICHOLAS DE CUSA, Virtue/Virtues Graeciae descriptio. Abundance, Justice,
NIETZSCHE, Friedrich Wilhelm, Madness, Order/Chaos, Virtue/Virtues
Sin/Sinning PETRARCH, Envy, Fame, Female Beauty and Adornment,
Thus Spake Zarathustra, Upside Down Marriage/Betrothal, Widowhood
NIHONGI, Bath/Bathing Africa, Virtue/Virtues
NIZAMI Trionfi, Honor/Honoring, Path/Road/Crossroads,
Khusraiv and Shirin, Voyeurism Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues
NONIUS MARCELLUS, Fools/Folly PETRONIUS
NORDAU, Max, Artists/Art Satyricon, Luxury, Widowhood
NORRIS, Frank PEYRE, Henri, Order/Chaos
McTeague, Money PHEBUS, Gaston see GASTON III, Count of Foix
NOVELLE, Marriage/Betrothal PHILEMON, Laughter
PHILOGELOS, Laughter
OLAUS MAGNUS PHILOSTRATUS, Drunkenness/Intoxication
Historia de gentihus .... Witchcraft/Sorcery Imagines, Music, Sleep/Sleeping
O'NEILL, Eugene PHRYNICHUS, Destruction of City
Hairy Ape, Hair/Haircutting PICATRIX, Melancholy
OLIPHANT, Margaret PICO DELLA MIRANDOLA, Giovanni, Fortune,
Three Brothers, Artists/Art Imagination/Creativity, Love and Death
ORSINI, Fulvio, Path/Road/Crossroads Commento, Love and Death
ORWELL, George PIED PIPER OF HAMELIN, Abduction/Rape
1984, Order/Chaos PIERRE DE LANCRE
OUIDA (Louise de la Ramee) Tableau del'inconstances . . . , Witchcraft/Sorcery
Two Little Wooden Shoes, Artists/Art PIERS PLOWMAN, Money
OVID, Hanging, Seasons, Sublime PINDAR, Apotheosis/Deification, Excess, Fortune,
Amores, Witchcraft/Sorcery Journey/Flight, Sleep/Sleeping
1060 INDEX OF AUTHORS, LITERARY TEXTS, COMPOSERS, FILMMAKERS, AND FOLKTALES

Nemean Ode, Arms Raised PSEUDO-ARISTOTLE, Physiognomy

Pythian Odes, Virtue/Virtues PSFUDO-BONAVENTURA see CAULIBUS, Giovanni
PISAN, Christine PSEUDO-DIONYSUS, the Areopagite, St., Light II

Book of the City of Ladies, Justice, Mirror/Reflection PSEUDO-HUGO

PITT, William, Laughter De fructibus, Virtue/Virtues
PLATO, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne,
Artists/Art, Fortune, PULSNICENSIS, Huldericus
Labyrinth/Maze, Laughter, Light I, Logos/Word, Erhauliche Nachrichten . . . , Protestantism
Mirror/Reflection, Virtue/Virtues PYTHAGORUS, Imagination/Creativity, Seasons
Laws, Avarice, Grieving/Lamentation
Meno, Automata QUEVEDO Y VILLEGAS, Francisco Gomez de
Phaedo, Ascent/Descent Suenos, Comic
Republic, Avarice, Dreams/Visions, QUINTILLIAN, Self-Portraits I

Imagination/Creativity, Justice, Light II, Institutiones Oratoriae, Arms Raised

Mirror/Reflection, Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac
Symposium, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Love and RABELAIS, Francois, Laughter
Death, Sacrifice, Virtue/Virtues RACINE, Jean, Apotheosis/Deification
Timaeus, Order/Chaos RALEIGH, Sir Walter
PLAUTUS History of the World, Seasons
Aulularia, Comic RALPH OF COGGESHALL
Pot of Gold, Avarice Malekin, Abduction/Rape
Trimmus, Marriage/Betrothal RAMEE, Louise de la see OUIDA
PLINIUS PLINY
see RAPUNZEL (Folk Tale), Grieving/Lamentation
PLINY THE ELDER, Choice/Choosing, Mirror/Reflection, REMUS, Uncle
Physiognomy, Plague/Pestilence, Self-Portraits I, Self- Brer Rabbit, Laughter
Portraits II RENAIS, Alain, Destruction of City
Letters, Marriage/Betrothal RENAUDOT, Theophraste
Natural History, Arms Raised, Artists/Art, Birth/ Recueil general des questions . . . , Humors
Comic, Destruction of City, Gaze, Luxury,
Childbirth, REUFF, Jac
Physiognomy, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues De conceptu et generatione hominis, Birth/Childbirth
PLOMER, William REYNOLDS, Joshua, Sublime
Family Tree, Abduction/Rape RHINTHON, Comic
PLOTINUS RICHARDSON, Samuel
Enneads, Light II Pamela, Whiteness
PLUTARCH, Artists/Art, Envy, Excess, Hair/Haircutting, RICHER, Paul
Labyrinth/Maze, Laughter, Masks/Personae, Self-Portraits Nouvelle iconographie Salpetriere, Madness
I, Virtue/Virtues RILKE, Rainer Maria, Sin/Sinning
Abundance
Life of Solon, "On Dolls, " Automata
Opera moralia, Envy RIMBAUD, Arthur, Dreams/Visions
POLITIAN, Angelo Ambrogini, Love and Death Saison en enfer, Damned Souls
POLIZIANO, Virtue/Virtues RIPA, Cesare
Orpheus, Music Iconologia, Abundance, Excess, Fame, Fortune,
POLLUX, Masks/Personae Honor/Honoring, Humors, Imagination/Creativity,
POMPONAZZI, Pietro, Fortune Madness, Masks/Personae,
Justice, Laughter,
POPE, Alexander Misfortune, Music, Peace, Penitence/Repentance,
Rape of the Lock, Abduction/Rape, Hair/Haircutting Plague/Pestilence, Self-Portraits I, Self-Portraits II,

PORPHYRY, Ascent/Descent Sin/Sinning, Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues,

PORTA, Giambattista della Widowhood
De humana physiognomonia, Physiognomy RITCHIE, Anne
PORTER, Katherine Ann Miss Angel, Artists/Art
Ship of Fools, Shipwreck ROBERTS, Morley
POUND, Ezra Immortal Youth, Artists/Art
Cantos, Avarice ROLLENHAGEN, Gabriel
PRINZHORN, Hans, Madness Nucleus emblematatum, Music
PROBLEMATA, Humors ROMAN DE FAUVE, Avarice
PRODICUS, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Excess, ROMAN DE LA ROSE, Comic
Path/Road/Crossroads ROSA, SALVATOR, Peasantry
PROTAGORAS, Virtue/Virtues Invidia, Envy
PRUDENTIUS ROSARIUM PHILOSOPHORUM,
Psychomachia, Avarice, Excess, Fame, Vices/Deadly Hermaphrodite/Androgyne
Sins, Virtue/Virtues ROSPLIGLIOSI, Gulio, Honor/Honoring
 INDEX OF AUTHORS, LITERARY TEXTS, COMPOSERS, FILMMAKERS, AND FOLKTALES Io6l

ROSSETTI, Dante Gabriel SHERIDAN, Richard Brinsley, Laughter

"Hand and Soul," Artists/Art SIDNEY, Philip
Jenny, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia,
"Song of the Bower," Kiss/Kissing Shepherds/Shepherdesses
ROSSLIN, Eucharius SIR CAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT,
Rosengarten, Birth/Childbirth, Pregnancy Abduction/Rape
ROUSSEAU, Jean-Jacques, Devotion/Piety, SLEEPING BEAUTY, Kiss/Kissing, Sleep/Sleeping
Marriage/Betrothal, Melancholy SMART, Christopher
Emile, Self-Portraits II Poems on Several Occasions, Judgment
RUSKIN, John, Calumny, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Night SOCRATES see Index of Ancient Mythological and
Historical Personages, Places, and Concepts
SACCHETTI, Franco SOLON, Excess
Trecento Novelle, Self-Portraits II SOMME LE ROI, Dreams/Visions, Peasantry, Vices/Deadly
SADE, Marquis de, Imagination/Creativity Sins, Virtue/Virtues
SAIKAKU, Ihara SOPHOCLES, Hanging, Light I, Sacrifice
Man Who Spent His Life in Love, Voyeurism SORANUS OF EPHESUS
SALLUST Gynaecia (On Gynecology), Pregnancy
De Civitate Dei, Luxury SPANHEIM, M. de
Luxury
Historiae, Histoire de la Papesse Jeanne fidelement tiree, de la
SAND, George, Masks/Personae dissertation latine, Birth/Childbirth
SANNAZARO, Jacopo SPECULUM HUMANAE SALVATIONIS, Justice
Arcadia, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
SPENCER, Herbert, Laughter
SAPPHO, Love and Death SPENER, Philipp Jakob, Devotion/Piety
SARTRE, John-Paul SPENSER, Edmund
Huis-Clos (No Exit), Damned Souls
Shepherd's Calendar, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
SCHELLING, Friedrich W. J., Dawn/Dawning
SPIEGEL, Andrian
SCHLEIERMACHER, Friedrich, Devotion/Piety De Formata foetu, Pregnancy
SCHOPENHAUER, Arthur, Laughter SPINOZA, Baruch, Automata, Virtue/Virtues
SCIPIO AEMILLIANUS, Dreams/Visions
SPRENGER, Jakob see KRAMER, Heinrich Institor, and
SCOTT, Walter, Artists/Art
Jakob Sprenger
St. Ronan's Well, Artists/Art
STAFFORD, Anthony, Whiteness
SENECA, Artists/Art, Death, Fools/Folly, Laughter,
STEPHENS, Frederic George, Dreams/Visions
Mirror/Reflection, Physiognomy
STERNBERG, Josef von, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale
De Beneficiis, Virtue/Virtues
STOCKHAUSEN, Karl, Order/Chaos
SERVIUS, Melancholy
STONE, Irving
SETON, G. T.
Agony and the Ecstasy, Artists/Art
Yes, Lady Sahad, Widowhood
Lust for Life, Artists/Art
SEVEN SLEEPERS, Sleep/Sleeping
SHAKESPEARE, William, Apotheosis/Deification,
STOPPARD, Tom
Lord Malquist and Mr. Moon, Order/Chaos
Artists/Art, Death, Sublime
Hamlet, Death, Hair/Haircutting, Madness,
STRAUSS, Johann
Melancholy Die Fledermaus (The Bat), Laughter

Henry V, Marriage/Betrothal STRAUSS, Richard

King Lear, Fools/Folly, Judgment Salome (Opera), Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale
Macbeth, Madness, Witchcraft/Sorcery STRAVINSKY, Igor, Abduction/Rape

Measure for Measure, Music, Temptation STYEVOORT, Vices/Deadly Sins

Merchant of Venice, Envy, Judgment, Shipwreck SUETONIUS, Marriage/Betrothal

Midsummer Night's Dream, Humors, Labyrinth/Maze Nero, Luxury

Othello, Envy, Temptation The Twelve Caesars, Apotheosis/Deification, Envy,
Passionate Pilgrim, Humors Honor/Honoring
"Sweet and Twenty," Kiss/Kissing SUMERIAN TABLETS, Damned Souls
Tempest, Shipwreck, Widowhood SWIFT, Jonathan, Artists/Art, Ecstasy

Twelfth Night, Shipwreck SWILLINCK, Jan Pietersz, Music

Two Noble Kinsmen, Humors SWINBURN, Algernon, Kiss/Kissing, Mirror/Reflection
SHALMANESER III, Destruction of City SYLVESTRE, Armand
SHAW, George Bernard Le Nu an Louvre, Bath/Bathing
Do// Juan in Hell, Damned Souls
Pygmalion, Metamorphosis TACITUS, Calumny
SHELLEY, Percy Bysshe Annals, Grieving/Lamentation
Posthumous Poems, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale Histories, Envy
I062 INDEX OF AUTHORS, LITERARY TEXTS, COMPOSERS, FILMMAKERS, AND FOLKTALES

TAl.MUDIC: (,l NDS, Music

1 I VARRO, Marcus Terentius
TASSO, Torquato Rerum rusticarum, Luxury
/ 'Ambit j, Shepherds/Shepherdesses VASARI, Giorgio, Artists/Art, Envy, Evil Eye, Hanging,
Del Poema Eroico Imagination/Creativity
. . . , Imagination/Creativity, Justice, Mirror/Reflection
( }erusalemme Liberata, Abduction/Rape, Vite, Peace
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sleep/Sleeping VEBLEN, Thorstein
TASSONI, Alessandro Theory of the Leisure Class, Money
Rape of the Bucket, Abduction/Rape VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, Marcus
TAULER, Johannes, Devotion/Piety History, Luxury
TEBALDEO, Antonio, Female Beauty and Adornment VERARD, Vices/Deadly Sins
TENNYSON, Alfred Lord, Hair/Haircutting, Kiss/Kissing, VERDI, Giuseppe
Melancholy, Mirror/Reflection, Order/Chaos Rigoletto, Fools/Folly
Enoch Arden, Shipwreck VERGIL see VIRGIL
Idylls of the King, Adultery, Fatal Woman/Femme VERLAINE, Paul, Dreams/Visions
'

Fatale (see also ARTHURIAN LEGENDS; VESALIUS, Andreas, Serpent's Bite, Vanity/Vanitas
MALORY, Thomas, he Morte d' Arthur) VIGEE-LEBRUN, Marie-Louise-Elisabeth
Mariana, Death Memoirs, Calumny
Princess, Kiss/Kissing VILLANI, Filippo, Artists/Art
Ulysses, Journey/Flight VINCENT OF BEAUVAIS
TERENCE, Drunkenness/Intoxication Speculum morale, Virtue/Virtues
Eunuchus, Fools/Folly VIRGIL, Apotheosis/Deification, Arms Raised, Damned
TERTULLIAN, Avarice Souls, Excess, Fame, Light I, Love and Death, Peasantry,
THACKERAY, William Makepeace, Artists/Art Virtue/Virtues
Newcomes, Artists/Art Aeneid, Abandonment, Avarice, Damned Souls,
Vanity Fair, Artists/Art Destruction of City, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
THEOCRITUS OF SYRACUSE Journey/Flight, Kiss/Kissing, Light I, Love and
Idylls, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Witchcraft/Sorcery Death, Temptation, Virtue/Virtues, Widowhood,
THEODULF OF ORLEANS, Virtue/Virtues Witchcraft/Sorcery
THEOPHRASTUS, Melancholy Eclogues, Justice, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
THERESA OF AVILA, St. (see also Index of Georgics, Peasantry, Serpent's Bite,
Judeo-Christian Personages, Places, and Concepts) Shepherds/Shepherdesses
Way of Perfection, Devotion/Piety VISIOTUNDALI see VISIONS OF TONDAL
THOMAS A KEMPIS VISIONS OF TONDAL, Journey/Flight, Vices/Deadly Sins,
Imitation of Christ, Devotion/Piety Whiteness
THOMAS AQUINAS, St. (see also Index of VISSCHER, Roemer, Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues
Judeo-Christian Personages, Places, and Concepts), Sinnepoppen, Vanity/Vanitas
Abundance, Fortune, Virtue/Virtues, VOLTAIRE, Ecstasy
Witchcraft/Sorcery Candide, Destruction of City
Questiones Disputatus, Witchcraft/Sorcery Dictionnaire philosophique, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Summa Theologiae, Imagination/Creativity, VONDEL, Joost van den
Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues Ovidius Hersheppinghe, Birth/Childbirth
THOMSON, James, Seasons VORAGINE, Jacobus da see JACOBUS DA VORAGINE
Winter, Judgment
"THREE LIVING AND THE THREE DEAD," Death WAGNER, Richard, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale
TOLSTOY, Leo, Expulsion Ring of the Nibelungen (see also
TOWNSEND, Mary Ashley NIBELUNGENLIED),
Creed, Kiss/Kissing Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale
TROLLOPE, Anthony, Artists/Art Tannhauser, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale
Barchester Towers, Artists/Art WALLMAN, Margarethe, Abduction/Rape
TROYES, Chretian de, Adultery WALPOLE, Horace, Sublime
TWAIN, Mark WALTER DE MILEMETE, Comic
Tom Sawyer, Dreams/Visions WATTS-DUNTON, Theodore, Artists/Art
Aylwin, Artists/Art
URFE, Honore d' WEDMORE, Frederick
L'Astree, Shepherds/Shepherdesses Renunciations, Artists/Art
WELLS, H. G.
VALERIANO, Piero, Love and Death, Peace The Shape of Things to Come, Dreams/Visions
Hieroglyphica . . . , Virtue/Virtues The Sleeper Wakes, Automata
VAI ERIUS MAXIMUS, Evil Eye The Time Machine, Automata
De pietate in parentes, Virtue/Virtues WHITEHEAD, Alfred North, Imagination/Creativity
 INDEX OF AUTHORS, LITERARY TEXTS, COMPOSERS, FILMMAKERS, AND FOLKTALES IO63

WHITMAN, Walt AMARYLLIS see VIRGIL; TASSO, Torquato, L'Aminta

Oh Captain, My Captain, Martyrdom ANGELICA see ARIOSTO, Ludovico, Orlando Furioso
WILDE, Oscar, Luxury, Masks/Personae ANGELO see SHAKESPEARE, William, Measure for
Lady Windermere's Fan, Temptation Measure
Picture of Dorian Gray, Artists/Art ANTONIO see SHAKESPEARE, William, Merchant of
Salome, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Hair/Haircutting Venice
WITCHES' HAMMER see KRAMER, Heinrich Institor, ARCITE see CHAUCER, Geoffrey
and Jakob Sprenger, MALLEUS MALEFICARUS ARISTOTLE AND PHYLLIS, Excess
WITHERS, George ARMIDA see TASSO, Torquato, Gerusalemme Liberate
. Emblemes, Abduction/Rape
. . ARTEGAL see ARTHURIAN LEGENDS
WITTENWILER ARTHUR, King see ARTHURIAN LEGENDS
Ring, Peasantry ATLANTE see ARIOSTO, Ludovico, Orlando Furioso
WODEHOUSE, P. G. AVALOM see ARTHURIAN LEGENDS
"Rough-Hew Them How We Will," Artists/Art BASSANO see SHAKESPEARE, William, Merchant of
WOLF, Johannes Venice
Lectionam memorabilium et reconditurum Centenarii BEATRICE see DANTE, Dunne Comedy
SVI, Birth/Childbirth BELLE DAME SANS MERCI see KEATS, John
WOLGENUT, Michael BENNETT, Elizabeth see AUSTEN, Jane, Pride and
Dance of Death, Vanity/Vanitas Prejudice
WOLLSTONECRAFT, Mary, Birth/Childbirth BIRENO see ARIOSTO, Ludovico, Orlando Furioso
WOOLF, Virginia BRER RABBIT see REMUS, Uncle
To the Lighthouse, Artists/Art BRISCOE, Lily see WOOLF, Virginia, To the Lighthouse
Orlando, Artists/Art BRITOMART see ARTHURIAN LEGENDS
WORDSWORTH, William, Harvesting BUGS BUNNY see DISNEY, Walt
WYSS, Johan David CAMELOT see ARTHURIAN LEGENDS
Swiss Family Robinson, Shipwreck CELIA see ELIOT, T. S., Cocktail Party
CINDERELLA, Penitence/Repentance
XANTHOPOULOS, Nicephorus Kallistos, Self-Portraits I CLAUDIO see SHAKESPEARE, William, Measure for
XANTO, Love and Death Measure
XENOPHANES, Logos/Word CORYDON see VIRGIL
XENOPHON, Abduction/Rape, Choice/Choosing DAFFY DUCK see DISNEY, Walt
Memorabilia, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Excess DARCY see AUSTEN, Jane, Pride and Prejudice
DESDEMONA see SHAKESPEARE, William, Othello
YANG WAN-LI, Drunkenness/Intoxication DES ESSEINTES see HUYSMANS, Joris Karl
YATES, Edmund DIARMUID see MEDIEVAL ROMANCES
Land at Last, Artists/Art ERMINIA see TASSO, Torquato, Gerusalemme Liberate
YEATS, William Butler FAUST see GOETHE, Johann Wolfgang von, Faust;
Second Coming, Order/Chaos MARLOWE, Christopher, Dr. Faustus
YOSHIHIRO MIZUHARA FINN, Huckleberry see TWAIN, Mark, Tom Sawyer
Sanka zushiki, Birth/Childbirth GRAlNNE see MEDIEVAL ROMANCES
YOUNG, Edward GRAY, Dorian see WILDE, Oscar
Night Thoughts, Dreams/Visions GRETCHEN GOETHE, Johann Wolfgang
see von, Faust
GUINEVERE see ARTHURIAN LEGENDS
ZAMORA, Antonio de, Witchcraft/Sorcery HAGEN see NIBELUNGENLIED
ZINCGREFF, Julius Wilhelm HEMINIA see ERMINIA
Emblematum, Misfortune HESTER PRYNN see HAWTHORNE, Nathaniel, Scarlet
ZOLA, Emile, Apotheosis/Deification, Artists/Art, Letter
Bath/Bathing ISABELLA see BOCCACCIO, Giovanni, SHAKESPEARE,
Nana, Mirror/Reflection William, Measure for Measure
L'Ouevre, Artists/Art ISEULT (ISOLDE) see YSEULT
ZUCCARO, Federico, Imagination/Creativity IZANGA see NIHONGI
KHUSRAW see NIZAMI, Khusraw and Shirin
KRIEMHILD see NIBELUNGENLIED
CHARACTERS AND PLACES IN LADY OF THE LAKE see ARTHURIAN LEGENDS
LAUNCELOT see ARTHURIAN LEGENDS
LITERARY WORKS LYCIDAS see VIRGIL
AHASUARUS, Journey/Flight HUMBELOT, Jean
LYSIS see
ALGER, Horatio, Money MACBETH, Lady see SHAKESPEARE, William, Macbeth
ALICE see CARROLL, Lewis (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson), MARIANA see TENNYSON, Alfred Lord, Mariana
Alice in Wonderland MARK OF CORNWALL see ARTHURIAN LEGENDS
IO64 INDEX OF AUTHORS, LITERARY TEXTS, COMPOSERS, FILMMAKERS, AND FOLKTALES

MEDORA see ARIOSTO, Ludovico, Orlando Furioso RINALDO see TASSO, Torquato, Cerusalemme Liberate
MELEAGUANCH ARTHURIAN LEGENDS
see ROLAND see CHANSON DE ROLAND
MEPHISTOPHELES see GOETHE, Johann Wolfgang von, SEBASTIAN see SHAKESPEARE, William, Twelfth
Faust; MARLOWE, Christopher, Dr. Faustus Night
MERLIN see ARTHURIAN LEGENDS SHABDIZ see NIZAMI, Khusraw and Shirin
MORGAN LE FAY see ARTHURIAN LEGENDS SFIIRIN see NIZAMI, Khusraw and Shirin
ODYSSEUS see HOMER SHYLOCK see SHAKESPEARE, William, Merchant of
OEDIPUS see SOPHOCLES Venice
OLIMPIA see ARIOSTO, Ludovico, Orlando Furioso SIEGFRIED see NIBELUNGENLIED
OPHELIA see SHAKESPEARE, William, Hamlet TANCRED see MEDIEVAL ROMANCES
ORLANDO see ARIOSTO, Ludovico, Orlando Furioso THYRSIS VIRGIL
see
OTHELLO see SHAKESPEARE, William, Othello TRIMALCHIO see PETRONIUS, Satyncon
PAMELA see RICHARDSON, Samuel, Pamela TRISTAN (TRISTRAM) see ARTHURIAN LEGENDS
PAUL see BERNARDIN DE SAINT-PIERRE, Jacques Henri, TYLL EULENSOEIGEL, Laughter
Paul and Virginia UGOLINO see DANTE, Divine Comedy
PHYLLIS see ARISTOTLE AND PHYLLIS; VIRGIL VIOLA see SHAKESPEARE, William, Twelfth Night
PINABEL see ARIOSTO, Ludovico, Orlando Furioso VIRGINIA see BERNARDIN DE SAINT-PIERRE, Jacques
PORTIA see SHAKESPEARE, William, Merchant of Venice Henri, Paul and Virginia
PROSPERO see SHAKESPEARE, William, Tempest VIVIAN see ARTHURIAN LEGENDS
REYNARD THE FOX, Laughter YSEULT see ARTHURIAN LEGENDS
 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES
AND TERMS

The titles which the subject is found. See citations refer the reader to
after the index term refer to the essays in
the term within the index or to other indexes where primary information can be found. See also citations refer
the reader to other terms within the index or to other indexes where additional information can be found.

ABANDONMENT, Abandonment, Abduction/Rape, ABYSS, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Order/Chaos,

Adultery, Choice/Choosing, Destruction of City, Gaze, Path/Road/Crossroads, Plague/Pestilence, Vices/Deadly
Journey/Flight, Love and Death, Penitence/Repentance, Sins

Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, Sanctuary, Seasons, ACADEMIES/ACADEMICISM, Artists/Art,

Voyeurism, Widowhood Bacchanalia/Orgy, Imagination/Creativity, Naked/Nude,

ABDOMEN see STOMACH Order/Chaos, Patronage, Protestantism, Self-Portraits I,

ABDUCTION/RAPE, Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Self-Portraits II

Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth, Calumny, Destruction of ACANTHUS, Offering

City, Judgment, Madness, Marriage/Betrothal,

ACCUSE/ACCUSING/ACCUSATION(S), Adultery,

Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, Voyeurism,

Bath/Bathing, Betrayal, Calumny, Communion,
Envy, Evil Eye, Judgment, Luxury, Order/Chaos,
Witchcraft/Sorcery
Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence,
ABOLITIONIST(S), Margins/Outsiders
Pointing/Indicating, Toilet Scenes
ABSINTHE, Drunkenness/Intoxication
ACOLYTE(S), Fortune, Plague/Pestilence
ABSOLUTION, Penitence/Repentance, Sin/Sinning
ACROBAT(S), Margins/Outsiders, Masks/Personae, Upside
ABSTINENCE see CHASTITY
Down, Witchcraft/Sorcery
ABSTRACT/ABSTRACTION, Death,
ACTOR(S)/ACTRESS(ES), Masks/Personae, Money,
Imagination/Creativity, Light II, Masks/Personae,
Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues
Naked/Nude, Night, Self-Portraits I, Shipwreck, Sublime, ADMIRE/ADMIRER, Female Beauty and Adornment,
Upside Down, Virtue/Virtues Temptation, Toilet Scenes
ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM, Caricature/Cartoon, Night, ADOLESCENT(S) (see also YOUTH[S]),
Order/Chaos Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos
ABSURD/ABSURDITY, Dreams/Visions, Laughter, ADORATION see Index of Judeo-Christian Personages,
Order/Chaos Places and Concepts
ABUNDANCE, Abduction/Rape, Abundance, Evil Eye, ADORE see ADMIRE; LOVE; WORSHIP
Excess, Light I, Luxury, Misfortune, Months, Offering, ADORNMENT see FEMALE BEAUTY AND
Seasons, Virtue/Virtues ADORNMENT

1065
I066 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS

ADULTERY, Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Ascent/Descent, Fame, Fatal Woman/Femme

City, Ecstasy, Envy, Excess,
Calumny, Honor/Honoring, Judgment, Justice, Fatale,Female Beauty and Adornment, Fools/Folly,
Marriage/Betrothal, Mirror/Reflection, Music, Fortune, Gaze, Hair/Haircutting, Hanging, Harvesting,
Order/Chaos, Sin/Sinning, Toilet Scenes, Vices/Deadly Honor/Honoring, Humors, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
Sins Imagination/Creativity, Journey/Flight, Justice,
ADVENTURE, Journey/Flight I, Love and Death,
Kiss/Kissing, Laughter, Light
ADVERTISEMENT(S)/ADVERTISING, Comic, Luxury, Madness, Metamorphosis, Misfortune, Money,
Months, Naked/Nude, Sport, Widowhood Months, Music, Naked/Nude, Night, Path/
AEDICULA(E) see NICHE(S) Road/Crossroads, Penitence/Repentance, Plague/
AEGIS, Evil Eye, Hair/Haircutting Pestilence, Pregnancy, Protestantism, Seasons,
AESTHETIC(S)/AESTHETICISM, Devotion/Piety, Self-Portraits I, Serpent's Bite, Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning,
Naked/Nude, Nightmare, Patronage, Plague/Pestilence, Sleep/Sleeping, Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Sins,
Protestantism, Seasons, Sport Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness
AFRICA (personification), Naked/Nude ALLUSION(S), Honor/Honoring, Seasons, Self-Portraits I,

AFTERLIFE, Baptism, Damned Souls, Virtue/Virtues, Voyeurism

Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Death, Ecstasy, Fortune, Gaze, ALMANAC(S), Months
Honor/Honoring, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Judgment, ALMS/ALMSGIVING, Envy, Light I, Virtue/Virtues,
Justice, Light I, Love and Death, Plague/Pestilence, Widowhood
Sanctuary, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Widowhood ALPHA AND OMEGA, Music, Sacrifice
AGATE, Evil Eye ALTAR, Abandonment, Annunciation, Arms Raised,
AGES OF MAN, Journey/Flight, Humors, Communion, Crucifixion, Dawn/Dawning, Destruction
Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry, Seasons, of City, Female Beauty and Adornment, Gaze,
Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues Harvesting, Justice, Light I, Marriage/Betrothal,
AGES OF THE WORLD (Gold, Silver, Bronze, Iron), Martyrdom, Offering, Patronage, Plague/Pestilence,
Avarice, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Death, Expulsion, Justice, Protestantism, Sacrifice, Sanctuary, Virtue/Virtues,
Money, Seasons, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Virtue/Virtues Witchcraft/Sorcery
AGGRANDIZEMENT (see also SELF-AGGRANDIZE- ALTER-EGO, Masks/Personae
MENT), Comic, Peace AMBER, Luxury, Pregnancy
AGON, Sport AMBIGUITY, Comic, Dreams/Visions, Female Beauty and
AGRARIAN see AGRICULTURE Adornment, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Judgment,
AGRARIAN UNREST see LABOR UNREST Masks/Personae, Mirror/Reflection, Music, Naked/Nude,
AGRICULTURE, Abundance, Destruction of City, Night, Protestantism, Self-Portraits II, Serpent's Bite,
Harvesting, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Months, Toilet Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas, Virgin/Virginity,
Peasantry, Seasons, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Serpent's Widowhood
Bite, Zodiac AMBIVALENCE see AMBIGUITY
AIDS, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Margins/Outsiders, AMBUSH, Path/Road/Crossroads
Plague/Pestilence, Sin/Sinning AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, Destruction of City
AIR, Humors, Light II, Plague/Pestilence, Witchcraft/Sorcery, AMERICAN REVOLUTION, Martyrdom, Sacrifice,
Zodiac Whiteness
AIRPLANE(S), Misfortune AMORETTO(I), Love and Death
AIR RAID(S), Order/Chaos AMPUTATION, Dreams/Visions, Sacrifice
ALBA, Duchess of, Gaze AMULET(S), Evil Eye, Toilet Scenes
ALBA, Duke of, Fools/Folly ANALOGY, Plague/Pestilence, Toilet Scenes,
ALBERT, Prince, of England, Artists/Art Witchcraft/Sorcery
ALCHEMY, Ascent/Descent, Harvesting, ANAMNESIS, Devotion/Piety
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Judaism, Melancholy, ANARCHY/ANARCHIST(S), Martyrdom, Peasantry
Metamorphosis, Money, Nightmare, Order/Chaos, ANATOMY, Imagination/Creativity, Martyrdom,
Vices/Deadly Sins Naked/Nude, Vanity/Vanitas
ALCOHOLISM, Drunkenness/Intoxication, ANCESTOR(S), Journey/Flight, Peace, Sanctuary,
Masks/Personae, Vices/Deadly Sins Vanity/Vanitas
ALFRED THE GREAT, Fortune ANCHOR(S), Night, Protestantism, Virtue/Virtues
ALIEN(S), Abduction/Rape, Margins/Outsiders ANDRE, Ellen, Drunkenness/Intoxication
ALIENATION, Artists/Art, Dreams/Visions, ANDREOSIA, Honor/Honoring
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fools/Folly, Hanging, ANDROGYNE see HERMAPHRODITE/ANDROGYNE
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Margins/Outsiders, ANEMONE, Adultery, Love and Death, Metamorphosis
Masks/Personae, Upside Down, Widowhood ANGEL(S) see Index of Judeo-Christian Personages, Places,
ALLEGORY, Abduction/Rape, Abundance, Adultery, and Concepts
Artists/Art, Ascent/Descent, Avarice, Betrayal, ANGEL OF DEATH, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
Birth/Childbirth,Calumny, Comic, Communion, Damned ANGELICA (musical instrument), Music
Souls, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Death, Destruction of ANGST, Masks/Personae
 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS IO67

ANGUISH see DISTRESS APRON(S), Naked/Nude, Pregnancy, Sin/Sinning,

ANIMAL(S), Automata, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Temptation, Whiteness
Beheading/Decapitation, Birth/Childbirth, AQUARIUS (zodiacal constellation), Zodiac
Caricature/Cartoon, Comic, Crucifixion, Death, AQUATIC MAZE see LABYRINTH/MAZE
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Ecstasy, Evil Eye, Excess, ARAB(S), Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
Expulsion, Fools/Folly, Fortune, Honor/Honoring, ARC (river), Bath/Bathing
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Journey/Flight, ARCADIA, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Laughter, Love and Death, ARCH/ARCHWAY, Baptism, Damned Souls,
Luxury, Madness, Masks/Personae, Metamorphosis, Dawn/Dawning, Honor/Honoring, Journey/Flight, Light
Mirror/Reflection, Misfortune, Money, Months, Music, I, Logos/Word, Martyrdom, Path/Road/Crossroads,

Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos, Peasantry, Physiognomy, Pregnancy, Sanctuary, Seasons, Visiting/Visitation, Zodiac

Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, Sacrifice, Sanctuary, Self- ARCHER(S)/ARCHERY see BOW (AND ARROW[Sj)
Portraits I, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Serpent's Bite, ARCHETYPE(S), Witchcraft/Sorcery
Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Temptation, Upside Down, ARCHITECT(S)/ARCHITECTURE, Abandonment,
Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virgin/Virginity, Annunciation, Apocalypse, Artists/Art, Birth/Childbirth,
Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac Fame, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Logos/Word,
ANIMATION, Masks/Personae Order/Chaos, Patronage, Pregnancy, Sanctuary, Sublime,
ANIMISM/ANIMALISTIC, Dreams/Visions, Sin/Sinning Temptation, Voyeurism
ANKH (symbol of life), Baptism, Pregnancy ARCTIC, Shipwreck
ANNE OF BRITTANY, Fortune ARCTOPHALAX see ARCTURUS
ANNUNCIATION {see also Index of Judeo- Christian ARCTURUS (star), Pregnancy
Personages, Places, and Concepts), Annunciation, ARGENTI, FILIPPO, Damned Souls
Path/Road/Crossroads, Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy, ARIES (zodiacal constellation), Zodiac
Reading, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Virgin/Virginity, ARISTOCRAT(S)/ARISTOCRACY, Automata,
Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation Fortune, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Kiss/Kissing,
ANOINT/ANOINTING, Crucifixion, Fortune, Gaze, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Labyrinth/Maze, Laughter,
Hair/Haircutting, Penitence/Repentance, Sin/Sinning, Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/Betrothal, Months,
Toilet Scenes, Witchcraft/Sorcery Patronage, Peasantry, Shepherds/Shepherdesses,
ANOMIE, Margins/Outsiders Sin/Sinning, Sport, Voyeurism, Whiteness
ANTELOPE(S), Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Masks/Personae, ARLECHCCINO see HARLEQUIN
Metamorphosis ARMBAND(S), Widowhood
ANTHROPOLOGY, Physiognomy ARMS/ARMOR, Expulsion, Fortune, Honor/Honoring,
ANTHROPOMORPHISM, Shepherds/Shepherdesses Journey/Flight, Luxury, Madness, Months, Naked/Nude,
ANTI-MASS see BLACK MASS Night, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peace, Peasantry,
ANTIPODES, Upside Down Pointing/Indicating, Sacrifice, Sanctuary, Sin/Sinning,
ANTIQUE/ANTIQUITY (frequently used term; not indexed) Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues
ANTI-SEMITISM, Money ARMS RAISED, Abandonment, Arms Raised, Baptism,
ANTLERS, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress Beheading/Decapitation, Birth/Childbirth,
ANTONISSES, Reynier, Vanity/Vanitas Drunkenness/Intoxication, Female Beauty and
ANXIETY, Automata, Death, Gaze, Hair/Haircutting, Adornment, Fortune, Gaze, Honor/Honoring,
Naked/Nude, Nightmare, Penitence/Repentance, II, Metamorphosis, Naked/Nude,
Justice, Light
Pregnancy Penitence/Repentance, Sacrifice, Sleep/Sleeping,
APE(S) see MONKEY(S) Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery,
APHRODISIAC, Drunkenness/Intoxication Zodiac
APOCALYPSE, Apocalypse, Dreams/Visions, Judgment, ARNO, Abundance
Music, Night, Nightmare, Order/Chaos, Sublime, ARROW(S) see BOW (AND ARROW[S])
Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Sins ARS SACRA, Plague/Pestilence
APOLLO XI, Journey/Flight ART see ARTISTS/ART
APOSTLE(S) (see also Index of Judeo-Christian Personages, ART BRUT, Margins/Outsiders
Places, and Concepts), Witchcraft/Sorcery ART COLLECTING/COLLECTIONS, Abandonment,
APOTHEOSIS/DEIFICATION, Apotheosis/Deification, Artists/Art, Imagination/Creativity, Madness, Money,
Abundance, Devotion/Piety, Gaze, Honor/Honoring Path/Road/Crossroads, Patronage, Self-Portraits I

APPLE(S), Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Bacchanalia/Orgy, ART CRITIC(S), Fools/Folly, Self-Portraits I

Choice/Choosing, Damned Souls, Expulsion, ART DEALER(S), Patronage, Temptation

Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Humors, Judaism, ART DECO, Peasantry
Judgment, Light I, Melancholy, Self-Portraits I, ARTES LIBERALES see LIBERAL ARTS
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, Temptation ART GUILD(S), Artists/Art, Self-Portraits I, Self-Portraits II

APPRENTICE/APPRENTICESHIP, ARTIFICE/ARTIFICIAL, Automata, Marriage/Betrothal,

Labor/Trades/Occupations, Witchcraft/Sorcery Masks/Personae, Mirror/Reflection, Seasons, Self-

APPROPRIATION, Abundance, Order/Chaos, Voyeurism Portraits II, Shepherds/Shepherdesses

I068 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS

ARTISTS/ART, Abandonment, Artists/Art, Automata, Imagination/Creativity, Madness, Margins/Outsiders,

Death, Fame, Female Beauty and Adornment, Fortune, Masks/Personae, Melancholy, Misfortune, Months,
Hair/Haircutting, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peace, Penitence/Repentance,
Honor/I [onoring, Huntmg/Hunter/Huntress, Seasons, Self-Portraits I, Shepherds/Shepherdesses,
Imagination/Creativity, Kiss/Kissing, Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues, Widowhood
1 abor/Trades/Occupations, Labyrinth/Maze, Laughter, ATTRITION, Penitence/Repentance
I ight II, Love and Death, Luxury, Madness, AUDIENCE see SPECTATOR(S)
Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/Betrothal, Martyrdom, AUGSBURG, Protestantism
Masks/Personae, Melancholy, Metamorphosis, AUGURY see DIVINATION
Mirror/Reflection, Money, Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos, AURI Ol I /I I \I < >, Abandonment, Apotheosis/Deification,
Path/Road/Crossroads, Patronage, Peasantry, Ascent/Descent, Communion, Light I, Light II,

Physiognomy, Plague/Pestilence, Pointing/Indicating, Margins/Outsiders, Martyrdom, Mirror/Reflection,

Pregnane), Protestantism, Reading, Seasons, Self-Portraits Sacrifice, Self-Portraits I, Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning
I, Self-Portraits 11, Serpent's Bite, Temptation, AUSTERITY, Devotion/Piety, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne
Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation, AUTOBIOGRAPHY, Artists/Art, Masks/Personae, Peace
Voyeurism, Zodiac AUTOMATA, Automata, Dreams/Visions
ART MARKET, Artists/Art, Mirror/Reflection, Patronage, AUTOMATIC WRITING, Imagination/Creativity
Peasantry, Physiognomy AUTOMOBILE(S), Marriage/Betrothal
ART THEORY, Imagination/Creativity, Naked/Nude, Self-
AUTUMN see SEASONS
Portraits I, Sublime AVALANCHE(S), Sublime
ART-UNION, Harvesting AVANT-GARDE, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Patronage
ASCENT/DESCENT, Annunciation, Apotheosis/Deification, AVARICE, Ascent/Descent, Avarice, Caricature/Cartoon,
Ascent/Descent, Damned Souls, Dreams/Visions,
Comic, Envy, Excess, Fools/Folly, Fortune, Madness,
Fortune, Gaze, Light I, Metamorphosis, Order/Chaos,
Masks/Personae, Melancholy, Mirror/Reflection,
Path/Road/Crossroads, Plague/Pestilence, Sacrifice,
Money, Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Vices/Deadly Sins,
Sanctuary, Seasons, Sleep/Sleeping, Upside Down,
Widowhood
Virtue/Virtues,
Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness
AVIATION, Labor/Trades/Occupations
ASCETIC/ASCETICISM, Naked/Nude,
AVIGNON, Widowhood
Penitence/Repentance, Virgin/Virginity
AVRIL, Jane, Dance/Dancers/Dancing
ASH(ES), Vanity/Vanitas
AWAKEN/AWAKENING, Ecstasy, Shipwreck, Sleep/Sleeping
ASH CAN SCHOOL, Bath/Bathing, Night
AWE, Night, Sublime, Visiting/Visitation
ASS(ES), Caricature/Cartoon, Fools/Folly,
AX/AXE/AXES, Death, Labor/Trades/Occupations,
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Judgment, Laughter,
Labyrinth/Maze
Light II, Madness, Peasantry
AXIS, Ascent/Descent, Dawn/Dawning, Sanctuary, Zodiac
ASSASSINATION, Sacrifice, Sanctuary
AXIS MUNDI, Ascent/Descent
ASSES' EARS, Bacchanalia/Orgy
ASSES' JAW-BONE, Envy
BABOON(S), Vices/Deadly Sins
ASSOCIATION(S), Honor/Honoring,
BABY/BABIES see INFANT(S)/INFANCY/INFANTALISM
Imagination/Creativity, Nightmare, Patronage,
Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Sublime,
BACCHANALIA/ORGY, Abandonment, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness
ASTROLOGER(S)/ASTROLOGY, Melancholy, Music,
Honor/Honoring, Imagination/Creativity, Love and
Death, Music, Plague/Pestilence, Sin/Sinning,
Physiognomy, Vices/Deadly Sins, Witchcraft/Sorcery,
Zodiac Witchcraft/Sorcery

ASTRONOMER(S)/ASTRONOMY, Dawn/Dawning, BACK-PACK, Path/Road/Crossroads

Excess, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Months, BACKWARD, Upside Down, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Protestantism, Sanctuary, Seasons, Zodiac BAD/BADNESS see EVIL
ASYLUM see MADHOUSE; SANCTUARY BADGER(S), Vices/Deadly Sins

ATHEN1ENNE, Whiteness BAD GOVERNMENT see GOOD AND BAD

ATHLETE(S)/ATHLETIC GAMES, Gaze, Hair/Haircutting, GOVERNMENT
Martyrdom, Naked/Nude, Pregnancy, Sacrifice, Sport, BAGPIPE(S)/BAGPIPER(S), Caricature/Cartoon,
Zodiac Marriage/Betrothal, Music, Peasantry,
ATLANTA, Georgia, Destruction of City Shepherds/Shepherdesses
ATLAS, Charles, Comic BAHAMAS, Shipwreck
ATOM(S), Order/Chaos BAILLE, Baptistin, Bath/Bathing
ATONEMENT, Judgment, Martyrdom, BAIT/BAITING, Sport
Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence, Protestantism, BAKER(S)/BAKING/BAKERY, Labor/Trades/Occupations,
Sacrifice, Sin/Sinning, Vices/Deadly Sins Luxury, Pregnancy
ATTRIBLJTES, Abundance, Female Beauty and Adornment, BALANCE(S) see SCALE(S)
Fame, Fortune, Gaze, Honor/Honoring, BALANCHINE, George, Dance/Dancers/Dancing
 IND1 X OF OIIII K NAMI-.S ANIJ li K.MS IO69

BALD/BALDNESS, Evil Eye, Fools/Folly, Fortune, Humors, Naked/Nude, Offering, Peasantry, Pregnancy, Seasons,
Naked/Nude Voyeurism
Toilet Scenes, Virgin/Virginity,
BALDRICK(S), Zodiac BATH HOUSES, Bath/Bathing, Sin/Sinning
BALL(S), Evil Eye, Fools/Folly, Fortune, Sport, BATHING SUIT, Months
Virtue/Virtues BATHTUB, Voyeurism
BALLET, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Mirror/Reflection, BATON(S), Fortune, Peace
Music, Seasons BATTLE(S) see COMBAT(S)
BALLOON(S), Journey/Flight BATTLE OF THE SEXES, Sin/Sinning
BALUSTRADE(S), Misfortune, Temptation BAUBLE(S), Fools/Folly
BAMBOO, Seasons BAUHAUS, Upside Down
BANDEROLE(S), Protestantism BAWDINESS, Masks/Personae
BAND, Zodiac BEAD(S), Evil Eye
BANDIT(S)/BAND/r77, Sublime BEAN(S), Laughter
BANISHMENT, Adultery, Betrayal, Pregnancy BEAR(S) {see also POLAR BEARS), Expulsion,
BANK(S)/BANKER(S), Money, Patronage, Vanity/Vanitas Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Light I, Madness,
BANKRUPTCY, Self-Portraits I
Order/Chaos, Pregnancy, Sport, Zodiac
BANNER(S), Communion, Hanging, Honor/Honoring, BEARD(S), Crucifixion, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
Journey/Flight, Marriage/Betrothal, Martyrdom, Hair/Haircutting, Honor/Honoring, Humors,

Plague/Pestilence
Masks/Personae, Mirror/Reflection, Misfortune,
Order/Chaos, Sacrifice, Self-Portraits
BANNS, Marriage/Betrothal
I

BANQUET see FEAST BEAST(S) see ANIMAL(S)

BAPTISM, Baptism, Birth/Childbirth, Ecstasy,
BEAUTY/BEAUTIFUL, Abandonment, Abundance,
Choice/Choosing, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Envy,
Journey/Flight, Plague/Pestilence, Protestantism,
Female Beauty and Adornment, Gaze, Hair/Haircutting,
Sin/Sinning, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Hanging, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Honor/Honoring,
BARA, Theda, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale
Judgment, Light II, Love and Death, Masks/Personae,
BARBARIAN(S), Excess, Luxury, Order/Chaos
Months, Naked/Nude, Night, Offering, Order/Chaos,
BARBER(S), Labor/Trades/Occupations, Mirror/Reflection
Path/Road/Crossroads, Patronage, Peasantry,
BARBERINI, Maffeo, Self-Portraits I
Penitence/Repentance, Physiognomy, Pregnancy, Sacrifice,
BARDI, Leonora, Marriage/Betrothal
Seasons, Sport, Sublime, Temptation, Toilet Scenes,
BAREFOOT, Fortune, Madness, Misfortune, Peasantry,
Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation, Whiteness
Penitence/Repentance, Sin/Sinning
BED/BED CHAMBER, Adultery, Annunciation,
BARLEY, Marriage/Betrothal
Birth/Childbirth, Death, Dreams/Visions, Excess, Female
BARN(S)/BARNYARD(S), Harvesting, Peasantry,
Beauty and Adornment, Gaze, Love and Death, Luxury,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses
Madness, Marriage/Betrothal, Nightmare, Order/Chaos,
BARONCELLI, Barnardo di Bandino, Hanging
Pregnancy, Sleep/Sleeping, Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly
BAROQUE, Devotion/Piety, Ecstasy, Gaze,
Sins, Virgin/Virginity
Imagination/Creativity, Judgment, Martyrdom,
BEE(S)/BEEKEEPING, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
Naked/Nude, Plague/Pestilence, Sacrifice, Sublime,
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Serpent's Bite
Vices/Deadly Sins
BEER, Self-Portraits I

BARQUE see SHIP

BEETLE(S), Caricature/Cartoon
BARREL(S), Abundance, Judgment, Money, Order/Chaos BEG/BEGGAR(S)/BEGGING, Damned Souls, Fools/Folly,
BARREN/BARRENNESS, Abduction/Rape, Fatal Fortune, Margins/Outsiders, Masks/Personae, Money,
Woman/Femme Fatale, Protestantism, Sacrifice, Seasons, Protestantism, Virtue/Virtues
Widowhood
Visiting/Visitation,
BEHEADING/DECAPITATION, Automata,
BARRIER(S)/BARRICADE(S) see MARGINS/OUTSIDER Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
BARTHOLOMEW MASSACRE, Protestantism Ecstasy, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Hair/Haircutting,
BAS-DE-PAGE IMAGES see MARGINS/OUTSIDERS Honor/Honoring, Judgment, Justice, Martyrdom,
BASILICA(S), Light I, Sanctuary Metamorphosis, Nightmare, Sanctuary, Self-Portraits I,

BASIN(S) see BOWL(S) Virtue/Virtues

BASKET(S), Abandonment, Abundance, BELIEF see FAITH/FAITHFUL
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Honor/Honoring, Light I,
BELL(S), Automata, Fools/Folly, Margins/Outsiders,
Months, Peasantry, Virtue/Virtues Melancholy, Music
BAT(S), Death, Dreams/Visions, Fame, Melancholy, BELLY see STOMACH
Nightmare BELT(S), Journey/Flight, Marriage/Betrothal
BATH/BATHING {see also WASH/WASHING), BEREND-CORINTH, Charlotte, Pregnancy
Bath/Bathing, Birth/Childbirth, Calumny, Comic, BERGERIE STYLE, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
Expulsion, Female Beauty and Adornment, Gaze, BERLIN, Order/Chaos
Humors, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Logos/Word, Luxury, BESTIALITY, Excess, Music
Marriage/Betrothal, Melancholy, Metamorphosis, BET(S)/BETTING see GAMBLER(S)/GAMBLING
1070 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS

BETHLEM (BEDLAM), Madness BLAME, Expulsion, Fame, Humors, Pointing/Indicating,

BETRAYAL, Betrayal, Hair/Haircutting, Kiss/Kissing, Temptation, Vices/Deadly Sins
Path/Road/( rossroads, Penitence/Repentance, BLANCHE OF CASTILE, Patronage
Witchcraft/Sorcery BLASPHEMER(S)/BLASPHEMY, Misfortune, Peasantry,
BETROTHAL see MARRIAGE/BETROTHAL Plague/Pestilence, Sin/Sinning
BEWITCH (ED) see WITCHCRAFT/SORCERY BLEEDING see BLOOD/BLEEDING
BIAGGIO DA CESENA, Judgment BLESS/BLESSING (see also GRACE [DIVINE]), Apocalypse,
BIAS, Physiognomy Apotheosis/Deification, Arms Raised, Baptism,
BIBLE(S)/BIBLICAL (frequently used term; not indexed) Bath/Bathing, Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth, Communion,
BICYCLE(S), Comic Dawn/Dawning, Honor/Honoring, Light I, Order/Chaos,
BIER see FUNERAL/BURIAL Plague/Pestilence, Protestantism, Virtue/Virtues
BILE, Humors, Melancholy, Sin/Sinning BLIND/BLINDNESS, Avarice, Dreams/Visions, Fatal
Widowhood
BILL(S), Woman/Femme Fatale, Fortune, Hair/Haircutting,
BILLBOARD(S) see ADVERTISING Journey/Flight, Judaism, Judgment, Light I,

BILLIARDS, Sport Margins/Outsiders, Masks/Personae, Reading,

BINDING (see also BONDAGE), Toilet Scenes Sin/Sinning, Virtue/Virtues
BIRD(S), Apocalypse, Caricature/Cartoon, BLINDFOLD(ED), Fortune, Justice, Sin/Sinning,
Communion, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Ecstasy, Virtue/Virtues
Evil Eye, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Fortune, BLISS, Expulsion, Love and Death
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Journey/Flight, Judaism, BLOCK(S), Fortune
Light I, Masks/Personae, Melancholy, Metamorphosis, BLOOD/BLEEDING, Abundance, Bath/Bathing,
Mirror/Reflection, Order/Chaos, Pregnancy, Communion, Damned Souls, Death, Destruction of City,
Protestantism, Sanctuary, Seasons, Witchcraft/Sorcery Dreams/Visions, Excess, Gaze, Hair/Haircutting,
BIRD CAGE, Annunciation Honor/Honoring, Humors, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
BIRTH/CHILDBIRTH, Baptism, Birth/Childbirth, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Love and Death, Martyrdom,
Dawn/Dawning, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Death, Melancholy, Metamorphosis, Mirror/Reflection, Peace,
Expulsion, Fame, Gaze, Journey/Flight, Judgment, Protestantism, Sacrifice, Sanctuary, Shipwreck,
Justice, Laughter, Naked/Nude, Offering, Order/Chaos, Sin/Sinning, Sport, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues,
Peace, Pregnancy, Sacrifice, Sanctuary, Sin/Sinning, Whiteness, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
Sleep/Sleeping, Vanity/Vanitas, Virgin/Virginity, BLOOM(S)/BLOOMING see FLOWER(S)/FLOWERING
Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation, Zodiac BLOSSOM(S)/BLOSSOMING see
BIRTH CANAL, Birth/Childbirth, Pregnancy FLOWER(S)/FLOWERING
BIRTH CONTROL/POPULATION CONTROL, Pregnancy, BLOUNT, Theresa, Whiteness
Sacrifice BLUE (color), Journey/Flight, Light II, Night, Order/Chaos,
BIRTHDAY(S), Beheading/Decapitation, Shipwreck, Temptation, Zodiac
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Ecstasy, Fame, Fortune, BOAR(S), Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Love and Death,
Honor/Honoring, Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac Metamorphosis, Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac
BIRTHING CHAIR, Birth/Childbirth, Pregnancy BOAT(S) see SHIP(S)
BIRTH PLATTER (Desco da parto), Birth/Childbirth BODY/BODIES/FLESH (see also CORPSE/CORPSES),
BIRTHRIGHT, Betrayal, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress Abundance, Adultery, Annunciation, Artists/Art,
BIRTHSTOOL, Birth/Childbirth Ascent/Descent, Baptism, Beheading/Decapitation,
BITE(S)/BITING, Caricature/Cartoon, Crucifixion, Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth, Caricature/Cartoon,
Fools/Folly, Love and Death, Melancholy, Offering, Choice/Choosing, Comic, Communion, Crucifixion,
Order/Chaos, Pregnancy, Serpent's Bite Damned Souls, Death, Dreams/Visions,
BITTERSWEET, Love and Death Drunkenness/Intoxication, Ecstasy, Fatal Woman/Femme
BLACK/BLACKNESS/DARK/DARKNESS, Apocalypse, Fatale, Female Beauty and Adornment, Fools/Folly,
Communion, Crucifixion, Death, Fame, Fortune, Gaze, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Humors, Judaism,
Hanging, Judaism, Laughter, Light I, Light II, Luxury, Kiss/Kissing, Laughter, Logos/Word, Love and Death,
Madness, Margins/Outsiders, Masks/Personae, Luxury, Masks/Personae, Melancholy, Metamorphosis,
Melancholy, Misfortune, Night, Nightmare, Mirror/Reflection, Music, Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos,
Order/Chaos, Pregnancy, Sanctuary, Self-Portraits I, Physiognomy, Pregnancy, Sacrifice, Serpent's Bite,
Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Sublime, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Sport, Sublime, Temptation,
Down, Visiting/Visitation, Whiteness,
Temptation, Upside Toilet Scenes, Upside Down, Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly
Widowhood, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac Sins, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation,
BLACKBIRD(S), Zodiac Voyeurism, Whiteness, Witchcraft/Sorcery
BLACK DEATH see PLAGUE/PESTILENCE BODY LANGUAGE (see also
BLACK MAN/MEN see NEGRO(S) POSE[S]/POSTURE/STANCE), Arms Raised, Love
BLACK MASS, Witchcraft/Sorcery and Death, Order/Chaos, Penitence/Repentance,
BLACKSMITH see SMITH(S) Physiognomy, Pointing/Indicating
BLADDER, Fools/Folly BOHEMIAN(S), Artists/Art, Masks/Personae, Melancholy
 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS 1071

BOILING OIL, Judgment, Virtue/Virtues of City, Evil Eye, Expulsion, Fame, Fatal Woman/Femme
BOLLANDISTS, Martyrdom Female Beauty and Adornment, Fortune, Gaze,
Fatale,
BOMBING, Apocalypse, Death Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Love and Death,
BONDAGE BINDING), Masks/Personae,
(see also Martyrdom, Misfortune, Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos,
Misfortune, Naked/Nude Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, Sacrifice, Sin/Sinning,
BONE(S) see ASSES' JAW BONE; CROSS BONES; SKULL; Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Widowhood,
SKELETON Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
BONFIRE(S), Luxury BREATH/BREATHING, Kiss/Kissing, Nightmare,
BONNET see HAT(S) Order/Chaos
BOOK(S), Apocalypse, Fools/Folly, Fortune, BREEZE(S), Love and Death
Honor/Honoring, Judgment, Justice, Light I, BRIBE(S), Sin/Sinning
Logos/Word, Melancholy, Music, Peasantry, BRICK(S)/BRICKLAYING, Labor/Trades/Occupations,
Penitence/Repentance, Pregnancy, Protestantism, Path/Road/Crossroads, Sanctuary
Reading, Sleep/Sleeping, Toilet Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas, BRIDAL DRESS, Laughter
Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery, BRIDE(S), Abandonment, Abduction/Rape, Bath/Bathing,
Zodiac Death, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Love and Death,
BOOKKEEPER(S), Virtue/Virtues Marriage/Betrothal, Mirror/Reflection, Peasantry,
BOOKMAKER(S), Margins/Outsiders Penitence/Repentance, Sacrifice, Sin/Sinning, toilet

BOONE, Daniel, Path/Road/Crossroads Scenes, Virgin/Virginity, Widowhood

BOOT(S) (see also SHOE[S]), Order/Chaos, Seasons BRIDEGROOM, Abduction/Rape, Bath/Bathing,
BORAGE (herb), Melancholy Communion, Marriage/Betrothal, Martyrdom
BORDELLO see BROTHEL(S) BRIDE-PRICE, Marriage/Betrothal
BORDER(S)/BORDERLINE(S) see MARGINS/OUTSIDERS BRIDGE, Choice/Choosing, Hanging, Judgment, Night,
BORGIA, Lucretia, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale Path/Road/Crossroads, Vices/Deadly Sins
BOTTLE(S)/BOTTLE RACK, Drunkenness/Intoxication, BRIDLE(S), Fortune, Justice, Virtue/Virtues
Excess, Order/Chaos, Toilet Scenes, Vices/Deadly Sins, BRIER(S), Misfortune
Virgin/Virginity BRIGAND(S), Path/Road/Crossroads
BOUDOIR, Adultery, Female Beauty and Adornment, Toilet BROKEN/CRACKED/SHATTERED/DAMAGED,
Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas Abundance, Damned Souls, Dance/Dancers/Dancing,
BOULDER see STONE(S) Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fortune, Honor/Honoring,
BOUNDARY/BOUNDARIES see MARGINS/OUTSIDERS Judaism, Martyrdom, Mirror/Reflection, Misfortune,
BOURGEOIS/BURGHER(S), Female Beauty and Months, Music, Order/Chaos, Sacrifice, Shipwreck,
Adornment, Masks/Personae, Money, Self-Portraits I, Sublime, Virtue/Virtues
Sin/Sinning, Sport, Whiteness BROKENHEARTED, Reading
BOURGOGNE, House of, Fools/Folly BRONZE AGE see AGES OF THE WORLD
BOVINE see COW(S)/CALF/CALVES/CATTLE/CATTLE BROOCH(ES), Birth/Childbirth, Hair/Haircutting,
RAISING Widowhood
BOW/BOWING (gesture), Visiting/Visitation BROOMSTICK(S), Witchcraft/Sorcery
BOW (AND ARROW[S])/ARCHER(S)/ARCHERY, BROTHEL(S), Female Beauty and Adornment,
Adultery, Apocalypse, Ecstasy, Fortune, Honor/Honoring, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Martyrdom, Music,
Humors, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Martyrdom, Naked/Nude, Sin/Sinning, Temptation
Metamorphosis, Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, BROTHER(S), Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Ascent/Descent,
Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac Baptism, Betrayal, Caricature/Cartoon, Damned Souls,
BOWL(S)/BASIN(S), Birth/Childbirth, Destruction of City, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Envy,
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Money, Offering, Pregnancy, Hair/Haircutting, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Judgment,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Temptation, Virtue/Virtues Kiss/Kissing, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Love and
BOWLING, Death, Sport Death, Marriage/Betrothal, Night, Offering,
BOXER(S)/BOXING, Death, Naked/Nude Order/Chaos, Patronage, Penitence/Repentance,
BOY(S)see YOUTH(S) Protestantism, Sanctuary, Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning,
BRACELET, Female Beauty and Adornment Sleep/Sleeping, Temptation, VirtueA; irtues, Voyeurism,
BRAHE, Tycho, Protestantism Zodiac
BRAIN(S), Beheading/Decapitation BROTHERHOOD, Communion, Path/Road/Crossroads
BRAUDREUIL, Guy de, Peace BROWN Judgment, Masks/Personae, Shipwreck,
(color),
BRAVERY see COURAGE/FORTITUDE/BRAVERY Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Sins, Whiteness
BRAZIER, Seasons BROWN, John, Dreams/Visions
BREAD, Betrayal, Communion, Fools/Folly, BRUMMEL, Beau, Whiteness
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Labor/Trades/Occupations, BRUNI, Leonardo, Honor/Honoring
Luxury, Path/Road/Crossroads, Plague/Pestilence, BRUSH(ES), Fame, Imagination/Creativity, Light II,

Pointing/Indicating, Protestantism, Temptation Peasantry, Self-Portraits I, Self-Portraits II, Toilet Scenes,

BREAST(S), Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth, Death, Destruction Virtue/Virtues
1071 INI)l\t«l Dl 111 K NAMKS AND II RMS

I'.KI SSI I
S, Pcnitcncc/Rcpcntancc CAMEL(S), Order/Chaos, Temptation, Visiting/Visitation
BRUYAS, Jacques Louis Alfred, Path/Road/Crossroads, Self- CAMEO(S), Female Beauty and Adornment
Portraits I CAMERA OBSCURA, Upside Down
BUBBLF(S), Female Beauty and Adornment, laughter, CAMOUFLAGE see DISGUISE
Music, Pregnancy, Vanity/Vanitas CANCER (disease), Plague/Pestilence
BUBO(S), Plague/Pestilence CANCER (zodiacal constellation), Zodiac
BUBONIC PLAGUE see PLAGUE/PESTILENCE CANDLE(S)/CANDLELIGHT/CANDLESTICK7
BUCK, Hanging
Pearl, CANDELABRA, Death, Female Beauty and Adornment,
BUCKET(S), Abduction/Rape Fortune, Light II, Madness, Metamorphosis,
BUCRANIA, Virtue/Virtues Mirror/Reflection, Order/Chaos, Penitence/Repentance,
BUFFALO, Ecstasy, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress Reading, Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues
BUFFOON(S), Masks/Personae, Sin/Sinning CANE(S), Penitence/Repentance
BULL(S)/STEER(S) {see also CANINE(S) see DOG(S)
COW[S]/CALF/CALVES/CATTLE/CATTLE RAISING), CANNIBALISM, Madness
Abduction/Rape, Abundance, Adultery, Automata, CANONIZATION, Martyrdom, Sanctuary
Bath/Bathing, Comic, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, CANOSSA, Penitence/Repentance
Destruction of City, Gaze, Imagination/Creativity, CAP(S) see HAT(S), MASKS/PERSONAE
Judgment, Labyrinth/Maze, Sacrifice, Sport, CAPITALISM, Artists/Art, Automata, Marriage/Betrothal,
Vanity/Vanitas, Zodiac Money
BULLA, Evil Eye CAPITAL PUNISHMENT, Hanging
BULLFIGHT, Death CAPRICCIO, Hanging
BULL-TERRIER, Physiognomy CAPRICORN (zodiacal constellation), Abundance,
BUMPKIN(S), Peasantry, Physiognomy Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
BUONDELMONTE, Ippolito, Marriage/Betrothal CARBUNCLE(S), Evil Eye
BURDEN, Jane, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale CARD(S) see CHRISTMAS CARD(S); GREETING
BURGHER(S) see BOURGEOIS/BURGHER(S) CARD(S); HOUSE OF CARDS; PLAYING CARD(S)
BURGUNDY, Duke of, Patronage CARDINAL VIRTUES see VIRTUE/VIRTUES
BURIAL see FUNERAL/BURIAL CARESS(ES), Avarice, Death, Ecstasy, Expulsion,
BURIED TREASURE, Night Order/Chaos, Toilet Scenes
BURLESQUE, Masks/Personae CARICATURE/CARTOON, Adultery,
BURNING see FIRE/FLAMES/BURNING/INFERNO Apotheosis/Deification, Calumny, Caricature/Cartoon,
BUSYBODY/BUSYBODIES, Widowhood Comic, Journey/Flight, Laughter, Margins/Outsiders,
BUST(S), Physiognomy, Self-Portraits I Masks/Personae, Money, Order/Chaos, Physiognomy,
BUTCHER(S), Pregnancy Self-Portraits I, Sin/Sinning, Witchcraft/Sorcery
BUTTERFLY/BUTTERFLIES, Caricature/Cartoon, CARITAS ROMANA, Evil Eye, Virtue/Virtues
Order/Chaos, Sanctuary, Vanity/Vanitas CARNATION(S), Vanity/Vanitas
BUTTOCK(S), Laughter, Masks/Personae, Naked/Nude CARNIVAL, Fools/Folly, Masks/Personae,
Path/Road/Crossroads, Upside Down
CABAL/CABALA/CABALIST(S), Love and Death, CARPENTER(S), Visiting/Visitation
Witchcraft/Sorcery CARPETS/RUGS/PRAYER RUGS, Light I, Luxury
CACOPHONY, Order/Chaos CARRARI, Francesco, the Elder, Fame
CADUCEUS, Fame, Fortune, Peace, Virtue/Virtues CARTELLO(S), Plague/Pestilence
CAFE(S), Marriage/Betrothal CARTES DE VISITES, Visiting/Visitation
CAGE(S), Madness, Self-Portraits I CARTOON see CARICATURE/CARTOON
CAKE(S), Fools/Folly, Fortune, Marriage/Betrothal, CASAGEMAS, Carlos, Fortune, Gaze
Pregnancy CASK(S), Misfortune
CALAIS, France, Destruction of City CAST(S), Imagination/Creativity, Peasantry, Physiognomy,
CALCULATION(S), Months Self-Portraits I

CALENDAR(S), Martyrdom, Months, Peasantry, CASTE see CLASS/CLASSES

Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sport, Zodiac CASTELLI, Leo, Patronage
CALF/CALVES see CASTLE(S)/PALACE(S), Fortune, Months, Peasantry,
CO W(S)/CALF/CALVES/CATTLE/CATTLE RAISING Sin/Sinning, Sublime, Temptation, Voyeurism,
CALF BEARER, Shepherds/Shepherdesses Witchcraft/Sorcery
CALIGARISME, Upside Down CASTRATION, Beheading/Decapitation,
i \1 IGRAPHIC/CALLIGRAPHY, Night
I Drunkenness/Intoxication, Hair/Haircutting, Madness
CALM/CALMING/CALMNESS, Light II, Masks/Personae, CASTRATO, Honor/Honoring
Mirror/Reflection, Months, Music, Order/Chaos, CAT(S), Comic, Dreams/Visions, Gaze, Judaism, Light II,
Pregnancy, Shipwreck, Whiteness Masks/Personae, Melancholy, Nightmare, Order/Chaos,
CALUMNY, Calumny, Fame, Imagination/Creativity, Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Toilet Scenes, Vices/Deadly Sins,
Judgment, Penitence/Repentance, Vices/Deadly Sins Witchcraft/Sorcery
 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS IO73

CATACLYSM(S), Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, CHARLES VII, King of France, Fortune

Plague/Pestilence CHARLOTTE, Queen of Britain, Patronage, Sin/Sinning
CATACOMB(S), Martyrdom CHARM(S) see INCANTATION(S)/SPELL(S)
CATASTROPHE(S), Misfortune, Order/Chaos CHASM see ABYSS
CATHARSIS, Gaze, Melancholy CHASTISE/CHASTISING, Fortune, Penitence/Repentance,
CATTLE/CATTLE-RAISING see Plague/Pestilence
COW(S)/CATTLE/CATTLE-RAISING CHASTITY, Betrayal, Fame, Honor/Honoring,
CAULDRON(S), Witchcraft/Sorcery Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Naked/Nude, Peace, Self-

CAVALIER(S), Temptation Portraits II, Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Vices/Deadly Sins,

CAVE(S), Abduction/Rape, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness, Widowhood,
Laughter, Light I, Light II, Love and Death, Sanctuary, Zodiac
Sleep/Sleeping, Sublime, Vanity/Vanitas CHASUBLE(S) see Index of Judeo-Christian Personages,
CELEBRATION(S) see Places, and Concepts
BIRTHDAY(S)/FESTIVAL(S)/HOLIDAY(S) CHECKER/CHECKERED, Gaze
CELEBRITY/CELEBRITIES, Fame CHEEK(S), Female Beauty and Adornment, Gaze,
CELIBACY see CHASTITY Melancholy, Widowhood
CEMETERY/CEMETERIES, Peace, Plague/Pestilence CHEESE, Pregnancy
CENSORSHIP/CENSURE, Caricature/Cartoon, Female CHEMISE, Penitence/Repentance
Beauty and Adornment, Pregnancy CHEMISTRY, Order/Chaos
CENTER, Death, Margins/Outsiders, Upside Down, CHERRY/CHERRIES, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Luxury
Zodiac
Visiting/Visitation, CHESS/CHESS BOARD, Adultery, Automata,
CEREMONY see FESTIVAL(S); RITUALS/RITES Labyrinth/Maze
CERUSE, Female Beauty and Adornment CHICKEN(S)/COCK(S)/ROOSTER(S), Caricature/Cartoon,
CHAIN(S), Abduction/Rape, Madness, Misfortune, Evil Eye, Fools/Folly, Peasantry, Penitence/Repentance,
Pregnancy, Sacrifice, Seasons, Self-Portraits I, Temptation, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
Virtue/Virtues CHICKERY, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
CHAIN OF BEING, Ascent/Descent, Mirror/Reflection CHIGI, Agostino, Honor/Honoring, Zodiac
CHALICE(S), Communion, Crucifixion, Fame, Patronage, CHILD/CHILDREN/CHILDHOOD, Abandonment,
Plague/Pestilence, Protestantism, Virtue/Virtues Abduction/Rape, Abundance, Bath/Bathing,
CHAMBERMAID see SERVANTS Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth, Death, Devotion/Piety,
CHAMBERS OF RHETORIC, Fools/Folly Fame, Fortune, Gaze,
Evil Eye, Expulsion,
CHAMELEON(S), Masks/Personae Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Honor/Honoring, Humors,
CHANCE, Fortune, Money, Order/Chaos, Upside Down, Journey/Flight, Judgment, Laughter, Margins/Outsiders,
Zodiac Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae, Mirror/Reflection,
CHANDELIER(S), Mirror/Reflection Naked/Nude, Night, Offering, Order/Chaos,
CHANGE see METAMORPHOSIS Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry, Plague/Pestilence,
CHANTELOU, Freart de, Penitence/Repentance Pregnancy, Protestantism, Sacrifice, Seasons, Self-Portraits
CHAOS see ORDER/CHAOS II, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Vanity/Vanitas,
CHAPERON(S), Pregnancy, Toilet Scenes Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation,
CHAPLIN, Charles, Masks/Personae Voyeurism, Widowhood, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
CHARIOT(S)/CHARIOTEER(S), Abduction/Rape, CHILDLESS see BARREN/BARRENNESS
Apotheosis/Deification, Dawn/Dawning, Excess, Fame, CHIMNEY(S), Witchcraft/Sorcery
Fortune, Honor/Honoring, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, CHINA, Seasons
Journey/Flight, Love and Death, Luxury, CHITON, Peasantry
Marriage/Betrothal, Night, Sport, Virtue/Virtues, CHIVALRY, Adultery, Zodiac
Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac CHOCOLATE(S), Pregnancy
CHARIOT RACING, Gaze CHOICE/CHOOSING, Ascent/Descent, Choice/Choosing,
CHARITY, Abandonment, Abundance, Damned Souls, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Excess, Light I,

Devotion/Piety, Envy, Fortune, Humors, Justice, Marriage/Betrothal, Mirror/Reflection,

Logos/Word, Peasantry, Plague/Pestilence, Vices/Deadly Path/Road/Crossroads, Pointing/Indicating,
Sins, Virtue/Virtues, Widowhood Protestantism, Self-Portraits II, Shipwreck, Virtue/Virtues
CHARLATAN(S), Masks/Personae, Metamorphosis CHOIR(S), Music
CHARLEMAGNE, Margins/Outsiders, CHOLERA, Death, Plague/Pestilence
Path/Road/Crossroads, Patronage, Protestantism, CHOLERIC, Humors, Melancholy, Order/Chaos,
Sin/Sinning, Zodiac Physiognomy, Sin/Sinning, Zodiac
CHARLES I, King of England, Honor/Honoring, Self- CHRISTIAN/CHRISTIANITY (frequently used term; not
Portraits I, Shepherds/Shepherdesses indexed)
CHARLES II, King of England, Destruction of City CHRISTINE OF LORRAINE, Honor/Honoring
CHARLES V, Emperor, Protestantism CHRISTMAS, Months, Peasantry, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
CHARLES VI, King of France, Fortune CHURCH (frequently used term; not indexed)
1074 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS

CHURCHMAN/CHURCHMEN, Comic, Death Birth/Childbirth, Dreams/Visions, Gaze, Kiss/Kissing,

CIBORIUM see Index of Judeo-Christian Personages, Places, Love and Death, Martyrdom, Night, Protestantism,
and Concepts Pregnancy, Seasons, Temptation, Vices/Deadly Sins,
CICADAS, Fame Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation, Whiteness,
CIDKR, I. a not/ Trades/Occupations Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
CIGAR(S), Drunkenness/Intoxication, Peasantry CLOCK(S)/WATCH(ES), Automata, Dreams/Visions, Music,
CIGARETTE(S), Drunkenness/Intoxication Order/Chaos, Seasons, Vanity/Vanitas
CINEMA/FILM, Artists/Art, Gaze CLOISONNIST STYLE, Labor/Trades/Occupations
CINNABAR, Dreams/Visions CLOTH OF HONOR, Marriage/Betrothal
CIRCLE(S), Fortune, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, CLOTHES/CLOTHING see COSTUME(S); DRESS
Kiss/Kissing, Labyrinth/Maze, Light II, CLOUD(S), Honor/Honoring, Justice, Light II,

Margins/Outsiders, Months, Music, Night, Order/Chaos, Mirror/Reflection, Order/Chaos, Plague/Pestilence,

Pregnancy, Sanctuary, Serpent's Bite, Shipwreck, Pregnancy, Sacrifice, Sublime, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Sin/Sinning, Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation, CLOWN(S)/CLOWNING, Comic, Hanging, Laughter,
Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac Masks/Personae, Upside Down
CIRCUMCISION, Offering, Sin/Sinning CLUB(S), Fools/Folly, Fortune, Path/Road/Crossroads,
CIRCUS, Masks/Personae, Upside Down Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac
CISTERN(S) see FOUNTAIN(S)/WELL(S)/CISTERN(S) CLYSTER, Melancholy
CITHERA, Birth/Childbirth, Music COACH/COACHES/COACHMEN, Path/Road/Crossroads
CITRUS, Offering COAL, Labor/Trades/Occupations
CITY/CITIES/CITYSCAPE (see also COAT(S) OF ARMS (see also HERALDRY), Upside Down,
URBAN/URBANIZATION), Abundance, Adultery, Vanity/Vanitas
Ascent/Descent, Destruction of City, Fame, Fortune, COCA COLA, Months
Gaze, Honor/Honoring, Justice, Margins/Outsiders, COCK(S) see CHICKEN(S)/ROOSTER(S)
Mirror/Reflection, Misfortune, Path/Road/Crossroads, COCKATOO(S), Light II

Peasantry, Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence, COCKLE SHELL(S), Order/Chaos

Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Virgin/Virginity, Widowhood COCKSCOMB, Fools/Folly
CIVIC DUTY/CIVIC PRIDE, Devotion/Piety, Justice CODEX, Annunciation, Ascent/Descent
CIVIL RIGHTS, Sacrifice CODPIECES, Humors
CIVIL WAR, Hair/Haircutting, Luxury COEUR, Jacques, Luxury
CLAM SHELLS, Excess COFFEE, Female Beauty and Adornment
CLAN, Gaze COFFER(S), Virtue/Virtues
CLASS/CLASSES, Abundance, Artists/Art, Ascent/Descent, COFFIN(S), Death, Fortune, Gaze
Death, Envy, Expulsion, Fortune, Gaze, COIN(S), Drunkenness/Intoxication, Evil Eye,
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Luxury, Margins/Outsiders, Honor/Honoring, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Light II,

Marriage/Betrothal, Melancholy, Mirror/Reflection, Marriage/Betrothal, Money, Order/Chaos, Seasons,

Money, Months, Naked/Nude, Peasantry, Physiognomy, Temptation, Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues, Widowhood
Pregnancy, Sanctuary, Seasons, Self-Portraits I, Self- COITION see SEXUAL CONTACT
Portraits II, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, Sport, COLBERT, Jean Baptiste, Mirror/Reflection
Toilet Scenes, Visiting/Visitation, Whiteness, Widowhood COLD/COLDNESS, Humors, Melancholy, Months,
CLASSIC/CLASSICAL/CLASSICISM (frequently used term; Order/Chaos, Seasons, Zodiac
not indexed) COLLECTIONS see ART COLLECTING/COLLECTIONS
CLAUSTROPHOBIA, Artists/Art COLOGNE, Sleep/Sleeping
CLAVICHORD, Music COLONNA, Vittoria, Damned Souls
CLAVICYTHERIUM, Music COLOR(S)/COLORE, Automata, Damned Souls, Death,
CLAW(S), Vices/Deadly Sins, Zodiac Female Beauty and Adornment, Fools/Folly, Humors,
CLAY, Sanctuary Imagination/Creativity, Laughter, Light II, Luxury,
CLEAN/CLEANLINESS/CLEANSING, Annunciation, Masks/Personae, Mirror/Reflection, Months, Night,
Bath/Bathing, Beheading/Decapitation, Offering, Nightmare, Order/Chaos, Peasantry, Physiognomy,
Plague/Pestilence, Virgin/Virginity, Whiteness Pregnancy, Sacrifice, Sanctuary, Seasons, Self-Portraits I,

CLERGY/CLERICS, Caricature/Cartoon, Comic, Sin/Sinning, Sublime, Temptation, Upside Down,

Fools/Folly, Fortune, Money, Patronage, Peasantry, Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues,
Plague/Pestilence, Protestantism, Sanctuary, Whiteness, Zodiac
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, Sport, COLUMBIA, Abundance
Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Sins, Widowhood COLUMBINE, Masks/Personae
CLEVER/CLEVERNESS, Mirror/Reflection COLUMBUS, Christopher, Path/Road/Crossroads,
CLIMATE/WEATHER, Months, Seasons, Toilet Scenes, Protestantism
Zodiac COLUMN(S) (see also PILLAR[S]), Dreams/Visions, Peace,
CI.IMB/CLIMBING see ASCENT/DESCENT Sanctuary, Vanity/Vanitas, Visiting/Visitation, Zodiac
CLOAK(S)/MANTLE(S)/ROBE(S), Adultery, Betrayal, COMB/COMBING, Female Beauty and Adornment,
 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS IO75

Hair/Haircutting, Toilet Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas, CONE SISTERS OF BALTIMORE, Patronage

Voyeurism
Virtue/Virtues, CONFESS/CONFESSION, Judgment, Penitence/Repentance,
COMBAT(S)/BATTLE(S), Abduction/Rape, Arms Raised, Protestantism, Sin/Sinning
Betrayal, Dawn/Dawning, Drunkenness/Intoxication, CONFIRMATION, Plague/Pestilence
Envy, Excess, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Judgment, CONFORMITY, Hair/Haircutting
Imagination/Creativity, Labyrinth/Maze, Love and CONJURE/CONJURER(S), Mirror/Reflection,
Death, Patronage, Sin/Sinning, Sport, Temptation, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues CONQUEROR, Dreams/Visions, Reading
COMBAT BETWEEN GOOD AND EVIL, VICES AND CONSCIENCE, Journey/Flight
VIRTUES, Avarice, Love and Death, CONSENT, Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Marriage/Betrothal
Path/Road/Crossroads, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues CONSPICUOUS CONSUMPTION, Money
COMEDY/COMEDIES/COMEDIAN(S), CONSTELLATION(S), Abundance, Fame, Fortune,
Apotheosis/Deification, Comic, Imagination/Creativity, Honor/Honoring, Months, Night, Pregnancy,
Laughter, Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae, Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac
Path/Road/Crossroads, Self-Portraits I
CONSUMMATION, Marriage/Betrothal
COMET(S), Melancholy, Night CONTEMPLATION see MEDITATION
COMIC, Abandonment, Adultery, Automata, Bath/Bathing, CONTEST(S), Fortune, Hanging, Music, Naked/Nude,
Comic, Death, Fools/Folly, Gaze, Laughter, Path/Road/Crossroads, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sport,
Margins/Outsiders, Masks/Personae, Order/Chaos, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Peasantry, Pregnancy, Upside Down, Vanity/Vanitas, CONTINENT(S), Naked/Nude
Widowhood CONTRITION, Penitence/Repentance, Sacrifice
COMIC STRIP, Gaze, Masks/Personae CONTROL, Abundance, Female Beauty and Adornment,
COMMEDIA DELLARTE, Comic, Fortune, Hanging,
Fortune, Masks/Personae, Order/Chaos, Pregnancy,
Masks/Personae
Virtue/Virtues
COMMERCE/INDUSTRY, Abundance, Fortune, Justice,
CONVENT(S), Temptation, Widowhood
Money CONVERSATION, Arms Communion,
Raised, Fortune,
COMMON GOOD, Justice Journey/Flight, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
COMMON MAN see EVERYMAN Masks/Personae, Pregnancy, Protestantism
COMMUNE, Mirror/Reflection CONVERT(S)/CONVERSION, Crucifixion,
COMMUNION, Communion, Ecstasy, Gaze, Love and
Honor/Honoring, Journey/Flight, Order/Chaos,
Death, Martyrdom, Plague/Pestilence, Protestantism,
Penitence/Repentance, Protestantism, Sin/Sinning, Toilet
Sin/Sinning, Whiteness
Scenes, Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery
COMMUNIST PARTY, Peace
CONVEX, Mirror/Reflection
COMPASS, Fortune, Labor/Trades/Occupations,
COOK(S)/COOKING, Comic, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
Melancholy, Order/Chaos, Sanctuary, Virtue/Virtues,
Labor/Trades/Occupations
Whiteness
COMPASSION see MERCY/COMPASSION COOK, Captain James, Sacrifice
COPE(S), Fortune
COMPETITION(S) see CONTEST(S)
COMPLEXION, Female Beauty and Adornment, Humors,
COPULATION see SEXUAL CONTACT
Marriage/Betrothal, Melancholy, Penitence, Physiognomy,
COPY/COPIES/COPYING, Imagination/Creativity,
Money, Naked/Nude, Sublime
Mirror/Reflection,
Whiteness
COMPOSITION, Death, Imagination/Creativity,
COQUETTE/COQUETRY, Female Beauty and Adornment,
Margins/Outsiders, Path/Road/Crossroads,
Widowhood
Pointing/Indicating, Protestantism, Sacrifice, Serpent's
CORAL, Evil Eye, Female Beauty and Adornment,

Bite, Shipwreck, Temptation, Upside Down, Metamorphosis, Toilet Scenes

Virtue/Virtues CORAM, Thomas, Abandonment
CONCEIT, Fame, Female Beauty and Adornment, Fortune, CORBA OF AMBOISE, Abduction/Rape
Imagination/Creativity CORDAY, Charlotte, Bath/Bathing, Death
CONCEIVE/CONCEPTION {see also CREATION), CORN, Abundance, Automata, Fortune,
Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Apocalypse, Birth/Childbirth, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Logos/Word, Peasantry,
Ecstasy, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Money, Nightmare, Seasons, Virtue/Virtues
Pregnancy, Sin/Sinning, Toilet Scenes, Virgin/Virginity CORNUCOPIA(AE), Abundance, Evil Eye, Fortune,

CONCH, Fame Honor/Honoring, Logos/Word, Misfortune, Money,

CONCORD see HARMONY Peace, Virtue/Virtues
CONCUBINE(S)/CONCUBINAGE [see also CORONA, Hair/Haircutting
PROSTITUTE[Sl/PROSTITUTION), Excess, Luxury, CORONATION, Bath/Bathing, Imagination/Creativity
Marriage/Betrothal CORPSE(S), Apocalypse, Death, Destruction of Cir\,

CONDOTTIERI, Fame, Honor/Honoring Fortune, Gaze, Hanging, Journey/Flight, Judaism, Light I,

CONE/CONICAL, Margins/Outsiders, Mirror/Reflection, Love and Death, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads,

Sanctuary Physiognomy, Plague/Pestilence, Pointing/Indicating.
IO76 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS

Pregnancy, Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning, Vanity/Vanitas, CREATION/CREATOR {see also

Widowhood, Witchcraft/Sorcery CONCEIVE/CONCEPTION; Index of Judeo-Christian
CORPULENT see FAT Personages, Places, and Concepts), Ascent/Descent,
CORRUPTION, Avarice, Fortune, Automata, Birth/Childbirth, Dance/Dancers/Dancing,
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Luxury, Money, Music, Dawn/Dawning, Fame, Hair/Haircutting, Harvesting,
Naked/Nude, Plague/Pestilence, Sanctuary, Shipwreck, Imagination/Creativity, Kiss/Kissing, Mirror/Reflection,
Sin/Sinning, Virtue/Virtues Order/Chaos, Sublime, Toilet Scenes, Virgin/Virginity,
CORSET(S), Marriage/Betrothal Zodiac
COSIMO I, Duke of Tuscany, Fame CREATIVITY see IMAGINATION/CREATIVITY
COSMETICS, Female Beauty and Adornment, CRESCENT, Apocalypse, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Communion,
Masks/Personae, Sell Portraits II, toilet Scenes Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Dawn/Dawning, Evil Eye,
COSMIC/COSMOS/COSMOLOGY, Ascent/Descent, Fortune, Love and Death, Virgin/Virginity, Zodiac
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, CRIB(S), Devotion/Piety
Labyrinth/Maze, Light II, Music, Order/Chaos, CRICKET (game), Death
Path/Road/Crossroads, Sanctuary, Seasons, Sin/Sinning, CRIME/CRIMINALS, Artists/Art, Death, Expulsion,
Toilet Scenes, Vices/Deadly Sins, Zodiac Hair/Haircutting, Hanging, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
COSTUME(S) {see also DRESS), Drunkenness/Intoxication, Justice, Madness, Margins/Outsiders, Money,
Ecstasy, Fools/Folly, Imagination/Creativity, Laughter, Physiognomy, Sanctuary, Virtue/Virtues
Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae, CRIPPEN, William, Bath/Bathing
Night, Patronage, Peasantry, Penitence/Repentance, CRIPPLE(S), Fortune, Protestantism
Seasons, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Whiteness CROCHETING, Pregnancy
COUCH seeBED/BED CHAMBER CROCODILE(S), Comic, Judgment, Naked/Nude
COUNTERFEIT, Money CROMWELL, Oliver, Marriage/Betrothal
COUNTRY SQUIRE(S), Hunting/Hunter/Huntress CROOK(S)/HO ULETTE, Shepherds/Shepherdesses,
COURAGE/FORTITUDE/BRAVERY, Honor/Honoring, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Humors, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Justice, Naked/Nude, CROSS/CROSSES/CRUCIFORM, Ascent/Descent,
Peace, Plague/Pestilence, Virtue/Virtues Communion, Crucifixion, Death, Dreams/Visions, Fame,
COURT(S (/COURTLY LIFE, Adultery, Apocalypse, Fortune, Gaze, Honor/Honoring, Journey/Flight,
Automata, Baptism,
Artists/Art, Ascent/Descent, Judaism, Judgment, Laughter, Light I, Logos/Word,
Beheading/Decapitation, Comic, Fame, Fools/Folly, Martyrdom, Music, Offering, Order/Chaos,
Fortune, Hanging, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Path/Road/Crossroads, Patronage, Penitence/Repentance,
Labyrinth/Maze, Laughter, Months, Music, Patronage, Plague/Pestilence, Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy,
Peasantry, Sanctuary, Seasons, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Protestantism, Reading, Sacrifice, Serpent's Bite,
Whiteness, Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation, Whiteness Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Vanity/Vanitas,
COURTESAN(S) see PROSTITUTE(S)/PROSTITUTION Virtue/Virtues, Widowhood, Witchcraft/Sorcery
COURTIER(S), Journey/Flight, Fame, Luxury, CROSS BONES, Order/Chaos, Plague/Pestilence
Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae, Visiting/Visitation CROSSBOW(S)/CROSSBOWMEN, Martyrdom
COURTSHIP {see also MARRIAGE/BETROTHAL; CROSSROAD(S) see PATH/ROAD/CROSSROADS
SUITOR[S]), Female Beauty and Adornment, CROW(S), Physiognomy, Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac
Marriage/Betrothal, Months, Widowhood CROWD(S), Dreams/Visions, Hanging, Honor/Honoring,
COVENTRY, England, Destruction of City Masks/Personae, Plague/Pestilence, Protestantism,
COVETOUSNESS see AVARICE Sin/Sinning, Voyeurism
COW(S)/CALF/CALVES/CATTLE/CATTLE RAISING CROWN(S), Apocalypse, Apotheosis/Deification,
{see alsoBULL[S]/STEER[S]), Abandonment, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Choice/Choosing, Communion,
Dreams/Visions, Excess, Honor/Honoring, Death, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Envy, Fame, Fortune,
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Madness, Misfortune, Hair/Haircutting, Harvesting, Honor/Honoring,
Order/Chaos, Peasantry, Physiognomy, Pregnancy, Judaism, Justice, Light 1, Light II, Love and Death,
Sanctuary, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Upside Down, Marriage/Betrothal, Martyrdom, Melancholy,
Zodiac Misfortune, Money, Music, Night, Order/Chaos, Peace,
COWARD(S)/COWARDICE, Masks/Personae, Melancholy, Peasantry, Pointing/Indicating, Reading, Self-Portraits I,

Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues Sin/Sinning, Virtue/Virtues, Widowhood,

COWBOY(S), Whiteness Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
COWL(S) see HOOD(S) CRUCIBLE(S), Melancholy
CRAB(S), Evil Eye, Zodiac CRUCIFIX see Index of Judeo-Christian Personages, Places,
CRACKED see BROKEN/CRACKED/ and Concepts
SHATTERED/DAMAGED CRUCIFIXION {see also Index of Judeo-Christian
CRADLE(S), Birth/Childbirth Personages, Places, and Concepts), Crucifixion, Death,
CRANBERRIES, LaborATrades/Occupations Harvesting, Martyrdom, Misfortune, Naked/Nude,
CRANE(S), Metamorphosis Path/Road/Crossroads, Penitence/Repentance,
CRAWFISH, Misfortune Pointing/Indicating, Protestantism, Reading, Sacrifice,
 INDEX ()l ()l MIR NAMES AND TERMS IO77

Down, Virgin/Virginity,
Serpent's Bite, Upside Offering, Order/Chans, Peasantry, Seasons, Sport, Upside
Widowhood
Virtue/Virtues, Down, Vanity/Vanitas, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
CRUCIFORM see CROSS/CROSSES DANCE-HALLS, Marriage/Betrothal
CRUSADE/CRUSADERS, Path/Road/Crossroads DANCE OF DEATH IDanse Macabre,
CRUSTACEANS, Pregnancy Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Death, Fortune, Music,
CRY/CRIES/CRYING (see also TEAR[S|), Plague/Pestilence, Self-Portraits I, Serpent's Bite,
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Gaze, Laughter, Love and Sin/Sinning, Vanity/Vanitas
Death, Masks/Personae, Penitence/Repentance, DANDY/FOP, Sin/Sinning
Protestantism DARK/DARKNESS see BLACK/BLACKNESS
CRYSTAL(S), Mirror/Reflection DART(S), Hair/Haircutting
CUBE/CUBICAL, Fortune, Order/Chaos DAUGHTER(S), Abduction/Rape, Abundance, Adultery,
CUBISM, Artists/Art, Caricature/Cartoon, Apocalypse, Arms Raised, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Journey/Flight, Judaism, Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth,
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Mirror/Reflection, Devotion/Piety, Envy, Fortune, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos, Patronage, Pregnancy, Journey/Flight, Judgment, Justice, Laughter, Love and
Self-Portraits I, Sport Death, Madness, Marriage/Betrothal, Metamorphosis,
CUBIT, Virtue/Virtues Mirror/Reflection, Money, Pregnancy, Sacrifice, Seasons,
CUCKOLD, Adultery, Excess, Shipwreck Self-Portraits I, Self-Portraits II, Serpent's Bite,
CUDGEL(S), Peasantry, Temptation Sin/Sinning, Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues,
CUIRASS, Virtue/Virtues Visiting/Visitation, Whiteness, Witchcraft/Sorcery
CULTIVATION, Abundance, Harvesting DAWN/DAWNING, Ascent/Descent, Dawn/Dawning,
CUNEIFORM TABLETS, Reading Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Protestantism
CUPBEARER(S), Abduction/Rape DAY(S)/DAYLIGHT/DAYTIME, Annunciation,
CUPID(S) see PUTTO (PUTTI) Ascent/Descent, Dawn/Dawning, Masks/Personae,
CUPIDITY see AVARICE Melancholy, Naked/Nude, Night, Sleep/Sleeping,
CURSE(S), Drunkenness/Intoxication, Journey/Flight, Temptation, Whiteness, Zodiac
Mirror/Reflection, Music, Offering, Order/Chaos, DAYDREAMS, Dreams/Visions
Virgin/Virginity DEAD SEA, Sacrifice
CURTAIN(S)/CURTAIN-SACK, Dreams/Visions, Light I, DEADLY SINS see SIN/SINNING; VICES/DEADLY SINS
Love and Death, Masks/Personae, Pregnancy, DEAF/DEAFNESS, Margins/Outsiders, Reading
Protestantism, Sanctuary, Self-Portraits I DEATH (see also KILL/KILLING; MORTALITY),
CUSTOM HOUSE, Light II Abduction/Rape, Abundance, Adultery, Apocalypse,
CYBORG, Automata Ascent/Descent, Automata, Bath/Bathing,
CYCLE(S), Fortune, Months, Path/Road/Crossroads, Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth,
Peasantry, Seasons, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, Choice/Choosing, Communion, Crucifixion, Damned
Toilet Scenes, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Souls, Dawn/Dawning, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Death,
Visiting/Visitation, Whiteness, Zodiac Dreams/Visions, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Expulsion,
CYMBALS, Bacchanalia/Orgy Fame, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Female Beauty and
CYNICISM, Devotion/Piety, Order/Chaos Adornment, Fools/Folly, Fortune, Gaze, Hair/Haircutting,
CYPRESSES, Ecstasy Hanging, Harvesting, Honor/Honoring,
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Imagination/Creativity,
DADA, Automata, Caricature/Cartoon, Comic, Journey/Flight, Judaism, Judgment, Kiss/Kissing,
Dreams/Visions, Order/Chaos, Upside Down I, Light II, Love and Death, Luxury,
Laughter, Light
DAGGER(S), Fortune, Love and Death, Virtue/Virtues Madness, Martyrdom, Masks/Personae, Melancholy,
DALi, GALA, Imagination/Creativity Metamorphosis, Mirror/Reflection, Misfortune,
DAMAGED see BROKEN/CRACKED/ Money, Music, Night, Offering, Order/Chaos,
SHATTERED/DAMAGED Path/Road/Crossroads, Penitence/Repentance,
DAMNED SOULS, Ascent/Descent, Damned Souls, Physiognomy, Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy,
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Judgment, Money, Music, Protestantism, Sacrifice, Sanctuary, Seasons, Self-Portraits
Order/Chaos, Protestantism, Serpent's Bite, Sin/Sinning, I, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Serpent's Bite, Shipwreck,
Upside Down, Vices/Deadly Sins, Witchcraft/Sorcery Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Sport, Sublime, Toilet Scenes,
DANCE/DANCERS/DANCING, Abandonment, Automata, Upside Down, Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Sins,
Bacchanalia/Orgy, Beheading/Decapitation, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Widowhood,
Caricature/Cartoon, Comic, Damned Souls, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Death, Drunkenness/Intoxication, DEATHBED, Death, Kiss/Kissing, Martyrdom, Money,
Ecstasy, Evil Eye, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Sin/Sinning
Fools/Folly, Fortune, Honor/Honoring, DEATH MASK see MASKS/PERSONAE
Imagination/Creativity, Judgment, Justice, Laughter, DEBAUCHERY, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae, Metamorphosis, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
Mirror/Reflection, Months, Music, Naked/Nude, Protestantism
IO78 INDEX OF OTHER NAMl-s AND TERMS

DEBT(S)/DEBTOR, I lair/I laircutting Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Toilet Scenes, Vices/Deadly Sins,

DE( AnFNTS/DECADENCE, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness
Devotion/Piety, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, DESMAREES, Maria Antonia, Self-Portraits I

Masks/Personae, Money, Naked/Nude, Pregnancy, DESPAIR, Abandonment, Abduction/Rape, Death,

Virgin/Virginity Expulsion, Fortune, Gaze, Hanging, Journey/Flight,
DECAN(S), Zodiac Margins/Outsiders, Melancholy, Mirror/Reflection,
DECAPITATION see BEHEADING/DECAPITATION Order/Chaos, Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence,
DECEIT/DECEPTION, Adultery, Betrayal, Calumny, Sacrifice, Sin/Sinning, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues,
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Female Beauty and Widowhood
Adornment, Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae, DESPOTISM, Gaze
Mirror/Reflection, Money, Order/Chaos, Vanity/Vanitas, DE STIJLISTS, Dreams/Visions
Vices/Deadly Sins DESTINY see FATE
DECOLLATION see BEHEADING/DECAPITATION DESTRUCTION, Abandonment, Apocalypse, Destruction
DEER, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Light I, Sacrifice, of City, Envy, Light I, Luxury, Misfortune, Music,
Virtue/Virtues Order/Chaos, Protestantism, Sanctuary, Seasons,
DEFEAT, Crucifixion, Judaism Serpent's Bite, Sin/Sinning, Sublime, Temptation,
DEFECATING/DEFECATION, Peasantry Toilet Scenes, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virgin/Virginity,
DEFENSELESS see VULNERABILITY Visiting/Visitation, Witchcraft/Sorcery
DEFLOWERING, Abduction/Rape, Marriage/Betrothal DESTRUCTION OF CITY, Betrayal, Destruction of
DEFORMITY, Artists/Art, Comic, Dreams/Visions, City, Judgment, Misfortune, Nightmare, Upside Down,
Fools/Folly, Gaze, Margins/Outsiders, Masks/Personae, Widowhood
Nightmare, Physiognomy DEVIL(S) {see also Index of Judeo-Christian Personages,
DEGENERATE(S), Madness Places,and Concepts), Ascent/Descent, Birth/Childbirth,
DEHUMANIZATION, Automata, Caricature/Cartoon Damned Souls, Death, Journey/Flight, Masks/Personae,
DEJECTION see DESPAIR Melancholy, Metamorphosis, Mirror/Reflection,
DELIVERANCE, Martyrdom Misfortune, Money, Music, Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos,
DELUSION(S)/DELUSORY, Dreams/Visions, Madness, Protestantism, Serpent's Bite, Sin/Sinning, Temptation,
Physiognomy Vices/Deadly Sins, Witchcraft/Sorcery
DEMENTIA, Margins/Outsiders DEVOTION/PIETY, Betrayal, Death, Devotion/Piety, Evil
DEMIURGE, Automata, Order/Chaos Eye, Fortune, Gaze, Journey/Flight, Justice, Light II,

DEMOCRATIC/DEMOCRACY, Dreams/Visions, Death, Months, Patronage, Peasantry, Penitence/Repentance,

Harvesting, Patronage Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, Protestantism, Serpent's
DEMON(S), Birth/Childbirth, Damned Souls, Death, Bite, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Virgin/Virginity,
Dreams/Visions, Journey/Flight, Judgment, Virtue/Virtues, Widowhood, Zodiac
Masks/Personae, Melancholy, Mirror/Reflection, Music, DEVOUR, Abundance, Honor/Honoring, Pregnancy,
Nightmare, Plague/Pestilence, Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning, Voyeurism, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Temptation, Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Sins, DEW, Vanity/Vanitas
Witchcraft/Sorcery DIADEM see CROWN
DEMONOLOGY, Expulsion, Vices/Deadly Sins, DIAGONAL, Sacrifice
Witchcraft/Sorcery DIAMOND(S), Kiss/Kissing, Virtue/Virtues
DENDURA, Egypt, Zodiac DIANE DE POITIERS, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
DENTIST, Comic DIAPER(S), Birth/Childbirth
DEPARTURE, Abandonment, Gaze, Journey/Flight, DIET(S), Melancholy
Kiss/Kissing, Love and Death, Pointing/Indicating, DIETRICH, Marlene, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale
Protestantism, Whiteness, Witchcraft/Sorcery DIGNITY, Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/Betrothal,
DEPRESSION (economic), Money Months, Order/Chaos, Shepherds/Shepherdesses,
DEPRESSION (emotional) see DESPAIR Voyeurism
DESCENT ASCENT/DESCENT
see DINOSAUR(S), Plague/Pestilence
DESCO DA PARTO see BIRTH PLATTER DIRGE(S), Gaze
DESECRATION, Protestantism, Sanctuary DISCORD, Adultery, Ascent/Descent, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
DESERT(S), Path/Road/Crossroads, Serpent's Bite, Envy, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Love and Death,
Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Sins
Voyeurism DISCUS/DISCUS-THROWER, Pointing/Indicating,
DESICCATION, Evil Eye Pregnancy, Sport
DESIGN/DISEGNO, Abandonment, Fame, DISDAIN, Laughter, Pregnancy
Imagination/Creativity, Sacrifice, Upside Down, Zodiac DISEASE see ILLNESS/DISEASE/SICKNESS
DESIRE/DESIRING, Automata, Death, Excess, Female DISEMBODIED, Hair/Haircutting
Beauty and Adornment, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, DISFIGURE, Abandonment, Fortune
Imagination/Creativity, Love and Death,
Money, Music, DISGRACE, Fame, Hair/Haircutting, Hanging
Naked/Nude, Physiognomy, Pregnancy, Seasons, DISGUISE, Birth/Childbirth, Expulsion, Masks/Personae,
 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS IO79

Pregnancy, Seasons, Self-Portraits I, Sin/Sinning, Night, Path/Road/Crossroads, Patronage,

Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Sins Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, Sanctuary, Sin/Sinning,
DISHABILLE, Female Beauty and Adornment, Voyeurism Virgin/Virginity, Voyeurism, Zodiac
DISHONOR, Adultery, Betrayal, Excess DOT(S), Night
DISJOINTED see DISTORTION DOTTORE (commedia dell'arte character), Masks/Personae
DISK JOCKEY, Marriage/Betrothal DOUBLE-PORTRAIT, Self-Portraits I

DISMEMBERMENT, Abandonment, Bacchanalia/Orgy, DOVE(S), Adultery, Communion, Dreams/Visions,

Order/Chaos Imagination/Creativity, Judgment, Light I,

DISNEY, Walt, Dreams/Visions Mirror/Reflection, Order/Chaos, Peace,

DISORDER see ORDER/CHAOS Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy, Virgin/Virginity,
DISORIENTATION, Labyrinth/Maze, Order/Chaos, Upside Virtue/Virtues
Down DOWAGER(S), Fortune
DISPLAY, Female Beauty and Adornment, Gaze, DOWRY, Marriage/Betrothal, Toilet Scenes
Marriage/Betrothal, Naked/Nude, Plague/Pestilence, DOZE see SLEEP/SLEEPING
Pointing/Indicating, Temptation, Widowhood DRAGON(S), Communion, Honor/Honoring, Justice,
DISTAFF, Annunciation, Witchcraft/Sorcery Love and Death, Masks/Personae, Metamorphosis,
DISTORTION, Caricature/Cartoon, Comic, Death, Gaze, Mirror/Reflection, Money, Order/Chaos, Serpent's Bite,
Laughter, Masks/Personae, Mirror/Reflection,
Sin/Sinning, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues,
Naked/Nude, Protestantism, Self-Portraits I Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
DISTRESS, Abandonment, Envy, Gaze, Misfortune, DRAMA see THEATER
Protestantism, Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery
DRAWING(S), Imagination/Creativity, Vanity/Vanitas
DIVINATION, Dreams/Visions, Fortune, Melancholy,
DRAWING WATER, Annunciation
Mirror/Reflection
DREAMS/VISIONS, Annunciation, Artists/Art,
DIVINE/DIVINITY (frequently used term; not indexed)
Ascent/Descent, Automata, Birth/Childbirth, Crucifixion,
[see also Index of Judeo-Christian Personages, Places,
Death, Dreams/Visions, Ecstasy, Envy, Fortune, Gaze,
and Concepts)
Hanging, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Honor/Honoring,
DIVINE RIGHT, Honor/Honoring
Imagination/Creativity, Journey/Flight,
DIVE/DIVING, Sport
Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/Betrothal, Martyrdom,
DIVING BELL, Excess
Masks/Personae, Metamorphosis, Money, Night,
DIVORCE, Adultery, Marriage/Betrothal
Nightmare, Plague/Pestilence, Sanctuary, Self-Portraits I,
DOCTOR(S) see PHYSICIAN(S)
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping,
DOCUMENTATION, Margins/Outsiders, Plague/Pestilence,
Sublime, Upside Down, Vanity/Vanitas, Whiteness,
Vanity /Vanitas
Witchcraft/Sorcery
DOG(S), Abduction/Rape, Bath/Bathing, Betrayal, Comic,
Death, Envy, Evil Eye, Expulsion, Female Beauty and
DRESDEN, Destruction of City
Adornment, Fortune, Gaze, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
DRESS (see also COSTUME[S]; FASHION), Comic,
Fortune, Humors, Imagination/Creativity, Justice,
II, Love and Death, Luxury,
Journey/Flight, Justice, Light
Laughter, Luxury, Madness, Margins/Outsiders,
Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/Betrothal, Melancholy,
Marriage/Betrothal, Martyrdom, Metamorphosis,
Metamorphosis, Mirror/Reflection, Misfortune,
Order/Chaos, Peasantry, Penitence/Repentance, Mirror/Reflection, Misfortune, Months, Naked/Nude,

Physiognomy, Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry,

Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Toilet Scenes, Vices/Deadly Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, Sacrifice, Seasons, Self-

Sins, Virgin/Virginity, Voyeurism, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Portraits I, Self-Portraits II, Shepherds/Shepherdesses,

Zodiac Sin/Sinning, Sport, Temptation, Vanity/Vanitas,

DOLL(S), Automata, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues,

Naked/Nude Visiting/Visitation, Voyeurism, Whiteness, Widowhood
DOLPHIN(S), Adultery, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fame, DRINK/DRINKING see
Fortune, Light I, Love and Death, Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac DRUNKENNESS/INTOXICATION
DOME(S), Sanctuary DROLL (jester), Laughter
DOMINA PYTHONIS, Witchcraft/Sorcery DROWN/DROWNING/DROWNED, Journey/Flight,
DONALD DUCK, Comic Madness, Misfortune, Penitence/Repentance
DONATI, Forese, Widowhood DRUGS, Ecstasy, Madness, Witchcraft/Sorcery
DONKEY(S), Birth/Childbirth, Comic, DRUM(S), Dance/Dancers/Dancing
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Honor/Honoring, DRUNKENNESS/INTOXICATION, Ascent/Descent,
Path/Road/Crossroads, Pregnancy, Vices/Deadly Sins Bacchanalia/Orgy, Betrayal, Comic,
DONNE FAMOSE, Fame Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
DONOR(S) see PATRONAGE Ecstasy, Evil Eye, Excess, Fools/Folly, Honor/Honoring,
DOOR(S)/DOORWAY(S)/GATE(S)/PORTAL(S), Apocalypse, Imagination/Creativity, Justice, Laughter,
Damned Souls, Ecstasy, Honor/Honoring, Judaism, Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae,
Kiss/Kissing, Light I, Logos/Word, Metamorphosis, Melancholy, Months, Music, Order/Chaos, Peasantry,
 I080 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS

Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Virtue/Virtues, EGG(S), Drunkenness/Intoxication, Ecstasy, Kiss/Kissing,

Voyeurism Pregnancy, Zodiac
DRY/DRYNESS, Birth/Childbirth, Humors, Melancholy, EGO(S) see MASKS/PERSONAE
Zodiac EGREMONT, Lord, Patronage
DUALISM see AMBIGUITY EGYPT, Path/Road/Crossroads, Sanctuary
DUCK(S), Automata, Comic EJACULATION, Hanging, Naked/Nude, Virgin/Virginity
DUEL(S)/DUELING, Sport EKPHORA see PROCESSION
DUET(S), Music EKPHRASIS, Female Beauty and Adornment
DUKE(S) see NOBILITY ELEANOR OF TOLEDO, Serpent's Bite

DUNCAN, Isadora, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Madness ELECTRIC CHAIR, Crucifixion

DUNGEON(S), Plague/Pestilence ELEGY/ELEGIAC, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
DUNGHILL, Misfortune ELEMENTS, Honor/Honoring, Laughter, Order/Chaos,
DUPLICATE! S) see COPY/COPIES/COPYING Seasons, Zodiac

DUSSELDORF SCHOOL, Devotion/Piety ELEPHANT(S), Annunciation, Birth/Childbirth, Fame,

DUTY, Journey/Flight, Mirror/Reflection, Sleep/Sleeping, Virtue/Virtues

Temptation ELEVATION, Fortune

DWARF(S), Abduction/Rape, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Evil ELITE, Patronage
Eye, Luxury, Sin/Sinning, Visiting/Visitation ELIZABETH I OF ENGLAND, Fortune, Fortune,
Protestantism, Virgin/Virginity, Whiteness
DYSENTERY, Plague/Pestilence
ELK, Ecstasy, Melancholy, Sin/Sinning, Temptation

EAGLE(S), Abduction/Rape, Apocalypse, Honor/Honoring, EMACIATED/EMACIATION, Beheading/Decapitation,

Caricature/Cartoon, Death, Masks/Personae,
Misfortune, Order/Chaos, Reading, Vices/Deadly Sins
Order/Chaos, Peasantry
EAR(S), Betrayal, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Female Beauty and
Adornment, Fools/Folly, Imagination/Creativity,
EMANCIPATION, Hair/Haircutting

Judgment, Masks/Personae, Physiognomy, Self-Portraits I,

EMBALMING, Fortune
Virgin/Virginity
EMBARKATION, Journey/Flight, Path/Road/Crossroads

EARRING(S), Dance/Dancers/Dancing,
EMBEZZLER, Physiognomy
Toilet Scenes
EMBLEM(S)/EMBLEMATA, Abundance,
EARTH, Abundance, Apotheosis/Deification,
Beheading/Decapitation, Evil Eye, Fame, Female
Dreams/Visions, Fame, Fortune, Humors, Light I,
Beauty and Adornment, Fortune, Logos/Word,
Melancholy, Months, Order/Chaos, Peasantry,
Mirror/Reflection, Misfortune, Music, Order/Chaos,
Plague/Pestilence, Upside Down, Virgin/Virginity,
Peace, Peasantry, Seasons, Serpent's Bite, Shipwreck,
Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac
Sleep/Sleeping, Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness,
EARTHINESS/EARTHLINESS, Hair/Haircutting,
Witchcraft/Sorcery
Mirror/Reflection, Music, Order/Chaos,
EMBRACE, Gaze, Journey/Flight, Kiss/Kissing, Love and
Shepherds/Shepherdesses
Death, Penitence/Repentance, Pregnancy, Sin/Sinning,
EARTHQUAKE(S), Destruction of City, Marriage/Betrothal,
Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation
Misfortune, Plague/Pestilence
EMBROIDERY, Abundance, Peasantry, Zodiac
EASE see LAZY/LAZINESS; LEISURE EMBRYO(S), Pregnancy, Virgin/Virginity
EASEL, Imagination/Creativity, Labor/Trades/Occupations,
EMIGRANT(S)/EMIGRATION, Expulsion, Journey/Flight
Self-Portraits I, Self-Portraits II
EMOTION(S), Abandonment, Beheading/Decapitation,
EATING, Beheading/Decapitation, Communion, Harvesting,
Death, Gaze, Humors, Justice, Marriage/Betrothal,
Honor/Honoring, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Laughter,
Masks/Personae, Physiognomy, Plague/Pestilence,
Masks/Personae, Metamorphosis, Misfortune,
Pointing/Indicating, Sacrifice, Seasons, Sublime,
Naked/Nude, Peasantry, Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Temptation, Virgin/Virginity, Whiteness
Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues EMPATHY, Gaze, Penitence/Repentance
EAVESDROPPING, Penitence/Repentance EMPEROR(S) see KING(S)
ECONOMY/ECONOMICS, Expulsion, Money, EMPOWERMENT see POWER
Widowhood EMPTY/EMPTINESS {see also VOID), Apocalypse,
ECSTASY, Abandonment, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Devotion/Piety, Automata, Crucifixion, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Ecstasy, Melancholy, Sublime, Female Beauty and Adornment, Gaze, Judgment,
Witchcraft/Sorcery Misfortune, Order/Chaos, Self-Portraits I, Sleep/Sleeping,
EDGE(S)see MARGINS/OUTSIDERS Vanity/Vanitas, Zodiac
EDUCATE/EDUCATION, Artists/Art, Comic, Expulsion, END/ENDING, Order/Chaos
Patronage, Peace, Peasantry, Sin/Sinning, Sport ENERGY, Apocalypse, Beheading/Decapitation,
EDWARD THE CONFESSOR, Fortune Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Dreams/Visions,
1 T.I (Si, Misfortune Imagination/Creativity, Peasantry
EFFEMINATE, Excess, Masks/Personae, Sleep/Sleeping ENGINE(S)see MACHINE(S)
EFFIGY/EFFIGIES, Fortune, Gaze, Hanging, ENGINEER(S)/ENGINEERING, LaborATrades/Occupations,
Masks/Personae, Peasantry Metamorphosis
 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS IO81

ENLIGHTENMENT, The, Ascent/Descent, Ecstasy, Female EVENING, Communion, Dawn/Dawning, Excess, Light I,

Beauty and Adornment, Gaze, Marriage/Betrothal, Marriage/Betrothal, Melancholy

Order/Chaos, Self-Portraits II, Sin/Sinning, Sublime, EVERGREEN(S), Honor/Honoring
Witchcraft/Sorcery EVERLASTING LIFE see AFTERLIFE
ENLIGHTENMENT/INSIGHT, Light II, Sanctuary EVERYMAN, Hanging, Path/Road/Crossroads,
ENNUI, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Mirror/Reflection, Plague/Pestilence
Night EVIL, Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Beheading/Decapitation,
ENSLAVEMENT see SLAVE(S)/SLAVERY Choice/Choosing, Damned Souls, Death,
ENTANGLEMENT/ENTRAPMENT, Hair/Haircutting, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Excess, Expulsion, Fatal
Mirror/Reflection Woman/Femme Fatale, Female Beauty and Adornment,
ENTOMB/ENTOMBED see FUNERAL/BURIAL Fortune, Gaze, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Judaism,
ENTRAILS, Mirror/Reflection Judgment, Justice, Laughter, Margins/Outsiders,
ENTREATING, Devotion/Piety Masks/Personae, Melancholy, Mirror/Reflection, Money,
ENTWINE, Hair/Haircutting Music, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads,
ENVY, Destruction of City, Envy, Evil Eye, Fools/Folly, Physiognomy, Serpent's Bite, Sin/Sinning, Temptation,
Fortune, Gaze, Luxury, Madness, Peasantry, Sin/Sinning, Toilet Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Sins,
Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues, Voyeurism Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery
EPHEBOI LYCHNOPHOROI, Luxury EVIL EYE, Envy, Evil Eye, Gaze
EPHEMERAL, Virtue/Virtues, Voyeurism EXAGGERATION, Caricature/Cartoon, Excess,
EPIDEMICS see PLAGUE/PESTILENCE Margins/Outsiders, Masks/Personae, Mirror/Reflection,
EPOPTES, Voyeurism Naked/Nude, Physiognomy, Pointing/Indicating
EQUAL/EQUALITY/EQUILIBRIUM, Death, EXCELLENCE, Fortune, Honor/Honoring, Virtue/Virtues
Hair/Haircutting, Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/Betrothal,
EXCESS, Evil Eye, Excess, Luxury, Masks/Personae,
Melancholy, Virtue/Virtues
Peasantry
EQUATOR, Zodiac
EXCHANGE, Money
EQUINOX(ES), Seasons
EXCLUSION/EXCLUDED see MARGINS/OUTSIDERS
EPSILON, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne
EXCOMMUNICATION, Abduction/Rape
ERCOLE II, Duke, Penitence/Repentance
EXCREMENT, Automata, Money, Peasantry
ERMINE, Fools/Folly, Virgin/Virginity, Visiting/Visitation
EXECUTION/EXECUTIONER, Beheading/Decapitation,
EROS/EROTES, Light I, Marriage/Betrothal
Crucifixion, Death, Fortune, Hanging, Honor/Honoring,
EROS AND THANATOS see LOVE AND DEATH
Judgment, Martyrdom, Order/Chaos, Patronage,
EROTIC DESIRE/EROTICISM, Adultery, Automata,
Protestantism, Virtue/Virtues
Bacchanalia/Orgy, Dance/Dancers/Dancing,
EXERCISE, Sport
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Excess, Expulsion, Fatal
EXHAUSTION, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Pregnancy,
Woman/Femme Female Beauty and Adornment,
Fatale,
Sleep/Sleeping
Gaze, Imagination/Creativity, Luxury, Madness,
EXHIBITION(S), Patronage
Masks/Personae, Naked/Nude, Night, Nightmare,
EXILE(S), Death, Gaze, Journey/Flight, Sacrifice, Sanctuary,
Pregnancy, Self-Portraits I, Shepherds/Shepherdesses,
Shipwreck
Sleep/Sleeping, Vices/Deadly Sins, Voyeurism,
Witchcraft/Sorcery
EXISTENTIALISM, Automata, Choice/Choosing,
Devotion/Piety, Gaze, Path/Road/Crossroads
ESCHATOLOGY, Devotion/Piety, Plague/Pestilence,
Vices/Deadly Sins
EXORCISM, Journey/Flight, Masks/Personae

ESTE, Alfonso d', Bacchanalia/Orgy, Pregnancy EXPERIMENT(S), Light II

ESTE, Isabella d', Imagination/Creativity, Naked/Nude, EXPIATION, Journey/Flight, Penitence/Repentance
Vices/Deadly Sins EXPLOITATION, Adultery, Journey/Flight, Luxury
ESTRANGEMENT see ALIENATION EXPLORE/EXPLORER(S), Path/Road/Crossroads,
ETERNAL/ETERNITY, Avarice, Destruction of City, Protestantism

Fame, Fortune, Gaze, Honor/Honoring, EXPRESSION, Abandonment, Death, Gaze, Laughter,

Imagination/Creativity, Justice, Kiss/Kissing, Light I,
Margins/Outsiders, Penitence/Repentance, Physiognomy,
Money, Music, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry, Pregnancy, Sin/Sinning, Sublime, Temptation,
Penitence/Repentance, Protestantism, Seasons, Serpent's Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation, Widowhood
Bite, Sin/Sinning, Vanity/Vanitas, Virgin/Virginity, EXPRESSIONISM, Apocalypse, Artists/Art, Bath/Bathing,
Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac Caricature/Cartoon, Death, Devotion/Piety, Ecstasy,
ETERNAL CITY see ROME Judaism, Madness, Misfortune, Naked/Nude,
ETHICS see MORALITY Order/Chaos, Sin/Sinning, Upside Down
ETHNIC GROUPS, Margins/Outsiders EXPULSION (see also Index of Judeo-Christian Personages,
ETHNOGRAPHY, Physiognomy Places, and Concepts), Ascent/Descent, Expulsion,
ETHROG(S), Light I, Logos/Word, Offering Journey/Flight, Margins/Outsiders
ETIQUETTE, Seasons, Visiting/Visitation EXQUISITE CORPSES, Imagination/Creativity
EUTHANASIA, Margins/Outsiders EXTREME(S), Excess, Virtue/Virtues
loSl 1M)1\ Ol OIIIIK NANUS AND II RMS

EX-VOTO(S), Pevotion/Piety, Gaze, Journey/Flight, FAME, Artists/Art, Choice/Choosing,

Path/Road/Crossroads, Plague/Pestilence Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fame, Gaze, Honor/Honoring,
EYE(S), Death, Dreams/Visions, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Order/Chaos, Vanity/Vanitas
Envy, Evil Eye, Female Beauty and Adornment, Fame, FAMILY, Abandonment, Abduction/Rape, Adultery,
Gaze, Journey/Flight, Judgment, Justice, Light I, Artists/Art, Betrayal, Calumny, Caricature/Cartoon,
Masks/Personae, Mirror/Reflection, Nightmare, Communion, Devotion/Piety, Fortune, Gaze,
Peasantry, Penitence/Repentance, Physiognomy, Journey/Flight, Madness, Marriage/Betrothal, Music,
Pregnancy, Reading, Self-Portraits I, Self-Portraits II, Peasantry, Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence,
Sin/Sinning, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virgin/Virginity, Protestantism, Seasons, Self-Portraits I, Self-Portraits II,

Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness, Widowhood, Shipwreck, Vanity/Vanitas, Whiteness, Widowhood

Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac FAMINE, Apocalypse, Expulsion, Margins/Outsider.,,
EYEBROW(S)/EYELID(S), Kiss/Kissing, Masks/Personae, Order/Chaos, Plague/Pestilence
Naked/Nude, Physiognomy, Sin/Sinning FAN(S), Ecstasy, Mirror/Reflection
EYE-CONTACT, Gaze, Pointing/Indicating FANATICISM, Witchcraft/Sorcery
EYEGLASSES, Fools/Folly FANTASY/FANTASIES, Automata, Dreams/Visions,
Honor/Honoring, Luxury, Madness, Masks/Personae,
FABLE(S) (FABLIAUX) (see also FAIRY TALES; Mirror/Reflection, Naked/Nude, Night, Sin/Sinning,
FOLKLORE/FOLKTALES/FOLK Sleep/Sleeping, Upside Down, Vices/Deadly Sins,
TRADITIONS/LEGENDS), Adultery, Comic, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Dreams/Visions, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Evil Eye, FARCE, Comic, Masks/Personae
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Path/Road/Crossroads FAREWELL see JOURNEY/FLIGHT
FABRIC(S), Luxury, Naked/Nude FARINATA DEGLI UBERTI, Damned Souls
FACE(S), Abandonment, Adultery, Artists/Art, FARM(S)/FARMER(S)/FARMHAND(S), Comic,
Ascent/Descent, Automata, Baptism, Birth/Childbirth, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Marriage/Betrothal, Offering,
Calumny, Caricature/Cartoon, Communion, Death, Path/Road/Crossroads, Patronage, Peasantry,
Dreams/Visions, Evil Eye, Female Beauty and Adornment, Penitence/Repentance, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping
Fools/Folly, Gaze, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Light II, FARNESE, Cardinal Ranuncio, Path/Road/Crossroads
Madness, Margins/Outsiders, Masks/Personae, FASCES, Virtue/Virtues
Metamorphosis, Mirror/Reflection, Order/Chaos, FASCISM/FASCISTfS), Death, Hanging, Sport
Physiognomy, Pregnancy, Sacrifice, Self-Portraits I, FASHION/FASHIONABLE, Adultery, Female Beauty and
Temptation, Virgin/Virginity, Visiting/Visitation, Adornment, Humors, Margins/Outsiders, Months,
Widowhood Peasantry, Seasons, Self-Portraits I, Widowhood
FACTORY/FACTORIES, Harvesting, FAST/FASTING, Dreams/Visions, Ecstasy, Gaze,
Labor/Trades/Occupations Penitence/Repentance, Temptation, Zodiac
FAIR(S), Peasantry FAT/FATNESS, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Order/Chaos,
FAIRY/FAIRIES, Abduction/Rape, Death Peasantry, Vices/Deadly Sins
FAIRY TALES (see also FABLEfS]; FOLKLORE/ FATAL WOMAN/FEMME FATALE (see also
FOLKTALES/FOLK TRADITIONS/LEGENDS), SEDUCTION), Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, Fatal
Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Dreams/Visions, Judgment, Woman/Femme Fatale, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne,
Kiss/Kissing, Laughter, Penitence/Repentance, Masks/Personae, Naked/Nude, Sin/Sinning, Vices/Deadly
Sleep/Sleeping, Upside Down Sins
FAITF1/FAITHFUL, Death, Dreams/Visions, Justice, FATALISM, Zodiac
Martyrdom, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peace, FATE, Abundance, Adultery, Choice/Choosing, Death,
Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence, Protestantism, Dreams/Visions, Fortune, Journey/Flight, Love and
Sanctuary, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Serpent's Bite, Death, Masks/Personae, Misfortune, Order/Chaos,
Shipwreck, Sleep/Sleeping, Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Path/Road/Crossroads, Pregnancy, Seasons, Sin/Sinning,
Sins, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation, Sleep/Sleeping, Virtue/Virtues, Voyeurism, Zodiac
Whiteness, Widowhood, Witchcraft/Sorcery FATHER(S), Abandonment, Abduction/Rape, Adultery,
FAKIR(S), Path/Road/Crossroads Ascent/Descent, Avarice, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Baptism,
FALCON(S), Abduction/Rape, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth,
FALCONER, Comic Caricature/Cartoon, Damned Souls,
FALL/FALLING, Dreams/Visions, Fortune, Judgment, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Dreams/Visions,
Mirror/Reflection, Misfortune, Sin/Sinning, Upside Drunkenness/Intoxication, Envy, Excess, Fatal
Down, Vices/Deadly Sins, Whiteness, Witchcraft/Sorcery Woman/Femme Fatale, Hair/Haircutting,
FALLEN WOMAN/WOMEN see Honor/Honoring, Imagination/Creativity, Journey/Flight,
PROSTITUTE(S)/PROSTITUTION Judgment, Madness, Margins/Outsiders,
FALSE/FALSEHOOD/FALSENESS/FALSE Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae, Misfortune,
PROPHETS/FALSE WITNESS, Adultery, Fame, Female Naked/Nude, Penitence/Repentance, Pointing/Indicating,
Beauty and Adornment, Justice, Masks/Personae, Pregnancy, Protestantism, Reading, Sacrifice, Sanctuary,
Protestantism, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues Self-Portraits I, Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Toilet Scenes,
 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS IO83

Vanity/Vanitas, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, FEUDAL SYSTEM, Months, Sport

Voyeurism, Widowhood, Witchcraft/Sorcery FICHU, Whiteness
FATHER-IN-LAW, Witchcraft/Sorcery FICKLE/FICKLENESS, Fortune, Vanity/Vanitas
FATHER TIME, Fortune, Music FIDDLE see VIOLIN
FATIGUE, Peasantry, Sleep/Sleeping FIDELITY, Adultery, Betrayal, Female Beauty and
FAUVES, Bath/Bathing Adornment, Mirror/Reflection, Toilet Scenes,
FEAR, Abundance, Adultery, Automata, Dreams/Visions, Virtue/Virtues
Fatal Woman/Femme Hanging, Laughter,
Fatale, Gaze, FIG(S)/FIG LEAF/LEAVES, Laughter, Naked/Nude,
Margins/Outsiders, Masks/Personae, Nightmare, Order/Chaos, Sin/Sinning
Order/Chaos, Peace, Peasantry, Plague/Pestilence, FIGHT/FIGHTING, Death, Destruction of City, Fools/Folly,
Sanctuary, Sin/Sinning, Sublime, Vices/Deadly Sins, Masks/Personae, Peasantry, Zodiac
Virtue/Virtues, Widowhood, Witchcraft/Sorcery FILM see CINEMA
FEAST(S)/FEASTING, Avarice, Bacchanalia/Orgy, FINGER(S), Death, Dreams/Visions,
Beheading/Decapitation, Comic, Communion, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Judaism, Mirror/Reflection,
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Death, Fools/Folly, Fortune, Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos, Pointing/Indicating, Reading,
Gaze, Honor/Honoring, Imagination/Creativity, Justice, Vanity/Vanitas, Voyeurism
Marriage/Betrothal, Months, Peace, Peasantry, FIR (tree), Visiting/Visitation
Penitence/Repentance, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac FIRE/FLAME(S)/BURNING/INFERNO, Apocalypse,
FEAST DAYS (see also Index of Judeo-Christian Personages, Ascent/Descent, Birth/Childbirth, Damned Souls,
Places, and Concepts), Honor/Honoring, Months, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Destruction of City, Ecstasy,
Virtue/Virtues
Excess, Expulsion, Fame, Female Beauty and Adornment,
FEAST OF FOOLS, Fools/Folly
Hanging, Humors, Judaism, Judgment, Light I, Madness,
FEATHER(S), Ecstasy, Female Beauty and Adornment,
Martyrdom, Misfortune, Nightmare, Offering,
Fools/Folly, Imagination/Creativity, Judgment,
Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peace, Peasantry,
Mirror/Reflection, Nightmare, Virtue/Virtues
Plague/Pestilence, Reading, Sacrifice, Sanctuary, Serpent's
FEATHER BED, Luxury
Bite, Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Vices/Deadly
FECES see EXCREMENT Sins, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery,
FECUNDITY see FERTILITY
Zodiac
FELICITY, Abundance, Fortune, Virtue/Virtues
FIRMAMENT, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Order/Chaos,
FEMALE BEAUTY AND ADORNMENT, Abundance,
Zodiac
Female Beauty and Adornment, Toilet Scenes,
FIRST BORN, Plague/Pestilence
Vanity/Vanitas
FISH/FISHES, Caricature/Cartoon, Communion,
FEMININE/FEMININITY (see also GENDER), Female
Crucifixion, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fortune,
Beauty and Adornment, Kiss/Kissing,
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Journey/Flight, Light I,
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Pregnancy, Self-Portraits II,
Logos/Word, Luxury, Marriage/Betrothal, Offering,
Toilet Scenes, Virgin/Virginity, Whiteness, Widowhood,
Order/Chaos, Penitence/Repentance, Pregnancy,
Zodiac
Sacrifice, Shipwreck, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues,
FEMINIST(S)/FEMINISM, Birth/Childbirth,
Zodiac
Margins/Outsiders, Pregnancy
FENCING, Sport
FISHERMAN/FISHERMEN/FISHING, Abduction/Rape,

FERGUSON, James, Light II Humors, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Labyrinth/Maze,

FERRARA, University of, Zodiac Months, Zodiac
FERRERS, Earl, Hanging
FISHNET(S), Justice
FERTILITY, Abundance, Artists/Art, Bath/Bathing, FIVE LAST THINGS, Music
Birth/Childbirth, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Death, FLAG(S), Judaism
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Female Beauty and FLAGELLANT(S), Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence

Adornment, Fortune, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, FLAIL/FLAILING, Peasantry

Marriage/Betrothal, Metamorphosis, Naked/Nude, FLAME(S) see FIRE/FLAME(S)/BURNING/INFERNO
Pregnancy, Sacrifice, Seasons, Sin/Sinning, Toilet Scenes, FLAMEN(S), Abundance
Virgin/Virginity, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac FLATTERY, Excess, Mirror/Reflection
FERTILIZATION, Abundance FLATULENCE, Laughter
FESTAIUOLO, Pointing/Indicating FLAY/FLAYING/FLAYED, Damned Souls, Hanging,

FESTIVAL(S)/FESTIVITIES, Devotion/Piety, Fortune, Judgment, Martyrdom, Music, Self-Portraits I

Harvesting, Honor/Honoring, Labyrinth/Maze, Laughter, FLEA(S), Sin/Sinning

Marriage/Betrothal, Martyrdom, Months, Patronage, FLEEING/FLIGHT, Adultery, Expulsion, Fame,
Upside Down, Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery Journey/Flight, Love and Death, Path/Road/Crossroads,
FETE CHAMPETRE, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Masks/Personae Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy, Sacrifice
FETISH, Abduction/Rape FLESH see BODY/BODIES/FLESH
FETTERS see CHAIN(S) FLIRTING/FLIRTATION, Marriage/Betrothal,
FETUS see EMBRYO(S) Vanity/Vanitas
IO84 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS

FLOAT/FLOATING, Dreams/Visions, Ecstasy, Light II, FORELOCK, Fortune

Pointing/Indicating, Sanctuary, Temptation, Upside FORESHORTENING, Sacrifice
Down, Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness FORETELL see PROPHET(S)/PROPHETESS(ES)/
FLOOD, Journey/Flight, Judgment, Misfortune, Peace PROPHECY
FLORENCE/FLORENTINE(S), Abandonment, FORGE, Excess, Humors, Labor/Trades/Occupations,
Honor/Honoring, Luxury, Naked/Nude, Patronage, Pointing/Indicating, Vices/Deadly Sins
Peace, Sin/Sinning, Virtue/Virtues FORGIVENESS, Adultery, Communion, Hair/Haircutting,
FLOWER(S)/FLOWERING, Abduction/Rape, Abundance, Journey/Flight, Martyrdom, Order/Chaos,
Comic, Death, Dreams/Visions, Ecstasy, Female Beauty Penitence/Repentance, Pregnancy, Sin/Sinning
and Adornment, Honor/Honoring, Laughter, Light 1, FORK/FORKED, Expulsion, Path/Road/Crossroads
ogos/Word, Luxury, Madness, Marriage/Betrothal,
I FORM/FORMALISM, Labor/Trades/Occupations,
Metamorphosis, Mirror/Reflection, Months, Music, Nightmare, Order/Chaos, Pregnancy, Sin/Sinning, Upside
Night, Order/Chaos, Seasons, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Down
Sin/Sinning, Toilet Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly FORNICATION see SEXUAL CONTACT
Sins, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness, Zodiac FORSAKE/FORSAKEN see ABANDONMENT
FLUID(S), Evil Eye, Melancholy, Order/Chaos, Sin/Sinning, FORSYTHE, WILLIAM, Justice
Toilet Scenes, Virtue/Virtues FORTIFICATION(S), Annunciation, Sanctuary
FLUTE(S), Automata, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Comic, Hanging, FORTITUDE see COURAGE/FORTITUDE/BRAVERY
Judgment, Shepherds/Shepherdesses FORTRESS(ES) see FORTIFICATION(S)
FLY/FLIES (insects), Vanity/Vanitas FORTUNE, Crucifixion, Envy, Evil Eye, Excess, Fortune,
FLY/FLYING/FLIGHT, Ascent/Descent, Birth/Childbirth, Humors, Luxury, Marriage/Betrothal, Misfortune,
Damned Souls, Death, Dreams/Visions, Money, Pregnancy, Seasons, Shipwreck, Upside Down
Witchcraft/Sorcery FORTUNE TELLER(S), Comic, Fortune, Margins/Outsiders
FOCAL POINT, Path/Road/Crossroads, Sin/Sinning, FOUR, Virtue/Virtues
Temptation, Upside Down, Whiteness FORTY, Temptation
FOETUS see EMBRYO(S) FOSSIL(S), Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy
FOG, Night FOUNDLING(S), Abandonment
FOLIGNO, Plague/Pestilence FOUNDLING HOSPITAL, Abandonment
FOLK ART/FOLK ARTISTS, Margins/Outsiders FOUNTAIN(S)/WELL(S)/CISTERN(S), Abduction/Rape,
FOLKLORE/FOLKTALES/FOLK TRADITIONS/LEGENDS Abundance, Automata, Evil Eye, Excess, Humors,
{see also FABLE[S]; FAIRY TALES), Birth/Childbirth, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Justice, Logos/Word,
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Death, Dreams/Visions, Margins/Outsiders, Mirror/Reflection,
Judaism, Judgment, Masks/Personae, Metamorphosis, Path/Road/Crossroads, Sleep/Sleeping, Temptation,
Mirror/Reflection, Nightmare, Offering, Sanctuary, Toilet Toilet Scenes, Virgin/Virginity
Scenes, Vices/Deadly Sins, Witchcraft/Sorcery FOUQUET, Nicholas, Luxury
FONDLE/FONDLING, Peasantry, Sleep/Sleeping, FOUR, Seasons
Temptation FOURTEEN, Path/Road/Crossroads
FONT(S), Baptism, Virtue/Virtues FOURTH DIMENSION, Upside Down
FOOD, Abundance, Birth/Childbirth, Death, FOWL, Humors, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Excess, Fortune, FOX(ES), Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Nightmare,
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Luxury, Margins/Outsiders, Vices/Deadly Sins
Marriage/Betrothal, Melancholy, Months, Seasons, FRAGMENT(S)/FRAGMENTATION (see also RUIN[S]),
Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Widowhood Baptism, Choice/Choosing, Comic, Gaze, Martyrdom,
FOOLS/FOLLY, Automata, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos, Seasons
Hanging, Laughter, Madness,
Fools/Folly, FRAGRANCE(S) see PERFUME
Masks/Personae, Peasantry, Physiognomy, Shipwreck, FRANCESCO II NOVELLO DA CARRARA,
Upside Down, Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Sins, Honor/Honoring
Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery FRANCOISE King of France, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
I,

FOOT/FEET, Ascent/Descent, Bath/Bathing, Crucifixion, FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR, Destruction of City,

Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Death, Ecstasy, Fools/Folly, Mirror/Reflection
Fortune, Fortune, Hair/Haircutting, Hanging, FRANKINCENSE, Kiss/Kissing
Kiss/Kissing, Laughter, Metamorphosis, Money, FRAUD, Calumny, Physiognomy, Vanity/Vanitas
Naked/Nude, Plague/Pestilence, Protestantism, FREEDOM, Abandonment, Abduction/Rape,
Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Upside Down, Vices/Deadly Dreams/Visions, Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/Betrothal,
Sins, Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac Seasons, Temptation, Upside Down, Virgin/Virginity,
FOOTBALL, Sport Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac
FOOTPRINT, Labyrinth/Maze FREE FALL, Upside Down
FOOTSTOOL, Misfortune FREE WILL, Choice/Choosing, Misfortune,
FOREHEAD, Caricature/Cartoon, Margins/Outsiders, Path/Road/Crossroads, Protestantism, Sin/Sinning
Physiognomy, Virgin/Virginity, Widowhood FRENCH REVOLUTION, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS 1085

FRENZY, Abandonment, Imagination/Creativity, Madness Labyrinth/Maze, Luxury, Madness, Margins/Outsiders,

FREUD, Sigmund see Index of Authors, Literary Texts, Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae, Music, Offering,
Composers, Filmmakers, and Folktales Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, Pregnancy, Seasons,
FRIEND(S)/FRIENDSHIP(S), Fortune, Justice, Kiss/Kissing, Self-Portraits I, Sleep/Sleeping, Temptation, Toilet Scenes,
Marriage/Betrothal, Peace, Seasons, Widowhood Whiteness, Widowhood
FRIVOLITY/FRIVOLITIES, Shepherds/Shepherdesses GARDEN MAZE(S) see LABYRINTH/MAZE
FROG(S)/TOAD(S), Caricature/Cartoon, Evil Eye, GARLAND(S), Bacchanalia/Orgy, Death, Fortune,
Kiss/Kissing, Vices/Deadly Sins, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Honor/Honoring, Laughter, Light I, Offering, Peasantry,
Zodiac Seasons, Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac
FRONTIER, Dreams/Visions, Margins/Outsiders, GARMENT(S) see DRESS
Path/Road/Crossroads GAS/GASES/GASEOUS, Order/Chaos, Sublime
FRUIT(S), Abundance, Betrayal, Choice/Choosing, Comic, GAS MASK(S), Order/Chaos
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Evil Eye, Expulsion, Fortune, GATE(S) see DOOR(S)
Hanging, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Light I, GAZE, Abandonment, Bath/Bathing,
Logos/Word, Metamorphosis, Misfortune, Months, Beheading/Decapitation, Death, Dreams/Visions,
Naked/Nude, Offering, Order/Chaos, Peasantry, Seasons, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Envy, Evil Eye, Fatal
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Toilet
Woman/Femme Fatale, Female Beauty and
Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues,
Adornment, Gaze, Journey/Flight, Love and Death,
Voyeurism, Zodiac
Margins/Outsiders, Melancholy, Metamorphosis,
FRUITFULNESS, Abundance, Whiteness Mirror/Reflection, Months, Naked/Nude, Night,
FULLER, Loie, Dance/Dancers/Dancing Patronage, Penitence/Repentance, Pregnancy, Self-
FUNERAL/BURIAL, Abundance, Apotheosis/Deification,
Portraits I, Self-Portraits II, Serpent's Bite, Sport,
Comic, Death, Fools/Folly, Fortune, Gaze,
Temptation, Toilet Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly
Hair/Haircutting, Honor/Honoring, Journey/Flight,
Sins, Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation, Voyeurism,
Kiss/Kissing, Light I, Love and Death, Luxury,
Widowhood
Martyrdom, Masks/Personae, Melancholy,
GAZELLE(S), Caricature/Cartoon
Mirror/Reflection, Music, Path/Road/Crossroads,
GEM(S)seeJEWEL(S)
Peasantry, Plague/Pestilence, Sleep/Sleeping, Sport,
GEMINI (zodiacal constellation), Zodiac
Toilet Scenes, Virtue/Virtues, Widowhood
FUNERARY BIER(S), Sacrifice
GENDER {see also FEMININE/FEMININITY;
MASCULINE/MASCULINITY), Artists/Art,
FUNERARY PYRE(S), Abundance, Apotheosis/Deification,
Beheading/Decapitation, Death, Female Beauty
Fortune, Love and Death, Martyrdom, Plague/Pestilence,
and Adornment, Gaze, Hair/Haircutting,
Temptation
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Humors, Journey/Flight,
FUNNEL(S), Melancholy
Justice, Kiss/Kissing, Masks/Personae, Mirror/Reflection,
FUR(S), Seasons, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
Months, Naked/Nude, Nightmare, Offering,
FURNACE, Martyrdom, Sacrifice
Order/Chaos, Reading, Seasons, Self-Portraits I,
FURNITURE, Luxury, Marriage/Betrothal
Self-Portraits II, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Sport,
FUTILITY, Female Beauty and Adornment, Gaze, Music,
Temptation, Toilet Scenes, Vices/Deadly Sins,
Penitence/Repentance
Virgin/Virginity, Widowhood, Zodiac
FUTURE, Marriage/Betrothal, Mirror/Reflection, Offering,
Physiognomy, Seasons, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues,
GENE(S)/GENETIC, Laughter, Physiognomy
Whiteness GENIE/GENII, Death, Night
FUTURISTS/FUTURISM, Dreams/Visions, Journey/Flight, GENITALS/GENITALIA, Evil Eye, Excess,
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Madness, Sport Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Humors, Laughter,
Naked/Nude, Sin/Sinning, Toilet Scenes, Vices/Deadly
GALILEO, Caricature/Cartoon, Envy, Protestantism Sins, Virgin/Virginity, Voyeurism, Zodiac
GALL see BILE GENIUS, Artists/Art, Imagination/Creativity, Melancholy,
GALLERIA DEGLI AUTORITRATTI, Self-Portraits I
Order/Chaos, Self-Portraits I, Sublime, Zodiac
GALLOWS, Hanging, Music, Path/Road/Crossroads, GENRE(S), Caricature/Cartoon, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
Peasantry, Physiognomy, Upside Down Luxury, Naked/Nude, Penitence/Repentance,
GAMBLER(S)/GAMBLING {see also Protestantism, Reading, Self-Portraits II,

LOTTERY/LOTTERIES), Comic, Death, Madness, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, Vanity/Vanitas,

Margins/Outsiders, Money, Sin/Sinning, Sport Visiting/Visitation, Whiteness
GAME(S), Automata, Fortune, Marriage/Betrothal, GENUFLECTION, Devotion/Piety
Sanctuary, Sport, Voyeurism GEOMETRY/GEOMETER/GEOMETRIC DESIGNS,
GAME BOARD, Caricature/Cartoon Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Kiss/Kissing, Labyrinth/Maze,
GANGSTER(S), Fortune, Physiognomy Light I, Offering, Order/Chaos, Sanctuary, Upside Down
GARDEN(S)/GARDNER(S), Abundance, Automata, GEORGET, Dr. Etienne-Jean, Physiognomy
Annunciation, Expulsion, Humors, GERMAN(S), Sin/Sinning
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Labor/Trades/Occupations, GERMAN REUNIFICATION, Penitence/Repentance
lo8A INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS

GESTURE(S), Automata, Baptism, Beheading/Decapitation, Months, Music, Naked/Nude, Pregnancy, Sacrifice,

Betrayal, Communion, Death, Evil Eye, Female Beauty Sanctuary, Self-Portraits I, Sleep/Sleeping, Sublime, Toilet
and Adornment, Fools/lolly, Fortune, Gaze, Scenes, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues,
1 [air/1 laircutting, I lermaphrodite/Androgyne, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
Honor/Honoring, Imagination/Creativity, Kiss/Kissing, GODIVA, Lady, Hair/Haircutting
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Light II, Love and Death, GOLD, Abundance, Adultery, Ascent/Descent, Automata,
Madness, Masks/Personae, Order/Chaos, Peasantry, Avarice, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Communion, Crucifixion,
Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Envy, Evil Eye, Expulsion,
Pointing/Indicating, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Toilet Fame, Female Beauty and Adornment, Fortune, Hanging,
Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Honor/Honoring, Judaism, Kiss/Kissing, Laughter,
Visiting/Visitation, Voyeurism, Widowhood, Light II, Luxury, Marriage/Betrothal, Martyrdom,
Witchcraft/Sorcery Metamorphosis, Mirror/Reflection, Misfortune, Money,
GHOST(S), Mirror/Reflection, Nightmare, Months, Penitence/Repentance, Pregnancy, Sacrifice,
Witchcraft/Sorcery Sanctuary, Self-Portraits I, Shipwreck, Temptation, Toilet
GIANT(S), Abduction/Rape, Comic, Excess, Fame Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation,
GIBBET see GALLOWS; HANGING Zodiac
GIFT(S), Abduction/Rape, Abundance, Ascent/Descent, GOLDEN AGE see AGES OF THE WORLD
Bath/Bathing, Honor/Honoring, Kiss/Kissing, GOLDEN SECTION, Sport
Marriage/Betrothal, Misfortune, Peace, Sanctuary, GOLDSMITH(S), Labor/Trades/Occupations,
Seasons, Sin/Sinning, Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation Mirror/Reflection
GILLES (clown), Masks/Personae
GONZAGA, Federigo, Death
GILOT, Francoise, Pregnancy
GONZAGA, Francesco, Imagination/Creativity, Evil Eye,
GIRDLE(S), Marriage/Betrothal, Metamorphosis,
Honor/Honoring
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Virtue/Virtues
GONZAGA, Vincenzo, Visiting/Visitation
GISANT, Fortune
GONZAGA FAMILY, Honor/Honoring
GISZE, Georg, Luxury
GOOD/GOODNESS, Abundance, Fortune,
GLADIATOR(S), Evil Eye, Luxury, Sport
Imagination/Creativity, Judaism, Judgment, Justice,
GLASS/GLASSES, Annunciation, Communion,
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Laughter, Light I,
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Ecstasy, Light I, Light II,
Masks/Personae, Melancholy, Mirror/Reflection,
Luxury, Masks/Personae, Mirror/Reflection, Music,
Offering, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry,
Sanctuary, Vanity/Vanitas, Virgin/Virginity
Pregnancy, Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness
GLOBE(S), Abundance, Fame, Fortune, Honor/Honoring,
Laughter, Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac
GOOD AND BAD GOVERNMENT, Abundance, Justice,
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Peace, Peasantry,
GLOCKENSPIEL, Automata
Virtue/Virtues
GLORY/GLORIFICATION, Ascent/Descent, Death, Fame,
Gaze, Honor/Honoring, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Light
GOOD AND EVIL/GOOD AND BAD, Ascent/Descent,
Betrayal, Choice/Choosing, Dawn/Dawning, Fame,
I, Madness, Martyrdom, Mirror/Reflection, Music,
Judgment, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads,
Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, Patronage,
Plague/Pestilence, Protestantism, Vices/Deadly Sins,
Virtue/Virtues
GLOVE(S), Abduction/Rape, Honor/Honoring, Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness, Widowhood,
Witchcraft/Sorcery
Marriage/Betrothal, Pregnancy
GLUTTONY, Comic, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fools/Folly, GOOSE/GEESE, Ecstasy, Evil Eye, Vices/Deadly Sins

Laughter, Masks/Personae, Peasantry, Sin/Sinning, GORGONEION, Evil Eye, Gaze

Vices/Deadly Sins GORING, Hermann, Sin/Sinning

GNOME(S), Sin/Sinning GOSSIP, Offering, Widowhood

GO (Japanese game), Voyeurism GOTHIC, Temptation, Visiting/Visitation
GOAT(S)/RAM(S)/KID(S), Abduction/Rape, Abundance, GOURD(S), Journey/Flight, Virtue/Virtues
Annunciation, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Choice/Choosing, GOUT, Martyrdom
Comic, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Judaism, Judgment, GOVERNESS(ES), Labor/Trades/Occupations
Laughter, Logos/Word, Margins/Outsiders, Music, Night, GOVERNMENT see GOOD AND BAD GOVERNMENT
Offering, Order/Chaos, Pointing/Indicating, Sacrifice, GRACE (divine) (see also Index of Judeo-Christian
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Vices/Deadly Sins, Personages, Places, and Concepts), Devotion/Piety, Gaze,
Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac Penitence/Repentance, Protestantism, Sin/Sinning,
GOATHERD) S) see SHEPHERDS/SHEPHERDESSES Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac
GOBELINS, Months GRACE/GRACEFULNESS, Abundance,
GOBLET(S), Money, Music, Vices/Deadly Sins Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Night, Peasantry,
GOD(S)/GODDESS(ES), Crucifixion, Death, Female Temptation, Visiting/Visitation, Whiteness
Beauty and Adornment, Gaze, Humors, GRACELAND (Memphis, Tennessee), Journey/Flight
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Imagination/Creativity, Light GRAFFITI, Caricature/Cartoon, Comic
II, Logos/Word, Love and Death, Madness, Misfortune, GRAHAM, Martha, Dance/Dancers/Dancing
 INDEX OF- OTHER NAMES AND TERMS 1087

GRAIN/GRAINS, Abundance, Harvesting, GUILD(S), Artists/Art, Mirror/Reflection

Labor/Trades/Occupations, Peasantry, Seasons, GUILLOTINE, Hanging
Witchcraft/Sorcery GUILT, Damned Souls, Death, Destruction of City, Evil Eye,
GRANDEUR, Sublime Gaze, Luxury, Naked/Nude, Penitence/Repentance,
GRANDPARENTS, Peasantry Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, Sin/Sinning
GRAND TOUR, Sublime GUN(S), Dreams/Visions, Marriage/Betrothal, Order/Chaos
GRANT, William, Melancholy GUSTAV ADOLPH OF SWEDEN, Protestantism
GRANVELLE, Cardinal, Fools/Folly GUT, Music
GRAPE(S), Bacchanalia/Orgy, Labor/Trades/Occupations, GYMNASIUM(S), Sport
Music, Offering, Seasons, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, GYMNASTICS, Sport, Upside Down
Vanity/Vanitas GYPSY/GYPSIES, Fortune, Margins/Outsiders
GRAVE(S)/GRAVESTONE(S)/GRAVEYARD(S) {see also
FUNERAL/BURIAL), Death, Fortune, Hair/Haircutting, HAG(S), Death, Temptation, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Journey/Flight, Madness, Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos, HAIL/HAILSTORM(S), Witchcraft/Sorcery
Sanctuary, Sin/Sinning, Shipwreck, Vanity/Vanitas, HAIR/HAIRCUTTING, Abduction/Rape, Ascent/Descent,
Witchcraft/Sorcery Bath/Bathing, Beheading/Decapitation,
GRAVEDIGGER(S), Fortune Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Death, Excess, Fatal
GRAVITY (law of gravity), Dreams/Visions, Hanging, Woman/Femme Fatale, Female Beauty and
Upside Down Adornment, Fools/Folly, Gaze, Hair/Haircutting,
GRAVrrY (seriousness), Imagination/Creativity, Sin/Sinning, Hanging, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Humors,
Virtue/Virtues Imagination/Creativity, Hair/Haircutting, Luxury,
GRAY see GREY Madness, Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/Betrothal,
GREAT BEAR see URSA MAJOR (constellation) Martyrdom, Masks/Personae, Metamorphosis,
GREECE, Gaze Mirror/Reflection, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry,
GREED see AVARICE Penitence/Repentance, Pregnancy, Temptation, Toilet
GREEK (alphabet/language), Sacrifice, Vanity/Vanitas Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues,
GREEK CROSS, Martyrdom Voyeurism, Widowhood, Witchcraft/Sorcery
GREEK INDEPENDENCE, Sacrifice HALE, Nathan, Martyrdom, Sacrifice
GREEN, Abundance, Envy, Protestantism HALLUCINATION(S), Ecstasy, Labyrinth/Maze, Madness,
GREETING, Annunciation, Gaze Nightmare, Order/Chaos, Temptation
GREETING CARD(S), Months HALO see AUREOLE/HALO
GREY, Nightmare, Shipwreck HAMILTON, Sir William, Whiteness
GREYHOUND(S), Hunting/Hunter/Huntress HAMMER(S), Automata, Madness, Melancholy,
GRIEVING/LAMENTATION, Abandonment, Adultery, Vices/Deadly Sins
Death, Destruction of City, Expulsion, Fortune, HAND(S), Abandonment, Beheading/Decapitation,
Gaze, Hair/Haircutting, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Birth/Childbirth, Communion, Crucifixion, Damned
Imagination/Creativity, Journey/Flight, Laughter, Light I, Souls, Death, Dreams/Visions, Ecstasy, Evil Eye,
Love and Death, Margins/Outsiders, Melancholy, Expulsion, Fortune, Gaze, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne,
Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, Journey/Flight, Judaism, Kiss/Kissing,
Sacrifice, Sanctuary, Sleep/Sleeping, Whiteness, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Light II, Love and Death,
Widowhood Marriage/Betrothal, Melancholy, Metamorphosis,
GRIFFIN(S), Excess, Virtue/Virtues Mirror/Reflection, Music, Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos,
GRIM REAPER see DEATH Peace, Peasantry, Penitence/Repentance,
GRINDSTONE(S), Melancholy Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy, Protestantism, Sacrifice,
GROIN(S), Zodiac Serpent's Bite, Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Toilet Scenes,
GROOM(S) see BRIDEGROOM(S) Vanity/Vanitas, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues,
GROTESQUE, Abandonment, Adultery, Visiting/Visitation, Widowhood, Witchcraft/Sorcery,
Caricature/Cartoon, Comic, Death, Evil Eye, Excess, Zodiac
Madness, Masks/Personae, Money, Peasantry,
Fools/Folly, HANDBAG see PURSE/HANDBAG/MONEYBAG
Physiognomy, Sin/Sinning, Temptation HANDICAPPED, Margins/Outsiders
GROUND LINE, Upside Down HANDICRAFT(S), Labor/Frades/Occupations
GUARDIAN(S), Mirror/Reflection, Pointing/Indicating, HANDKERCHIEF/KERCHIEF, Pregnancy, Protestantism
Sanctuary, Widowhood HANDLE(S), Sanctuary
GUEST(S), Marriage/Betrothal, Penitence/Repentance HANDSHAKE, Gaze, Marriage/Betrothal
GUERNICA, Spain, Apocalypse, Arms Raised, Death, HANDWRITING, Margins/Outsiders, Reading
Destruction of City, Gaze, Order/Chaos HANGING, Abandonment, Death, Hanging, Light II,

GUARDIAN, Journey/Fhght Masks/Personae, Peasantry, Physiognomy, Self-Portrairs I.

GUIDANCE, Abundance, Imagination/Creativity, Upside Down, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues,

Vanity/Vanitas Voyeurism, Widowhood
GUILBERT, Yvette, Caricature/Cartoon, Masks/Personae HANGMAN (game), Hanging
IOSS INDl X Ol (Villi -K NAMI-.S AND II.KMS

HANG-ROPE,. Virtue/Virtues Martyrdom, Masks/Personae, Metamorphosis, Money,

HANNIBAL, Path/Road/Crossroads Naked/Nude, Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, Sacrifice,
HANOUARS, Fortune Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Toilet Scenes, Upside Down,
HAPPINESS/JOY, Abundance, Choice/Choosing, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues,
Dreams/Visions, Honor/Honoring, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
Imagination/Creativity, Justice, Kiss/Kissing, Laughter, HEADACHE(S), Martyrdom
Light I, Melancholy, Order/Chaos, Peasantry, HEADDRESS see HAT(S)/HEADDRESS(ES)
Physiognomy, Seasons, Self-Portraits 1, Toilet Scenes, HEALING/HEALTH, Bath/Bathing,
Upside Down, Virtue/Virtues Beheading/Decapitation, Dance/Dancers/Dancing,
LIARE(S), Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Peasantry, Dreams/Visions, Gaze, Humors, Journey/Flight,
Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac Kiss/Kissing, Madness, Melancholy, Naked/Nude, Peace,
HAREM, Bath/Bathing Peasantry, Physiognomy, Plague/Pestilence, Reading,
HARLEQUIN/ARLECCHINO (commedia dell'arte Serpent's Bite, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virgin/Virginity,
character), Dreams/Visions, Fools/Folly, Masks/Personae Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac
HARLOT(S) PROSTITUTE(S)/PROSTITUTION
see HEARSE(S), Fortune
HARLOW, Jean, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale HEART(S), Communion, Ecstasy, Female Beauty and
HARMONY, Ascent/Descent, Female Beauty and Adornment, Fortune, Humors, Judaism, Judgment,
Adornment, Harvesting, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Penitence/Repentance, Protestantism, Sacrifice, Self-

Honor/Honoring, Imagination/Creativity, Judaism, Portraits II, Sin/Sinning, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues

Justice, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Light II, Love and HEARTH(S), Labor/Trades/Occupations,
Death, Melancholy, Months, Music, Night, Order/Chaos, Marriage/Betrothal, Virgin/Virginity
Peace, Peasantry, Penitence/Repentance, Seasons, HEAT/HOT, Humors, Melancholy, Seasons, Zodiac
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues, HEAVEN(S) {see also Index of Judeo-Christian Personages,
Whiteness, Zodiac Places, and Concepts), Apotheosis/Deification, Arms
HAROLD, Margins/Outsiders Raised, Ascent/Descent, Calumny, Damned Souls,
HARP(S), Madness, Marriage/Betrothal, Melancholy, Music Dawn/Dawning, Death, Dreams/Visions,
HARPOON(S), Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Sacrifice Drunkenness/Intoxication, Ecstasy, Excess, Fame,
HARPSICHORD(S), Sin/Sinning Fortune, Gaze, Hanging, Honor/Honoring,
HART, Emma, Whiteness Journey/Flight, Justice, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Light
HARUSPICY, Fortune I,Light II, Love and Death, Martyrdom, Melancholy,
HARVESTING, Abundance, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Harvesting, Months, Music, Night, Path/Road/Crossroads,
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Laughter, Offering, Peasantry, Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence, Sacrifice,
Seasons, Sleep/Sleeping, Zodiac Sleep/Sleeping, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues,
HAT(S)/HAT BAND(S)/HEADDRESS(ES)/ Whiteness, Widowhood, Zodiac
HEADGEAPJBONNET(S), Death, Fools/Folly, HEBREW/HEBREW(S), Gaze, Melancholy, Reading,
Hair/Haircutting, Judaism, Laughter, Margins/Outsiders, Vanity/Vanitas, Whiteness, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Masks/Personae, Mirror/Reflection, Peasantry, HEDGE MAZE see LABYRINTH/MAZE
Plague/Pestilence, Self-Portraits I, HEDONISM, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Luxury,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Vanity/Vanitas
Vanity/Vanitas, Widowhood HEEL(S), Upside Down
HATCH/HATCHED/HATCHING, Pregnancy HELL {see also Index of Judeo-Christian Personages, Places,
HATE/HATRED, Calumny, Justice, Peasantry, Virtue/Virtues and Concepts), Apocalypse, Masks/Personae,
HAUSSMANN, Baron, Masks/Personae Path/Road/Crossroads, Reading, Sin/Sinning, Whiteness
HAVEN(S) see SANCTUARY HELLEBORE (herb), Melancholy
HAWK(S)/HAWKING, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Months, HELM, BRIGITTE, Automata
Path/Road/Crossroads, Zodiac HELMET(S), Fame, Fortune, Metamorphosis, Order/Chaos,
HAY, Harvesting, Peasantry Peace, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues
HAY WAGON/HAYWAIN, Harvesting, HEMISPHERE/HEMISPHERICAL, Sanctuary
Path/Road/Crossroads HEMLOCK, Judgment
HAYWORTH, Rita, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale HENRI II, King of France, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
HEAD(S), Abandonment, Apocalypse, Widowhood
Apotheosis/Deification, Arms Raised, Ascent/Descent, HENRIETTA MARIE, Queen of England,
Automata, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Baptism, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth, HENRY II,King of England, Sanctuary
Caricature/Cartoon, Comic, Communion, Damned Souls, HENRY III,King of England, Fortune
Death, Dreams/Visions, Drunkenness/Intoxication, HENRY IV, Emperor, Penitence/Repentance
Ecstasy, Envy, Evil Eye, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, HENRY IV, King of France, Fortune, Honor/Honoring,
Female Beauty and Adornment, Fools/Folly, Fortune, Marriage/Betrothal, Patronage
Gaze, Hair/Haircutting, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, HENRY V, King of England, Marriage/Betrothal
Judaism, Justice, Love and Death, Margins/Outsiders, HENRY VIII, King of England, Martyrdom, Protestantism
 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND I ERMS 1089

HERALDRY (see also COAT[S] OF ARMS), Virtue/Virtues, HOLY see SACRED

Witchcraft/Sorcery HOLY MEN/HOLY WOMEN/HOLY PERSONAG1 S,

HERB(S), Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Madness, Annunciation, Apocalypse, Ascent/Descent, Bath/Bathing,

Vices/Deadly Sins Betrayal, Ecstasy, Fortune, Gaze, Honor/Honoring,
HERDSMAN/HERDSMEN see Judgment, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Patronage,
SHEPHERDS/SHEPHERDESSES Sanctuary, Temptation, Toilet Scenes, Virgin/Virginity
HERETIC/HERESY, Birth/Childbirth, Damned Souls, HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE, Protestantism
Fools/Folly, Margins/Outsiders, Plague/Pestilence, HOLZSCHUBER, Hieronymus, Gaze
Protestantism, Sin/Sinning, Vices/Deadly Sins, HOMAGE, Apotheosis/Deification, Honor/Honoring,
Witchcraft/Sorcery Kiss/Kissing, Sacrifice
HERM(S), Fame HOME(S), Journey/Flight, Labor/Trades/Occupations,
HERMAPHRODITE/ ANDROGYNE, Comic, Death, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry,
Evil Eye, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Naked/Nude, Protestantism, Virtue/Virtues
Virgin/Virginity HOMELESS, Margins/Outsiders
HERMIT(S), Path/Road/Crossroads, Penitence/Repentance, HOMOEROTICISM/HOMOSEXUAL(S)/
Temptation, Vanity/Vanitas HOMOSEXUALITY, Abduction/Rape, Bath/Bathing,
HERO(ES)/HEROINE(S)/HEROISM, Abandonment, Beheading/Decapitation, Music, Sport, Voyeurism
Adultery, Beheading/Decapitation, Comic, Death, HONDURAS, Abundance
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fame, Fatal Woman/Femme HONEY, Abundance, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
Fatale, Honor/Honoring, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Drunkenness/Intoxication
Journey/Flight, Judgment, Justice, Martyrdom, HONEYSUCKLE, Mirror/Reflection, Self-Portraits I

Melancholy, Mirror/Reflection, Misfortune, Naked/Nude, HONOR/HONORING, Fame, Gaze,

Betrayal,
Peasantry, Sin/Sinning, Sport, Temptation, Toilet Scenes, Honor/Honoring, Judgment, Martyrdom, Patronage,
Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness Sanctuary, Sin/Sinning, Sport, Virgin/Virginity,
HEXEMERON, Order/Chaos Virtue/Virtues, Widowhood, Witchcraft/Sorcery
HEXEN, Witchcraft/Sorcery HOOD(S), Fools/Folly, Gaze, Journey/Flight, Physiognomy,
HIBERNATE/HIBERNATION, Seasons Seasons
HIERARCHY, Ascent/Descent, Death, Fools/Folly, Gaze, HOORNIK, Clasina Maria (Sien), Pregnancy
Margins/Outsiders, Order/Chaos, Peasantry, Sin/Sinning, HOPE, Ascent/Descent, Hanging, Justice, Night,
Sport, Vanity/Vanitas Order/Chaos, Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, Protestantism,
HIEROGLYPH(S), Arms Raised, Birth/Childbirth, Peace, Shipwreck, Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness,
Sanctuary, Virtue/Virtues Witchcraft/Sorcery
HIEROS GAMOS, Toilet Scenes HORIZON, Upside Down, Whiteness
HIGHLAND CLEARANCES, Expulsion HORN(S), Abundance, Apotheosis/Deification,
HIGHWAY see PATH/ROAD/CROSSROADS Ascent/Descent, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Death,
Hill(s) see MOUNTAIN(S) Drunkenness/Intoxication, Evil Eye, Fame, Fortune,
HILL, Emma, Mirror/Reflection Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Judaism, Judgment,
HIP(S), Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Naked/Nude Labor/Trades/Occupations, Luxury, Margins/Outsiders,
HIPPOGRIFF, Abduction/Rape Masks/Personae, Sanctuary, Vices/Deadly Sins,
HIPPOPOTAMUS(ES), Comic, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Virtue/Virtues
Judgment, Pregnancy, Zodiac HORN OF PLENTY see CORNUCOPIA
HIROSHIMA, Destruction of City HOROSCOPE(S), Honor/Honoring, Zodiac
HISPANIC(S), Margins/Outsiders HORSE(S), Abduction/Rape, Apocalypse, Artists/Art,
HISTORICISM, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Devotion/Piety Beheading/Decapitation, Death, Dreams/Visions, Ecstasy,
HISTORY/HISTORIAN(S), Apotheosis/Deification, Envy, Excess, Expulsion, Harvesting, Honor/Honoring,
Expulsion, Harvesting, Honor/Honoring, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Journey/Flight, Light I,

Imagination/Creativity, Journey/Flight, Offering, Logos/Word, Love and Death, Luxury, Martyrdom,

Order/Chaos, Plague/Pestilence, Protestantism, Masks/Personae, Metamorphosis, Nightmare,
Sin/Sinning, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry,
HISTORY PAINTING see ACADEMIES/ACADEMICISM Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence, Sacrifice,
HITLER, Adolf, Sin/Sinning Sport, Virgin/Virginity, Voyeurism, Whiteness,
HIV VIRUS see AIDS Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
HOE(S)/HOEING, Peasantry, Zodiac HORSEMAN(MEN)/HORSEBACK, Gaze,
HOHENZOLLERN, Protestantism Honor/Honoring, Justice, Sport, Zodiac
HOLIDAY(S), Calumny, Fortune, Hanging, Judaism, HORSETAIL, Bacchanalia/Orgy
Marriage/Betrothal, Months, Peasantry HOSPICE(S), Journey/Flight
HOLLOW see EMPTY/EMPTINESS HOSPITAL(S), Fortune, Madness, Plague/Pestilence
HOLLYWOOD, Dreams/Visions HOST see COMMUNION; Index of Judeo-Christian
HOLOCAUST, Apocalypse, Destruction of City, Judaism, Personages, Places, and Concepts
Order/Chaos, Sin/Sinning HOT see HEAT/HOT
1090 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS

HOULETTE sec- CROOK(S) ICE SKATE(S)/ICE SKATING, Melancholy, Months,

HOUNDS see DOG(S) Seasons, Sport
HOUR(S), Automata, Night, Visiting/Visitation ICON(S), Crucifixion, Death, Devotion/Piety, Ecstasy,
HOURGLASS(F.S), Death, Honor/Honoring, Melancholy, Gaze, Light I, Order/Chaos, Plague/Pestilence,
Music, Pointing/Indicating, Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues Self-Portraits I

HOUSE(S)/HOUSEHOLD(S), Luxury, Marriage/Betrothal, ICONOCLASM, Crucifixion, Light I, Logos/Word, Luxury,

Misfortune, Vices/Deadly Sins Offering, Protestantism, Self-Portraits I

HOUSE OF CARDS, Adultery ICONOGRAPHY (frequently used term; not indexed)

HUBRIS/HYBRIS, Ascent/Descent, Excess, Luxury, Madness IDAHO, Abundance
HUDSON RIVER SCHOOL, Ecstasy, Journey/Flight IDEAL/IDEALIZED/IDEALISM, Caricature/Cartoon,
HUMAN (frequently used term; not indexed) Death, Fame, Female Beauty and Adornment, Gaze,
HUMANISM/HUMANIST(S), Abandonment, Hanging, Harvesting, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne,
Abduction/Rape, Death, Fame, Fools/Folly, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Logos/Word,
Honor/Honoring, Love and Death, Music, Mirror/Reflection, Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos,
Path/Road/Crossroads, Peace, Plague/Pestilence, Self- Peasantry, Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, Self-Portraits I,

Portraits I, Serpent's Bite, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sport, Temptation,

Sin/Sinning, Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virgin/Virginity, Voyeurism, Whiteness
Virtue/Virtues, Widowhood, Zodiac IDLE/IDLER(S)/IDLENESS, Melancholy,
HUMANOID, Automata, Sin/Sinning Shepherds/Shepherdesses
HUMILIATION, Caricature/Cartoon, Crucifixion, Hanging, IDOL(S)/IDOLATRY, Automata, Dance/Dancers/Dancing,
Penitence/Repentance, Pregnancy Devotion/Piety, Judgment, Kiss/Kissing, Martyrdom,
HUMILITY, Annunciation, Beheading/Decapitation, Gaze, Naked/Nude, Path/Road/Crossroads, Serpent's Bite,
Honor/Honoring, Kiss/Kissing, Mirror/Reflection, Vices/Deadly Sins, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Misfortune, Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence, IDYLL/IDYLLIC, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
Pregnancy, Reading, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Upside IGNORANCE, Calumny, Virtue/Virtues
Down, Vices/Deadly Sins, Vanity/Vanitas IGNUDI, Comic, Naked/Nude
HUMOR/HUMOROUS see COMIC ILLEGAL ALIENS, Margins/Outsiders
HUMORS, Humors, Melancholy, Music, Order/Chaos, ILLEGITIMACY, Adultery, Mirror/Reflection, Peace,
Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Vanity/Vanitas, Zodiac Pregnancy
HUNCHBACK(S), Evil Eye, Fools/Folly ILLNESS/DISEASE/SICKNESS, Death, Humors, Laughter,
HUNGER, Damned Souls, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Margins/Outsiders, Martyrdom, Mirror/Reflection,
Madness, Margins/Outsiders, Masks/Personae, Plague/Pestilence, Sacrifice, Sin/Sinning, Temptation,
Temptation, Virtue/Virtues Toilet Scenes, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues,
HUNT, Fanny, Death Visiting/Visitation
HUNTING/HUNTER/HUNTRESS, Death, Gaze, Humors, ILLUSION(S), Ascent/Descent, Comic, Crucifixion,
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Justice, Light I, Logos/Word, Devotion/Piety, Dreams/Visions, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
Love and Death, Luxury, Months, Patronage, Pregnancy, Honor/Honoring, Madness, Masks/Personae,
Sacrifice, Seasons, Sport, Virgin/Virginity, Zodiac Mirror/Reflection, Money, Self-Portraits I, Shipwreck,
HUSBAND(S), Abandonment, Adultery, Birth/Childbirth, Toilet Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas
Journey/Flight, Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae, IMAGE(S) (frequently used term; not indexed)
Mirror/Reflection, Order/Chaos, Reading, Self-Portraits IMAGINATION/CREATIVITY, Artists/Art,
II, Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Toilet Scenes, Caricature/Cartoon, Dance/Dancers/Dancing,
Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virgin/Virginity, Dawn/Dawning, Dreams/Visions, Excess, Fame,
Voyeurism, Widowhood Imagination/Creativity, Labyrinth/Maze, Laughter,
HUSKING, Labor/Trades/Occupations Madness, Margins/Outsiders, Martyrdom, Night,
HYACINTH, Metamorphosis Nightmare, Self-Portraits I, Self-Portraits II,
HYDRIA, Female Beauty and Adornment Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sleep/Sleeping, Sublime,
HYENA(S), Hunting/Hunter/Huntress Vices/Deadly Sins, Witchcraft/Sorcery
HYMN(S), Baptism, Communion, Devotion/Piety, Music, IMITATION, Imagination/Creativity, Mirror/Reflection,
Sacrifice, Virgin/Virginity Naked/Nude, Vices/Deadly Sins
HYPNOSIS/HYPNOTISM, Abduction/Rape, Artists/Art, IMMIGRANTS, Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/Betrothal
Dreams/Visions, Gaze IMMIGRATION see JOURNEY/FLIGHT
HYPOCHONDRIAC(S), Melancholy IMMORTALS/IMMORTALITY, Abundance, Adultery,
HYPOCRITE(S)/HYPOCRISY, Ascent/Descent, Death, Apotheosis/Deification, Bath/Bathing, Choice/Choosing,
Devotion/Piety, Judgment, Masks/Personae, Death, Dreams/Visions, Excess, Fame, Gaze,
Mirror/Reflection, Temptation, Witchcraft/Sorcery Honor/Honoring, Metamorphosis, Mirror/Reflection,
HYSTERIA, Abandonment, Madness, Witchcraft/Sorcery Music, Peace, Penitence/Repentance, Serpent's Bite,

Sin/Sinning, Sport, Vanity/Vanitas

ICE/ICEBOUND, Damned Souls, Months, Seasons, IMPERIA, Honor/Honoring
Shipwreck, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues IMPOTENCY, Comic, Order/Chaos
 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS IO9I

IMPREGNATION, Annunciation, Pregnancy INSOLENCE, Laughter, Plague/Pestilence

IMPRESSIONISM, Artists/Art, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, INSPIRATION, Imagination/Creativity, Music, Self-Portraits
Light I, Light II, Naked/Nude, Night, Self-Portraits I, I, Self-Portraits II, Sleep/Sleeping, Sublime, Virtue/Virtues,
Whiteness Whiteness
INCANTATION(S)/SPELL(S), Sin/Sinning, Toilet Scenes, INSTABILITY, Fortune, Peasantry
Upside Down, Witchcraft/Sorcery INSTINCT/INTUITION, Arms Raised, Dawn/Dawning,
INCARNATION, Annunciation Devotion/Piety, Dreams/Visions, Gaze,
INCENSE, Fortune, Offering, Sacrifice, Virgin/Virginity, Imagination/Creativity, Order/Chaos, Sin/Sinning,
Virtue/Virtues Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues
INCEST, Betrayal, Excess INSTRUCTION, Imagination/Creativity
INCONGRUITY, Laughter, Masks/Personae INSURANCE, Shipwreck, Widowhood
INCONTINENCE, Excess INTELLECT/INTELLECTUAL(S)/INTELLIGENTSIA/
INCUBATION, Dreams/Visions MIND, Abduction/Rape, Artists/Art, Ascent/Descent,
INCUBUS/INCUBI, Nightmare, Vices/Deadly Sins, Dawn/Dawning, Death, Devotion/Piety, Hair/Haircutting,
Witchcraft/Sorcery Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Honor/Honoring, Humors,
INDEPENDENCE, Abandonment, Artists/Art,
Imagination/Creativity, Logos/Word, Madness,
Dreams/Visions, Fools/Folly, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
Mirror/Reflection, Music, Order/Chaos, Patronage,
Journey/Flight, Judaism, Justice, Margins/Outsiders,
Peace, Peasantry, Physiognomy, Seasons, Self-Portraits I,
Marriage/Betrothal, Mirror/Reflection, Money,
Upside Down, Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Sins,
Naked/Nude, Path/Road/Crossroads, Sacrifice,
Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues
Virgin/Virginity
INTERCESSION/INTERCESSOR, Light I, Order/Chaos,
INDEPENDENT CURATORS INCORPORATED (ICI),
Plague/Pestilence
Self-Portraits I
INTOXICATION see DRUNKENNESS/INTOXICATION
INDIA, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Sanctuary
INTROSPECTION, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Gaze
INDICATING see POINTING/INDICATING
INTUITION see INSTINCT/INTUITION
INDULGENCES, Death, Money, Path/Road/Crossroads,
INVENTOR/INVENTION, Caricature/Cartoon,
Protestantism
Imagination/Creativity
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION/INDUSTRIALIZATION,
INVERSION, Upside Down, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Gaze, Harvesting, Labor/Trades/Occupations,
INVISIBLE, Communion, Fortune, Margins/Outsiders,
Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/Betrothal, Money,
Masks/Personae, Order/Chaos, Plague/Pestilence,
Peasantry, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sport
Protestantism, Sublime, Temptation, Virtue/Virtues,
INDUSTRY see COMMERCE
Voyeurism
INFAMY, Fame
IRISH FAMINE, Expulsion, Journey/Flight
INFANT(S)/INFANCY see
CHILD/CHILDREN/CHILDHOOD IRISHMAN/IRISHMEN, Physiognomy
INFERNO see FIRE/FLAMES/BURNING/INFERNO IRON AGE see AGES OF MAN
INFIDEL(S), Assent/Descent
IRONING CLOTHES, Labor/Trades/Occupations
INFIDELITY, Adultery, Ascent/Descent, Betrayal IRONY, Temptation, Upside Down
INFINITY, Night, Order/Chaos, Sublime IRRATIONALITY, Beheading/Decapitation, Dreams/Visions,

INITIATION, Baptism, Bath/Bathing, Fools/Folly, Excess, Upside Down

Beheading/Decapitation, Toilet Scenes, Whiteness IRREVERENCE, Laughter
INJUSTICE, Adultery, Fortune, Judgment, Justice,
ISAAC OF NORWICH, Caricature/Cartoon
Margins/Outsiders, Order/Chaos, Virtue/Virtues ISABELLA OF PORTUGAL, Whiteness
INK POT, Imagination/Creativity, Light II
ISLAND(S), ABANDONMENT, Abduction/Rape,
INN(S) see TAVERN(S) Abundance, Adultery, Ascent/Descent,
INNOCENCE, Adultery, Choice/Choosing, Death, Beheading/Decapitation, Birth/Childbirth,
Expulsion, Judgment, Mirror/Reflection, Naked/Nude, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Ecstasy, Fatal Woman/Femme
Order/Chaos, Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, Sacrifice, Love and Death, Luxury,
Fatale, Journey/Flight,

Seasons, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos, Seasons, Shipwreck,

Sleep/Sleeping, Vanity/Vanitas, Virgin/Virginity, Vanity/Vanitas
Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness ISOLATION, Adultery, Artists/Art, Choice/Choosing,
INSANITY see MADNESS Ecstasy, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Margins/Outsiders,
INSCRIPTION(S), Light I, Logos/Word, Love and Death, Night, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads,
Marriage/Betrothal, Melancholy, Mirror/Reflection, Plague/Pestilence, Seasons
Music, Offering, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peace, ISRAEL/ISRAELITES {see also Index of Judeo-Christian
Protestantism, Sanctuary, Seasons, Vanity/Vanitas, Personages, Places, and Concepts), Judaism, Sanctuary,
Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac Visiting/Visitation, Zodiac
INSECT(S), Dreams/Visions, Excess, Imagination/Creativity, ITALIAN COMEDY see COMMEDIA DELL'ARTE
Metamorphosis, Sin/Sinning, Temptation, IVORY/IVORIES, Light I, Luxury, Sanctuary
Vanity/Vanitas IVY, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Marriage/Betrothal, Offering
IOSU INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS

JACKAL(S), Zqdiac JUGGLER(S), Upside Down, Witchcraft/Sorcery

JAGUAR(S), Sanctuary JUPITER (planet), Vices/Deadly Sins, Zodiac
JAIL(S)/JAILER(S), Path/Road/Crossroads JUSTICE, Abundance, Adultery, Beheading/Decapitation,
|
WHS II, King of England, Journey/Flight Betrayal, Gaze, Hanging, Judgment, Justice, Night,
JAMES, Jesse, Dreams/Visions Offering, Penitence/Repentance, Sacrifice, Sanctuary,
JANIS, Sidney, Patronage Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac
JAPAN, Seasons JUSTICE OF THE PEACE, Marriage/Betrothal
JAR(S), Penitence/Repentance, Toilet Scenes, JUSTINIAN, Emperor, Ascent/Descent
Witchcraft/Sorcery
JAVELIN(S), Love and Death KAHNWEILER, Daniel Henry, Patronage
JAZZ (music), Dance/Dancers/Dancing KEPPLER, Johannes, Protestantism
JEALOUSY, Adultery, Calumny, Expulsion, Fortune, Love KERMISS see FESTIVAL(S)/FESTIVITIES
and Death, Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae, KETTLE(S), Sin/Sinning
Melancholy, Offering, Pregnancy, Sacrifice, Temptation KEY(S), Madness, Melancholy, Order/Chaos,
JEANNE DE BOURBON, Queen of France, Fortune Penitence/Repentance, Sin/Sinning, Virtue/Virtues
JERUSALEM (see also Index of Judeo-Christian Personages, KID(S) see GOAT(S)/RAM(S)/KID(S)
Places, and Concepts), Judaism KIDNAPPING see ABDUCTION/RAPE
JESTER(S) see FOOLS/FOLLY KILL/KILLING (see alsoDEATH; MORTALITY),
JEW(S)/JEWISH (see also JUDAISM), Betrayal, Abandonment, Adultery, Bath/Bathing, Fatal
Birth/Childbirth, Caricature/Cartoon, Dreams/Visions, Woman/Femme Fatale, Hair/Haircutting, Hanging,
Evil Eye, Journey/Flight, Light I, Margins/Outsiders, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Judgment, Love and
Marriage/Betrothal, Martyrdom, Money, Music, Peace, Death, Madness, Martyrdom, Offering, Peasantry,
Plague/Pestilence, Sacrifice, Sanctuary, Sin/Sinning, Sport, Plague/Pestilence, Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy,
Virtue/Virtues, Voyeurism, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac Reading, Sacrifice, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Serpent's
JEWEL(S)/JEWELRY, Abundance, Adultery, Crucifixion, Bite, Sleep/Sleeping, Temptation
Evil Eye, Female Beauty and Adornment, KING(S)/EMPEROR(S), Abduction/Rape, Adultery,
Hair/Haircutting, Luxury, Marriage/Betrothal, Apotheosis/Deification, Arms Raised, Ascent/Descent,
Metamorphosis, Mirror/Reflection, Money, Baptism, Caricature/Cartoon, Death, Dreams/Visions,
Naked/Nude, Toilet Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas, Fools/Folly, Fortune, Gaze, Kiss/Kissing, Light I,

Vices/Deadly Sins, Visiting/Visitation, Widowhood, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peace, Sacrifice, Sanctuary,

Witchcraft/Sorcery Self-Portraits I, Self-Portraits II, Sin/Sinning,
JINSHAN PEASANT PAINTING SOCIETY, Peasantry Vanity/Vanitas, Voyeurism, Widowhood,
JOAN OF ARC, Martyrdom Witchcraft/Sorcery
JOHN THE GOOD, Fortune KING, Martin Luther, Martyrdom, Sacrifice
JOKE(S)/JOKER(S)/JOKEBOOK(S), Comic, Fools/Folly, KINSHIP, Gaze
Fortune, Laughter, Madness, Marriage/Betrothal, KISS/KISSING, Abandonment, Ecstasy, Fatal
Order/Chaos, Peasantry, Self-Portraits I Woman/Femme Fatale, Kiss/Kissing, Love and Death,
JONGLEUR(S), Fools/Folly, Masks/Personae Martyrdom, Naked/Nude, Reading, Sanctuary,
JORDAN, MICHAEL, Sport Visiting/Visitation
JOURNEY/FLIGHT, Abandonment, Choice/Choosing, KITCHEN(S), Witchcraft/Sorcery
Death, Ecstasy, Expulsion, Gaze, Hair/Haircutting, KITCHEN MAID(S) see SERVANT(S)
Humors, Journey/Flight, Kiss/Kissing, Labyrinth/Maze, KLEPTOMANIAC(S), Madness
Laughter, Love and Death, Marriage/Betrothal, Music, KNEEL/KNEELING, Annunciation, Apotheosis/Deification,
Path/Road/Crossroads, Pointing/Indicating, Baptism, Birth/Childbirth, Communion, Crucifixion,
Protestantism, Sacrifice, Self-Portraits I, Shipwreck, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fatal Woman/Femme
Temptation, Whiteness, Witchcraft/Sorcery Fatale, Gaze, Journey/Flight, Kiss/Kissing,
JOUSTS/JOUSTING see TOURNAMENT(S) Labor/Trades/Occupations, Martyrdom, Metamorphosis,
JOY see HAPPINESS Mirror/Reflection, Path/Road/Crossroads, Patronage,
JUDAISM (see also JEWfSl/JEWISH), Crucifixion, Fatal Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy,
Woman/Femme Fatale, Judaism, Light Music, I, Offering, Protestantism, Sacrifice, Sanctuary, Sin/Sinning,
Order/Chaos, Sanctuary, Seasons Temptation, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues,
JUDGE(S)/JURIST(S), Calumny, Choice/Choosing, Damned Visiting/Visitation, Whiteness, Widowhood,
Souls, Justice, Masks/Personae, Order/Chaos, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
Penitence/Repentance, Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning, KNIFE/KNIVES/KNIFE-GRINDER(S)/KNIVES AND
Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac FORKS, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fortune, Judaism,
JUDGMENT, Excess, Expulsion, Fame, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Marriage/Betrothal,
Imagination/Creativity, Judgment, Justice, Order/Chaos, Martyrdom, Offering, Sacrifice
Path/Road/Crossroads, Peace, Pointing/Indicating, KNOT(S), Hanging, Marriage/Betrothal, Mirror/Reflection
Sacrifice, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues, Voyeurism, KNOWLEDGE, Excess, Light I, Love and Death, Peace,
Whiteness, Zodiac Sacrifice, Temptation, Virtue/Virtues
 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS IO93

KYOTO, Path/Road/Crossroads LAUDANUM, Dreams/Visions, Gaze

LAUGHTER, Adultery, Annunciation, Automata, Comic,
LABOR/TRADES/OCCUPATIONS, Automata, Betrayal, Evil Eye, Fools/Folly, Imagination/Creativity, Laughter,
Choice/Choosing, Ecstasy, Expulsion, Harvesting, Madness, Masks/Personae, Melancholy, Peasantry, Self

Honor/Honoring, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Portraits I, Sleep/Sleeping, Voyeurism

Luxury, Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/Betrothal,
Mirror/Reflection, Months, Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos,
Patronage, Peasantry, Penitence/Repentance,
Physiognomy, Pregnancy, Seasons, Self-Portraits
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping,
Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues, Widowhood, Zodiac
LABOR UNREST, Money, Peasantry,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses
LABYRINTH/MAZE, Abandonment, Automata,
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Evil Eye, Labyrinth/Maze,
Path/Road/Crossroads, Pregnancy
LACE, Female Beauty and Adornment, Temptation
LACHAISE, Isabel, Imagination/Creativity
LADDER(S), Ascent/Descent, Death, Dreams/Visions,
Hanging, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Melancholy,
Order/Chaos, Sleep/Sleeping, Vanity/Vanitas
LADY LUCK, Fortune
LADY WORLD, Female Beauty and Adornment
LAISSEZ-FAIRE, Money
LAMB(S) (see also SHEEP), Crucifixion, Light I, Judgment,
Martyrdom, Melancholy, Music, Order/Chaos, Peace,
Pointing/Indicating, Sacrifice, Shepherds/Shepherdesses,
LAUNDRESS(ES)/LAUNDERING,
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Margins/Outsiders
LAUREL, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Envy, Fame, Fortune,
II, Honor/Honoring, Humors, Imagination/Creativity,
Martyrdom, Metamorphosis, Misfortune,
Path/Road/Crossroads, Peace, Virtue/Virtues
LAW(S), Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Ascent/Descent,
Birth/Childbirth, Excess, Gaze, Hanging, Judaism,
Judgment, Justice, Labor/Trades/Occupations,
Light I, Marriage/Betrothal, Night, Order/Chaos,
Path/Road/Crossroads, Penitence/Repentance,
Protestantism, Sanctuary, Sin/Sinning, Vanity/Vanitas,
Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness, Widowhood
LAWYER(S), Caricature/Cartoon, Fools/Folly, Sacrifice,
Shipwreck
LAZY/LAZINESS, Ascent/Descent, Dreams/Visions,
Melancholy, Peasantry, Sleep/Sleeping, Vices/Deadly Sins
LEAD (element), Melancholy, Mirror/Reflection, Whiteness
LEATHER, Evil Eye, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Sanctuary
LEAVE-TAKING see DEPARTURE
LECHERY, Adultery, Excess, Voyeurism
LECTURE(S), Light II

Zodiac Damned Souls, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress

LEEK(S),
LAMENESS, Laughter, Margins/Outsiders LEGEND(S) see FOLKLORE/FOLKTALES/FOLK
LAMENTATION see GRIEVING/LAMENTATION TRADITIONS/LEGENDS
LAMP(S), Journey/Flight, Light I, Light II, Logos/Word, LEISURE, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Peasantry, Sport,
Luxury, Night, Sanctuary, Vanity/Vanitas Toilet Scenes, Visiting/Visitation
LANCE, Apocalypse, Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, LEITMOTIF(S), Virgin/Virginity
Judaism, Love and Death, Martyrdom LEMON(S), Offering
LANCHALS, PETER, Judgment LENTILS, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
LANDLORD(S), Peasantry LEO (zodiacal constellation), Zodiac
LANDSCAPE(S), Abandonment, Adultery, Apocalypse, LEOPARD(S), Drunkenness/Intoxication, Evil Eye,
Death, Dreams/Visions, Ecstasy, Female Beauty and Judgment, Light I, Logos/Word, Music, Order/Chaos
Adornment, Harvesting, Honor/Honoring, LEPROSY, Bath/Bathing, Margins/Outsiders,
Journey/Flight, Justice, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Laughter, Logos/Word, Love and Death, LESBIAN(S), Naked/Nude
Mirror/Reflection, Months, Naked/Nude, Night, LESIONS see SORES
Offering, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry, LETHARGY, Melancholy, Sleep/Sleeping
Penitence/Repentance, Pregnancy, Protestantism, Seasons, LETTER(S) (see also MESSAGE[S]), Fortune, Laughter,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Marriage/Betrothal, Mirror/Reflection, Naked/Nude,
Sublime, Temptation, Upside Down, Vices/Deadly Sins, Night, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peace, Physiognomy,
Visiting/Visitation, Witchcraft/Sorcery Pregnancy, Reading, Temptation, Virgin/Virginity
LANGE, Mademoiselle, Money LETTER(S)/LETTERING, Caricature/Cartoon,
LANGUAGE(S) (see also BODY LANGUAGE), Communion, Hanging, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne,
Annunciation, Arms Raised, Artists/Art, Ascent/Descent, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Labyrinth/Maze,
Automata, Caricature/Cartoon, Dreams/Visions, Female Logos/Word, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads,
Beauty and Adornment, Light I, Madness, Reading, Temptation, Upside Down, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Margins/Outsiders, Masks/Personae, Offering, LEVITATION, Upside Down
Order/Chaos LIBATION(S), Abundance
LANTERN(S), Penitence/Repentance, Shipwreck LIBERAL ARTS, Artists/Art, Ascent/Descent,
LARKSPUR, Metamorphosis Honor/Honoring, Music, Self-Portraits I, Virtue/Virtues
LASCIVIOUSNESS, Beheading/Decapitation, Female Beauty LIBERTY, Caricature/Cartoon, Destruction of City, Justice,
and Adornment, Voyeurism, Witchcraft/Sorcery Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, Reading
LAST RITES, Death, Plague/Pestilence LIBIDO, Widowhood
LATIN (language), Peasantry, Vanity/Vanitas LIBRA (zodiacal constellation), Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac
1094 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS

LIBRARY/LIBRARIES, Patronage LOSING/LOSS, Gaze, Journey/Flight, Pregnancy,

LICENSE PLATE(S), Path/Road/Crossroads Widowhood
LICTORS/LICTORS' RODS, Abundance, Justice LOTTERY/LOTTERIES, Luxury
LIDICE, Czechoslovakia, Destruction of City LOTUS, Annunciation, Seasons
LIFE (frequently used term; not indexed) LOUIS IX, King of France, Light II, Patronage,
LIFE AFTER DEATH see AFTERLIFE Plague/Pestilence
LIFFBOAT(S), Misfortune, Shipwreck LOUIS XIV, King of France, Honor/Honoring, Luxury,
LIFE FORCE, Beheading/Decapitation, Toilet Scenes Path/Road/Crossroads, Seasons
LIFE-SPAN, Physiognomy, Whiteness LOUIS XV, King of France, Female Beauty and Adornment
LIGHT, Adultery, Annunciation, Apocalypse, LOUIS NAPOLEON, Comic
Ascent/Descent, Baptism, Birth/Childbirth, Communion, LOUIS PHILIPPE, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Caricature/Cartoon
Crucifixion, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Dawn/Dawning, LOVAGE (herb), Melancholy
Dreams/Visions, Ecstasy, Female Beauty and Adornment, LOVE/LOVERS, Adultery, Bath/Bathing, Betrayal,

Gaze, Journey/Flight, Judaism, Light I, Light II,

Choice/Choosing, Communion, Death, Devotion/Piety,
Masks/Personae, Metamorphosis, Night, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Ecstasy, Envy, Fame,

Order/Chaos, Protestantism, Reading, Sanctuary, Female Beauty and Adornment, Fortune, Gaze,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, Sublime, Hair/Haircutting, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne,

Temptation, Upside Down, Vanity/Vanitas, Honor/Honoring, Humors, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,

Journey/Flight, Judgment, Kiss/Kissing, Light I,
Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness,Zodiac
LIGHTNING, Betrayal, Fame, Honor/Honoring, Judaism,
Logos/Word, Love and Death, Madness,
Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae, Metamorphosis,
Peace, Peasantry, Sublime, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Mirror/Reflection, Money, Months, Music, Naked/Nude,
LILY/LILIES, Annunciation, Ecstasy, Fortune, Justice,
Offering, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads,
Reading, Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness
Patronage, Peace, Penitence/Repentance,
MARGINS/OUTSIDERS
LIMIT(S) see
Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, Protestantism,
LIMP/LIMPING see LAMENESS
Reading, Seasons, Self-Portraits I, Serpent's Bite,
LINCOLN, Abraham, Dreams/Visions, Martyrdom,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sleep/Sleeping, Temptation,
Sacrifice
Toilet Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Sins,
LINEN(S), Death, Marriage/Betrothal, Virtue/Virtues
Virtue/Virtues, Voyeurism, Whiteness, Widowhood,
LION(S), Abandonment, Apocalypse, Ascent/Descent,
Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
Caricature/Cartoon, Evil Eye, Fatal Woman/Femme
LOVE AND DEATH, Love and Death, Naked/Nude,
Fatale, Honor/Honoring, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
Nightmare, Sleep/Sleeping
Imagination/Creativity, Judaism, Justice, Light I,
LOVE POTION, Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Pregnancy
Logos/Word, Love and Death, Martyrdom,
LOVE-SICK see UNREQUITED LOVE
Masks/Personae, Metamorphosis, Order/Chaos,
LOWER CLASS see CLASS
Penitence/Repentance, Pregnancy, Reading, Vices/Deadly
LOYALTY, Betrayal, Zodiac
Zodiac
Sins, Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery,
LOZENGE(S), Masks/Personae
LIP(S), Death,Female Beauty and Adornment,
LUCK, Abundance, Fortune, Laughter, Mirror/Reflection,
Masks/Personae, Physiognomy, Reading, Sin/Sinning,
Misfortune, Virtue/Virtues
Voyeurism
LUDOMIRSKI, Prinz Heinrich, Honor/Honoring
LIQUID(S) see FLUID(S)
LUMINISTS, Light II
LISTEN/LISTENING, Arms Raised, Death,
LUNATIC(S)/LUNACY MADNESS
see
Imagination/Creativity, Judgment, Penitence/Repentance
LUNG(S), Melancholy, Sin/Sinning
LITTERA PYTHAGORAE, Path/Road/Crossroads LUST, Bath/Bathing, Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal,
LITTER BEARERS, Plague/Pestilence
Comic, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Excess, Fatal
LIVER(S), Fortune, Melancholy, Mirror/Reflection,
Woman/Femme Fatale, Female Beauty and Adornment,
Misfortune, Sin/Sinning Fools/Folly, Judgment, Justice, Mirror/Reflection, Music,
LIZARD(S), Evil Eye, Order/Chaos, Vices/Deadly Sins, Naked/Nude, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry,
Witchcraft/Sorcery Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Toilet Scenes, Vices/Deadly Sins,
LOBSTER(S), Comic, Zodiac Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery
LOGOS/WORD, Light I, Logos/Word, Temptation, LUTE, Comic, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
Virtue/Virtues Marriage/Betrothal, Self-Portraits I, Sin/Sinning,
LOINCLOTH, Death, Judaism, Martyrdom, Naked/Nude Temptation
LONDON, Abandonment, Destruction of City, LUXURIA see LUXURY
Visiting/Visitation LUXURY, Adultery, Death, Excess, Fatal Woman/Femme
LONGANIMITY, Virtue/Virtues Fatale, Fools/Folly, Luxury, Money, Music, Patronage,
LOOK/LOOKING see GAZE Seasons, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Witchcraft/Sorcery
LOOM(S), Marriage/Betrothal, Mirror/Reflection LYNCHING, Hanging
LORD OF THE MANOR, Marriage/Betrothal LYRE(S), Honor/Honoring, Light I, Love and Death, Music,
LOREN, Sophia, Comic Zodiac
 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS I 09 5

MACABRE, Night, Witchcraft/Sorcery MARGARET, Princess of Britain, Zodiac

MACHINE/MACHINERY/MECHANICAL, Automata, MARGARITA, Infanta, of Spain, Self-Portraits I

Comic, Dreams/Visions, Hanging, Harvesting, MARGINS/OUTSIDERS, Adultery, Artists/Art,

Labor/Trades/Occupations, Peasantry, Sin/Sinning, Birth/Childbirth, Caricature/Cartoon, Comic, Excess,
Zodiac Fortune, Harvesting, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
MACROCOSM/MACROCOSMOS, Zodiac Labor/Trades/Occupations, Margins/Outsiders,
MACRAME, Pregnancy Melancholy, Months, Music, Peasantry, Sanctuary, Self-
MADHOUSE(S), Madness, Margins/Outsiders Portraits II, Sport, Upside Down, Virgin/Virginity,
MADNESS, Artists/Art, Death, Fools/Folly, Widowhood
Imagination/Creativity, Madness, Margins/Outsiders, MARIE ANTOINETTE, Queen of France, Artists/Art,
Melancholy, Order/Chaos, Physiognomy, Patronage, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
Pointing/Indicating MARINER(S) see SAILOR(S)
MADONNA (pop star), Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale MARKET/MARKETPLACE (see also ART MARKET),
MAELSTROM, Ecstasy Peasantry
MAGAZINE(S), Toilet Scenes, Whiteness MARRIAGE/BETROTHAL, Abduction/Rape, Adultery,
MAGIC/MAGICIAN(S), Abduction/Rape, Abundance, Ascent/Descent, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Beheading/Decapitation,
Bath/Bathing, Birth/Childbirth, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Comic, Death, Dreams/Visions, Evil Eye, Excess, Fame,
Death, Dreams/Visions, Fatal Woman/Femme Female Beauty and Adornment, Harvesting,
Fatale, Fortune, Gaze, Hanging, Harvesting, Honor/Honoring, Imagination/Creativity, Judaism,
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Journey/Flight, Laughter, Justice, Kiss/Kissing, Logos/Word, Love and Death,
Masks/Personae, Melancholy, Metamorphosis, Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae, Metamorphosis,
Mirror/Reflection, Music, Physiognomy, Self-Portraits I, Mirror/Reflection, Order/Chaos, Peasantry,
Sleep/Sleeping, Toilet Scenes, Vices/Deadly Sins, Penitence/Repentance, Protestantism, Seasons, Self-

Witchcraft/Sorcery Portraits I, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Temptation, Toilet

MAGNITUDE, Sublime Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues,
MAHLSTICK(S) see MAULSTICK(S) Visiting/Visitation, Whiteness, Widowhood
MAID see SERVANT MARRIAGE ACT OF 1753, Marriage/Betrothal
MAIDEN/MAIDENHOOD see VIRGIN/VIRGINITY MARS (planet), Vices/Deadly Sins, Zodiac
MAIDEN IN DISTRESS, Beheading/Decapitation MARSEILLES, Misfortune, Plague/Pestilence
MAKEUP see COSMETICS MARSUPPINI, Carlo, Honor/Honoring
MALAISE see ENNUI MARTYRDOM, Abundance, Artists/Art,
MALATESTA, Giovanni, Kiss/Kissing Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, Damned Souls, Death,
MALATESTA, Paolo, Kiss/Kissing, Reading Devotion/Piety, Dreams/Visions, Gaze, Hanging,
MALEBOLGE, Damned Souls Honor/Honoring, Journey/Flight, Kiss/Kissing, Madness,
MALEFACTOR/MALEFICENCE/MALEVOLENCE, Martyrdom, Masks/Personae, Naked/Nude,
Betrayal, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues, Voyeurism, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads,
Witchcraft/Sorcery Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy,
MALICE, Fortune Protestantism, Sacrifice, Serpent's Bite, Sleep/Sleeping,
MALTA, Shipwreck Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues
MANDALA, Upside Down MARTYRIUM/MARTYRIA, Martyrdom
MANDOLIN(S), Female Beauty and Adornment MARY Fortune
II,

MANDORLA, Birth/Childbirth, Light I, Margins/Outsiders, MARY TUDOR, Martyrdom

Music, Order/Chaos, Pregnancy, Zodiac MASAI, Hair/Haircutting
MANGER(S), Birth/Childbirth MASCULINE/MASCULINITY (see also GENDER), Death,
MANHATTAN, Night Female Beauty and Adornment, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne,
MANIA, Madness, Melancholy Kiss/Kissing, Mirror/Reflection, Naked/Nude, Sport,
MANICLE(S) see CHAIN(S) Temptation, Virgin/Virginity
MANNEQUIN, Automata MASKS/PERSONAE, Automata, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
MANNERISM/MANNERIST/MANIERA, Apocalypse, Betrayal, Caricature/Cartoon, Choice/Choosing, Comic,
Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Fortune, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Death, Evil Eye, Female Beauty
Imagination/Creativity, Love and Death, Naked/Nude, and Adornment, Fools/Folly, Gaze, Hair/Haircutting,
Path/Road/Crossroads, Peace, Self-Portraits I, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Honor/Honoring,
Temptation Imagination/Creativity, Judgment, Laughter,
MANTLE see CLOAK/MANTLE/ROBE Masks/Personae, Metamorphosis, Path/Road/Cn issroads,
MANTUA, Honor/Honoring Plague/Pestilence, Self-Portraits I, Sin/Sinning,
MAO, Chairman, Fame Virtue/Virtues
MAP(S), Female Beauty and Adornment MASOCHISM, Widowhood
MAQUILLAGE see COSMETICS MASON(S), Labor/Trades/Occupations
MARAT, Jean Paul, Bath/Bathing, Death MASONIC LODGE(S), Order/Chaos
MARE(S) see HORSE(S) MASQUE(S), Seasons
IO96 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS

MAST/MAS I III AD, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, MEMORY, Death, Ecstasy, Gaze, Hanging,
1 Ools/I oll\ Imagination/Creativity, Order/Chaos,
MATERIALISM see MATTER/MATERIALISM Path/Road/Crossroads, Reading
MATHEMATICS/MATHEMATICIAN(S), Ml \l I )| Ml IS mew nullah character), Mas! s/Personae
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Labyrinth/Maze MENSTRUATION/MENSTRUAL BLOOD, Pregnancy,
MATRIARCHY/MATRILINEAL, Birth/Childbirth, Fatal Toilet Scenes, Widowhood
Woman/Femme Fatale, Virgin/Virginity MENTAL ILLNESS see MADNESS
MATRICIDE, Hair/I laircutting MERCHANT(S)/MERCHANT PRINCE(S),
MATRIMONY see MARRIAGE/BETROTHAL Labor/Trades/Occupations, Marriage/Betrothal,
MATTER/MATERIALISM, Money, Pregnancy Masks/Personae, Months, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
MATURITY, Path/Road/Crossroads MERCURY (planet), Vices/Deadly Sins, Zodiac

MAULSTICK, Imagination/Creativity, Self-Portraits I

MERCY/COMPASSION, Adultery, Death, Envy, Gaze,

MAXIMILIAN, Archduke, Death, Judgment Justice, Kiss/Kissing, Labor/Trades/Occupations,

MAXIMILIAN, Prince of Bavaria, Path/Road/Crossroads Path/Road/Crossroads, Penitence/Repentance,

Plague/Pestilence, Protestantism, Sacrifice, Sanctuary,
MAYPOLE, Dance/Dancers/Dancing
Sin/Sinning, Virtue/Virtues
MAZE see LABYRINTH/MAZE
MEASURE, Music, Virtue/Virtues MERMAID(S), Evil Eye, Naked/Nude, Nightmare
MEAT(S), Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Sin/Sinning MERRICK, David, Caricature/Cartoon
MECCA, Saudi Arabia, Sanctuary
MESMERISM, Artists/Art, Gaze
MECHANICAL/MECHANISM see MACHINE MESSAGE/MESSENGER (see also LETTER[S]), Fame,
Music, Peace, Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence,
MECHANICAL ARTS, Virtue/Virtues
Pointing/Indicating, Temptation, Vanity/Vanitas,
MEDICI, Alessandro de', Peace
Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery
MEDICI, Catherine de', Widowhood
MESSIANIC, Music
MEDICI, Cosimo de', Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Serpent's
MESSINA, Misfortune
Bite
METALSMITH(S), Labor/Trades/Occupations
MEDICI, Ferdinando de', Honor/Honoring
METAMORPHOSIS, Envy, Expulsion, Fatal Woman/Femme
MEDICI, Giuliano de', Hanging, Night, Peace
Fatale, Fortune, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Humors,
MEDICI, Leonara de', Visiting/Visitation
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Kiss/Kissing,
MEDICI, Lorenzo de', Hanging, Masks/Personae, Music,
Margins/Outsiders, Masks/Personae, Metamorphosis,
Peace, Virtue/Virtues
Order/Chaos, Pregnancy, Seasons, Sin/Sinning, Sublime,
MEDICI, Marie de', Honor/Honoring, Marriage/Betrothal,
Temptation, Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Sins,
Patronage, Widowhood
Virgin/Virginity, Voyeurism, Witchcraft/Sorcery
MEDICI, Ottaviano de', Peace
METAPHOR(S), Automata, Beheading/Decapitation,
MEDICI FAMILY, Honor/Honoring Choice/Choosing, Excess, Expulsion, Fame, Female
MEDICINE, Dreams/Visions, Humors, Madness,
Beauty and Adornment, Hair/Haircutting, Harvesting,
Metamorphosis, Physiognomy, Plague/Pestilence,
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Journey/Flight, Kiss/Kissing,
Serpent's Bite, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Vices/Deadly
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Labyrinth/Maze,
Sins, Virtue/Virtues
Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae,
MEDITATION, Beheading/Decapitation, Death, Ecstasy,
Mirror/Reflection, Money, Music, Path/Road/Crossroads,
Gaze, Melancholy, Mirror/Reflection, Misfortune, Night,
Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, Seasons, Self-Portraits II,
Path/Road/Crossroads, Pregnancy, Protestantism, Serpent's Bite, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Sport,
Sanctuary, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sleep/Sleeping,
Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac
Temptation, Toilet Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas, METAPHYSICAL PAINTING, Automata
Virgin/Virginity METAPHYSICS, Virtue/Virtues
MEDUSA (ship), Misfortune, Shipwreck METER(S), Sin/Sinning
MEEK/MEEKNESS, Order/Chaos METOPOSCOPY, Physiognomy
MEGALITH(S), Light II
MEXICO CITY, Sanctuary
MELANCHOLY, Envy, Fools/Folly, Fortune, Gaze, Humors, MIASMA, Widowhood
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Journey/Flight, Madness, MICROCOSM/MICROCOSMOS, Hanging, Seasons,
Masks/Personae, Melancholy, Mirror/Reflection, Music, Zodiac
Night, Order/Chaos, Seasons, Sin/Sinning, Temptation, MIDDLE CLASS see CLASS
Widowhood, Zodiac MIDLER, Bene, Comic
MELODY, Music MIDNIGHT, Night, Vanity/Vanitas
MEMENTO MORI, Death, Fortune, Plague/Pestilence, Self- MIDSUMMER DAY, Light II

Portraits I, Sin/Sinning, Vanity/Vanitas MIDWIFE/MIDWIVES/MIDWIFERY, Birth/Childbirth,

MEMORIAL(S), Artists/Art, Death, Destruction of City, Light II, Margins/Outsiders, Pregnancy, Virgin/Virginity
Fame, Fortune, Gaze, Hair/Haircutting, Judaism, MIGRANT WORKERS, Margins/Outsiders
Kiss/Kissing, Light I, Music, Martyrdom, Night, MIKVEH, Toilet Scenes
Sanctuary MILAN, Martyrdom, Misfortune, Plague/Pestilence
 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AM) II K\IS IO97

MILITARY/PARAMILITARY, Sport MODEL(S), Artists/Art, Imagination/Creativity,

MILK/MILKING/MILKMAID(S), Abundance, Peasantry, Mirror/Reflection, Naked/Nude, Self-Portraits I, Self-

Pregnancy, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Whiteness Portraits II, Vanity/Vanitas, Voyeurism, Whiteness

MILL(S)/MILLER(S), Labor/Trades/Occupations, MODERATION, Excess, Virtue/Virtues
Margins/Outsiders, Peasantry MODERN/MODERNISM/MODERNITY, Automata,
MILLENNIUM/MILLENARIANISM, Dreams/Visions, Masks/Personae, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads,
Order/Chaos Sport, Upside Down, Witchcraft/Sorcery
MILLIONAIRE(S), Money MODESTY, Adultery, Female Beauty and Adornment,
MILLSTONE(S), Labor/Trades/Occupations, Vices/Deadly Sins Hair/Haircutting, Martyrdom, Naked/Nude,
MILVIAN BRIDGE, Dreams/Visions Virgin/Virginity, Voyeurism
MIME(S)/MIMICRY, Fools/Folly, Madness, Masks/Personae MOLDAVA, Penitence/Repentance
MIMESIS IMITATION
see MONAD(S), Automata
MIND see INTELLECT MONASTERY/MONASTERIES/MONASTIC/
MINE(S)/MINER(S), Death, Labor/Trades/Occupations, MONASTICISM, Madness, Temptation, Virgin/Virginity,
Witchcraft/Sorcery Virtue/Virtues
MINERAL(S), Vices/Deadly Sins MONEY, Abundance, Avarice, Caricature/Cartoon,
MING HUANG, Luxury Fortune, Journey/Flight, Kiss/Kissing, Madness,
MINISTER(S), Marriage/Betrothal Marriage/Betrothal, Money, Order/Chaos, Peasantry,
MINUET, Dance/Dancers/Dancing Self-Portraits I, Self-Portraits II, Sin/Sinning, Temptation,
MIRACLE(S), Devotion/Piety, Dreams/Visions, Ecstasy, Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Sins
Madness, Plague/Pestilence, Temptation, Virtue/Virtues, MONEYBAG see PURSE/HANDBAG/MONEYBAG
Witchcraft/Sorcery MONEY-CHEST, Vices/Deadly Sins
MIRROR/REFLECTION, Ascent/Descent, MONEY CHANGER(S)/MONEY LENDER(S), Expulsion,
Beheading/Decapitation, Birth/Childbirth, Margins/Outsiders, Money
Dreams/Visions, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Female MONK(S), Comic, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fools/Folly,
Beauty and Adornment, Fools/Folly, Gaze, Marriage/Betrothal, Melancholy, Sin/Sinning,
Hair/Haircutting, Imagination/Creativity, Journey/Flight, Sleep/Sleeping, Vices/Deadly Sins
Labyrinth/Maze, Laughter, Light I, Light II, Luxury, MONKEY(S)/APE(S), Artists/Art, Caricature/Cartoon,
Martyrdom, Metamorphosis, Mirror/Reflection, Music, Comic, Excess, Female Beauty and Adornment, Fortune,
Naked/Nude, Offering, Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy, Hair/Haircutting, Imagination/Creativity, Journey/Flight,
Self-Portraits I, Self-Portraits II, Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Luxury, Order/Chaos, Serpent's Bite, Vices/Deadly Sins,
Toilet Scenes, Upside Down, Vanity/Vanitas, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness, MONOGRAM(S), Music
Witchcraft/Sorcery MONOLOGUE(S), Journey/Flight
MIRTH see LAUGHTER MONOPOLY/MONOPOLIES, Money
MISANTHROPY, Masks/Personae MONOTHEISM, Ascent/Descent, Light II, Zodiac
MISCARRY/MISCARRIAGE(S), Plague/Pestilence, MONROE, Marilyn, Fame, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale
Pregnancy MONSTER(S), Apocalypse, Automata,
MISER(S)/MISERLY, Money, Order/Chaos, Temptation, Beheading/Decapitation, Dreams/Visions, Fatal
Vices/Deadly Sins Woman/Femme Fatale, Hair/Haircutting, Harvesting,
MISERICORDIA, Plague/Pestilence Journey/Flight, Judgment, Love and Death,
MISERY, Comic, Fortune, Hanging, Laughter, Madness, Margins/Outsiders, Masks/Personae, Nightmare,
Margins/Outsiders, Martyrdom, Music, Pregnancy Order/Chaos, Pregnancy, Sacrifice, Sin/Sinning,
MISFORTUNE, Destruction of City, Vices/Deadly Sins, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fortune, MONTAGE, Madness
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Misfortune, Pregnancy, MONTHS, Ecstasy, Excess, Harvesting,
Self-Portraits I, Upside Down, Virtue/Virtues Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Labor/Trades/Occupations,
MISOGYNY/MISOGYNIST(S), Hermaphrodite/Androgyne Months, Order/Chaos, Peasantry,
MISSION(S)/MISSIONARY/MISSIONARIES, Martyrdom, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Zodiac
Temptation MOON/MOONLIGHT/MOONRISE, Apocalypse,
MISSOLONGHI, Sacrifice Bacchanalia/Orgy, Beheading/Decapitation,
MISTRESS, Female Beauty and Adornment, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Gaze,
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Love and Death, Pregnancy Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Journey/Flight, Light I, Love
MNEMOGRAM(S), Path/Road/Crossroads and Death, Months, Night, Order/Chaos, Sanctuary,
MOAT(S), Sanctuary Seasons, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sleep/Sleeping,
MOB(S) see CROWD(S) Vices/Deadly Sins, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues,
MOCKERY, Comic, Fools/Folly, Journey/Flight, Laughter, Whiteness, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
Order/Chaos, Sleep/Sleeping MOOR(S)/MOORISH, Luxury, Temptation
MODE(S), Imagination/Creativity, Music, MORALITY, Abandonment, Abduction/Rape, Abundance,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses Adultery, Artists/Art, Automata, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
IO98 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS

Choice/Choosing, Comic, Death, Dreams/Visions, MOUSE (MICE), Comic, Excess, Judaism, Order/Chaos,
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Excess, Female Beauty Sin/Sinning
and Adornment, Hanging, Harvesting, MOUSETRAP(S), Labor/Trades/Occupations
Honor/Honoring, Journey/Flight, Judgment, Justice, MOUTH(S), Drunkenness/Intoxication, Expulsion, Fame,
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Laughter, Light I, Gaze, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Kiss/Kissing,
Logos/Word, Luxury, Margins/Outsiders, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Laughter, Love and Death,
Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae, Metamorphosis, Masks/Personae, Music, Physiognomy, Pregnancy,
Mirror/Reflection, Months, Music, Naked/Nude, Reading, Serpent's Bite, Sin/Sinning, Vices/Deadly Sins,
Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry, Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery

Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, MUD, Comic

Protestantism, Self-Portraits II, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, MUFF(S), Seasons
Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Sport, Toilet MUFFEL, Jacob, Gaze
Scenes, Upside Down, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues, MULBERRY, Dreams/Visions, Love and Death

Whiteness, Widowhood, Witchcraft/Sorcery MULE(S), Hair/Haircutting, Path/Road/Crossroads

MORALITY PLAY(S), Self-Portraits I
MUMMY(S)/MUMMIFICATION, Baptism, Fortune,

MORGUE(S), Margins/Outsiders Pregnancy

MORNING, Dawn/Dawning, Excess, Light I, Sanctuary, MUNDUS INVERSUS, Upside Down
Zodiac
MUNICH SCHOOL, Devotion/Piety

MORTAL SINS see SIN/SINNING; VICES/DEADLY SINS MURDER, Adultery, Death, Destruction of City,
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Envy, Hanging, Madness,
MORTALITY (see also DEATH), Gaze, Justice,
Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/Betrothal, Naked/Nude,
Labyrinth/Maze, Masks/Personae, Money, Vanity/Vanitas,
Order/Chaos, Pointing/Indicating, Sanctuary, Sin/Sinning,
Visiting/Visitation
Widowhood
MOSARABIC STYLE, Apocalypse
MUSCLE(S)/MUSCULAR, Automata, Choice/Choosing,
MOSQUE(S), Light I, Logos/Word, Offering, Sanctuary
Communion, Death, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Judaism,
MOTHER(S), Abandonment, Adultery, Annunciation,
Naked/Nude, Path/Road/Crossroads, Physiognomy,
Bath/Bathing, Birth/Childbirth, Damned Souls,
Serpent's Bite, Sport, Virgin/Virginity
Destruction of City, Evil Eye, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne,
MUSE(S) {see also Index of Ancient Mythological and
Journey/Flight, Judgment, Laughter, Light I,
Historical Personages, Places, and Concepts),
Order/Chaos, Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence,
Artists/Art, Dreams/Visions, Honor/Honoring,
Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy, Protestantism, Reading,
Imagination/Creativity, Self-Portraits I, Self-Portraits II,
Sacrifice, Seasons, Self-Portraits II, Temptation, Toilet
Whiteness
Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues,
MUSEUM(S), Visiting/Visitation
Visiting/Visitation, Whiteness
MUSIC, Abduction/Rape, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
MOTHER EARTH {see also Index of Ancient Mythological
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Death, Dreams/Visions,
and Historical Personages, Places, and Concepts),
Fortune, Honor/Honoring, Imagination/Creativity,
Ascent/Descent, Seasons
Journey/Flight, Light I, Love and Death, Madness,
MOTHER GODDESS(ES) {see also Index of Ancient
Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae, Melancholy,
Mythological and Historical Personages, Places, and
Mirror/Reflection, Music, Order/Chaos,
Concepts), Abundance, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale,
Path/Road/Crossroads, Reading, Sacrifice, Seasons, Self-
Naked/Nude, Pregnancy Portraits II, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Serpent's Bite,
MOTHER-IN-LAW, Marriage/Betrothal, Sin/Sinning, Vanity/Vanitas, Visiting/Visitation
Penitence/Repentance MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, Apocalypse, Choice/Choosing,
MOTION, Sport Damned Souls, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Ecstasy,
MOTLEY, Fools/Folly, Masks/Personae Female Beauty and Adornment, Honor/Honoring,
MOTORCYCLE(S), Path/Road/Crossroads Labor/Trades/Occupations, Money, Music,
MOTTO(S), Vanity/Vanitas Path/Road/Crossroads, Self-Portraits I,

MOULIN ROUGE, Masks/Personae Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly

MOUND(S) see MOUNTAIN(S) Sins
MOUNTAIN(S)/HILL(S)/MOUND(S), Ascent/Descent, MUSICIANS {see also MUSIC), Artists/Art, Death,
Love and Death, Margins/Outsiders,
Ecstasy, Honor/Honoring, Imagination/Creativity,
Metamorphosis, Misfortune, Order/Chaos, Pregnancy, Labyrinth/Maze, Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/Betrothal,
Sacrifice, Sanctuary, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues, Masks/Personae, Music, Order/Chaos, Virtue/Virtues
Voyeurism, Widowhood, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac MUSLIM(S), Birth/Childbirth, Offering, Order/Chaos,
MOUNTEBANK(S), Margins/Outsiders Sanctuary
MOUNT ETNA, Martyrdom MUSSEL(S), Vices/Deadly Sins
MOUNT MCKINLEY, Ascent/Descent MUSSOLINI, Benito, Hanging
MOUNT SINAI, Judaism MUSTACHE, Comic, Crucifixion, Order/Chaos,
MOURNER(S)/MOURNING see Physiognomy
GRIEVING/LAMENTATION MUTE(S), Margins/Outsiders
 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS IO99

MYRRH, Dreams/Visions, Kiss/Kissing Mirror/Reflection, Months, Music, Naked/Nude, Night,

MYRTLE, Virtue/Virtues Order/Chaos, Pregnancy, Sacrifice, Seasons, Self-Portraits

MYSTERY PLAYS, Crucifixion, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, I, Self-Portraits II, Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning, Sublime,

Death, Masks/Personae Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness,
MYSTICAL/MYSTICISM/MYSTERIES, Apocalypse, Death, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
Dreams/Visions, Expulsion, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, NAZARENES, Devotion/Piety
Hanging, Light I, Margins/Outsiders, Masks/Personae, NAZI(S), Caricature/Cartoon, Crucifixion, Journey/Flight,
Mirror/Reflection, Music, Naked/Nude, Night, Judaism, Order/Chaos, Sport
Path/Road/Crossroads, Pregnancy, Protestantism, NECK(S)/NECKLINE, Beheading/Decapitation, Hanging,
Seasons, Sublime, Voyeurism Margins/Outsiders, Martyrdom, Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac
MYTH/MYTHOLOGY, Adultery, Apotheosis/Deification, NECKLACE(S), Mirror/Reflection, Pregnancy, Temptation
Damned Souls, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Love and NECROMANCY, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Death, Metamorphosis, Naked/Nude, Pregnancy, NECROPOLIS, Gaze
Seasons, Vices/Deadly Sins, Witchcraft/Sorcery, NECTAR, Imagination/Creativity
Zodiac NEEDLE(S), Peasantry, Temptation
NEGOTIATION(S), Marriage/Betrothal
NABIS, Birth/Childbirth, Dreams/Visions NEGRO(S), Bacchanalia/Orgy, Hanging, Journey/Flight,
NAGASAKI, Japan, Destruction of City Masks/Personae, Misfortune
NAIL(S)/NAILING, Crucifixion, Death, Madness, NEIGHBOR(S), Love and Death, Sin/Sinning, VirtueA/irtues
Martyrdom, Melancholy, Protestantism, Widowhood NEOCLASSICISM, Death, Reading, Sport, Whiteness
NAIVETE, Fame, Masks/Personae NEOEXPRESSIONISM, Upside Down
NAKED/NUDE, Abandonment, Adultery, Ascent/Descent, NEOPLASTICISTS, Dreams/Visions
Avarice, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Baptism, Bath/Bathing,
NEOPLATONISM, Abduction/Rape, Ecstasy,
Beheading/Decapitation, Birth/Childbirth, Love and Death,
Imagination/Creativity, Light I, Light II,
Caricature/Cartoon, Comic, Crucifixion, Damned Souls,
Mirror/Reflection, Music, Naked/Nude, Sleep/Sleeping,
Death, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Envy, Evil Eye,
Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac
Excess, Expulsion, Female Beauty and Adornment,
NEOPRIMITIVISM, Devotion/Piety
Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Fortune, Gaze,
NEPOTISM, Money
Hair/Haircutting, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Humors,
NET, Adultery, Excess
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Imagination/Creativity,
NETHERWORLD see UNDERWORLD
Judgment, Love and Death, Madness, Margins/Outsiders,
Martyrdom, Metamorphosis, Mirror/Reflection,
NEW ENGLAND, Marriage/Betrothal
Misfortune, Money, Music, Naked/Nude, Night,
NEW REALISM, Night
NEWSPAPER(S), Misfortune, Reading, Shipwreck, Zodiac
Nightmare, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads,
NEWTON, Isaac, Zodiac
Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence,
Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy, Sacrifice, Seasons, Self-
NEW WORLD, Abundance, Path/Road/Crossroads

Portraits II, Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping,

NEW YEAR, Sin/Sinning
Temptation, Toilet Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas,
NEW YORK, Automata, Money
NICHE(S), Abundance, Fame, Logos/Word, Offering,
Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation,
Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues
Voyeurism, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
NIGHT, Annunciation, Luxury, Masks/Personae,
NAME(S)/NAMING, Birth/Childbirth, Expulsion,
Melancholy, Months, Night, Nightmare, Order/Chaos,
Journey/Flight, Light I, Marriage/Betrothal,
Pregnancy, Sacrifice, Sleep/Sleeping, Temptation,
Order/Chaos, Protestantism, Sin/Sinning
Whiteness, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
NAP/NAPS see SLEEP/SLEEPING
NAPLES, Plague/Pestilence
NIGHTINGALE(S), Music, Night
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, Caricature/Cartoon, Comic, NIGHTMARE, Abandonment, Dreams/Visions, Ecstasy,

Death, Hanging, Journey/Flight, Naked/Nude, Margins/Outsiders, Night, Nightmare

Path/Road/Crossroads, Plague/Pestilence, NIHILISM, Devotion/Piety

Visiting/Visitation NILE, Abundance
NARCISSISM, Mirror/Reflection, Naked/Nude, Self- NIMBUS see HALO(S)
Portraits I, Vanity/Vanitas NINE, Imagination/Creativity, Music
NATIONALIST(S)/NATIONALISM, Protestantism, Self- NOBILITY, Death, Fame, Gaze, Honor/Honoring,
Portraits II, Sport Luxury, Months, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry,
NATURALISM/NATURALISTIC, Death, Devotion/Piety, Self-Portraits II, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sport,
Dreams/Visions, Kiss/Kissing, Light II, Naked/Nude, Sublime, Vanity/Vanitas, Virgin/Virginity, Whiteness,
Nightmare, Path/Road/Crossroads Widowhood
NATURE, Apotheosis/Deification, Automata, Death, NOCTURNE, Night
Devotion/Piety, Ecstasy, Excess, Fortune, Harvesting, NOISE, Fame, Laughter, Margins/Outsiders
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Imagination/Creativity, NORIEGA, General Manuel, Sanctuary
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Light II, Luxury, NORTHUMBERLAND, Earl of, Henry Percy, Melancholy
I lOO INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS

NOSE(S)/NOSTRIL(S), Death, Masks/Personae, Nightmare, Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation,

Physiognomy, Plague/Pestilence Voyeurism, Widowhood, Witchcraft/Sorcery
NOSTALGIA, Harvesting, Order/Chaos, OLD REGIME, Plague/Pestilence
Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry, OI.IVE(S)/OLIVE BRANCH/OLIVE TREE,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Whiteness Honor/Honoring, Light I, Virtue/Virtues
NOTARY, Marriage/Betrothal OLIVIER, Laurence^ Marriage/Betrothal
NOUMENON, Dawn/Dawning OLYMPIC GAMES see ATHLETE(S)/ATHLETIC GAMES
NOURISHMENT/NURTURE, Abundance, Envy, Evil Eye, OMEN(S), Marriage/Betrothal, Mirror/Reflection, Offering,
Virtue/Virtues Zodiac
NUCLEAR WAR, Peace OMNISCIENCE, Gaze
NUDE see NAKED/NUDE ONE-EYED, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Excess, Hanging
NUMEROLOGY, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne ONION(S), Comic
NUN(S), Comic, Death, Drunkenness/Intoxication, ONLOOKER(S) see SPECTATOR(S)
Fools/Folly, Hair/Haircutting, Imagination/Creativity, ONYX, Visiting/Visitation
Masks/Personae, Mirror/Reflection, Sin/Sinning, OPIUM, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Sleep/Sleeping, Witchcraft/Sorcery OPPORTUNITY, Fortune
NURSE(S)/NURSING, Bath/Bathing, Communion, OPPOSITE(S)/OPPOSITION, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne,
Plague/Pestilence, Virtue/Virtues
Love and Death, Music, Upside Down
NUT(S), Marriage/Betrothal OPTIMISM, Automata, Death, Dreams/Visions, Peasantry,
Pregnancy, Whiteness, Witchcraft/Sorcery

OAK(S), Hair/Haircutting, Honor/Honoring, Peace,

ORACLE(S), Pregnancy, Sacrifice

Virtue/Virtues
ORAL TRADITION, Reading

OAR(S), Sin/Sinning
ORANGE(S), Offering, Shipwreck
OATH(S) VOW(S)
see
ORANT, Arms Raised, Communion, Devotion/Piety,
Honor/Honoring, Martyrdom
OBEDIENCE, Betrayal, Order/Chaos, Sanctuary,
Virtue/Virtues
ORB see GLOBE
ORBIT(S), Zodiac
OBELISK(S), Honor/Honoring, Path/Road/Crossroads
ORCHESTRA, Music
OBSCENE/OBSCENITY, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
ORDEAL(S), Adultery, Judgment, Temptation,
Laughter, Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae, Money
Virgin/Virginity
OBSCURITY, Light II
ORDER/CHAOS, Automata, Excess, Fortune, Hanging,
OBSESSION(S), Madness, Masks/Personae, Money,
Harvesting, LightI, Logos/Word, Margins/Outsiders,
Vices/Deadly Sins
Masks/Personae, Mirror/Reflection, Order/Chaos,
OCCULT, Nightmare, Zodiac
Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, Sanctuary, Seasons,
OCCUPATION S) see LABOR/TRADES/OCCUPATIONS
Upside Down, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues,
OCEAN, Apotheosis/Deification, Order/Chaos
Whiteness, Zodiac
OCTAGON(S), Labyrinth/Maze, Path/Road/Crossroads,
ORGAN(S) (musical instrument), Kiss/Kissing, Martyrdom,
Sanctuary
Music
OCTOBER, Zodiac ORGAZ, Count of, Fortune
OCTOPUS, Zodiac ORGY see BACCHANALIA/ORGY
ODALISQUE(S), Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Luxury,
ORIENT/ORIENTALISM, Bath/Bathing, Luxury,
Naked/Nude, Pregnancy Penitence/Repentance, Serpent's Bite, Sin/Sinning,
ODE(S), Seasons Voyeurism
OEDIPUS COMPLEX, Temptation ORION (constellation), Order/Chaos
OFFERING, Abundance, Annunciation, Crucifixion,
ORLEANS, Duchess of, Sleep/Sleeping
Devotion/Piety, Fortune, Hanging, Harvesting, Light II,
ORNAMENT(S), Marriage/Betrothal, Toilet Scenes,
Months, Offering, Patronage, Sacrifice, Sanctuary, Visiting/Visitation
Seasons, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, ORPHAN(S), Journey/Flight, Margins/Outsiders,
Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues Plague/Pestilence, Virgin/Virginity, Widowhood
OFFICE OF THE DEAD, Fortune ORRERY, Light II
OGRE(S), Abduction/Rape OSTENTATION, Gaze, Luxury
OIL(S), Journey/Flight, Light I
OSTRICH(ES), Female Beauty and Adornment,
OINTMENT(S), Death, Hair/Haircutting, Toilet Scenes, Virtue/Virtues
Witchcraft/Sorcery OSUNA, Duke and Duchess of, Witchcraft/Sorcery
OLD AGE, Comic, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Evil Eye, OTHER(S)/OTHERNESS see MARGINS/OUTSIDERS
Fame, Female Beauty and Adornment, Fortune, Humors, OTTER, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
Journey/Flight, Labor/Trades/Occupations, OTTO III, Judgment
Laughter, Masks/Personae, Money, Naked/Nude, OUROBORUS, Serpent's Bite
Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry, Plague/Pestilence, OUTCAST(S), Artists/Art, Hanging, Margins/Outsiders
Pregnancy, Seasons, Self-Portraits I, Sin/Sinning, OUTER SPACE, Abduction/Rape
 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS IIOI

OUTSIDER see MARGINS/OUTSIDERS PAPACY/PAPAL COURT (see also Index of Judeo-Christian

OUTSIDER ART, Margins/Outsiders Personages, Places, and Concepts), Expulsion,
OVAL, Zodiac Penitence/Repentance, Protestantism, Sin/Sinning,
OVEN(S), Labor/Trades/Occupations, Vices/Deadly Sins Widowhood
OVERBOARD, Shipwreck PAPANDREOU, Georges, Zodiac
OVERSEER(S), Gaze, Peasantry PARABLE(S) (see also Index of Judeo-Christian Personages,
OWL(S), Caricature/Cartoon, Dreams/Visions, Places, and Concepts), Penitence/Repentance, Seasons,
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Evil Eye, Fools/Folly, Vices/Deadly Sins, Widowhood
Masks/Personae, Nightmare, Order/Chaos, Virtue/Virtues PARADE(S) (see also PROCESSION[S]), Masks/Personae,
OX/OXEN, Apocalypse, Baptism, Birth/Childbirth, Fortune, Music, Virgin/Virginity
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Light Logos/Word,
II, PARADISE (see also Index of Judeo-Christian
Madness, Melancholy, Peasantry, Physiognomy, Reading, Personages, Places, and Concepts), Arms Raised,
Sin/Sinning, Vices/Deadly Sins, Zodiac Ascent/Descent, Death, Expulsion, Honor/Honoring,

OYSTER(S), Drunkenness/Intoxication Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Light I, Logos/Word,

Masks/Personae, Money, Music, Naked/Nude, Night,
PADUA, Honor/Honoring Offering, Path/Road/Crossroads, Seasons, Sin/Sinning,

PAGAN(S)/PAGANISM, Abundance, Adultery, Arms Virgin/Virginity, Whiteness

Raised, Automata, Beheading/Decapitation, Comic, PARALYSIS, Margins/Outsiders

Dawn/Dawning, Devotion/Piety, Ecstasy, Evil Eye,
PARAMILITARY see MILITARY/PARAMILITARY
Honor/Honoring, Journey/Flight,
Fools/Folly, Gaze,
PARANOIA, Madness, Melancholy, Money
I, Logos/Word, Love and Death,
Justice, Laughter, Light
PARDON, Damned Souls, Order/Chaos
PARIS, Fortune, Masks/Personae, Mirror/Reflection,
Margins/Outsiders, Melancholy, Months, Music,
Naked/Nude, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peace, Pregnancy, Months
PARIS WORLD EXHIBITION, 1937, Peasantry
Sanctuary, Seasons, Shepherds/Shepherdesses,
Sin/Sinning, Sport, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues,
PARKING LOT, Night
Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
PARLIAMENT, Marriage/Betrothal
PARODY, Comic, Fools/Folly, Masks/Personae, Upside
PAGANINI, Niccolo, Artists/Art
Down, Witchcraft/Sorcery
PAGEANT(S), Fame, Seasons
PAROUSIA, Devotion/Piety
PAGLIACCI, Masks/Personae
PARROT(S), Luxury, Sin/Sinning
PAIN, Birth/Childbirth, Death, Ecstasy, Hanging,
PARTHENOGENESIS, Labor/Trades/Occupations
Justice, Luxury, Marriage/Betrothal, Martyrdom,
PARTING see DEPARTURE
Mirror/Reflection, Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos,
PARTNER/PARTNERSHIP, Marriage/Betrothal
Penitence/Repentance, Pregnancy, Self-Portraits I,
PASQUAL PLAYS, Penitence/Repentance
Serpent's Bite, Sin/Sinning, Virgin/Virginity
PASQUALINI, Marcantonio, Honor/Honoring, Music
PAINT/PAINTING/PAINTER, Artists/Art, Fame, Hanging,
PASSIVITY, Beheading/Decapitation, Humors, Naked/Nude,
Imagination/Creativity, Labor/Trades/Occupations,
Whiteness
Light II, Logos/Word, Mirror/Reflection,
PASTIME see LEISURE
Path/Road/Crossroads, Self-Portraits I, Self-Portraits II,
PATH/ROAD/CROSSROADS, Ascent/Descent,
Vanity/Vanitas
Choice/Choosing, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Harvesting,
PAIR(S)/PAIRING(S), Vanity/Vanitas
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Labyrinth/Maze, Light I,
PALACE(S) see CASTLE(S) Logos/Word, Money, Night, Path/Road/Crossroads,
PALESTINE, Months Pointing/Indicating, Sanctuary, Seasons, Self-Portraits I,
PALETTE, Artists/Art, Imagination/Creativity, Music, Whiteness, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
Order/Chaos, Peasantry, Self-Portraits I, Self-Portraits II
PATHOS (see also SADNESS), Death, Masks/Personae,
PALM(S) see HAND(S) Night, Protestantism, Serpent's Bite
PALM BRANCH/PALM FROND TREE, Annunciation, PATIENT(S), Madness, Pregnancy
Baptism, Dreams/Visions, Fame, Honor/Honoring, PATRIARCH(S)/PATRIARCHY, Birth/Childbirth, Fatal
Martyrdom, Money, Music, Offering, Order/Chaos, Woman/Femme Fatale, Gaze, Naked/Nude, Order/C lhaos,
Path/Road/Crossroads, Temptation, Virgin/Virginity, Sacrifice, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues
Virtue/Virtues PATRIOTISM, Devotion/Piety, Peasantry
PAMPHLET(S), Protestantism PATRONAGE, Artists/Art, Comic, Devotion/Piety,
PANACEA(S), Melancholy Female Beauty and Adornment, Fortune,
PANAMA, Abundance, Sanctuary Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Imagination/Creativity,
PANOTII, Margins/Outsiders Labyrinth/Maze, Madness, Mirror/Reflection,
PANTALONE (commedia dell'arte character), Money, Months, Music, Naked/Nude, Peace,
Masks/Personae Penitence/Repentance, Protestantism, Self-Portraits I,

PANTHEISM, Devotion/Piety, Ecstasy Self-Portraits II, Serpent's Bite, Shepherds/Shepherdesses,

PANTHER(S), Fortune, Light I Sin/Sinning, Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Sins,
PANTOMIME, Madness, Masks/Personae Voyeurism, Witchcraft/Sorcery
I I 02. INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS

PEACE, Abundance, Communion, Destruction of City, Justice, Kiss/Kissing, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Light I,

Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fortune, Honor/Honoring, Logos/Word, Love and Death, Madness, Misfortune,

Justice, Kiss/Kissing, Light I, Logos/Word, Months, Money, Months, Music, Night, Pregnancy, Seasons,
Music, Order/Chaos, Peace, Peasantry, Self-Portraits I, Self-Portraits II, Serpent's Bite,
Penitence/Repentance, Sanctuary, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sleep/Sleeping, Vanity/Vanitas,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues,
Sleep/Sleeping, Sport, Virtue/Virtues Zodiac
PEACOCK(S), Caricature/Cartoon, Light I, Luxury, PERSPECTIVE, Death, Madness, Mirror/Reflection,
Mirror/Reflection, Self-Portraits I Path/Road/Crossroads, Self-Portraits I, Sublime
PEAR(S)/PEAR TREE(S), Caricature/Cartoon, Offering PERU, Abundance
PEARL(S), Female Beauty and Adornment, Humors, Toilet PESSIMISM, Automata, Masks/Personae, Music,
Scenes, Virgin/Virginity Order/Chaos, Sin/Sinning, Witchcraft/Sorcery
PEASANT WARS, Peasantry PESTILENCE see PLAGUE/PESTILENCE
PEASANTRY, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Comic, Communion, PET(S) (see also ANIMAL[S]; BIRD[S]; CAT[S]; DOG[S]),
Crucifixion, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Death, Marriage/Betrothal
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fame, Fools/Folly, Hanging, PETAL(S), Vanity/Vanitas
Harvesting, Expulsion, Labor/Trades/Occupations, PETTICOAT(S), Whiteness
Labyrinth/Maze, Laughter, Margins/Outsiders, PETWORTH, Patronage
Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae, Mirror/Reflection, PHALLUS (PHALLOI), Abundance, Automata,
Months, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry, Physiognomy, Birth/Childbirth, Comic, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Evil
Pregnancy, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Vanity/Vanitas Eye, Female Beauty and Adornment, Fools/Folly, Fortune,
PEDANT(S)/PEDANTRY, Masks/Personae Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Imagination/Creativity,
PEDDLER(S), Comic, Margins/Outsiders Laughter, Light II, Music, Naked/Nude, Pregnancy
PEDICURE, Toilet Scenes PHANTASY/PHANTASIES see FANTASY/FANTASIES
PELICAN(S), Communion, Sacrifice, Virtue/Virtues PHANTOM(S), Witchcraft/Sorcery
PEN(S), Caricature/Cartoon, Imagination/Creativity PHILIP II, of Macedonia, Drunkenness/Intoxication
PENALTY see PUNISHMENT PHILIP II, King of Spain, Adultery, Martyrdom,
PENANCE see PENITENCE/REPENTANCE Penitence/Repentance, Vices/Deadly Sins
PENDULUM, Automata, Seasons PHILIP King of France, Peasantry, Virtue/Virtues
III,

PENIS PHALLUSsee PHILIP King of Spain, Fools/Folly, Serpent's Bite

IV,
PENITENCE/REPENTANCE, Beheading/Decapitation, PHILIP, Lord Wharton, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
Birth/Childbirth, Calumny, Death, Hair/Haircutting, PHILIP THE BOLD, Fortune, Patronage
Journey/Flight, Justice, Melancholy, Mirror/Reflection, PHILIP THE FAIR, Sin/Sinning
Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, PHILIP (PHILIPPE) THE GOOD, Vices/Deadly Sins,
Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence, Protestantism, Whiteness
Sin/Sinning, Vanity/Vanitas, Virgin/Virginity PHILIP THE HANDSOME OF BURGUNDY, Vices/Deadly
PEOPLE AS COMMODITIES, Automata, Money, Sins
Widowhood PHILIP THE HARD, Fools/Folly
PEPLOS, Virgin/Virginity PHILOSOPHY/PHILOSOPHER(S), Automata, Fortune,
PERCEPTION, Upside Down, Whiteness Honor/Honoring, Imagination/Creativity, Laughter, Love
PERCY, HENRY see NORTHUMBERLAND, Earl of, and Death, Melancholy, Metamorphosis, Seasons,
Henry Percy Self-Portraits I, Virtue/Virtues
PERDITION, Temptation PHILTERS, Witchcraft/Sorcery
PERFECTION, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, PHLEGM/PHLEGMATIC, Humors, Melancholy,
Imagination/Creativity, Love and Death, Order/Chaos, Sin/Sinning, Zodiac
Mirror/Reflection, Order/Chaos, Seasons, PHNOM PENH, Cambodia, Sanctuary
Serpent's Bite, Temptation PHOENIX, Virtue/Virtues
PERFUME, Dreams/Visions, Female Beauty and Adornment, PHOTOGRAPH(S)/PHOTOGRAPHY, Gaze, Madness,
Luxury, Seasons, Toilet Scenes, Vices/Deadly Sins, Marriage/Betrothal, Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos,
Virtue/Virtues Peasantry, Self-Portraits II, Sleep/Sleeping, Voyeurism
PERIPHERY see MARGINS/OUTSIDERS PHOTO-REALISM, Mirror/Reflection, Night,
PERSECUTION, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Communion, Hanging, Path/Road/Crossroads, Self-Portraits I

Madness, Margins/Outsiders, Martyrdom, Protestantism, PHRYGIAN CAP, Margins/Outsiders

Sanctuary, Vices/Deadly Sins PHYSICIAN(S), Caricature/Cartoon, Comic, Death,
PERSONA/PERSONAE see MASKS/PERSONAE Fools/Folly, Humors, Labor/Trades/Occupations,
PERSONIFICATION, Abundance, Apotheosis/Deification, Masks/Personae, Plague/Pestilence, Pointing/Indicating,
Baptism, Betrayal, Death, Destruction of City, Pregnancy, Sacrifice, Self-Portraits I, Sin/Sinning,
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Envy, Excess, Fatal Vanity/Vanitas
Woman/Femme Fatale, Fame, Fortune, Gaze, Harvesting, PHYSIOGNOMY, Automata, Betrayal, Caricature/Cartoon,
Honor/Honoring, Humors, Imagination/Creativity, Fools/Folly, Madness, Margins/Outsiders, Melancholy,
 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS I IO3

Peasantry, Physiognomy, Self-Portraits I, Self-Portraits II, PLEIADES (constellation), Order/Chaos

Virtue/Virtues PLENTY see ABUNDANCE
PICASSO, Claude, Pregnancy PLEURERS, Gaze
PICASSO, Paloma, Pregnancy PLOW/PLOUGH/PLOWING, Labor/Trades/Occupations,
PICKPOCKET(S), Margins/Outsiders Madness, Night, Peasantry, Zodiac
PICTOGRAPH(S), Reading, Sanctuary PLUM(S), Seasons, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
PICTURESQUE, Peasantry, Seasons PLUMB-LINE(S), Labor/Trades/Occupations, Virtue/Virtues
PIERROT (commedia dell'arte character), Hanging, PLUME(S), Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Vanity/Vanitas
Masks/Personae PLUNDERING see PILLAGING
PIETY seeDEVOTION/PIETY POEM/POETRY/POET(S)/VERSE, Apotheosis/Deification,
PIG(S), Comic, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Fortune, Artists/Art, Death,Fame, Female Beauty and Adornment,
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Journey/Flight, Madness, Harvesting, Honor/Honoring, Imagination/Creativity,
Metamorphosis, Peasantry, Physiognomy, Protestantism, Labyrinth/Maze, Light I, Love and Death,
Temptation, Vices/Deadly Sins, Witchcraft/Sorcery Margins/Outsiders, Martyrdom, Melancholy,
PIGEON(S), Light I, Sacrifice Mirror/Reflection, Months, Music, Reading, Seasons,
PILGRIM(S)/PILGRIMAGE(S), Ascent/Descent, Avarice, Self-Portraits I, Serpent's Bite, Shepherds/Shepherdesses,
Choice/Choosing, Journey/Flight, Martyrdom, Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues
Mirror/Reflection, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, POESIA, Self-Portraits I

Plague/Pestilence, Sanctuary, Self-Portraits I, Vices/Deadly POGROMS, Judaism

Sins, Virtue/Virtues
POINTING/INDICATING, Communion, Dreams/Visions,
PILLAGING, Hanging, Sanctuary Excess, Fools/Folly, Judaism, Light II, Pointing/Indicating,
PILLAR(S) (see also COLUMN[S]), Fatal Woman/Femme Sacrifice, Temptation, Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues
Martyrdom, Sanctuary, Virtue/Virtues
Fatale,
POISON, Abduction/Rape, Ascent/Descent, Fatal
PILLOW(S), Death, Dreams/Visions, Female Beauty and Woman/Femme Fatale, Love and Death,
Adornment, Luxury, Naked/Nude, Pregnancy,
Margins/Outsiders, Order/Chaos, Serpent's Bite,
Witchcraft/Sorcery
Witchcraft/Sorcery
PINCER(S), Martyrdom, Melancholy
POLAR BEARS, Shipwreck
PINE(S)/PINE CONE(S)/PINE TREE(S), Bacchanalia/Orgy,
POLICEMAN/POLICEMEN, Peasantry
Seasons, Virtue/Virtues
POLITICS/POLITICAL/POLITICIAN(S), Abduction/Rape,
PINK, Virtue/Virtues
Abundance, Apotheosis/Deification, Arms Raised,
PIN-UP, Months
Automata, Caricature/Cartoon, Comic, Crucifixion,
PIPE(S), Mirror/Reflection, Music, Vanity/Vanitas
Damned Souls, Devotion/Piety, Dreams/Visions, Fame,
PISCES (zodiacal constellation), Months, Zodiac
Fortune, Gaze, Hanging, Journey/Flight, Justice,
PITCHER(S), Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Luxury, Margins/Outsiders,
PITT, William, Caricature/Cartoon, Sin/Sinning
Marriage/Betrothal, Money, Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos,
PITTURA INFAMANTE, Hanging
Patronage, Peace, Peasantry, Physiognomy,
PITY see MERCY/COMPASSION
Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, Protestantism, Sanctuary,
PLAGUE/PESTILENCE, Crucifixion, Dance/Dancers/
Self-Portraits II, Serpent's Bite, Sin/Sinning, Sport,
Dancing, Death, Destruction of City, Evil Eye, Fortune,
Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues, Widowhood,
Gaze, Journey/Flight, Misfortune, Order/Chaos,
Witchcraft/Sorcery
Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence, Sin/Sinning,
Vanity/Vanitas
POLLUTION, Gaze, Widowhood
PLANET(S), Fortune, Humors, Justice, Labor/Trades/
POLYCHROME/POLYCHROMY see COLOR(S)

Occupations, Melancholy, Order/Chaos, Seasons, POLYHEDRON(S), Melancholy

Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Sins, Zodiac
POLYTHEISM, Zodiac
PLANISPHERE(S), Zodiac POMEGRANATE(S), Abundance, Expulsion, Fatal
PLANTING see SEED(S)/SOWING Woman/Femme Fatale, Logos/Word, Offering,
PLANTS see VEGETATION Shepherds/Shepherdesses

PLATYPUS/PLATYPUSES, Order/Chaos POMPADOUR, Madame de, Naked/Nude

PLATYTERA, Pregnancy POND(S)/POOL(S), Offering, Pregnancy, Seasons,

PLAY/PLAYING see GAME(S); SPORT Temptation, Witchcraft/Sorcery

PLAYING CARD(S), Choice/Choosing, Fools/Folly, Fortune, POOR see POVERTY/THE POOR
Money, Peasantry, Sin/Sinning, Vanity/Vanitas POORHOUSE(S), Abandonment
PLEASURE, Abundance, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Evil POP ART, Caricature/Cartoon, Comic, Madness, Night,
Eye, Humors, Light I, Luxury, Mirror/Reflection, Money, Order/Chaos
Months, Music, Offering, Path/Road/Crossroads, Self- POPPY/POPPIES, Dreams/Visions, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Portraits II, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, POPPY SEED(S), Offering
Sublime, Temptation, Toilet Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas, POPULAR CULTURE, Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae
Virtue/Virtues, Voyeurism, Zodiac POPULATION, Marriage/Betrothal, Months, Reading,
PLECTRUM(S), Music Visiting/Visitation
II04 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS
POPULATION CONTROL see BIRTH
CONTROL/POPULATION CONTROL
PORNOGRAPHY, Adultery, Naked/Nude, Sleep/Sleeping
PORTAL(S) see DOOR(S)/DOORWAY(S)/
GATE(S)/PORTAL(S)
PORTRAIT(S), Apotheosis/Deification, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
Calumny, Caricature/Cartoon, Comic,
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Death, Devotion/Piety,
Dreams/Visions, Evil Eye, Excess, Fame, Female Beauty
and Adornment, Fools/Folly, Gaze, Hanging,
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Honor/Honoring, Humors,
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Imagination/Creativity,
Journey/Flight, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Laughter,
Luxury, Madness, Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae,
Mirror/Reflection, Months, Music, Patronage, Peace,
Peasantry, Physiognomy, Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy,
Protestantism, Reading, Seasons, Self-Portraits
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sport, Vanity/Vanitas,
Virgin/Virginity, Voyeurism, Whiteness, Widowhood
POSE(S)/POSTURE/STANCE (see also BODY LANGUAGE),
Adultery, Apocalypse, Arms Raised, Artists/Art,
Automata, Baptism, Bath/Bathing,
Beheading/Decapitation, Birth/Childbirth,
Choice/Choosing, Damned Souls, Death,
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Excess, Female Beauty and
Adornment, Gaze, Hanging, Harvesting, Humors,
Journey/Flight, Love and Death, Madness,
Marriage/Betrothal, Martyrdom, Masks/Personae,
Melancholy, Mirror/Reflection, Months, Naked/Nude,
Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry, Penitence/Repentance,
Pregnancy, Sacrifice, Self-Portraits I,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping,
Sport, Temptation, Toilet Scenes, Virgin/Virginity,
Visiting/Visitation, Widowhood, Witchcraft/Sorcery
POSITIVISM, Devotion/Piety
POSSESSED/POSSESSION, Madness, Margins/Outsiders,
Temptation, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virgin/Virginity
POSTAGE STAMPS, Fame
POSTIMPRESSIONISM, Artists/Art, Night
POSTMODERN/POSTMODERNISM, Automata,
Order/Chaos, Self-Portraits I
POSTPARTUM, Birth/Childbirth
POSTURE see POSE(S)/POSTURE/STANCE
POT(S)/POTTERY,
Sleep/Sleeping, Virgin/Virginity
POTATO FAMINE, Expulsion, Margins/Outsiders
POVERTY/THE POOR, Avarice, Death, Fortune,
Hair/LIaircutting, Kiss/Kissing, Luxury,
Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae,
Mirror/Reflection, Music, Order/Chaos,
Path/Road/Crossroads, Protestantism, Reading,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Upside Down, Virtue/Virtues
POWDER, Female Beauty and Adornment
POWER, Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth,
Death, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Fortune, Gaze,
Hair/Haircutting, Hanging, Honor/Honoring,
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Imagination/Creativity,
Kiss/Kissing,Madness, Margins/Outsiders,
Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae, Metamorphosis,
Music, Naked/Nude, Peace, Peasantry,
Penitence/Repentance, Self-Portraits I, Serpent's Bite,
Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Sublime, Temptation, Toilet
Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery
POX see SYPHILIS
POZZO, Cassiano del, Penitence/Repentance
PRAYER/PRAYING, Birth/Childbirth, Ecstasy, Fortune,
Gaze, Hair/Haircutting, Judaism, Light I, Light II,
Logos/Word, Love and Death, Martyrdom,
Metamorphosis, Months, Order/Chaos,
Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry, Penitence/Repentance,
Plague/Pestilence, Protestantism, Sanctuary, Pregnancy,
Self-Portraits II, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning,
Sleep/Sleeping, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues,
Widowhood, Witchcraft/Sorcery
PRAYER RUGS see CARPETS/RUGS/PRAYER RUGS
PREACHER(S)/PREACHING, Death, Protestantism,
I,
Reading, Witchcraft/Sorcery
PRECIEUX/PRECIEUSES, Female Beauty and Adornment
PRECIOUS STONES see JEWEL(S)
PRECISIONISTS, Dreams/Visions
PREDICTION see PROPHET(S)/PROPHECY
PREFIGURATION see TYPOLOGY
PREGNANCY, Abundance, Bath/Bathing, Expulsion, Mirror/
Reflection, Naked/Nude, Offering, Pregnancy, Self-Portraits
II, Temptation, Virgin/Virginity, Visiting/Visitation
PREJUDICE, Hanging, Witchcraft/Sorcery
PREORDINATION, Seasons
PRE-RAPHAELITES, Adultery, Death, Devotion/Piety,
Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Hair/Haircutting,
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Journey/Flight, Martyrdom,
Mirror/Reflection, Penitence/Repentance
PRESLEY, Elvis, Fame, Journey/Flight
PRESS, Money
PRETZEL(S), Sin/Sinning
PRICE TAG, Automata
PRIDE, Ascent/Descent, Betrayal, Destruction of City,
Excess, Female Beauty and Adornment, Fortune,
Honor/Honoring, Justice, Mirror/Reflection,
Order/Chaos, Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, Sin/Sinning,
Temptation, Toilet Scenes, Upside Down, Vices/Deadly
Sins, Virtue/Virtues
PRIEST(S)/PRIESTESS(ES), Abundance,
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fortune, Gaze, Hair/Haircutting,
Hanging, Madness, Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae,
Metamorphosis, Mirror/Reflection, Months, Peasantry,
Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy,
Protestantism, Sacrifice, Sanctuary, Serpent's Bite,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, Virgin/Virginity,
Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery
PRIME, Labor/Trades/Occupations
PRIMITIVE(S), Death, Margins/Outsiders
PRIMOGENITURE, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
PRINCE(S), Birth/Childbirth, Dreams/Visions, Fame,
Fortune, Honor/Honoring, Laughter, Love and Death,
Luxury, Penitence/Repentance, Sin/Sinning, Sport
PRINCESS(ES), Death, Judgment, Kiss/Kissing, Sacrifice,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Witchcraft/Sorcery
PRINTING PRESS, Automata, Crucifixion
PRISM(S), Upside Down
 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS IIO5

PRISON(S)/PRISONER(S), Honor/Honoring, Judaism, PROTESTANTISM (see also Index of Judeo-Christian

Labyrinth/Maze, Margins/Outsiders, Physiognomy,
Shipwreck, Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation
PROCESSION(S), Abundance, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Death,
Devotion/Piety, Fortune, Gaze, Honor/Honoring,
Marriage/Betrothal, Melancholy, Music,
Path/Road/Crossroads, Penitence/Repentance,
Plague/Pestilence, Sanctuary, Seasons, Sin/Sinning,
Whiteness
PROCREATION see CONCEIVE/CONCEPTION;
Personages, Places, and Concepts), Protestantism
PROTHESIS see WAKE
PROTOTYPE, Witchcraft/Sorcery
PROTOZOA, Pregnancy
PROVERB(S), Avarice, Excess, Female Beauty and
Adornment, Gaze, Harvesting, Peasantry, Vices/Deadly Sins
PRUDENCE, Abundance, Adultery, Female Beauty and
Adornment, Fools/Folly, Justice, Mirror/Reflection,
Music, Peace, Serpent's Bite, Toilet Scenes, Virtue/Virtues,

CREATION Widowhood
PROCURESS(ES), Beheading/Decapitation, Female Beauty PRUNE(S), Seasons
and Adornment, Money, Temptation, Toilet Scenes PRUNING, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Months
PRODIGALITY, Excess PSALTERY, Music
PROFESSION(S) see LABOR/TRADES/OCCUPATIONS PSYCHIATRY/PSYCHIATRIST(S), Madness
PROFESSOR(S), Vices/Deadly Sins PSYCHOANALYSIS, Artists/Art, Widowhood
PROFILE(S), Honor/Honoring, Humors, Margins/Outsiders, PSYCHOLOGICAL SHIFT, Laughter
Masks/Personae, Path/Road/Crossroads, Physiognomy, PSYCHOLOGIST(S)/PSYCHOLOGY, Death, Physiognomy,
Pregnancy, Visiting/Visitation Plague/Pestilence
PROFIT(S), Money PSYCHOMACHIA, Love and Death, Music
PROGNATHISM, Margins/Outsiders PSYCHOSTASIS, Judgment
PROPAGANDA, Devotion/Piety, Hanging, Patronage, PSYCHOTIC, Margins/Outsiders
Peace, Plague/Pestilence, Pointing/Indicating, PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM, Zodiac
Protestantism, Sin/Sinning, Sport PUB(S) (public houses), Sport
PROPERTY {see also WOMEN AS PROPERTY), Adultery, PUBIC HAIR, Hair/Haircutting, Naked/Nude
Artists/Art, Destruction of City, Evil Eye, Luxury, PUBLICAN(S), Protestantism, Sacrifice
Marriage/Betrothal PUDENDUM, Comic, Female Beauty and Adornment
PROPHET(S)/PROPHETESS(ES)/PROPHECY (see also PUGILIST, Death
Index of Judeo-Christian Personages, Places, and PULCINELLA(O) (commedia dell'arte character), Hanging,
Concepts), Abandonment, Annunciation, Apocalypse, Masks/Personae
Beheading/Decapitation, Dreams/Visions, Madness, PULLEY(S), Automata
Martyrdom, Mirror/Reflection, Music, Order/Chaos, PULPIT(S), Communion, Protestantism, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Physiognomy, Reading, Sacrifice, Sin/Sinning, PUN(S), Comic
Visiting/Visitation, Widowhood, Witchcraft/Sorcery, PUNCHINELLO see PULCINELLA(O)
Zodiac PUNISHMENT, Adultery, Bath/Bathing,
PROPORTION(S), Logos/Word, Naked/Nude, Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, Crucifixion, Damned
Physiognomy, Temptation, Virtue/Virtues Souls, Death, Destruction of City, Fortune, Hanging,
PROSPERITY, Abundance, Evil Eye, Justice, Honor/Honoring, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Judgment,
Marriage/Betrothal, Naked/Nude, Seasons, Virtue/Virtues Justice, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Logos/Word, Love
PROSTHETIC DEVICES, Automata and Death, Madness, Melancholy, Metamorphosis,
PROSTITUTE(S)/PROSTITUTION [see also Mirror/Reflection, Misfortune, Music, Order/Chaos,
CONCUBINE[S]/CONCUBINAGE), Abandonment, Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence, Protestantism,
Adultery, Betrayal, Comic, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Serpent's Bite, Sin/Sinning, Vices/Deadly Sins,
Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Fools/Folly, Journey/Flight, Virgin/Virginity, Widowhood
Judgment, Margins/Outsiders, Mirror/Reflection, PUPIL(S), Judgment, Mirror/Reflection
Naked/Nude, Penitence/Repentance, Seasons, PUPPET(S)/PUPPETEER(S), Witchcraft/Sorcery
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, Sport, Toilet PURGATORY (see also Index of Judeo-Christian
Scenes, Virgin/Virginity, Voyeurism Personages, Places, and Concepts), Path/Road/Crossroads
PROTECT/PROTECTION, Abandonment, PURITAN(S), Protestantism, Temptation
Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Arms Raised, Ascent/Descent, PURITY/PURIFICATION, Annunciation, Baptism,
Avarice, Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, Bath/Bathing, Beheading/Decapitation, Death, Hanging,
Birth/Childbirth, Calumny, Death, Dreams/Visions, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Mirror/Reflection, Music,
Envy, Evil Eye, Fortune, Gaze, Journey/Flight, Offering, Penitence/Repentance, Reading, Seasons,
Judgment, Madness, Margins/Outsiders,
Justice, Laughter, Sublime, Virgin/Virginity, Whiteness
Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae, Months, PURPLE, Honor/Honoring, Judgment, Mirror/Reflection,
Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, Patronage, Peace, Shipwreck, Virtue/Virtues
Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, Seasons, Self-Portraits I, PURSE(S)/HANDBAG(S)/MONEYBAG(S), Avarice,
Serpent's Bite, Sin/Sinning, Toilet Scenes, Virgin/Virginity, Communion, Fortune, Hanging, Light II, Melancholy,
Widowhood, Witchcraft/Sorcery Money, Order/Chaos, Protestantism, Sin/Sinning,
PROTEST see SOCIAL CRITICISM AND REFORM Virtue/Virtues
I I06 INDEX OF OTHEK NAMES AND TERMS

PUTTO/PUTTI, Abandonment, Adultery, Bacchanalia/Orgy, REALISM/REALIST, Bath/Bathing, Caricature/Cartoon,

l Fame, Female Beauty and Adornment,
(iniic, Kvil Eye",
Fortune, Honor/Honoring, Imagination/Creativity, Love
and Death, Melancholy, Music, Pregnancy, Sacrifice,
Seasons, Sleep/Sleeping, Vanity Amanitas, Virtue/Virtues,
Witchcraft/Sorcery
Death, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Female Beauty and
Adornment, Fortune, Gaze, Hair/Haircutting,
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Madness, Margins/Outsiders,
Naked/Nude, Night, Path/Road/Crossroads,
Plague/Pestilence, Protestantism, Self-Portraits I, Serpent's

PUZZLE(S), Labyrinth/Maze, Mirror/Reflection Bite, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning,

PYGMIES, Comic, Nightmare Sleep/Sleeping, Sport, Vanity/Vanitas, Voyeurism

PYRAMID(S), Ascent/Descent, Fortune, Luxury, Sanctuary, REALITY, Dreams/Visions, Hair/Haircutting,

Virtue/Virtues Imagination/Creativity, Masks/Personae,

PYRE see FUNERARY PYRE Mirror/Reflection, Money, Naked/Nude,

Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry,
QUACK DOCTOR(S), Comic, Peasantry, Shipwreck Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sport, Toilet Scenes,

QUADRANGLE(S), Sin/Sinning Visiting/Visitation, Witchcraft/Sorcery

QUADRIGA(S) see CHARIOT(S) REAP/REAPER/REAPING, Harvesting, Months, Peasantry,

QUARANTINE, Margins/Outsiders, Plague/Pestilence Zodiac

QUEEN(S), Judgment, Patronage, Pregnancy, Self-Portraits I,
REASON/RATIONALITY, Beheading/Decapitation,

Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Virgin/Virginity,
Dawn/Dawning, Death, Imagination/Creativity, Justice,

Visiting/Visitation, Whiteness, Witchcraft/Sorcery

Light I, Logos/Word, Melancholy, Music, Nightmare,
Self-Portraits II, Sin/Sinning, Virgin/Virginity,
QUEST(S), Whiteness
Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac

RABBIT(S), Adultery, Caricature/Cartoon,

REBELLION, Artists/Art, Hair/Haircutting, Peasantry

Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Light I, Melancholy,

REBIRTH/REGENERATION/REJUVENATION/RENEWAL,
Abundance, Bath/Bathing, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
Order/Chaos, Sin/Sinning
Birth/Childbirth, Dance/Dancers/Dancing,
RACE/RACISM, Hanging, Harvesting, Laughter,
Dawn/Dawning, Ecstasy, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale,
Naked/Nude, Physiognomy
Light I, Offering, Peace, Seasons, Virgin/Virginity
RACE(S)/RACETRACK, Apocalypse, Sport
RECONCILIATION, Abandonment, Communion,
RACHEVSKAIA, Tatiana, Kiss/Kissing
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Kiss/Kissing, Journey/Flight,
RACK, Martyrdom
Music, Peace
RADIANCE, Crucifixion, Dawn/Dawning, Female Beauty
RECORDER(S) (musical instrument), Music,
and Adornment, Light II
Shepherds/Shepherdesses
RAFT(S), Misfortune, Shipwreck
RECRUIT/RECRUITING, Pointing/Indicating
RAG(S), Fortune, Widowhood
RECTANGLE(S), Sanctuary, Visiting/Visitation
RAILROAD(S), Money, Night, Path/Road/Crossroads
RECTITUDE see RIGHTEOUSNESS
RAIN, Bath/Bathing, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Love and
RED, Abundance, Apocalypse, Death, Destruction of City,
Death, Path/Road/Crossroads, Pregnancy, Upside Down
Dreams/Visions, Female Beauty and Adornment,
RAINBOW(S), Light II, Melancholy Hair/Haircutting, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne,
RAKE(S)/RAKING, Labor/Trades/Occupations Honor/Honoring, Journey/Flight, Love and Death,
RAKE Comic, Margins/Outsiders,
(libertine),
Margins/Outsiders, Martyrdom, Melancholy, Peace,
Masks/Personae, Voyeurism
Pregnancy, Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning, Vanity/Vanitas,
RAM(S) see GOAT(S)/RAM(S) Vices/Deadly Sins, Virgin/Virginity, Visiting/Visitation,
RANDOM/RANDOMNESS, Order/Chaos Whiteness, Zodiac
RANSOM, Abduction/Rape, Marriage/Betrothal, REDEMPTION (see also Index of Judeo-Christian
Order/Chaos Personages, Places, and Concepts), Adultery,
RAPE see ABDUCTION/RAPE Ascent/Descent, Gaze, Honor/Honoring,
RAT(S), Masks/Personae, Sin/Sinning, Zodiac Margins/Outsiders, Mirror/Reflection, Music,
RATIONAL/RATIONALITY see REASON/RATIONALITY Penitence/Repentance, Sacrifice, Seasons, Serpent's Bite,
RAVEN(S), Destruction of City, Evil Eye, Misfortune, Sin/Sinning, Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation, Zodiac
Temptation RED-HOT, Judgment, Labor/Trades/Occupations,
RAY(S), Hair/Haircutting, Light II, Order/Chaos, Virtue/Virtues
Protestantism, Sleep/Sleeping, Upside Down, RED PEPPER, Evil Eye
Virgin/Virginity REEF(S), Shipwreck
RAYONISM, Labor/Trades/Occupations REFLECTION see MIRROR/REFLECTION
RAYONNANT STYLE, Light II REFORM BILL, Justice
RAZOR, Fortune REFORMATION see Index of Judeo-Christian Personages,
READING, Reading, Sleep/Sleeping, Virgin/Virginity, Places, and Concepts
Visiting/Visitation REFUGE see SANCTUARY
READY-MADES, Order/Chaos REGENERATION see REBIRTFI/REGENERATION/
REAGAN, Ronald, Zodiac REJUVENATION/RENEWAL
 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS II07

REGIONALISTS, Dreams/Visions REVOLUTION, Dreams/Visions, Months, Order/Chans,

REIN(S), Virtue/Virtues Peasantry
REINCARNATION, Sanctuary, Sin/Sinning, Toilet Scenes RHETORIC, Fame
REJECTING/REJECTION, Annunciation, Artists/Art, RHINOCEROS, Luxury
Ascent/Descent, Betrayal, Choice/Choosing, Death, RHYTHM, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Music, Months
Excess, Fame, Hanging, Journey/Flight, Judgment, RIB(S), Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Sleep/Sleeping
Marriage/Betrothal, Martyrdom, Masks/Personae, Music, RIBBON(S), Female Beauty and Adornment,
Order/Chaos, Patronage, Pregnancy, Self-Portraits II, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
Sacrifice, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Witchcraft/Sorcery RICHELIEU, Cardinal, Honor/Honoring
REJUVENATION see REBIRTH/REGENERATION/ RICHES WEALTH), Abundance, Fortune,
(see also
REJUVENATION/RENEWAL Honor/Honoring, Judgment, Kiss/Kissing, Money,
RELIC(S)/RELIQUARIES, Journey/Flight, Light II, Protestantism, Seasons, Vanity/Van itas, Widowhood
Martyrdom, Mirror/Reflection, Patronage RIDDLE(S), Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale
RELIGION/RELIGIOUS (frequently used term; not indexed) RIDICULE, Comic, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Laughter,
REMORSE, Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence Masks/Personae
RENAISSANCE (frequently used term; not indexed) RIENZO, Cola Di, Widowhood
RENE D'ANJOU, Fools/Folly, Peace RIFLE(S) see GUN(S)
RENEWAL see RIGHTEOUSNESS, Justice, Kiss/Kissing, Order/Chaos,
REBIRTH/REGENERATION/REJUVENATION/ Peace, Whiteness
RENEWAL RIGHTS, Justice
RENNET, Pregnancy RIGOR MORTIS, Death
RENUNCIATION, Hair/Haircutting, Virgin/Virginity RIMINI, Francesca da, Kiss/Kissing, Reading
REPENTENCE see PENITENCE/REPENTANCE RING(S), Automata, Crucifixion, Female Beauty and
REPETITION, Automata, Dreams/Visions, Logos/Word, Adornment, Fortune, Hair/Haircutting, Honor/Honoring,
Masks/Personae, Seasons, Virtue/Virtues Kiss/Kissing, Marriage/Betrothal, Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac
REPRESSION, Abandonment, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale RITE OF PASSAGE, Marriage/Betrothal
REPROACH, Fame RITES/RITUALS, Abundance, Automata, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
REPTILE see SERPENT Baptism, Beheading/Decapitation, Birth/Childbirth,
REPUDIATION, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Death, Devotion/Piety,
RESCUE, Abduction/Rape, Love and Death, Misfortune, Dreams/Visions, Ecstasy, Female Beauty and
Naked/Nude, Shipwreck
Adornment, Fools/Folly, Fortune, Gaze, Hanging,
RESPECT, Annunciation, Honor/Honoring
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Kiss/Kissing, Labyrinth/Maze,
RESURRECTION {see also Index of Judeo-Christian
Laughter, Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/Betrothal,
Personages, Places, and Concepts), Abduction/Rape,
Masks/Personae, Months, Offering, Protestantism,
Dawn/Dawning, Gaze, Metamorphosis, Naked/Nude,
Sanctuary, Seasons, Sin/Sinning, Sport, Toilet Scenes,
Night, Order/Chaos, Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning,
Upside Down, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness,
Sleep/Sleeping, Toilet Scenes, Upside Down,
Widowhood, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Virtue/Virtues
RIVER(S), Abundance, Excess, Expulsion,
RETALIATION see REVENGE
Imagination/Creativity, Laughter, Light I, Logos/Word,
RETRIBUTION, Adultery, Betrayal, Hanging, Justice,
Madness, Margins/Outsiders, Naked/Nude, Offering,
Misfortune, Sublime
Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry,
REUNION, Gaze, Journey/Flight, Penitence/Repentance,
Vices/Deadly Sins, Zodiac
Protestantism
REVELATION, Apocalypse, Fortune, Light I, Light II,
ROAD see PATH/ROAD/CROSSROADS

Logos/Word, Masks/Personae, Melancholy, ROBBER BARONS, Money

Mirror/Reflection, Protestantism, Serpent's Bite,
ROBE(S) see CLOAK(S)/MANTLE(S)/ROBE(S)
Sleep/Sleeping, Zodiac
ROBOT(S), Ascent/Descent, Automata, Betrayal,
REVELER(S)/REVELRY, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Labor/Trades/Occupations
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Drunkenness/Intoxication, ROCK(S) see STONE(S)
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Laughter, Love and Death, ROCK STAR(S), Journey/Flight
Months, Peasantry, Plague/Pestilence ROCOCO, Female Beauty and Adornment, Kiss/Kissing,

REVENGE/VENGEANCE, Adultery, Bath/Bathing, Self-Portraits II, Sleep/Sleeping

Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, Fatal Woman/Femme ROD(S), Fortune, Penitence/Repentance, Witchcraft/Sorcer)

Fatale, Hair/Haircutting, Hanging, Judgment, Justice, ROMANTICISM/ROMANTICIZED, Artists/Art, Death.

Madness, Metamorphosis, Misfortune, Night, Destruction of City, Dreams/Visions, Fortune, Gaze,

Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery Hanging, Harvesting, Imagination/Creativity,
REVERE, Paul, Dreams/Visions Kiss/Kissing, Labor/Trades/Occupations,
REVERIE, Night, Whiteness Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae,
REVERSE/REVERSAL, Masks/Personae, Mirror/Reflection, Melancholy, Naked/Nude, Night, Nightmare,
Upside Down, Witchcraft/Sorcery Order/Chaos, Peasantry, Plague/Pestilence, Protestantism.
I 108 INDEX OF OTIII'R NAM I S AND II KMS

Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sleep/Sleeping, Upside Down, Communion, Crucifixion, Dawn/Dawning, Death,

Whiteness, Witchcraft/Sorcery Devotion/Piety, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Envy,
ROME (see also Index of Ancient Mythological and Fortune, Gaze, Honor/Honoring, Journey/Flight,
Historical Personages, Places, and Concepts), Baptism, I, Love and Death, Marriage/Betrothal,
Judaism, Light
Birth/Childbirth, Caricature/Cartoon, Destruction of City, Martyrdom, Music, Offering, Order/Chaos,
I \cess, I lonor/l loi ng, |ourney/l light, Martyrdom, Plague/Pestilence, Pointing/Indicating, Sacrifice,
Plague/Pestilence, Protestantism, Sin/Sinning, Sanctuary, Seasons, Serpent's Bite,
Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Widowhood Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, Sport,
ROOSTER(S) see CHICKEN(S)/ROOSTER(S) Temptation, Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
ROOT(S), Temptation, Witchcraft/Sorcery SACRILEGE, Sin/Sinning, Vices/Deadly Sins
ROSARY/ROSARIES, Death, Evil Eye, SADISM, Margins/Outsiders, Sin/Sinning, Voyeurism
Path/Road/Crossroads SAFETY, Abundance, Fortune, Peace, Sanctuary, Shipwreck,
ROSE(S), Female Beauty and Adornment, Fortune, Virtue/Virtues
Honor/Honoring, Music, Path/Road/Crossroads, SAGACITY see WISDOM
Vanity/Vanitas, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness SAGE(S), Melancholy, Virtue/Virtues
ROUE see RAKE (libertine) SAGITTARIUS (zodiacal constellation), Zodiac
ROUGE, Female Beauty and Adornment SAIL(S), Fortune, Misfortune, Order/Chaos, Shipwreck
ROUND see CIRCLE(S) SAILOR(S), Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Sublime
ROYAL ACADEMY (England), Death, Light II SAINT(S)/SAINTHOOD (see also Index of Judeo-
ROYAL ACADEMY (France), Self-Portraits I, Christian Personages, Places, and Concepts),
Self-Portraits II Apotheosis/Deification, Hair/Haircutting, Order/Chaos,
ROYALTY see NOBILITY Path/Road/Crossroads, Penitence/Repentance,
ROZAT, Jacques, Vanity/Vanitas Plague/Pestilence, Protestantism, Sanctuary, Serpent's
RUCKENFIGUR, Devotion/Piety Bite, Shipwreck, Sleep/Sleeping, Toilet Scenes,
RUBBER, Masks/Personae, Sport, Virtue/Virtues Virtue/Virtues
RUBBISH, Margins/Outsiders, Order/Chaos ST VALENTINE'S DAY, Months
RUDDER, Abundance, Fortune, Humors SALAMANDER(S), Betrayal, Nightmare
RUFF(S), Visiting/Visitation SALON(S)/SALON PAINTERS, Marriage/Betrothal,
RUGS see CARPETS/RUGS/PRAYER RUGS Physiognomy
RUIN/RUINED/RUINATION, Ascent/Descent, Destruction SALPETRIERE, Physiognomy
of City, Excess, Judgment, Luxury, Madness, Money SALT, Madness, Virgin/Virginity
RUIN(S) (see also FRAGMENT[S]/FRAGMENTATION), SALVATION, Adultery, Ascent/Descent, Death,
Bath/Bathing, Fortune, Honor/Honoring, Love and Devotion/Piety, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Gaze,
Death, Misfortune, Months, Night, Order/Chaos, Peace, Honor/Honoring, Journey/Flight,
Sanctuary, Seasons, Sublime Labor/Trades/Occupations, Labyrinth/Maze,
RULER(S) KING(S)/EMPEROR(S)
see Love and Death, Madness, Melancholy,
RUMOR/RUMORS, Calumny, Fame Metamorphosis, Music, Naked/Nude,
RUN/RUNNER (S)/RUNNING, Mirror/Reflection, Sport Path/Road/Crossroads, Plague/Pestilence,
RUPTURE, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne Protestantism, Sacrifice, Serpent's Bite,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning,
SABBATH, Marriage/Betrothal, Order/Chaos Temptation, Toilet Scenes, Virgin/Virginity,
SACCO AND VANZETTI, Martyrdom Virtue/Virtues, Widowhood, Zodiac
SACKCLOTH, Gaze SALZBURG, Austria, Automata
SACRAMENT/SACRAMENTAL (see also Index of Judeo- SANCTION(S), Laughter
Christian Personages, Places, and Concepts), Baptism, SANCTUARY, Journey/Flight, Justice, Light I, Sanctuary
Ecstasy, Marriage/Betrothal, Penitence/Repentance, SAND, Virtue/Virtues
Plague/Pestilence, Protestantism, Sin/Sinning, SANDAL(S) see SHOE(S)
Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues SANGUINE, Humors, Order/Chaos, Seasons, Self-Portraits
SACRED, Ascent/Descent, Bacchanalia/Orgy, I, Sin/Sinning, Zodiac
Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth, Communion, SANTA CLAUS, Caricature/Cartoon,
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Destruction of City, Drunkenness/Intoxication
Devotion/Piety, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Ecstasy, SAPIENTIA, Sin/Sinning
Fools/Folly, Gaze, Hair/Haircutting, Judgment, SASH(ES) see BALDRICK(S)
Kiss/Kissing, Light I, Light II, Logos/Word, SATIN(S), Female Beauty and Adornment, Luxury,
Mirror/Reflection, Months, Night, Order/Chaos, Naked/Nude, Whiteness
Pregnancy, Protestantism, Sacrifice, Sanctuary, SATIRE, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Death, Fools/Folly,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Toilet Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Laughter, Margins/Outsiders,
Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness Masks/Personae, Money, Peasantry, Physiognomy,
SACRIFICE, Abundance, Adultery, Bath/Bathing, Upside Down, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, Choice/Choosing, SATISFACTION, Penitence/Repentance
 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS I IOy

SATURN (planet), Melancholy, Vices/Deadly Sins SEASONS, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Fatal Woman/Femme

SAUSAGE(S), Sin/Sinning Humors, Laughter, Love and Death,
Fatale, Harvesting,
SAVAGE(S) {see also NOBLE SAVAGE), Naked/Nude Melancholy, Months, Music, Naked/Nude, Offering,
SAVE/SAVED see SALVATION Order/Chaos, Peasantry, Pointing/Indicating, Seasons,
SAW(S)/S AWING, Melancholy, Misfortune Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness,
SCAFFOLD(S), Hanging, Labor/Trades/Occupations Zodiac
SCALE(S), Apocalypse, Automata, Evil Eye, Fools/Folly, SEAWEED, Metamorphosis
Judgment, Justice, Melancholy, Order/Chaos, Pregnancy, SECLUSION, Penitence/Repentance
Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac SECRETS/SECRECY, Masks/Personae,
SCALLOP-SHELL(S), Journey/Flight, Vanity/Vanitas, Penitence/Repentance
Virtue/Virtues SECULAR/SECULARISM/SECULARIZATION, Money,
SCANDAL, Adultery, Margins/Outsiders Order/Chaos
SCAPEGOAT(S), Margins/Outsiders SEDUCTION {see also FATAL WOMAN/FEMME FATALE),
SCARAB(S), Mirror/Reflection Adultery, Betrayal, Calumny, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
SCARECROW(S), Zodiac Female Beauty and Adornment, Hair/Haircutting, Love
SCARF(S), Months and Death, Money, Music, Naked/Nude, Pregnancy,
SCEPTER(S), Fools/Folly, Fortune, Honor/Honoring, Justice, Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Toilet Scenes, Vices/Deadly Sins,
Peasantry, Virtue/Virtues Widowhood, Witchcraft/Sorcery
SCHIZOPHRENIA, Margins/Outsiders SEED(S)/SOWING, Abundance, Harvesting,
SCHOLAR(S), Metamorphosis, Peasantry, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Months, Peasantry, Seasons,
Penitence/Repentance, Self-Portraits I, Upside Down Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
SCHOLASTICISM, Reading SEER(S), Madness, Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/Betrothal,
SCHOOLBOY(S), Evil Eye Virtue/Virtues
SCHOOLMASTER(S), Comic, Judgment SEINE, Peasantry
SCHUKIN, Sergei, Dance/Dancers/Dancing SELF-AGGRANDIZEMENT, Artists/Art,
SCIENCE/SCIENTIST(S), Automata, Death, Destruction of Months
Imagination/Creativity,
City, Light I, Light II, Madness, Mirror/Reflection, SELF-AMPUTATION, Madness
Music, Order/Chaos, Physiognomy, Upside Down, SELF-DENIAL, Devotion/Piety, Sanctuary, Virgin/Virginity
Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac SELF-DESTRUCTION, Death, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
SCIENCE FICTION, Automata, Madness Hanging, Madness, Money
SCISSORS, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Hair/Haircutting SELF-DISCIPLINE, Justice
SCOPOPHILIA, Voyeurism SELF-FLAGELLATION, Death, Naked/Nude,
SCORN, Laughter, Order/Chaos Virgin/Virginity
SCORPIO (zodiacal constellation), Zodiac SELF-INDULGENT, Love and Death, Vanity/Vanitas
SCORPION(S), Evil Eye, Misfortune, Vices/Deadly Sins, SELF-KNOWLEDGE, Female Beauty and Adornment,
Zodiac Mirror/Reflection, Naked/Nude, Toilet Scenes,
SCREAM(S)/SCREAMING, Death, Fame, Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness
Witchcraft/Sorcery SELF-MUTILATION, Ecstasy
SCRIBE(S), Ascent/Descent, Fortune, Pregnancy, Reading, SELF-PORTRAITS, Artists/Art, Betrayal, Damned Souls,
Whiteness Death, Expulsion, Fame, Gaze, Imagination/Creativity,
SCROLL(S), Annunciation, Apocalypse, Ascent/Descent, Laughter, Margins/Outsiders, Masks/Personae,
Communion, Fortune, Imagination/Creativity, Judgment, Mirror/Reflection, Music, Pregnancy, Sacrifice,
Offering, Reading, Self-Portraits II, Sin/Sinning, Self-Portraits I, Self-Portraits II, Vanity/Vanitas
Vices/Deadly Sins SELF-POSSESSION, Female Beauty and Adornment,
SCROVEGNI, Enrico, Justice, Sin/Sinning Hermaphrodite/Androgyne
SCRYER(S), Mirror/Reflection SELF-PROPAGATING, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne
SCULPTOR(S)/SCULPTURE, Artists/Art, Metamorphosis, SELF-SACRIFICE see MARTYRDOM
Self-Portraits I, Vanity/Vanitas SELF-TRIBUTE see SELF-AGGRANDIZEMENT
S-CURVE, Pregnancy SEMEN, Beheading/Decapitation, Pregnancy
SCYTHE(S), Apocalypse, Death, Fortune, Harvesting, SENEGAL, Shipwreck
Order/Chaos, Peasantry, Plague/Pestilence SENSES, Ascent/Descent, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
SEA/SEASCAPE/SEASHORE, Dawn/Dawning, Excess, Imagination/Creativity, Laughter, Mirror/Reflection,
Fame, Fortune, Luxury, Madness, Misfortune, Night, Seasons, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Toilet Scenes,
Order/Chaos, Pregnancy, Protestantism, Sacrifice, Vices/Deadly Sins
Shipwreck, Sublime, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virgin/Virginity, SENSUALITY, Adultery, Ecstasy, Excess, Female Beauty
Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness and Adornment, Justice, Luxury, Masks/Personae,
SEAGAL, Steven, Justice Mirror/Reflection, Music, Naked/Nude, Protestantism,
SEAMSTRESS(ES), Labor/Trades/Occupations, Seasons, Self-Portraits II, Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Toilet
Sleep/Sleeping Scenes, Voyeurism
I IIO INDEX OI- OTHER NAMES AND TERMS

SENTIMENTAL, Margins/Outsiders, Months, SHADOW(S), Journey/Flight, Love and Death,

Shepherds/Shepherdesses Margins/Outsiders, Mirror/Reflection, Self-Portraits I,

SEPARATION, Fortune, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne Shipwreck, Temptation, Vanity/Vanitas

SEPTET(S), Birth/Childbirth SHAMAN/SHAMANISM, Ecstasy, Metamorphosis,
SERENADE, Music Patronage
SERENE/SERENITY see CALM/CALMING/CALMNESS SHAME, Crucifixion, Hanging, Harvesting, Judaism,
SERENISSIMA, Plague/Pestilence Margins/Outsiders, Masks/Personae, Naked/Nude,
SERF(S), Labor/Trades/Occupations Penitence/Repentance, Pregnancy, Sin/Sinning,
SERMON(S), Death, Order/Chaos, Plague/Pestilence, Sleep/Sleeping
Protestantism SHANK(S), Zodiac
SERPENT(S), Ascent/Descent, Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth, SHARING, Communion
Choice/Choosing, Crucifixion, Death, Dreams/Visions, SHARK(S), Shipwreck
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Evil Eye, Expulsion, Fame, SHATTERED see BROKEN/CRACKED/
Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Fortune, Hair/Haircutting, SHATTERED/DAMAGED
Judgment, Justice, Love and Death, Masks/Personae, SHAWL(S), Mirror/Reflection, Pregnancy
Mirror/Reflection, Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy, SHAWN(S) (musical instrument), Music
Sanctuary, Self Portraits I, Serpent's Bite, Sin/Sinning, SHCHUKIN, Sergei, Patronage
Temptation, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues, SHEAF/SHEAVE(S), Harvesting, Marriage/Betrothal,
Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac Virtue/Virtues
SERPENT'S BITE, Crucifixion, Love and Death, SHEEP {see also LAMB[S]), Abduction/Rape, Annunciation,
Order/Chaos, Pregnancy, Serpent's Bite Choice/Choosing, Judgment, Marriage/Betrothal,
SERVANTS )/SERVICE, Beheading/Decapitation, Mirror/Reflection, Misfortune, Order/Chaos, Peasantry,
Dreams/Visions, Female Beauty and Adornment, Sacrifice, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Virtue/Virtues
Fools/Folly, Fortune, Gaze, Judgment, SHEEPFOLD(S), Sacrifice
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Margins/Outsiders, SHEEP HERDER(S) see SHEPHERDS/SHEPHERDESSES
Masks/Personae, Path/Road/Crossroads, SHELL(S), Fame, Female Beauty and Adornment, Fortune,
Penitence/Repentance, Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy, Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues
Protestantism, Sacrifice, Self-Portraits I, Sleep/Sleeping, SHEPHERDS/SHEPHERDESSES, Annunciation,
Temptation, Toilet Scenes, Virgin/Virginity, Birth/Childbirth, Choice/Choosing, Communion, Female
Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation, Voyeurism, Whiteness Beauty and Adornment, Kiss/Kissing, Light II, Love and
SERVENT, Marie-Heloise, Pregnancy Death, Months, Music, Offering, Peasantry, Sacrifice,
SESTERCE(S), Honor/Honoring Sanctuary, Seasons, Shepherds/Shepherdesses,
SEVEN {see also Index of Judeo-Chrutian Personages, Witchcraft/Sorcery
and Concepts), Judaism, Madness, Melancholy,
Places, SHIELD(S), Beheading/Decapitation, Evil Eye, Fatal
Metamorphosis, Mirror/Reflection, Misfortune, Music, Woman/Femme Fatale, Fortune, Honor/Honoring,
Order/Chaos, Peace, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Judaism, Serpent's Bite, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues
Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues, Widowhood, Zodiac SHIP(S)/SHIPPING, Abundance, Adultery, Automata,
SEVEN DEADLY SINS see VICES/DEADLY SINS Drunkenness/Intoxication, Evil Eye, Expulsion,
SEVEN LIBERAL ARTS see LIBERAL ARTS Fools/Folly, Fortune, Journey/Flight,
SEVERED HEAD see BEHEADING/DECAPITATION Labor/Trades/Occupations, Light I, Logos/Word, Night,
SEW/SEWING, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Zodiac Protestantism, Sacrifice, Self-Portraits I, Shipwreck,
SEXUAL CONTACT, Adultery, Ascent/Descent, Sleep/Sleeping, Sport, Virtue/Virtues
Automata, Beheading/Decapitation, Dreams/Visions, SHIPWRECK, Misfortune, Pointing/Indicating, Serpent's
Ecstasy, Evil Eye, Excess, Hair/Haircutting, Humors, Bite, Shipwreck, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Judgment, Margins/Outsiders, SHOE(S) {see also BOOT[S]), Envy, Female Beauty
Masks/Personae, Mirror/Reflection, Naked/Nude, and Adornment, Journey/Flight, Laughter,
Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy, Seasons, Sin/Sinning, Marriage/Betrothal, Peasantry, Sacrifice, Seasons
Sleep/Sleeping, Toilet Scenes, Virgin/Virginity, Whiteness SHOULDER(S), Zodiac
SEXUALITY, Automata, Betrayal, Dreams/Visions, SHRIEK(S)/SHRIEKING see SCREAM(S)/SCREAMING
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Female Beauty and SHROUD(S), Fortune, Order/Chaos
Adornment, Fortune, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, SHROVETIDE PLAYS, Fools/Folly, Peasantry
Humors, Imagination/Creativity, Kiss/Kissing, SHY/SHYNESS, Masks/Personae, Virgin/Virginity,
Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae, Music, Visiting/Visitation
Naked/Nude, Nightmare, Order/Chaos, Pregnancy, SICKLE(S), Harvesting, Peasantry, Sacrifice,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, Sport, Temptation, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
Vices/Deadly Sins, Virgin/Virginity, Whiteness, SICKNESS see ILLNESS/DISEASE/SICKNESS
Widowhood, Witchcraft/Sorcery SIDE-SADDLE, Honor/Honoring
SEXUAL PERVERSION(S)/TRANSGRESSION(S), Money, SIDEWAYS, Upside Down
Vices/Deadly Sins SIEGE, Peace
SHADE (ghost), Journey/Flight, Love and Death SIENA, Plague/Pestilence
 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS I I I I

SIKVK(S), Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues SKULL(S), Beheading/Decapitation, Crucifixion,

SIGHT see GAZE
SIGNATURE(S), Self-Portraits
SIGNPOST, Order/Chaos
SILENCE, Betrayal, Dreams/Visions,
Masks/Personae, Order/Chaos
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Death, Destruction of City,
I Female Beauty and Adornment, Honor/Honoring,
Imagination/Creativity, Justice, Masks/Personae,
Light II, Mirror/Reflection, Music, Order/Chaos,
Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence, Self-Portraits I,

SILHOUETTE(S), Death, Humors, Light II Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Toilet Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas,

SILK(S), Luxury, Marriage/Betrothal, Naked/Nude, Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery

Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Whiteness SKULLCAP, Fools/Folly

SILVER, Betrayal, Communion, Female Beauty and SKY/SKYSCAPE, Dawn/Dawning, Ecstasy, Gaze,

Adornment, Luxury, Marriage/Betrothal, Metamorphosis, Honor/Honoring, Imagination/Creativity,

Mirror/Reflection, Money, Sanctuary, Temptation, Melancholy, Mirror/Reflection, Months, Night,
Voyeurism Path/Road/Crossroads, Sacrifice, Shipwreck, Toilet
SILVER AGE see AGES OF THE WORLD Scenes, Upside Down, Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues,

SIMILE, Gaze, Plague/Pestilence Visiting/Visitation, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac

SIMONY see USURY SLANDER see CALUMNY
SIMPLE/SIMPLICITY, Fame, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, SLAUGHTER see KILL/KILLING
Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness
SLAVE(S)/SLAVERY, Abandonment, Abduction/Rape,
Artists/Art, Betrayal, Death, Destruction of City,
SIN/SINNING, Avarice, Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth,
Devotion/Piety, Fools/Folly, Honor/Honoring,
Choice/Choosing, Crucifixion, Damned Souls, Death,
Journey/Flight, Judgment, Light I, Luxury,
Dreams/Visions, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Ecstasy, Fatal
Masks/Personae, Offering, Order/Chaos,
Woman/Femme Fatale, Female Beauty and Adornment,
Plague/Pestilence, Shipwreck, Voyeurism
Fools/Folly, Gaze, Hair/Haircutting, Hanging,
SLEEP/SLEEPING, Abandonment, Annunciation,
Honor/Honoring, Journey/Flight, Judgment, Justice,
Ascent/Descent, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Betrayal,
Luxury, Madness, Margins/Outsiders, Martyrdom,
Birth/Childbirth, Death, Dreams/Visions,
Masks/Personae, Mirror/Reflection, Misfortune, Money,
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Excess, Gaze, Harvesting,
Music, Naked/Nude, Nightmare, Peasantry,
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Journey/Flight, Justice,
Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence, Protestantism,
Kiss/Kissing, Laughter, Light II, Love and Death,
Sacrifice, Serpent's Bite, Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning,
Melancholy, Naked/Nude, Night, Nightmare,
Temptation, LIpside Down, Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly
Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry,
Sins, Voyeurism, Whiteness
Pregnancy, Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping,
SINGING see SONG/SINGING
Virgin/Virginity, Voyeurism
SINNER(S) SIN/SINNING
see
SLEEPWALKING, Nightmare
SIREN(S) see FATAL WOMAN/FEMME FATALE
SLOTH/SLOTHFUL, Comic, Dreams/Visions,
SISTER(S), Abundance, Adultery, Apotheosis/Deification,
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Melancholy, Months, Music,
Artists/Art, Ascent/Descent, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Betrayal,
Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Temptation, Vices/Deadly
Damned Souls, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Dawn/Dawning,
Sins
Death, Envy, Excess, Gaze, Hair/Haircutting,
SLOVENLINESS, Melancholy, Months
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Imagination/Creativity,
SLUGGISH, Virtue/Virtues
Kiss/Kissing, Marriage/Betrothal, Order/Chaos,
SLUMBER see SLEEP/SLEEPING
Path/Road/Crossroads, Seasons, Temptation,
SMELL(S), Death, Plague/Pestilence,
Visiting/Visitation, Whiteness, Widowhood Shepherds/Shepherdesses
SITTER(S) see MODEL(S) SMILE(S), Bacchanalia/Orgy, Laughter, Naked/Nude,
SITULA(S), Fortune Reading, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
SIX, Judaism SMITH(S)/BLACKSMITH(S), Humors,
SIZE, Masks/Personae, Mirror/Reflection Labor/Trades/Occupations, Margins/Outsiders
SKATES see ICE SKATES SMOKE/SMOKING, Artists/Art, Light II, Plague/Pestilence,
SKELETON(S), Apocalypse, Crucifixion, Damned Souls, Vanity/Vanitas, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Death, Fortune, Honor/Honoring, Imagination/Creativity, SNAIL(S), Vices/Deadly Sins
Music, Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, SNAKE see SERPENT
Plague/Pestilence, Self-Portraits I, Self-Portraits II, SNEER(S), Pregnancy
Sin/Sinning, Vanity/Vanitas, Witchcraft/Sorcery SNORE/SNORING, Peasantry
SKI/SKI(S)/SKIING, Sport SNOUT(S), Masks/Personae
SKID MARKS, Path/Road/Crossroads SNOW, Margins/Outsiders, Seasons, Virtue/Virtues
SKILL(S), Labor/Trades/Occupations SNOW SHOVEL, Order/Chaos
SKIN, Judgment, Margins/Outsiders, Martyrdom, Offering, SNUFF BOX(ES), Automata
Order/Chaos, Penitence/Repentance, Physiognomy, SOBRIETY, Abundance
Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness SOCIAL ABUSE, Criticism, and Reform, Automata, Avarice,
SKIRT(S), Humors Bacchanalia/Orgy, Gaze, Harvesting, Margins/Outsiders,
I 112 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS

Masks/Personae, Months, Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos, Sacrifice, Self-Portraits I, Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning, Sport,

Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Upside Down Temptation, Upside Down, Vanity/Vanitas, Voyeurism
SOCIALIST(S)/SOCIALISM, Path/Road/Crossroads SPEED, Virtue/Virtues
SOCIALIST REALISM, Harvesting, SPELLS see INCANTATIONS/SPELLS
Labor/Trades/Occupations SPERM, Birth/Childbirth, Virgin/Virginity
SOCIAL POSITION see CLASS/CLASSES; HIERARCHY SPHERE(S)/SPHERICAL, Fortune, Humors, Melancholy,
SOCIAL REALISM, Bath/Bathing Mirror/Reflection, Music, Order/Chaos, Virtue/Virtues,
SOIGNES, Months Zodiac
SOLDIER(S), Abandonment, Crucifixion, Death, Fame, SPHINX/SPHINXES, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Love and
Fortune, Gaze, Hanging, Journey/Flight, Judgment, Death, Sanctuary
Kiss/Kissing, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry, SPICE/SPICES, Death, Labor/Trades/Occupations,
Physiognomy, Plague/Pestilence, Sacrifice, Sleep/Sleeping, Visiting/Visitation
Sport, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virgin/Virginity SPIDER(S), Hanging
SOLITUDE, Gaze, Melancholy, Penitence/Repentance, Toilet SPIGOT/WATER SPOUT, Comic, Sanctuary
Scenes SPIKE(S), Hair/Haircutting
SOLSTICES, Light II, Seasons SPIKENARD, Hair/Haircutting
SOMERSAULT, Upside Down SPINDLE(S), Path/Road/Crossroads, Witchcraft/Sorcery
SON(S) (frequently used term; not indexed) SPINNING, Abandonment, Fortune,
SONG/SINGING, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Ecstasy, Fame, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Sleep/Sleeping
Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Fools/Folly, Fortune, Gaze, SPIRAL(S), Evil Eye, Kiss/Kissing, Light II, Pregnancy,
Labyrinth/Maze, Laughter, Love and Death, Madness, Seasons
Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae, Music, Peasantry,
SPIRE(S), Months, Night, Sanctuary
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, Vanity/Vanitas,
SPIRIT/SPIRITUAL, Abduction/Rape, Ascent/Descent,
Vices/Deadly Sins, Widowhood Birth/Childbirth, Death, Dreams/Visions, Ecstasy,
SOOTHSAYER see SEER Fortune, Gaze, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne,
SORCERY see WITCHCRAFT/SORCERY Imagination/Creativity, Kiss/Kissing, Laughter, Light I,
SORES, Misfortune, Plague/Pestilence, Sin/Sinning
Masks/Personae, Melancholy, Metamorphosis, Music,
SORROW, Envy, Gaze, Melancholy, Night,
Naked/Nude, Night, Offering, Order/Chaos,
Penitence/Repentance, Pregnancy, Virgin/Virginity,
Path/Road/Crossroads, Patronage, Peace,
Virtue/Virtues
Penitence/Repentance, Pregnancy, Protestantism,
SOUL(S), Abduction/Rape, Adultery, Annunciation,
Sacrifice, Seasons, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning,
Apocalypse, Automata, Avarice, Beheading/Decapitation,
Sleep/Sleeping, Temptation, Toilet Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas,
Birth/Childbirth, Choice/Choosing, Damned Souls,
Vices/Deadly Sins, Virgin/Virginity, Visiting/Visitation,
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Death, Dreams/Visions,
Whiteness, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Ecstasy, Fortune, Gaze,
SPITTING, Evil Eye
Harvesting, Honor/Honoring, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
SPOKE(S), Fortune
Imagination/Creativity, Journey/Flight, Judgment,
SPONGE(S), Protestantism
Justice, Light I, Logos/Word, Love and Death,
Light II,

Madness, Martyrdom, Masks/Personae, Melancholy,

SPONTANEITY, Order/Chaos
SPOON(S), Vices/Deadly Sins
Metamorphosis, Mirror/Reflection, Music, Order/Chaos,
Path/Road/Crossroads, Peace, Penitence/Repentance,
SPORT, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Sport
Physiognomy, Pregnancy, Reading, Self-Portraits I,
SPOUSE(S) see MARRIAGE/BETROTHAL
Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Toilet Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas,
SPRING see SEASONS
Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation,
SPY/SPIES, Justice, Martyrdom, Mirror/Reflection,

Whiteness, Widowhood, Witchcraft/Sorcery Penitence/Repentance, Sacrifice

SOUND(S), Fame, Music SQUARE(S), Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Labyrinth/Maze,

SOUP, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Pregnancy, Sin/Sinning Melancholy, Zodiac
SOW(S) see PIG(S) STABILITY, Fortune, Peasantry, Virtue/Virtues
SOW/SOWING see SEED(S)/SOWING STAFF, Abduction/Rape, Journey/Flight, Months,
SPACECRAFT, Journey/Flight Plague/Pestilence

SPADE(S), Peasantry STAG(S), Bath/Bathing, Ecstasy, Evil Eye, Humors,

SPANISH CIVIL WAR, Apocalypse, Death Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Madness, Metamorphosis,
SPANISH POX see SYPHILIS Pregnancy, Virtue/Virtues, Voyeurism
SPARROW(S), Honor/Honoring STAGES OF LIFE/STAGES OF MAN see AGES OF MAN
SPEAR(S), Evil Eye, Fortune, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, STAIR(S)/STAIRCASE/STAIRWAY, Dreams/Visions,
Marriage/Betrothal, Sport, Virgin/Virginity, Sanctuary
Virtue/Virtues STAKE(S)/STAVE(S), Judgment, Martyrdom, Sacrifice,

SPECTATOR(S), Female Beauty and Adornment, Shepherds/Shepherdesses

Martyrdom, Mirror/Reflection,
Imagination/Creativity, STALIN, Joseph, Peasantry
Months, Music, Night, Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy, STANCE see POSE(S)/POSTURE/STANCE
 INDEX OI O'lHI K NAMES AND TERMS [113

STAR(S), Birth/Childbirth, Evil Eye, Fortune, Humors, STUDIO(S), Artists/Art, Death, Imagination/Creativity,
Judaism, Light I, Light II, Months, Night, Order/Chaos, Mirror/Reflection, Self-Portraits 1, Self-Portraits II,

Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy, Virtue/Virtues, Upside Down

Visiting/Visitation, Zodiac STULTUS, Fools/Folly
STARE see GAZE STUPID/STUPIDITY, Death, Masks/Personae, Peasantry
STARVATION, Death, Expulsion, Virgin/Virginity SUBCONSCIOUS, Dreams/Visions, Masks/Personae,
STATUS, Artists/Art, Gaze, Widowhood Nightmare
STAVE(S) see STAKE(S)/STAVE(S) SUBLIMATION, Imagination/Creativity
STEAL/STEALING see THIEF/THIEVES/THEFT SUBLIME, Destruction of City, Fortune, Judaism, Light II,

STEAM, Automata Music, Order/Chaos, Sport, Sublime

STEAMSHIP(S), Automata SUBMARINE(S), Labyrinth/Maze
STEED(S) see HORSE(S) SUBMISSION/SUBMISSIVENESS, Annunciation, Baptism,
STEER(S) see BULL(S)/STEER(S) (see also Gaze, Naked/Nude, Penitence/Repentance, Pregnancy
COW[S]/CALF/CALVES/CATTLE/CATTLE RAISING) SUBSERVIENCE, Automata, Crucifixion
STEIN, Gertrude, Patronage SUCCUBA/SUCCUBI, Nightmare, Vices/Deadly Sins,
STEIN, Leo, Patronage Witchcraft/Sorcery
STEIN, Michael, Patronage SUFFERING, Crucifixion, Death, Destruction of City, Gaze,
STEIN, Sarah, Patronage Hanging, Journey/Flight, Labor/Trades/Occupations,
STENCH see SMELL(S) Love and Death, Madness, Margins/Outsiders,
STEPMOTHER, Judgment Martyrdom, Masks/Personae, Misfortune, Naked/Nude,
STEREOTYPE(S), Caricature/Cartoon, Margins/Outsiders, Path/Road/Crossroads, Physiognomy, Plague/Pestilence,
Physiognomy, Plague/Pestilence
Sacrifice, Serpent's Bite, Virgin/Virginity
STERILE/STERILITY, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, SUFFRAGE/SUFFRAGETTE(S), Justice, Margins/Outsiders,
Melancholy
Whiteness
STEVENSON, Adlai, Damned Souls
SUICIDE, Abandonment, Adultery, Death, Destruction of
STIGMA, Laughter
City, Dreams/Visions, Expulsion, Gaze, Hanging,
STILICHO, Destruction of City
Humors, Judgment, Kiss/Kissing, Love and Death,
STIRGIL, Sport
Madness, Masks/Personae, Order/Chaos,
STOAT(S), Virgin/Virginity
Penitence/Repentance, Temptation, Vices/Deadly Sins
STOIC/STOICAL, Plague/Pestilence
SUITOR(S) COURTSHIP), Marriage/Betrothal,
(see also
STOMACH, Caricature/Cartoon, Communion, Fools/Folly,
Widowhood
Whiteness,
Masks/Personae, Naked/Nude, Pregnancy, Shipwreck,
SULFUR/SULPHER, Judgment, Misfortune, Order/Chaos
Zodiac
STONE(S)/STONED/STONECUTTING, Ascent/Descent,
SUMMER see SEASONS
Beheading/Decapitation, Death, Excess, Fools/Folly,
SUMPTUARY LAWS, Luxury, Marriage/Betrothal, Seasons
SUN, Apocalypse, Automata, Beheading/Decapitation,
Gaze, Hair/Haircutting, Honor/Honoring,
Crucifixion, Dawn/Dawning, Evil Eye, Female Beauty
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Light II, Marriage/Betrothal,
and Adornment, Fortune, Gaze, Hair/Haircutting,
Martyrdom, Melancholy, Misfortune, Music,
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Humors, Laughter, Light I,
Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads,
Light II, Metamorphosis, Mirror/Reflection, Months,
Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence, Reading,
Music, Night, Order/Chaos, Protestantism, Sacrifice,
Sanctuary, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Shipwreck,
Sanctuary, Seasons, Temptation, Toilet Scenes,
Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Toilet Scenes, Vices/Deadly Sins,
Visiting/Visitation
Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness, Zodiac

STONEHENGE (Wiltshire, England), Light II

SUNBURN, Pregnancy
STONE MAZE see LABYRINTH/MAZE SUNDAY EXPRESS, London, Zodiac
STORK(S), Comic, Evil Eye SUNDIAL(S), Zodiac
STORM(S), Abandonment, Ascent/Descent, Destruction of SUNFLOWER(S), Metamorphosis, Order/Chaos
City, Ecstasy, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Journey/Flight, SUNRISE, Dawn/Dawning, Zodiac
Shipwreck, Witchcraft/Sorcery SUNSET(S), Shipwreck, Zodiac
STRAW, Plague/Pestilence, Shepherds/Shepherdesses SUPERBIA, Vanity/Vanitas
STRAWBERRY, Laughter SUPERFLUITY, Excess
STREAM(S) see RIVER(S) SUPERIORITY, Laughter, Voyeurism
STREET(S)/STREETSCAPE(S), Night, Order/Chaos, SUPERNATURAL, Sublime
Path/Road/Crossroads, Penitence/Repentance SUPERSTITION(S), Death, Melancholy, Protestantism,
STRENGTH, Abundance, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Fatal Toilet Scenes, Vices/Deadly Sins, Widowhood,
Woman/Femme Fatale, Hair/Haircutting, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
Honor/Honoring, Judaism, Marriage/Betrothal, SUPPLICATION, Devotion/Piety
Naked/Nude, Peasantry, Toilet Scenes, Virtue/Virtues SUPPRESSION, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale
STRING INSTRUMENTS see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS SUPREMISTS, Dreams/Visions
STUART, Lord George, Shepherds/Shepherdesses SURGEON(S) see PHYSICIAN(S)
I I I
4 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS

SURREALISM/SURREALIST, Artists/Art, Automata, Temptation, Toilet Scenes, Upside Down, Vanity/Vanitas,

Damned Souls, Dreams/Visions, Drunkenness/ Vices/Deadly Sins, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues,
Intoxication, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Visiting/Visitation, Whiteness, Widowhood,
Imagination/Creativity, Journey/Flight, Metamorphosis, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
Mirror/Reflection, Naked/Nude, Night, Nightmare, SYMMETRY, Crucifixion, Death, Fools/Folly, Love and
Order/Chaos, Self-Portraits I, Sublime Death, Margins/Outsiders, Mirror/Reflection, Night,
SURRENDER, Adultery, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Sin/Sinning, Upside Down, Visiting/Visitation
Drunkenness/Intoxication SYMPTOMS, Plague/Pestilence
SURROGATE(S), Sacrifice, Widowhood SYNAGOGUE {see also Index of Judeo-Christian
SUSPICION, Calumny Personages, Places, and Concepts), Adultery, Light I,

SWADDLE/SWADDLING CLOTHES, Abandonment, Logos/Word, Offering, Protestantism, Witchcraft/Sorcery,

Birth/Childbirth, Pregnancy Zodiac
SWALLOW(S), Pointing/Indicating SYPHILIS, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fatal Woman/Femme
SWALLOW/SWALLOWED, Shipwreck Fatale, Humors, Sin/Sinning, Temptation

SWAN(S), Abduction/Rape, Adultery, SYRINX (musical instrument), Music

Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Journey/Flight, Love and
Death, Pregnancy, Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac TABLEAU VIVANT, Fortune
SWEAT/SWEATING, Labor/Trades/Occupations, TABOO(S), Gaze, Whiteness, Widowhood
Sin/Sinning TAHITI, Death, Expulsion, Order/Chaos
SWEET/SWEETS/SWEETNESS, Ecstasy, Female Beauty TAIL(S), Fame, Margins/Outsiders, Misfortune, Money,

and Adornment, Seasons Nightmare, Order/Chaos, Serpent's Bite, Zodiac

SWIMMING/SWIMMERS, Adultery, Dawn/Dawning, TALISMAN(S), Evil Eye, Laughter, Melancholy

Drunkenness/Intoxication, Journey/Flight, Misfortune,

TAMBOURINE, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Marriage/Betrothal

Sport
TANKARD(S), Self-Portraits I
SWINE see PIG(S)
TAPESTRY, Mirror/Reflection
TARES, Harvesting, Witchcraft/Sorcery
SWING(S)/SWINGING, Voyeurism
TARGET(S), Voyeurism
SWOON/SWOONING, Death, Gaze
SWORD(S), Apocalypse, Ascent/Descent, Beheading/
TAROT CARDS, Fame, Hanging, Judgment, Upside Down,
Vanity/Vanitas
Decapitation, Betrayal, Dance/Dancers/Dancing,
TASTE, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Laughter,
Destruction of City, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Evil Eye,
Margins/Outsiders, Patronage, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
Expulsion, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Fools/Folly,
TAURUS (zodiacal constellation), Zodiac
Fortune, Gaze, Honor/Honoring Judaism, Justice, Love
TAVERN(S)/INN(S), Birth/Childbirth,
and Death, Martyrdom, Metamorphosis, Order/Chaos,
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Music, Order/Chaos,
Peasantry, Plague/Pestilence, Sacrifice, Vanity/Vanitas,
Peasantry, Protestantism, Self-Portraits I,
Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning
SYLPH(S), Nightmare
TAX/TAXESATAX COLLECTOR(S), Birth/Childbirth,
SYMBOL(S)/SYMBOLISM7SYMBOLIST, Abundance,
Money
Adultery, Apocalypse, Artists/Art, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
TAXI(S), Sin/Sinning
Baptism, Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal,
TAYLOR, Elizabeth, Fame
Birth/Childbirth, Caricature/Cartoon, Choice/Choosing,
TAYLOR, George, Death
Communion, Crucifixion, Damned Souls,
TEA, Female Beauty and Adornment, Visiting/Visitation
Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Dawn/Dawning, Death,
TEACHER(S)/TEACHING, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Death,
Dreams/Visions, Evil Eye, Excess, Fame, Fatal
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Reading, Self-Portraits II,
Woman/Femme Fatale, Female Beauty and Adornment, Sin/Sinning, Sport, Upside Down, Zodiac
Fools/Folly, Fortune, Gaze, Hair/Haircutting,
TEARS (see also CRY/CRIES/CRYING), Abandonment,
Hanging, Harvesting, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Bath/Bathing, Gaze, Hair/Haircutting, Honor/Honoring,
Honor/Honoring, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Marriage/Betrothal, Penitence/Repentance, Pregnancy,
Imagination/Creativity, Journey/Flight, Judaism, Virgin/Virginity
Judgment, Justice, Kiss/Kissing, Labor/Trades/ TECHNOLOGY, Automata, Labor/Trades/Occupations
Occupations, Labyrinth/Maze, Light I, Logos/Word, TEE-SHIRT(S), Sport
Luxury, Madness, Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/ TELEPHONE(S), Comic
Betrothal,Martyrdom, Masks/Personae, Melancholy, TELESCOPE(S), Voyeurism
Metamorphosis, Mirror/Reflection, Money, Months, TELEVISION, Luxury
Music, Naked/Nude, Night, Nightmare, Offering, TEMPERAMENT(S) see HUMORS
Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, Patronage, Peace, TEMPERANCE, Justice, Naked/Nude, Virtue/Virtues
Peasantry, Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence, TEMPEST(S) see STORM(S)
Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy, Protestantism, Reading, TEMPLE(S) (frequently used term; not indexed)
Sacrifice, Sanctuary, Seasons, Self-Portraits I, Serpent's TEMPTATION (see also Index of Judeo-Christian
Bite, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning, Personages, Places, and Concepts), Ascent/Descent,
 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS [II5

Betrayal, Choice/Choosing, Dreams/Visions, Excess, THURLOW, Lord, Sin/Sinning

Expulsion, Fatal Wo man/Fern me Fatale, Female Beauty THYROROS, Marriage/Betrothal
and Adornment, Masks/Personae, Misfortune, Money, TIBER, Abundance, Fortune
Music, Naked/Nude, Offering, Order/Chaos, TICKLING, Laughter
Path/Road/Crossroads, Penitence/Repentance, Seasons, TIDE(S)/TIDAL WAVE, Destruction of City, Martyrdom
Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Vices/Deadly Sins, TIGER(S), Order/Chaos, Zodiac
Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac TIGHTROPE(S), Masks/Personae
TENEBRIST STYLE/TEN EBROSO, Crucifixion, Night, TIGRIS, Abundance
Penitence/Repentance TIME, Apotheosis/Deification, Dance/Dancers/Dancing,
TERAPHIM, Automata Death, Destruction of City, Dreams/Visions, Fame,
TERROR, Choice/Choosing, Comic, Damned Souls, Fortune, Honor/Honoring, Imagination/Creativity,
Destruction of City, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Gaze, Melancholy, Money, Months, Music, Naked/Nude,
Masks/Personae, Night, Nightmare, Plague/Pestilence, Night, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads,
Sacrifice, Sublime, Upside Down, Virtue/Virtues, Seasons, Serpent's Bite, Sin/Sinning, Sport, Sublime,
Witchcraft/Sorcery Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness, Zodiac
TERRORIST(S)/TERRORISM, Abduction/Rape TIMES OF DAY, Dawn/Dawning, Melancholy, Naked/Nude
TESTICLES, Birth/Childbirth, Laughter TITANIC (ship), Misfortune
THANATOPSIS, Fortune TOAD(S) see FROG(S)
THANK(S)/THANKSGIVING, Devotion/Piety, Ecstasy,
TOIL/TOILING see LABOR/TRADES/OCCUPATIONS
Harvesting, Offering, Plague/Pestilence, Sacrifice, TOILET SCENES, Female Beauty and Adornment,
Sanctuary Mirror/Reflection, Toilet Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas,
THEATER, Automata, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Comic,
Virtue/Virtues
Fools/Folly, Honor/Honoring, Luxury,
TOKEN(S), Hair/Haircutting, Toilet Scenes, Whiteness
Marriage/Betrothal, Masks/Personae, Self-Portraits I,
TOKYO, Path/Road/Crossroads
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly
TOMB(S)/TOMBSTONE(S) (see also FUNERAL/BURIAL;
Sins
GRAVE[S]/GRAVESTONE[S]/GRAVEYARD[S]), Death,
THEISM, Devotion/Piety
Honor/Honoring, Journey/Flight, Martyrdom,
THEODORIC, Fortune
Masks/Personae, Serpent's Bite, Vanity/Vanitas
THEOLOGY/THEOLOGIAN(S), Damned Souls,
TONGUE(S), Expulsion, Fame, Plague/Pestilence,
Dawn/Dawning, Devotion/Piety, Dreams/Visions, Envy,
Pointing/Indicating, Sleep/Sleeping, Virtue/Virtues
Imagination/Creativity, Light II, Melancholy,
TONSURE see Index of Judeo-Christian Personages, Places,
Mirror/Reflection, Music, Protestantism, Self-Portraits I,
and Concepts
Sin/Sinning, Vanity/Vanitas, Virgin/Virginity,
TOOL(S), Labor/Trades/Occupations, Peasantry
Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac
TOOTH/TEETH, Masks/Personae, Naked/Nude,
THERAPY, Music
Sin/Sinning
THIEF/THIEVES/THEFT, Comic, Crucifixion, Hanging,
Naked/Nude, Protestantism, Shepherds/Shepherdesses,
TOPSY-TURVY see UPSIDE DOWN
Sin/Sinning, Zodiac
TORCH(ES)/TORCHBEARER(S)/TORCHLIGHT, Fame,
Fortune, Humors, Imagination/Creativity, Journey/Flight,
THIGH(S), Zodiac
LightII, Love and Death, Marriage/Betrothal,
THIRD REICH, Fortune
THIRST, Pointing/Indicating, Virtue/Virtues
Martyrdom, Music, Nightmare, Peace, Plague/Pestilence,
Sleep/Sleeping, Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery
THIRTY YEARS' WAR, Hanging
THISTLE(S), Path/Road/Crossroads TORMENT see TORTURE
THOMA, Cella, Self-Portraits I
TORTURE, Beheading/Decapitation, Crucifixion, Damned
THORN(S), Envy, Judaism, Light I, Virgin/Virginity, Judgment, Martyrdom, Music,
Souls, Fortune, Hanging,

Witchcraft/Sorcery Order/Chaos, Physiognomy, Plague/Pestilence,

THREAD, Peasantry Sin/Sinning, Vices/Deadly Sins

THREE, Imagination/Creativity, Seasons, Virtue/Virtues, TOTALITARIANISM, Automata, Sport

Visiting/Visitation TOTENDANZ see DANCE OF DEATH

THRESH/THRESHER(S), Harvesting, Peasantry TOUCH/TOUCHING, Annunciation, Arms Raised,
THRESHOLD, Abduction/Rape, Marriage/Betrothal, Communion,
Ascent/Descent, Birth/Childbirth,
Vanity/Vanitas Dawn/Dawning, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Envy, Female
THROAT(S), Sacrifice Beauty and Adornment, Fortune, Hair/Haircutting,
THRONE(S), Fortune, Honor/Honoring, Judaism, Humors, Judaism, Light I, Order/Chaos,
Judgment, Justice, Luxury, Martyrdom, Offering, Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, Sanctuary, Sin/Sinning,
Order/Chaos, Patronage, Pregnancy, Virtue/Virtues Toilet Scenes, Visiting/Visitation
THUNDER, Fame, Love and Death, Order/Chaos TOURNAMENT(S), Sport
THUNDERBOLT(S), Evil Eye, Fame, TOWER(S), Ascent/Descent, Betrayal, Communion,
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Witchcraft/Sorcery Hair/Haircutting, Mirror/Reflection, Months,
THUNDERSTORM(S) see STORM(S) Order/Chaos, Peasantry, Sanctuary, Upside Down,
1116 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS

Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues, Widowhood, TRIUMPH OVER DEATH see VICTORY OVER DEATH
Witchcraft/Sorcery TROMPE LOEIL, Mirror/Reflection, Money
TOY(S), Automata, Fools/Folly, Madness, TROPHY/TROPHIES, Beheading/Decapitation,
Marriage/Betrothal Honor/Honoring, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Peace
TRACTOR(S), Peasantry TROUSERS, Humors
TRADE see EXCHANGE TRUMPET(S), Fame, Honor/Honoring, Judgment,
TRADES see LABOR/TRADES/OCCUPATIONS Order/Chaos
TRAGEDY, Apotheosis/Deification, Comic, Death, Gaze, TRUTH, Calumny, Fame, Fools/Folly, Judgment,
Masks/Personae, Path/Road/Crossroads, Sleep/Sleeping Kiss/Kissing, Light I, Mirror/Reflection, Naked/Nude,
TRAITOR(S)/TREASON/TREACHERY, Betrayal, Offering, Path/Road/Crossroads, Seasons, Self-Portraits I,

Calumny, Communion, Fortune, Hanging, Judgment, Sin/Sinning, Toilet Scenes, Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness
Margins/Outsiders, Virtue/Virtues TRYST, Adultery, Voyeurism, Widowhood
TRANCE, Death, Dreams/Visions TULIP(S), Vanity/Vanitas
TRANQUILLITY, Justice, Light II, Months, Night, Peace, TURBAN(S), Naked/Nude
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Virtue/Virtues TURF MAZE see LABYRINTH/MAZE
TRANSCENDENTALISM, Dreams/Visions, Light II
TURQUOISE, Toilet Scenes
TRANSFORM/TRANSFORMATION see TURTLEDOVE(S), Sacrifice
METAMORPHOSIS TUTOR see TEACHER(S)/TEACHING
TRANSGRESSION, Betrayal, Excess, Luxury, TWEED, Boss, Caricature/Cartoon
Penitence/Repentance, Plague/Pestilence, Sin/Sinning TWELVE, Sin/Sinning, Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac
TRANSl, Sin/Sinning
TWIN(S)/TRIPLET(S), Abandonment, Betrayal,
TRANSIENCE/TRANSITORINESS, Female Beauty and Birth/Childbirth, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Love and
Adornment, Fortune, Harvesting, Mirror/Reflection, Death, Masks/Personae, Shipwreck, Sleep/Sleeping,
Music, Seasons, Serpent's Bite, Toilet Scenes,
Zodiac
Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues
TYBURN, Hanging
TRANSMUTATION see METAMORPHOSIS TYPOLOGY, Adultery, Annunciation, Baptism,
TRANSSEXUAL, Death
Choice/Choosing, Crucifixion, Dreams/Visions,
TRANSVESTITE, Abandonment
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fortune, Gaze,
TRAPEZOID(S), Labyrinth/Maze, Sanctuary
Honor/Honoring, Journey/Flight, Judaism, Justice,
TRAVEL JOURNEY/FLIGHT
see
Laughter, Light I, Light II, Madness, Martyrdom,
TREACHERY see TRAITOR(S)/TREASON/TREACHERY
Misfortune, Money, Music, Offering,
TREASON see TRAITOR(S)/TREASON/TREACHERY
Penitence/Repentance, Pregnancy, Sacrifice,
TREASURE, Abundance, Journey/Flight, Luxury, Night,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Serpent's Bite, Shipwreck,
Penitence/Repentance, Voyeurism
Toilet Scenes, Witchcraft/Sorcery
TREBIZOND, Honor/Honoring
TYRANT(S)/TYRANNY, Fortune, Justice, Masks/Personae,
TREE(S) (see also Index of Judeo-Christian Personages,
Order/Chaos
Places, and Concepts), Ascent/Descent, Bath/Bathing,
Betrayal, Birth/Childbirth, Dance/Dancers/Dancing,
UGLY/UGLINESS, Abandonment, Evil Eye,
Dreams/Visions, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Excess, Fame,
Hair/Haircutting, Honor/Honoring, Justice, Laughter,
Hanging, Humors, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Light I,
Margins/Outsiders, Masks/Personae, Order/Chaos,
Logos/Word, Love and Death, Marriage/Betrothal,
Peasantry, Physiognomy, Plague/Pestilence, Sin/Sinning,
Melancholy, Metamorphosis, Misfortune, Music, Night,
Vices/Deadly Sins
Offering, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peace,
Peasantry, Protestantism, Shepherds/Shepherdesses,
UKIYO-E, Voyeurism
Sin/Sinning, Sublime, Temptation, Upside Down, UMBILICAL CORD, Mirror/Reflection

Voyeurism UNBELIEF, Vices/Deadly Sins

TRIAL(S), Calumny, Hanging, Humors, Judgment, UNCLE SAM, Pointing/Indicating

Marriage/Betrothal, Misfortune, Penitence/Repentance UNCONSCIOUS, Dreams/Visions,

TRIANGLE(S), Labyrinth/Maze, Masks/Personae, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Imagination/Creativity, Fatal
Mirror/Reflection, Witchcraft/Sorcery Woman/Femme Fatale

TRIBOULET, Fools/Folly UNDERGARMENT(S), Mirror/Reflection

TRIBUTE, Honor/Honoring, Money, Widowhood UNDERWORLD (see also Hades in Index of Ancient
TRICK/TRICKSTER(S), Laughter, Masks/Personae Mythological and Historical Personages, Places, and
TRICLINIUM, Penitence/Repentance Concepts; Hell in Index of Judeo-Christian Personages,
TRIDENT, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Evil Eye Places, and Concepts), Abduction/Rape, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
TRINKET(S), Female Beauty and Adornment Damned Souls, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Journey/Flight,
TRIPLET(S) see TWIN(S)/TRIPLET(S) Light I, Love and Death, Metamorphosis, Order/Chaos,
TRIUMPH(S), Bacchanalia/Orgy, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Pregnancy, Seasons, Serpent's Bite, Vices/Deadly Sins,
Fame, Honor/Honoring, Naked/Nude, Path/Road/ Witchcraft/Sorcery
Crossroads, Shipwreck, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac UNHOLY TRINITY, Sin/Sinning
 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS I I I
-

UNICORN, Annunciation, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Mirror/Reflection, Money, Music, Naked/Nude,

Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac Path/Road/Crossroads, Penitence/Repentance,
UNIDENTIFIED FLYING OBJECTS (UFOS), Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy, Toilet Scenes,
Abduction/Rape Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues
UNION/UNISON/UNITY, Abduction/Rape, Ecstasy, Gaze, VANZETTI see SACCO AND VANZETTI
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Judaism, Kiss/Kissing, VAPOR(S), Plague/Pestilence, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Light II, Logos/Word, Love VASSALS/VASSALAGE, Devotion/Piety, Kiss/Kissing
and Death, Marriage/Betrothal, Melancholy, Music, VAST/VASTNESS, Sublime
Offering, Order/Chaos, Penitence/Repentance, Pregnancy, VEGETABLES, Comic, Luxury, Peasantry, Vices/Deadly Sins
Seasons, Self-Portraits II, Sublime, Virgin/Virginity, VEGETATION, Abundance, Excess, Fortune,
Whiteness Labor/Trades/Occupations, Laughter, Luxury,
UNIVERSE, Logos/Word, Love and Death, Music, Metamorphosis, Order/Chaos, Sanctuary, Seasons,
Order/Chaos, Sanctuary, Serpent's Bite, Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues
Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac VEIL(S) (see also Index of Judeo-Christian Personages,
UNREQUITED LOVE, Gaze, Hanging, Madness, Places, and Concepts), Abundance, Dance/Dancers/Dancing,
Melancholy Gaze, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Judaism, Light I, Light
UNVEIL, Automata, Hair/Haircutting II, Love and Death, Marriage/Betrothal, Martyrdom,
UNWED MOTHER(S), Margins/Outsiders Night, Penitence/Repentance, Upside Down,
UOMINI FAMOSI, Fame Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Widowhood
UPPER CLASS see CLASS VELVET(S), Shepherds/Shepherdesses
UPSIDE DOWN, Ascent/Descent, Crucifixion, Death, VENALITY, Money
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fools/Folly, Fortune, Hanging, VENERATE/VENERATION see WORSHIP
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Mirror/Reflection, Misfortune, VENEREAL DISEASES see SYPHILIS
Reading, Upside Down, Witchcraft/Sorcery VENERY, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress
URBAN/URBANIZATION [see also VENEZUELA, Abundance, Journey/Flight
CITY/CITIES/CITYSCAPE|S]), Avarice, Birth/Childbirth, VENGEANCE see REVENGE
Caricature/Cartoon, Dreams/Visions, Drunkenness/ VENIAL SINS see SIN/SINNING; VICES/DEADLY SINS
Intoxication, Harvesting, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, VENICE, Mirror/Reflection, Misfortune, Sleep/Sleeping,
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Margins/Outsiders, Months, Virtue/Virtues
Night, Peasantry, Physiognomy, Pregnancy, Seasons, VENTOSE, Months
Shepherds/Shepherdesses VENUS (PLANET), Vices/Deadly Sins
URBINO, Duke of, Communion VENUS PUDICA, Female Beauty and Adornment,
URINE/URINATION/URINAL, Crucifixion, Naked/Nude, Toilet Scenes, Virgin/Virginity,
Dreams/Visions, Order/Chaos, Pregnancy Virtue/Virtues
URN(S), Abundance, Zodiac VERSAILLES, Mirror/Reflection, Path/Road/Crossroads,
URSA MAJOR (constellation), Expulsion, Pregnancy, Shepherds/Shepherdesses
Zodiac VERTICAL(S), Kiss/Kissing
URSA MINOR (constellation), Zodiac VESTMENT(S), Sanctuary
USURY, Avarice, Justice, Money, Order/Chaos, Shipwreck, VIATICUM see COMMUNION
Sin/Sinning VICES/DEADLY SINS, Ascent/Descent, Avarice,
UTAH, Sanctuary Choice/Choosing, Comic, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
UTERUS see WOMB(S) Woman/Femme Fatale, Female Beauty
Envy, Excess, Fatal
UTOPIA(S), Dreams/Visions, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, and Adornment, Fools/Folly, Fortune, Hanging,
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Music Honor/Honoring, Love and Death, Luxury,
UT PICTURA POESIS, Artists/Art, Fortune, Masks/Personae, Melancholy, Music, Naked/Nude,
Imagination/Creativity Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, Physiognomy,
UZZANO, Niccolo da, Honor/Honoring Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Toilet Scenes,
Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues,
VAGABOND(S), Masks/Personae, Vices/Deadly Sins Witchcraft/Sorcery
VAGINA, Birth/Childbirth, Female Beauty and Adornment, VICTIM(S), Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal,
Laughter, Self-Portraits II Birth/Childbirth, Calumny, Death, Envy, Evil Eye, Fatal
VAGINA DENTATA, Beheading/Decapitation Woman/Femme Hanging, Judaism,
Fatale, Gaze, Justice,
VALET(S) see SERVANT(S) Madness, Martyrdom, Masks/Personae, Music,
VALUE, Money, Naked/Nude, Sacrifice Naked/Nude, Nightmare, Penitence/Repentance,
VAMPIRE(S), Witchcraft/Sorcery Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, Sacrifice, Shipwreck,
VANDERBILT FAMILY, Luxury Sleep/Sleeping, Temptation, Vanity/Vanitas
VANITY/VANITAS, Ascent/Descent, Death, Destruction of VICTORIA, Queen of England, Artists/Art,
City, Drunkenness/Intoxication,Female Beauty and Marriage/Betrothal
Adornment, Hair/Haircutting, Honor/Honoring, VICTORIAN, Abandonment, Adultery, Artists/Art,
Laughter, Luxury, Masks/Personae, Metamorphosis, Death, Hair/Haircutting, Journey/Flight,
 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS

Labor/Trades/Occupations, Labyrinth/Maze, VOLUPTAS/VOLUPTIA/VOLUPTUARY, Masks/Personae,

Mirror/Reflection Music, Path/Road/Crossroads, Physiognomy
VICTORY, Apotheosis/Deification, Drunkenness/ VOMIT/VOMITING, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
Intoxication, Fame, Honor/Honoring, Judaism, Light I, Drunkenness/Intoxication, Peasantry
Martyrdom, Music, Offering, Reading, Seasons, VOTIVE see EX-VOTO(S)
Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues VOW(S), Beheading/Decapitation, Fools/Folly,
VICTORY OVER DEATH, Annunciation, Crucifixion, Hair/Haircutting, Justice, Kiss/Kissing,
Dreams/Visions, Light I, Martyrdom, Music Marriage/Betrothal, Virtue/Virtues, Widowhood
VIENNESE ART ACADEMY, Self-Portraits I VOYAGE(S) see JOURNEY/FLIGHT
VIETNAM, Gaze VOYEURISM, Abandonment, Bacchanalia/Orgy,
VIEW/VIEWER see GAZE; SPECTATOR(S) Bath/Bathing, Devotion/Piety, Female Beauty and
VINE(S)/VINEYARD(S) see GRAPE(S) Adornment, Gaze, Naked/Nude, Voyeurism
VIOL/VIOLA/VIOLA DA GAMBA, Female Beauty and VULNERABILITY, Crucifixion, Death, Naked/Nude,
Adornment, Honor/Honoring, Music Sacrifice, Sleep/Sleeping, Temptation, Vanity/Vanitas,
VIOLATION, Caricature/Cartoon, Fools/Folly, Voyeurism
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Patronage, Whiteness, VULTURE(S), Caricature/Cartoon, Damned Souls,
Widowhood Misfortune
VIOLENCE, Automata, Death, Excess, Gaze, Judaism, VULVA, Evil Eye
Margins/Outsiders, Marriage/Betrothal, Melancholy,
Order/Chaos, Peasantry, Witchcraft/Sorcery WAGON(S), Harvesting, Marriage/Betrothal
VIOLIN/VIOLINIST(S), Artists/Art, Comic, Death, WAIT/WAITING, Martyrdom
Imagination/Creativity, Mirror/Reflection, Peasantry, WAKE, Fortune, Gaze
Self-Portraits I WALL(S), Love and Death, Sanctuary, Widowhood
VIPER(S), Fortune, Love and Death WAND(S) (see also ROD[S]), Witchcraft/Sorcery
VIRGIN/VIRGINITY, Abduction/Rape, Annunciation, WANDER/WANDERER/WANDERING see
Ascent/Descent, Bath/Bathing, Beheading/Decapitation, JOURNEY/FLIGHT
Birth/Childbirth, Caricature/Cartoon, Dreams/Visions, WANDERING JEW see Index of Judeo-Christian
Gaze, Hair/Haircutting, Harvesting, Journey/Flight, Personages, Places, and Concepts
Judgment, Luxury, Martyrdom, Mirror/Reflection, WAR, Abundance, Adultery, Apocalypse,
Pregnancy, Sleep/Sleeping, Toilet Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas, Beheading/Decapitation, Dance/Dancers/Dancing, Death,
Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Widowhood, Destruction of City, Devotion/Piety, Excess, Gaze,
Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac Hanging, Honor/Honoring, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
VIRGINAL (musical instrument), Mhror/Reflection Journey/Flight, Logos/Word, Margins/Outsiders, Months,
VIRGO (zodiacal constellation), Abundance, Offering, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peace,
Virgin/Virginity, Zodiac Plague/Pestilence, Sacrifice, Sanctuary, Seasons,
VIRTU, Peace Sin/Sinning, Virgin/Virginity
VIRTUE/VIRTUES, Abundance, Adultery, WARDROBE, Masks/Personae, Whiteness
Apotheosis/Deification, Ascent/Descent, Avarice, WARRIORS see SOLDIERS
Betrayal, Choice/Choosing, Death, Devotion/Piety, WART(S), Masks/Personae
Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fame, Fools/Folly, Fortune, WASH/WASHING (see also BATH/BATHING), Fortune,
Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Honor/Honoring, Metamorphosis, Months, Temptation, Toilet Scenes
Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Justice, Love and Death, WASHINGTON, George, Dreams/Visions
Masks/Personae, Melancholy, Months, Music, WASTELAND see DESERT(S)
Naked/Nude, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, WATCH(ES) see CLOCK(S)
Peace, Peasantry, Penitence/Repentance, Physiognomy, WATCH/WATCHMAN/WATCHMEN, Sleep/Sleeping
Plague/Pestilence, Pregnancy, Serpent's Bite, WATER, Abundance, Automata, Baptism, Bath/Bathing,
Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, Sleep/Sleeping, Death, Evil Eye, Humors, Journey/Flight, Judaism,
Vanity/Vanitas, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virgin/Virginity, Light II, Logos/Word, Luxury, Madness,
Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness Marriage/Betrothal, Martyrdom, Melancholy,
VISCONTI, Nino, Widowhood Metamorphosis, Mirror/Reflection, Misfortune, Night,
VISIONS/VISIONARY see DREAMS/VISIONS Offering, Order/Chaos, Penitence/Repentance,
VISITING/VISITATION, Imagination/Creativity, Pointing/Indicating, Pregnancy, Protestantism, Sacrifice,
Journey/Flight, Nightmare, Offering, Pregnancy, Sanctuary, Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Toilet
Visiting/Visitation Scenes, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues,
VISITING CARDS see CARTES DE VISITES Voyeurism, Zodiac
VISUAL (frequently used term; not indexed) WATERCRESS, Melancholy
VITEBSK, Self-Portraits I WATERING-POT, Zodiac
VOID {see also EMPTY/EMPTINESS), Order/Chaos WATERMAN, Zodiac
VOLCANO(S), Martyrdom, Misfortune, Witchcraft/Sorcery WATER-SPOUT see SPIGOT
VOLLARD, Ambroise, Bath/Bathing, Patronage WAVE(S), Martyrdom, Shipwreck
 INDEX OF OTHER NAMES AND TERMS I I I <-)

WAX, Zodiac WIFE-BEATER(S), Margins/Outsiders

WAY PATH/ROAD/CROSSROADS
see WIFE-SISTER, Abundance, Adultery,
WEALTH, Abundance, Birth/Childbirth, Evil Eye, Excess, Apotheosis/Deification, Excess
Expulsion, Female Beauty and Adornment, Judgment, WILD/WILDNESS, Mirror/Reflection, Virtue/Virtues,
Luxury, Marriage/Betrothal, Mirror/Reflection, Money, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry, Sacrifice, Self-Portraits WILDERNESS, Expulsion, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress,
I, Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Toilet Scenes, Vanity/Vanitas, Journey/Flight, Madness, Margins/Outsiders,
Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation, Widowhood Path/Road/Crossroads, Penitence/Repentance, Sacrifice,
WEAPONS see ARMS/ARMOR Virtue/Virtues
WEARINESS, Gaze WILD WEST, Path/Road/Crossroads
WEATHER see CLIMATE/WEATHER WILHELM I, Emperor of Germany, Protestantism
WEAVING, Hair/Haircutting, Hanging, WILLOW(S), Offering
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Mirror/Reflection, WIND(S), Ecstasy, Fortune, Hanging, Months, Shipwreck,
Virgin/Virginity, Zodiac Sublime, Virtue/Virtues
WEDDING see MARRIAGE/BETROTHAL WINDING, Hair/Haircutting
WEDDING CHEST(S), Marriage/Betrothal WIND INSTRUMENTS see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
WEENING, Evil Eye WINDMILL(S), Fools/Folly, Madness
WEEPING see CRY/CRIES/CRYING WINDOW(S), Ascent/Descent, Automata, Dreams/Visions,
WEIGHT(S)/WEIGHING {see also SCALES), Automata, Fools/Folly, Light II, Mirror/Reflection, Night, Pregnancy,
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Order/Chaos, Pregnancy, Sanctuary, Temptation, Virgin/Virginity, Whiteness
Sin/Sinning WINE, Abandonment, Abundance, Ascent/Descent,
WELFARE RECIPIENTS, Margins/Outsiders Bacchanalia/Orgy, Betrayal, Comic, Communion, Death,
WELL(S) see FOUNTAIN(S)/WELL(S)/CISTERN(S) Drunkenness/Intoxication, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale,
WERL, Heinrich von, Mirror/Reflection Fortune, Journey/Flight, Judaism, Laughter, Love and
WET/WETNESS, Humors, Zodiac Death, Melancholy, Music, Order/Chaos, Peace,
WHALE(S), Martyrdom, Masks/Personae, Shipwreck Peasantry, Protestantism, Sacrifice, Sleep/Sleeping,
WHEAT, Abundance, Ecstasy, Harvesting, Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Labor/Trades/Occupations, Marriage/Betrothal, WING(S), Apotheosis/Deification, Ascent/Descent, Death,
Offering, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry, Dreams/Visions, Fame, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale,
Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac Fortune, Honor/Honoring, Imagination/Creativity, Love
WHEEL, Fortune, Honor/Honoring, Martyrdom, and Death, Melancholy, Misfortune, Order/Chaos, Peace,
Misfortune, Plague/Pestilence, Upside Down, Pregnancy, Reading, Sacrifice, Sleep/Sleeping,
Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery
WHEELBARROW, Labor/Trades/Occupations WINTER see SEASONS
WHEEL OF FORTUNE, Ascent/Descent, Fortune, Upside WISCONSIN, Abundance
Down, Virtue/Virtues WISDOM, Ascent/Descent, Beheading/Decapitation,
WHIP(S)/WHIPPING, Madness, Marriage/Betrothal, Dreams/Visions, Fools/Folly, Harvesting,
Peasantry, Penitence/Repentance, Virtue/Virtues Imagination/Creativity, Judgment, Justice, Laughter,
WHIRLWIND, Reading
Ecstasy, Logos/Word, Love and Death, Masks/Personae,
WHISPER(S), Masks/Personae Melancholy, Mirror/Reflection, Path/Road/Crossroads,
WHITENESS, Annunciation, Baptism, Crucifixion, Death, Peace, Sanctuary, Serpent's Bite, Toilet Scenes,
Female Beauty and Adornment, Fools/Folly, Fortune, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Visiting/Visitation,
Gaze, Hanging, Hermaphrodite/Androgyne, Zodiac
Honor/Honoring, Humors, Judaism, Judgment, Justice, WISH(ES), Bacchanalia/Orgy, Dreams/Visions, Widowhood
Logos/Word, Love and Death, Luxury, Martyrdom, WIT, Comic, Fools/Folly, Laughter, Marriage/Betrothal,
Masks/Personae, Melancholy, Metamorphosis, Masks/Personae, Visiting/Visitation
Night, Nightmare, Order/Chaos, Peace, Pregnancy, WITCHCRAFT/SORCERY, Abduction/Rape, Betrayal,
Protestantism, Sanctuary, Self-Portraits I, Sleep/Sleeping, Death, Fatal Woman/Femme Fatale, Humors, Judgment,
Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness, Widowhood, Madness, Margins/Outsiders, Masks/Personae,
Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac Melancholy, Metamorphosis, Mirror/Reflection, Night,
WICKED see EVIL Nightmare, Sin/Sinning, Toilet Scenes, Vices/Deadly Sins,
WIDOWHOOD, Beheading/Decapitation, Betrayal, Death, Witchcraft/Sorcery
Dreams/Visions, Gaze, Harvesting, Journey/Flight, WITNESS/WITNESSES, Justice, Marriage/Betrothal,
Judgment, Margins/Outsiders, Pregnancy, Martyrdom, Mirror/Reflection, Self-Portraits I,

Virgin/Virginity, Widowhood Virtue/Virtues, Voyeurism

WIFE (WIVES), Abundance, Adultery, WIZARD(S), Witchcraft/Sorcery
Apotheosis/Deification, Excess, Mirror/Reflection, WOLF/WOLVES, Abandonment, Caricature/Cartoon.
Misfortune, Order/Chaos, Path/Road/Crossroads, Crucifixion, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, Love and Death,
Sacrifice, Self-Portraits I, Sin/Sinning, Temptation, Mirror/Reflection, Music, Order/Chaos, Peace, Peasantry,
Vanity/Vanitas, Virgin/Virginity, Voyeurism, Widowhood Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues, Witchcraft/Sorcery
I HO INDEX Ol (Villi K NAMI-.S AND TKRMS

WOMAN/WOMEN (frequently used term; not indexed) Toilet Scenes, Virgin/Virginity, Virtue/Virtues, Whiteness,
WOMB(S), Annunciation, Ascent/Descent, Witchcraft/Sorcery, Zodiac
Bacchanalia/Orgy, Dawn/Dawning, Female Beauty and WOUND(S), Death, lunting/Hunter/Huntress, Love
I

Adornment, Humors, Hunting/Hunter/Huntress, and Death, Martyrdom, Path/Road/Crossroads,

Mirror/Reflection, Pregnancy, Virgin/Virginity, Plague/Pestilence
Visiting/Visitation WRATH, Sin/Sinning, Vices/Deadly Sins, Virtue/Virtues
WOMEN ARTISTS, Artists/Art, Margins/Outsiders, Self- WREATH(S), Fame, Madness, Martyrdom, Melancholy,
Portraits II Path/Road/Crossroads, Zodiac
WOMEN AS PROPERTY, Abduction/Rape, WRESTLING, Sacrifice
Marriage/Betrothal, Widowhood WRINKLES, Female Beauty and Adornment, Madness,
WOMEN WARRIORS, Virtue/Virtues Masks/Personae, Self-Portraits I

WONDER see AWE WRITER(S)/WRITING, Automata, Reading, Self-Portraits I,

WOOD/WOODEN, Abundance, Fame, Judaism, Sin/Sinning

Labor/Trades/Occupations, Light I, Luxury, Sanctuary,
Shipwreck, Zodiac X, Upside Down
WOODCUTTER(S)/WOODSMEN, Labor/Trades/
Occupations YEAR(S), Months, Zodiac
WOOL, Misfortune, Virtue/Virtues YELLOW, Betrayal, Death, Drunkenness/Intoxication,
WORD see LOGOS/WORD Judaism, Melancholy, Offering, Order/Chaos,
WORK/WORKERS see LABOR/TRADES/OCCUPATIONS Path/Road/Crossroads, Pregnancy, Shipwreck, Sin/Sinning
WORKBENCH, Labor/Trades/Occupations YELLOW FEVER, Plague/Pestilence
WORKING CLASS see CLASS YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK, Order/Chaos
WORLD, Apotheosis/Deification, Fortune, YEW(S)/YEW TREE(S), Labyrinth/Maze
Mirror/Reflection, Sanctuary, Seasons, Temptation, YOKE/YOKED, Peasantry
I Ipside I )o\\ n, Vices/I )eadly Sins YORK, Martyrdom
WORLD'S FAIR (Chicago, 1933), Dreams/Visions YOUTH(S), Drunkenness/Intoxication, Humors, Love
WORLD WAR I, Death, Devotion/Piety, Gaze, Kiss/Kissing, and Death, Luxury, Money, Music, Naked/Nude,
Madness, Night, Order/Chaos, Pregnancy, Sacrifice, Path/Road/Crossroads, Peasantry, Seasons, Self-Portraits
Shipwreck, Upside Down I, Shepherds/Shepherdesses, Sin/Sinning, Sport,
WORLD WAR II, Death, Hair/Haircutting, Judaism, Vanity/Vanitas, Virtue/Virtues, Voyeurism, Whiteness,
Order/Chaos, Sacrifice Witchcraft/Sorcery
WORM(S), Death
WORSHIP, Bacchanalia/Orgy, Birth/Childbirth, ZIGGURAT(S), Ascent/Descent, Crucifixion, Sanctuary
Communion, Dreams/Visions, Ecstasy, Expulsion, Gaze, ZIGZAG, Masks/Personae
Kiss/Kissing, Light I, Light II, Margins/Outsiders, ZODIAC, Abundance, Ascent/Descent, Ecstasy, Fortune,
Martyrdom, Mirror/Reflection, Money, Order/Chaos, Labor/Trades/Occupations, Months, Order/Chaos,
Patronage, Sanctuary, Sin/Sinning, Sport, Temptation, Peasantry, Virtue/Virtues, Zodiac