CHAPTER

3.1
Mangroves

MA. JUNEMIE HAZEL L. LEBATA-RAMOS, PH.D.

Introduction
The term mangroves may either refer to the constituent plants of
tropical intertidal forest communities or to the whole community
itself. Sometimes, the community of mangrove plants is referred to
as ‘mangal’ and the plant species making up the forest as ‘mangroves’.
Mangroves have been called as ‘coastal woodlands’, ‘mangals’, ‘tidal
forests’, ‘oceanic rain forests’ or ‘mangrove forests’. They are common
on mudflats and banks of tropical and subtropical rivers and coastlines,
existing at the boundary of land and water environments and receiving
nutrients from both. Mangroves provide more than 10% of essential
dissolved organic carbon that is supplied to the global ocean from land
and are considered as the backbone of the tropical ocean coastlines.

Mangrove forests are among the world’s most productive ecosystems.

They enrich coastal waters, yield commercial forest products, protect Figure 3.1.1
Even if they live under extreme conditions,
coastlines, and support coastal fisheries. However, mangroves exist mangroves are among the most productive
under conditions of high salinity, extreme tides, strong winds, high ecosystems on Earth
temperatures and muddy, oxygen-starved soils. There may be no other
group of plants with such well developed adaptations to extreme
conditions (Fig. 3.1.1).

Mangroves are distributed around the tropics. They are found in 112
countries and territories, covering an estimated area of 181,077 km2,
41% of which are in South and Southeast Asia (Fig. 3.1.2). The largest
single area of mangroves in the world is found in the Bangladesh
part of the Sunderbans, which covers an area of almost 600,000 ha
including waterways. Mangroves are limited between 30ºN and 30ºS
latitudes (with some exceptions to the north in Bermuda and Japan
and to the south in Australia and New Zealand). Their distribution
is determined by latitude, temperature (air temp. >20ºC; water temp.
≥24ºC) and availability of water. Generally, the essential mangrove
prerequisites are temperature, mud substrate, protection, salt water, Figure 3.1.2
tidal range, ocean currents, and shallow shores. The unique ability Mangrove area by continent in 1980 and 2000
(Data from FAO Statistics)
of mangroves to grow in salt water reduces competition from other
plants.

Approximately 84 species of plants, belonging to 39 genera and 26

families, are recognised throughout the world as being mangroves.
These mangrove plants can either be trees (Avicennia spp., Rhizophora
18 SECTION 3 • IMPORTANCE AND CONSERVATION OF COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

spp., Sonneratia spp.), shrubs (Aegiceras spp., Lumnitzera spp.), palm (Nypa fruticans) or ferns
(Acrostichum spp.). Of these 26 families, only two are exclusively mangroves and dominate
mangrove communities worldwide. These are the families Rhizophoraceae and Avicenniaceae.
The most common feature of plants belonging to Family Rhizophoraceae is their possession
of interpetiolary stipules (Fig. 3.1.3). Those belonging to Family Avicenniaceae have
pneumatophores (Fig. 3.1.4).

The most diverse mangrove forests are found in South and Southeast Asia. Acrostichum aureum,
a fern, is the only species found in all continents where mangroves are found (Table 3.1.1).
Among ASEAN member countries, Indonesia has the most diverse mangroves, with 45 of the
51 species listed in South and Southeast Asia. Two species are found common in all ASEAN
countries, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and Nypa fruticans (Table 3.1.2).

Figure 3.1.3
Mangroves belonging to Family Rhizophoraceae possess interpetiolary
stipules as seen here

Figure 3.1.4
All Avicennia species belonging to Family Avicenniaceae have pencil-like
structures called pneumatophores
 CHAPTER 3.1 • Mangroves 19
Table 3.1.1
Mangrove species worldwide
South & East Africa &
Species Australasia Americas West Africa
Southeast Asia Middle East
Acanthus ebracteatus
Acanthus ilicifolius
Acrostichum aureum
Acrostichum speciosum
Aegialitis annulata
Aegialitis rotundifolia
Aegiceras corniculatum
Aegiceras floridum
Avicennia alba
Avicennia bicolor
Avicennia germinans
Avicennia integra
Avicennia marina
Avicennia officinalis
Avicennia rumphiana
Avicennia schaueriana
Bruguiera cylindrica
Bruguiera exaristata
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza
Bruguiera hainesii
Bruguiera parviflora
Bruguiera sexangula
Camptostemon philippinensis
Camptostemon schultzii
Ceriops australis
Ceriops decandra
Ceriops tagal
Conocarpus erectus
Cynometra iripa
Diospyros ferrea
Dolichandrone spathacea
Excoecaria agallocha
Excoecaria indica
Heritiera fomes
Heritiera globosa
Heritiera littoralis
Kandelia candel
Laguncularia racemosa
Lumnitzera littorea
Lumnitzera racemosa
Lumnitzera x rosea
Mora oleifera
Nypa fruticans
Osbornia octodonta
Pelliciera rhizophorae
Pemphis acidula
Rhizophora apiculata
Rhizophora harrisonii
Rhizophora mangle
Rhizophora mucronata
Rhizophora racemosa
Rhizophora samoensis
Rhizophora stylosa
Rhizophora x lamarckii
Rhizophora x selala
Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea
Sonneratia alba
Sonneratia apetala
Sonneratia caseolaris
Sonneratia griffithii
Sonneratia lanceolata
Sonneratia ovata
Sonneratia x gulngai
Sonneratia x urama
Tabebuia palustria
Xylocarpus granatum
Xylocarpus mekongensis
TOTAL 51 47 13 8 14
Source: World Mangrove Atlas, 1997
 20 SECTION 3 • IMPORTANCE AND CONSERVATION OF COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

Table 3.1.2
Mangrove species in ASEAN countries 1
Species Brunei Cambodia Indonesia Japan Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore Thailand Vietnam 2
Acanthus ebracteatus 3
Acanthus ilicifolius 4
Acrostichum aureum
5
Acrostichum speciosum
Aegialitis annulata 6
Aegialitis rotundifolia 7
Aegiceras corniculatum 8
Aegiceras floridum
9
Avicennia alba
Avicennia bicolor 10
Avicennia germinans 11
Avicennia integra 12
Avicennia marina
13
Avicennia officinalis
Avicennia rumphiana 14
Avicennia schaueriana 15
Bruguiera cylindrica 16
Bruguiera exaristata
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza
17
Bruguiera hainesii 18
Bruguiera parviflora 19
Bruguiera sexangula 20
Camptostemon philippinensis
Camptostemon schultzii
21
Ceriops australis 22
Ceriops decandra 23
Ceriops tagal 24
Conocarpus erectus
Cynometra iripa
25
Diospyros ferrea 26
Dolichandrone spathacea 27
Excoecaria agallocha 28
Excoecaria indica
Heritiera fomes
29
Heritiera globosa 30
Heritiera littoralis 31
Kandelia candel 32
Laguncularia racemosa
Lumnitzera littorea
33
Lumnitzera racemosa 34
Lumnitzera x rosea 35
Mora oleifera 36
Nypa fruticans
Osbornia octodonta
37
Pelliciera rhizophorae 38
Pemphis acidula 39
Rhizophora apiculata 40
Rhizophora harrisonii
Rhizophora mangle
41
Rhizophora mucronata 42
Rhizophora racemosa 43
Rhizophora samoensis 44
Rhizophora stylosa
Rhizophora x lamarckii
45
Rhizophora x selala 46
Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea 47
Sonneratia alba 48
Sonneratia apetala
Sonneratia caseolaris
49
Sonneratia griffithii 50
Sonneratia lanceolata 51
Sonneratia ovata 52
Sonneratia x gulngai
Sonneratia x urama
53
Tabebuia palustria 54
Xylocarpus granatum 55
Xylocarpus mekongensis 56
TOTAL 29 5 45 11 36 24 38 31 35 29 57
Source: World Mangrove Atlas, 1997
 CHAPTER 3.1 • Mangroves 21

Types of mangrove forests

(Figure 3.1.5)
1) R-type or riverine forest type – this forest is found on a
flood plain along a tidal river and is flooded by most high
tides
2) F-type or fringe forest type – this forest is directly exposed
to the open sea and thus attacked by sea waves R-type
3) B-type or basin forest type – this forest is a partially
impounded depression, flooded by few high tides during
the dry season and by high tides during the wet season

Mangrove characteristics and

adaptations
F-type
Characteristics of a true mangrove
1) Exclusive only to mangrove communities
2) Has a major role in the structure of the community and the
ability to form pure stands
3) Has special traits that helps them adapt to their
environment such as aerial roots for gas exchange
4) Can excrete salt to survive in sea water B-type
5) Separated taxonomically from terrestrial relatives

Mangrove adaptations

1) high salinity (Fig. 3.1.6)

• salt secretion by salt glands in leaves (Aegialitis, Aegiceras,
Avicennia) or cork warts in leaves (Rhizophora)
• salt excretion in roots (Avicennia, Bruguiera, Ceriops)
• salt accumulation in barks of stems and roots or older
leaves (Excoecaria, Rhizophora, Xylocarpus)
Figure 3.1.5
2) water conservation (Fig. 3.1.7) Different types of mangrove forests and a map of a
• thick-walled epidermis (almost all species) B-type mangrove forest
• thick waxy cuticle
• layer of variously shaped hairs (Avicennia, Hibiscus) or
scales (Heritiera, Camptostemon)
• stomata beneath the level of epidermis (Bruguiera,
Ceriops, Lumnitzera); substomatal chambers (Avicennia,
Ceriops, Rhizophora)
• succulence (Lumnitzera, Ceriops)

3) water-saturated, oxygen-starved soils (Fig. 3.1.8)

• pneumatophores – pencil-like structures or conical
projections arising from the cable root system and Figure 3.1.6 Figure 3.1.7
Salt on the leaves of Succulent leaves of
extending into the air (Avicennia spp., Sonneratia spp.) Avicennia sp. Lumnitzera littorea
22 SECTION 3 • IMPORTANCE AND CONSERVATION OF COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

• knee-roots – modified sections of the cable

root system which first grow upward
above the soil then downward back to
the soil (Bruguiera spp., Ceriops spp.);
• prop roots or stilt roots – branched roots
that grow from the trunk into the soil
(Rhizophora spp.);
• buttress roots – flattened, blade-like or
ribbon-like roots that grow from the
trunk to the soil (Heritiera littoralis,
pneumatophores knee roots Xylocarpus granatum);
• aerial roots – unbranched roots growing
downward from the trunk or lower
branches but do not reach the soil
(Rhizophora spp., Avicennia spp.)
• lenticels – bulging cells on branches
and roots used for gas exchange
(Camptostemon philippinensis)
4) unstable, semi-fluid soil
• lateral cable root system (Avicennia,
Sonneratia)
prop roots buttress roots
5) reproductive enhancements
• vivipary - seed develops into a seedling, and
comes out of the fruit while still attached
to the parent tree (Rhizophoraceae)
• cryptovivipary - seed develops into a
seedling inside the fruit while still
attached to the parent tree (Aegialitis,
Aegiceras, Avicennia, Nypa)
[Significance: rapid rooting, development of
buoyancy, prolonged nourishment from
aerial roots lenticels the parent]
• buoyancy - propagules of all mangrove
Figure 3.1.8 trees float on water
Mangrove adaptiations to water-saturated, oxygen-starved soils

Importance and causes of destruction

Importance of mangroves
1) Local communities
• shelter
• construction timber
• firewood
• food
• income – fishing, shrimp and crab culture, wood gathering, cottage industries
• medicine – Rhizophora: bark extract is anti diarrhea; Acanthus: bark extract treats skin
allergies; Excoecaria: smoke from burning wood treats leprosy, etc.
• dye – Ceriops tagal: dying fish nets, coloring tuba
• food for animals
• protection from storm damage and river bank erosion
 CHAPTER 3.1 • Mangroves 23

2) National interests
• timber production
• charcoal production
• fishing industry
• mangrove-friendly aquaculture
• recreation
• tourism
• education
• coastal and estuary protection

3) Global interests
• conservation
• education/research
• effect of climate change
• preservation of biodiversity

Causes of mangrove destruction

1) Human action
• housing
• tourism
• agriculture (converted to paddy fields – China, Philippines, Vietnam)
• aquaculture (converted to ponds – Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand)
• paper production (Kalimantan, Indonesia)
• mining (Ranong, Thailand)
• port construction
• industrial and road development
• oil pollution
• conversion to salt pans

2) Natural causes
• sea level rise
• drought
• typhoons and other tropical storms
• soil erosion

Conservation

1) Preserve the remaining mangrove forests

2) Replant mangrove degraded areas
3) Revert abandoned or unproductive ponds back to mangroves
4) Promote sustainable felling of mangrove trees (e.g., Matang mangrove)
5) Promote ecotourism in mangroves
6) Promote mangrove-friendly aquaculture
7) Promote interest on mangrove research
24 SECTION 3 • IMPORTANCE AND CONSERVATION OF COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

Mangrove training courses at SEAFDEC

1) Mangrove biology and ecology

2) Mangrove taxonomy
3) Mangrove community structure analysis
4) Mangrove-friendly aquaculture

Reading materials

Aksornkoae S, Maxwell GS, Havanond S, Panichsuko S. 1992. Plants in mangroves.

Chalongrat Co, Ltd, Bangkok (Thailand), p 120
Bandaranayake WM. 1998. Traditional and medicinal uses of mangroves. Mangroves and
salt marshes 2, 133-148 (copies will be distributed)
Cintron G, Novelli YS. 1984. Methods of studying mangrove structure. In: Snedaker SC,
Snedaker JG (Eds.) The mangrove ecosystem: research methods. United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris (France), p 91-113
Duke NC. 1992. Mangrove floristics and biogeography. In: Robertson AI, DM Alongi
(Eds.) Tropical mangrove ecosystems. American Geophysical Union, Washington,
DC (U.S.A.), p 63-100
English S, Wilkinson C, Baker V (Eds). 1994. Survey manual for tropical marine resources.
Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville (Australia), p 368
Field C (Ed). 1996. Restoration of mangrove ecosystems. International Society for
Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa (Japan), 250
Field C. 1995. Journey amongst mangroves. The International Society for Mangrove
Ecosystems, Okinawa (Japan), p 140
Hogarth PJ. 1999. The biology of mangroves. In: Crawley MJ, C Little, TRE Southwood,
S Ulfstrand . (Eds.) Biology of Habitats. Oxford University Press, Oxford (United
Kingdom), p 228
Hutchings P, Saenger P. 1987. Ecology of mangroves. University of Queensland Press,
Queensland (Australia), p 388
Jayatissa LP, Hettiarachi S, Dahdouh-Guebas F. 2006. An attempt to recover economic
losses from decadal changes in two lagoon systems of Sri Lanka through a newly
patented mangrove product. Environment, Development and Sustainability 8, 585-
595
Kathiresan K, Bingham BL. 2001. Biology of mangroves and mangrove ecosystems. In:
Southward AJ, PA Tyler, CM Young, LA Fuiman (Eds.) Advances in marine biology.
Academic Press, London (United Kingdom), p 81-251
Kjerfve B. 1990. Manual for investigation of hydrological processes in mangrove
ecosystems. UNESCO/UNDP Regional Project, South Carolina (USA), p 79
Lebata MJHL. 2006. Stock enhancement of the mud crabs Scylla spp. in the mangroves
of Naisud and Bugtong Bato, Ibajay, Aklan, Philippines. Ph.D. thesis, University of
Wales, Bangor, Anglesey (United Kingdom), p 274
Lugo AE, Snedaker SC. 1974. The ecology of mangroves. Annual Review of Ecology and
Systematics 5, 39-64
 CHAPTER 3.1 • Mangroves 25

Macnae W. 1968. A general account of the fauna and flora of mangrove swamps and
forests in the Indo-West-Pacific region. In: Russell SFS, SM Yonge (Eds.) Advances
in marine biology. Academic Press Inc., London (United Kingdom), p 73-270
Porter CL. 1967. Taxonomy of flowering plants. WH Freeman and Company, San
Francisco (USA)
Primavera JH, Sadaba RB, Lebata MJHL, Altamirano JP. 2004. Handbook of mangroves
in the Philippines - Panay. SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department, Iloilo (Philippines),
p 106
Robertson AI, Alongi DM (Eds). 1992. Coastal and estuarine studies: Tropical mangrove
ecosystems. American Geophysical Union, Washington (U.S.A.), p 340
Saenger P. 2002. Mangrove ecology, silviculture and conservation. Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Dordrecht (The Netherlands)
Spalding M, Blasco F, Field C (Eds). 1997. World mangrove atlas. The International
Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa (Japan), p 178
Swink F, Wilhelm G. 1994. Plants of the Chicago Region, 4th ed. Indiana Academy of
Science, Indianapolis (USA)
Tam NFY, Wong YS. 2000. Field guide to Hong Kong mangroves. City University of
Hong Kong Press, Kowloon (Hong Kong), p 88
Tam NFY, Wong YS. 2000. Hong Kong mangroves. City University of Hong Kong Press,
Kowloon (Hong Kong), p 148
Tomlinson PB. 1994. The botany of mangroves. In: Ashton PS, SP Hubbell, DH Janzen, PH
Raven, PB Tomlinson (Eds). Cambridge tropical biology series. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge (United Kingdom), p 419