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Heat Exchanger Fouling: Mitigation and Cleaning

Strategies
a b b c
H. Müller-Steinhagen , M. R. Malayeri & A. P. Watkinson
a
Institute of Technical Thermodynamics , German Aerospace Centre (DLR) , Stuttgart ,
Germany
b
Institute of Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering , University of Stuttgart , Stuttgart ,
Germany
c
Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering , University of British Columbia ,
Vancouver , Canada
Published online: 13 Oct 2011.

To cite this article: H. Müller-Steinhagen , M. R. Malayeri & A. P. Watkinson (2011) Heat Exchanger Fouling: Mitigation and
Cleaning Strategies, Heat Transfer Engineering, 32:3-4, 189-196, DOI: 10.1080/01457632.2010.503108

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 Heat Transfer Engineering, 32(3–4):189–196, 2011
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ISSN: 0145-7632 print / 1521-0537 online
DOI: 10.1080/01457632.2010.503108

editorial

Heat Exchanger Fouling: Mitigation

and Cleaning Strategies

H. MÜLLER-STEINHAGEN,1,2 M. R. MALAYERI,2 and A. P. WATKINSON3

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1
Institute of Technical Thermodynamics, German Aerospace Centre (DLR), Stuttgart, Germany
2
Institute of Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
3
Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

Heat exchangers are the workhorse of most chemical, petro-
chemical, food-processing, and power-generating processes.
The global heat exchanger market is estimated to top a total
of $12.7 billion by 2012, with an increase of 3–5% per annum
[1]. Despite this very positive market outlook, manufacturers
are under increasing pressure to produce heat exchangers that
are more efficient in terms of heat recovery and use of material,
while at the same time being faced with fluids that are increas-
ingly difficult to process. One major problem directly related
to these requirements is the deposition of unwanted materials
on the heat transfer surfaces, which occurs in the majority of
heat exchangers [2]. Conservative studies estimated that heat ex-
changer fouling leads to additional costs in the order of 0.25%
of the gross domestic product (GDP) of industrialized coun-
tries, and that it is responsible for 2.5% of the total equivalent
anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide [2, 3].
Therefore, efficient mitigation and cleaning methods must
be available to safeguard the operation of heat exchangers. Two
basic approaches are possible to combat heat exchanger foul-
ing, namely, mitigation (including on-line cleaning) and off-line
cleaning techniques. The general criteria for the selection of any
of these strategies are:
• Dominant fouling mechanism.
• Severity of fouling.
• Type of heat exchanger.
Address correspondence to Dr. Mohammad Reza Malayeri, Institute of Ther-
modynamics and Thermal Engineering, University of Stuttgart, Pfaffenwaldring
6, D-70550, Stuttgart, Germany. E-mail: m.malayeri@itw.uni-stuttgart.de
• Extent of required cleanliness.
• Mitigation and cleaning costs.
• Time intervals between cleaning cycles.
In the following, various mitigation and cleaning techniques
are discussed and areas for further developments are identified.
MITIGATION APPROACHES
Figure 1 lists the main methodologies for the mitigation of
fouling in industrial heat exchangers. It is understood that mit-
igation techniques are not limited to those given in Figure 1,
which have been selected because they are widely used and
known to be successful in a number of applications. The general
preference is to mitigate fouling firstly through proper design
of heat exchangers, then by on-line mitigation techniques. In
reality, a combination of these methods may be necessary to
combat fouling.
Mitigation of Heat Exchanger Fouling by Design
Heat exchanger fouling may effectively be mitigated at the
design stage of the heat exchanger through the following steps:
• Selection of a suitable heat exchanger type and geometry.
• Omission of operating conditions that promote fouling.
• Optimum design with adequate velocities in the heat ex-
changer and that avoids hot spots, bypass flow, or dead zones.
• Design for easy cleaning.

189
 190 H. MÜLLER-STEINHAGEN ET AL.

Fouling mitigation
techniques

Design of heat
On-line
exchangers

Change of
Feed Chemical Mechanical Physical
operating
filtration inhibitors
conditions

Shear
Feed Thermal Projectiles Wire Scrappers Surface Ultrasound Electric,
stress Inserts
dilution shock brushes coating magnetic
increase
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Reverse flow or Gas

pulsation rumbling

Figure 1 Various fouling mitigation methodologies.

Müller-Steinhagen [4, 5] extensively discussed how these On-Line Mitigation of Heat Exchanger Fouling
various options can be implemented in the design stage of heat
exchangers to reduce fouling. The purpose of on-line mitigation is to keep the heat transfer
Compact heat exchangers, such as plate-and-frame heat surfaces in an acceptable state of cleanliness in order to main-
exchangers, spiral flow heat exchangers, and fin-tube heat tain high operating efficiency and plant availability. On-line
exchangers, have been found to experience reduced fouling in mitigation includes many different methodologies that can be
many (but certainly not all) applications due to increased level divided, in order of their applicability, into (i) changing operat-
of turbulence, reduced surface temperatures, and homogeneous ing conditions, (ii) chemical, (iii) mechanical, and (iv) physical
flow distribution [5]. While this has only been known for con- approaches. A breakdown of these techniques has already been
vective heat transfer to liquids, Esawy et al. [6] recently showed presented in Figure 1, and this subsection briefly outlines each
that the buildup of deposits during pool boiling of CaSO4 solu-
tions can be substantially reduced by the presence of fins on the
tube outside (Figure 2).
Scraped-surface heat exchangers [7] where rotating instal-
lations continuously keep the pipe internal surfaces free from
deposits have been used in industry for many years. Their invest-
ment, operation, and maintenance cost, as well as the complex
geometry and maintenance, limit this technique to applications
where very severe fouling occurs.
Fluidized-bed heat exchangers are a very effective technol-
ogy to reduce or even eliminate scale formation in many types
of applications. Particles of different materials and shapes are
transported upward through the vertical heat exchanger tubes
together with the fouling liquid [8]. They are then separated
from the liquid and returned in an external downcomer. In ad-
dition to having a slightly abrasive effect on the heat transfer
surface, the particles will also improve the tube-side heat trans-
fer coefficients. Typical applications include, e.g., desalination,
processing of aqueous solutions, and processing of hydrocar-
bons. Figure 2 Comparison of fouling resistances for smooth and finned tubes at a
heat flux of 200 kW/m2 and a CaSO4 concentration of 1.6 g/L [6].

heat transfer engineering vol. 32 nos. 3–4 2011

 H. MÜLLER-STEINHAGEN ET AL. 191

individual technique and its limitations. More details are pro- Table 1 Categorization of chemical inhibitor agents for different fouling
vided in ref. [5]. mechanisms [4]
Filtration and/or washing. Removal of contaminants can Fouling
substantially reduce fouling. For example, removal of mate- mechanism Foulant Inhibitor agent
rials such as sodium, sulfur, or vanadium from fuels prior to
Crystallization, Ca2+, Mg2+ Ion exchange
combustion and contaminant removal from combustion gases precipitation
are two approaches to mitigate gas-side fouling. Water washing CaCO3 Ph control
has helped to overcome some of the fouling problems experi- CaSO4 Scale inhibitors (e.g.,
enced with crude oils and with residual oils in marine applica- ethylenediamine
tions by removing sodium and sediment. tetraacetic acid [EDTA])
Soft and hard scalants Adsorption agents (e.g.,
Feed dilution or blending. Refineries are increasingly be- polyphosphates)
coming more complex as heavier crude oils need to be pro- Soft and hard scalants Crystalline weakening agents
cessed. Accordingly, more severe fouling is expected, partic- (e.g., polycarboxylic acid)
ularly in the refinery preheat heat exchanger trains. Among Particulate Particulate matter Surfactants or dispersants
various mitigation techniques, diluting feed by blending light Chemical reaction Oxygen (polymerization) Antioxidants
Metals (reaction catalyst) Metal deactivators
and denser crude oils may be considered to ease the problem. Insoluble hydrocarbon Dispersants
However, a thorough and careful chemical analysis of the crude
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is necessary, since this procedure may sometimes lead to even
harsher fouling [9].
Thermal shock. Short-time under- or overheating of the heat
transfer surfaces may cause brittle deposit layers to crack due to
the different thermal expansion of tubes and deposits. Figure 3
shows the impact of sudden reduction of heat flux during pool
boiling of CaSO4 solutions when the thickness of deposit layer
had reached about 2 mm. The whole deposit layer spalled off
the surface instantaneously [10].
Intermittent changes in flow direction or velocity. Regular
reversal of flow direction or short-time increase of the flow
velocity (flow pulsation) has been used to mitigate the formation
of weakly adhering deposits. Generally, better performance is
achieved by continuously operating at a higher flow velocity.
However, this technique may be effective if applied right from
the beginning of operation, before the deposit layer starts to
harden.
Gas rumbling. Deposits with moderate stickability to the
heat transfer surfaces (e.g., particulate and some biological de-
posits) can be dislodged and washed out by periodically in-
creasing the fluid shear forces for a short time by introducing
compressed air or nitrogen into the liquid system. The resulting
particles
Biofouling Micro- and Oxidants (biocide, chlorine)
macroorganisms
Corrosion fouling Passivating oxide layer Passivating oxidants and pH
control
highly turbulent gas–liquid two-phase flow can provide shear
forces and pressure fluctuations that are substantially higher
than for single-phase flow. Gas rumbling is commonly used in
cooling water applications.
Chemical fouling mitigation methods. The most widespread
mitigation strategy during on-line operation of heat exchangers
is the use of chemical agents or inhibitors, which is particularly
useful for heat exchangers with complex geometries where no
other cleaning methods are possible. Commercial antifoulants
are usually polyfunctional and hence more versatile and effec-
tive, as they can be designed to combat various types of pre-
cursors that may be present in any given system. For instance,
for crude oil fouling, various precursors such as oxygen, metals,
salts, and asphaltenes may lead to different forms of deposit
formation. Antifoulants are designed to prevent equipment sur-
faces from fouling but are usually not effective in removing
already formed deposits. Therefore, antifoulant addition should

Figure 3 Breakage and removal of a deposit layer formed during pool boiling of a CaSO4 solution with 1.6 g/L and a heat flux of 300 kW/m2: (a) during
steady-state heating and (b) immediately after switching off the heater [10].

heat transfer engineering vol. 32 nos. 3–4 2011

 192 H. MÜLLER-STEINHAGEN ET AL.
Figure 4 (a) Typical spiral insert (SPIRELF system) [15] and (b) hiTRAN wire matrix insert [16].
be started immediately after equipment is cleaned. The usage
and dosage of antifoulants depend strongly on fouling mecha-
nisms and anticipated deposit hardness. Thus, information about
the prevailing fouling mechanism and the influence of operat-
ing conditions such as dominant precursors, temperature and
velocity are important. Table 1 lists typical inhibitor agents for
different fouling mechanisms and foulants.
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On-line chemical fouling mitigation is effective but the chem-
ical agents may contain substances that are potentially harmful
to the environment, such as chlorine, hypochlorite, polyphos-
phate, coagulants, etc. The use of many of these chemical in-
hibitors has to be reduced and eventually phased out due to the
implementation of restrictive environmental legislations such
as the Water Framework Directive 60/2000/EC of the European
Union. Furthermore, compatibility of the chemistry of the in-
hibitors with the metallurgy of the equipment has to be checked,
to avoid corrosion or cracking.
Increased efforts are dedicated to the monitoring of fouling,
development of less toxic substitute additives, and optimization
of inhibitor dosage. For instance, chlorine can be replaced by
other chemicals such as methylene thiocyanate or chlorophe-
noles [11]. To reduce the dosage of treatment chemicals,
Ferreira et al. [12] reported that antimicrobials can be trans-
ported on micro-sized particles in much lower concentrations to
target only microorganisms on the surface.
On-line mechanical mitigation techniques. If applicable,
mechanical mitigation may have some advantages over chemi-
cal methods, which often involve materials that are difficult to
handle and control. Their applicability is usually determined by
the type of fouled heat exchanger, deposit intensity and growth
rate, operating conditions, and cleaning costs. The utilization
of on-line mechanical fouling mitigation may lead to signifi-
cantly reduced maintenance downtime, avoidance of antifoul-
ing chemicals, and more efficient plant operation. These need
to be balanced against investment and operating costs, e.g., for
replacement of devices due to wear or increased pressure drop
due to flow resistance.
The previous conference proceedings on heat exchanger foul-
ing and cleaning [13] provide an extensive source of information
on mitigation and cleaning. Hence these techniques are only
briefly addressed in this editorial.
Cleaning Projectiles
Projectiles of different shapes, e.g., sponge balls and wire
brushes, can be propelled through the heat exchanger tubes to
heat transfer engineering
remove deposits already during the early stage of formation. The
frequency and duration of application depends on the severity of
fouling and the strength of interaction between cleaning projec-
tile and deposit. Typically, projectile on-line cleaning techniques
are limited to aqueous systems at temperatures below about
120◦ C, due to the stability of the projectile material. There may
also be some limitations due to chemical incompatibility. If the
application of cleaning projectiles to individual tubes occurs at
random (i.e., in sponge ball systems), this may lead to over-
and undercleaning of tubes depending on their location in the
tube bundle. The “CleanEx” project [14] that has recently been
funded by the European Community endeavors to address some
of these drawbacks. The installation of mechanical systems for
the continuous propulsion of cleaning devices requires modifi-
cations of the flow system and is, therefore, best implemented
in the design stage of heat exchangers.
Tube Inserts
Tube inserts, such as twisted tapes, coils, and wire matrix in-
serts, can significantly increase the heat transfer coefficients by
acting as turbulence promoters (see Figure 4 [15, 16]). As depo-
sition rates for most fouling mechanisms are inversely dependent
on fluid wall shear stress and heat transfer surface temperature,
reduction of the viscous and thermal sublayer thickness may
also considerably reduce fouling. These inserts work best for
flow in the laminar or transitional flow regime. In combination
with further reduction of flow velocity (i.e., tube passes), design
variations may be possible where significant improvements of
heat transfer can be achieved with no or little increase in pressure
drop.
The selection of a particular type of insert and insert geometry
depends on the type of fouling and the availability of suitable
strainers or filters that may trap particulate or fibrous matters
before these enter the heat exchanger.
Physical Mitigation Techniques
Physical fouling mitigation methods attempt to reduce/avoid
fouling without changing heat exchanger layout, operation, or
chemical additives, by modifying the interaction of deposit
forming precursors and heat transfer surface.
Surface modification. Of several fouling mitigation tech-
niques, surface modification is gaining increased attention due
to its environmentally friendly features. Surface coatings with
vol. 32 nos. 3–4 2011
 H. MÜLLER-STEINHAGEN ET AL.
On-line mitigation systems
Chemical Mechanical
Environmental hazards Lack of effective control and timing
Health hazards Ineffective distribution
Increased costs Increased pressure drop
Over-dosage Limited to certain chemicals
Possible corrosion impacts Abrasive impacts
Require modification of heat exchanger
Figure 5 Limitations of various chemical and mechanical mitigation systems.
organic materials such as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and
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Säkaphen have been shown to reduce fouling from various
fluids, for example, during seawater evaporation and heat
transfer to Kraft black liquor. The main reason why such mate-
rials/coatings are not more widely used is that they are poor heat
conductors and form an additional resistance to heat transfer
that is comparable to the TEMA fouling resistance for cooling
water. Another drawback is the poor stickiness of coatings
to the substrate. If very thin coatings are used, the resistance
against erosion or other mechanical stress is greatly diminished.
These problems may be avoided with several novel coating
methods, such as ion beam implantation, magnetron sputtering,
multi-arc ion plating, filtered cathodic vacuum arc plating, or
electroless Ni-P-PTFE plating, which have been investigated in
recent years [17–19]. These thin and stable coatings have been
found to reduce scale formation during convective and boiling
heat transfer and to reduce the adhesion of bacteria.
Sonic technologies. High- and low-frequency sound has suc-
cessfully been used in heat exchangers for gases to dislodge and
weaken particulate deposits, which can subsequently be carried
away by the process gas stream. In suitable cases, this can be a
very cost-effective option. As for the application for liquid-side
fouling, several laboratory investigations have shown promising
effects. It is, however, questionable whether sound or vibration
generators can sensibly be installed in industrial heat exchang-
ers, and whether their effects will extend over the typically large
heat transfer surfaces.
Off-line cleaning
Fluid cleaning
Fluid blasting Ice pigging Steam soaking
Figure 6 Categorization of various off-line cleaning systems.
heat transfer engineering
193
Magnetic, electronic, or catalytic means. When it comes to
commercial mitigation of scale formation, one of the most fre-
quently and emotionally discussed topics is devices that claim
to reduce scaling by magnetic, electronic, or catalytic means.
To date, no conclusive scientific proof or theory for the mecha-
nisms that may be responsible for the beneficial effects of such
technologies has been found. A considerable number of inves-
tigations have been reported in the literature; many of them
claim some sort of success with the applied technology. Ger-
man Industry Standards (DIN) have been formulated for per-
formance evaluation of physical water conditioners. Pilot-plant
and laboratory-scale investigations have provided contradicting
results. For example, references [20], [21], and [22] report that
the installation of magnets considerably reduced cooling water
fouling, whereas [23] and [24] found no effect of the water con-
ditioner. Even the mechanisms of scale inhibition are highly dis-
puted. Systematic investigations (e.g., [22]) indicate that the ef-
fectiveness of electromagnetic fouling mitigation methods may
be limited to a certain window of operation.
COMPARISON OF CHEMICAL AND MECHANICAL
MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
In general, heat transfer engineers rely on chemical and
mechanical approaches, as the physical systems are still in
their early development. Figure 5 summarizes the limitations
of chemical and mechanical mitigation techniques. All systems
work best if applied to an initially clean heat exchanger. Some
of the mechanical systems are less dependent on the type of
fouling, while chemical systems are always specific to the com-
position of the process fluid.
OFF-LINE CLEANING OF HEAT EXCHANGERS
Periodical cleaning of heat exchangers will be necessary,
even if the heat exchanger is well designed and the fluid treat-
ment is effective. Additionally, conditions in the heat exchanger
may deviate from the design conditions due to changes in flow
rates and temperatures, plant failures, ingress of air and bac-
teria, changes in the fluid composition, or upstream corrosion,
which all may promote fouling. It is, therefore, advantageous
Chemical Mechanical
Shot blasting Projectiles Drilling
vol. 32 nos. 3–4 2011
 194 H. MÜLLER-STEINHAGEN ET AL.
to remove nonprotective deposits soon after the onset of their
formation. Heat exchangers may be cleaned by various off-line
methods as categorized in Figure 6.
Intense mechanical and chemical cleaning may remove not
only the deposit but also part of the protective oxide layer on
the pipe surfaces. Under certain circumstances, this may create a
corrosion problem. On the other hand, regular cleaning removes
deposit and avoids flow conditions that promote corrosion due
to chemical reaction or stagnant flow. For very severe fouling
problems, a combination of chemical and mechanical cleaning
may be recommended.
Off-line cleaning is most prevalent in petroleum, minerals,
and chemicals processing industries and mainly involves man-
ual or semiautomatic cleaning at predetermined maintenance
intervals [5]. Although generally effective, these techniques do
not mitigate the gradual performance degradation (due to foul-
ing) between physical cleaning intervals. As a result, most heat
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exchangers will operate at significantly less than peak efficiency.
Some of the most promising off-line cleaning systems are
briefly discussed next.
Blasting and Jetting Techniques
High-pressure water or steam blasting up to 1,500 bar can
be an effective way of removing unwanted deposits. Of those,
water jetting is probably the most effective and technologically
advanced. Delivery may be through multijet sprays or through
high-pressure water lances. The addition of wetting agents or
detergents may improve the washing process. If deposits are
very tenacious, abrasive particles such as sand may be added to
the pressurized water to increase the cleaning efficiency. Simi-
larly, air blasting with sand or solid CO2 particles is frequently
used. Air, steam, and hydro blasting are labor-intensive and keep
the exchanger off-line for a considerable time, even though
semiautomatic cleaning devices have been developed and are
commonly used [5]. Blasting may not completely eliminate all
deposits and some significant roughness can remain. The shell
side of tube bundles can only be cleaned completely if the tubes
are arranged in-line. The particular geometry of twisted tubes
provides flow lanes for pressurized water or steam which facil-
itates cleaning.
Ice pigging has also been reported as a successful technique to
remove moderately adhering deposits, since the shear forces are
increased by a factor of 4–5 due to the presence of the ice slurry
[25]. Such a system can be applied for complex geometries and
is reported to have a reduced cleaning downtime.
Mechanical Cleaning Techniques
Several cleaning methods can be used for the inside of
straight tubes. For example, the on-line fouling mitigation
sponge ball system can also be used as a transportable, off-
line cleaning system, particularly if used with corundum-coated
heat transfer engineering
Figure 7 Conco tube cleaner in operation [26].
sponge balls. Using air pressure or hydro pressure, rubber plugs
or metal scrapers can be shot through the tubes. Rubber plugs
may fail for hard deposits. In general, water pressure systems
are safer than air pressure systems, due to the compressibility
and subsequent rapid expansion of gases. Advanced systems,
such as the one shown in Figure 7 [26], are rather fast and allow
cleaning of up to 15,000 tubes within 24 hours.
Very dirty and plugged tubes must be cleaned with drills
equipped with drill bits, brushes, or bit–brush combinations.
Chemical Cleaning Methods
Chemical cleaning methods have a number of advantages,
namely:
• They are relatively quick.
• Surfaces do not experience mechanical damage.
• Chemical solutions reach normally inaccessible areas.
• They are less labor-intensive than mechanical cleaning.
• Cleaning can be performed in situ.
Problems may arise due to the danger of handling (burns,
toxicity), due to elevated application temperatures, due to the
costs of cleaning agents, due to the chemical attack on the heat
exchanger material (overcleaning, uneven cleaning, corrosion),
and due to disposal problems. Acids and alkalis must be neu-
tralized, organic materials may be burned, and fluorides must
be reacted to inactive solid residues. Some of the organic acids,
such as citric acid and gluconic acid, are biodegradable.
Research on the mechanisms of chemical cleaning of heat
transfer surfaces is far less developed than research on fouling
mechanisms, even though similar approaches may be used. Nev-
ertheless, some first modeling has been attempted, assuming that
the cleaning process is a reversed fouling process. Understand-
ing of the interactions of cleaning and fouling is less advanced
in the process industry than in the food industry, to which a
series of conferences have been dedicated [27, 28].
SUMMARY
While significant progress has been made in the mitigation
of heat exchanger fouling, the challenge to reduce its impact on
heat exchanger performance is still enormous. Many mitigation
and cleaning techniques that have found their way into regular
plant operation have been developed by an empirical trial-and-
error approach. These antifouling strategies have few or even no
links to academic research findings, since industry and academic
vol. 32 nos. 3–4 2011
 H. MÜLLER-STEINHAGEN ET AL.
research institutions have traditionally approached the problem
of fouling from different aspects. To optimize the effectiveness
of mitigation methods, which highly depends on the dominant
fouling mechanisms and influential operating conditions, and to
develop new approaches for fouling mitigation, closer collabo-
ration between the two communities is essential.
For the past 15 years, conferences on heat exchanger foul-
ing have been held at bi-yearly intervals to facilitate innova-
tive thinking and to explore new theoretical and practical ap-
proaches. These conferences have successfully provided a forum
for experts from industry, academia, and government research
centers from around the world to present their latest research and
technological developments in the areas of fouling mitigation
and cleaning technologies. The meetings in San Luis Obispo
(1995), Lucca (1997), Banff (1999), Davos (2001), Santa Fe
(2003), Kloster Irsee (2005), Portugal and Tomar (2007) were
organized by Engineering Conferences International. The 8th
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conference in this series was organized by the present authors
under the auspices of EUROTHERM in Schladming, Austria,
in June 2009. In total, 100 participants attended this meeting,
presenting 81 papers/posters, which were the highest numbers
in any meeting of this series to date.
The following papers in this special issue of Heat Transfer
Engineering have been selected from the contributions to the
2009 Fouling Conference in Schladming after a careful ref-
ereeing and revision process. The full e-proceedings of the
2009 conference as well as those from the previous confer-
ences from 2003 until 2007 can be obtained free of charge from
http://heatexchanger-fouling.com.
They cover various aspects of heat exchanger fouling, along
with updated state-of-the-art fouling mitigation and cleaning
strategies. Their content is of significant value for researchers,
plant operators, equipment manufacturers, chemical suppliers,
and heat exchanger cleaning companies.
This website also contains the actual information about the
next conference in this series (Heat Exchanger Fouling and
Cleaning IX), which is scheduled for June 5–10, 2011 on the
beautiful island of Crete, Greece.
REFERENCES
[1] Heat Exchanger: A Global Strategic Business Report,
Global Industry Analysts, Inc., San Jose, CA, 2008.
[2] Steinhagen, R., Müller-Steinhagen, H., and Maani, K.,
Problems and Costs Due to Heat Exchanger Fouling in
New Zealand Industries, Heat Transfer Engineering, vol.
14, no. 1, pp. 19–30, 1992.
[3] Müller-Steinhagen, H., Malayeri, M. R., and Watkinson, A.
P., Heat Exchanger Fouling: Environmental Impacts, Heat
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[4] Müller-Steinhagen, H., Fouling of Heat Exchanger Sur-
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[5] Müller-Steinhagen, H., Heat Exchanger Fouling—
Mitigation and Cleaning Technologies, Publico Publica-
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[6] Esawy, M., Malayeri, M. R., and Müller-Steinhagen, H.,
Crystallization Fouling of Finned Tubes During Pool Boil-
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[8] Klaren, D. G., and de Boer, E. F., Achievements and Po-
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Natural Seawater as a Coolant, Proceedings of the ECI
Conference on Heat Exchanger Fouling and Cleaning–VII,
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H. Müller-Steinhagen is the director of the Insti-
tute of Technical Thermodynamics of the German
Aerospace Centre and the director of the Institute
for Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering of
the University of Stuttgart. His research work cov-
ers a wide range of topics related to heat and mass
transfer, multiphase flow, fuel cells, solar technol-
ogy, and process thermodynamics. He is the author
of more than 550 articles, and was awarded the 1992
and 1993 TMS Bauxite Processing Awards, the 1994
Light Metals Award, the Beilby Medal and Prize, the UK Heat Transfer Society
Mike Akrill Trophy, the Best Paper 2000 in the Canadian Journal of Chemical
Engineering, and the 2008 AIChE D. Q. Kern Award. He is a fellow of the
Royal Academy of Engineering, president of EUROTHERM, member of the
Executive Boards of EUREC and ICHMT, member of the Innovation Council
of the Prime Minister of Baden-Württemberg, chairman of the Advisory Board
of the DESERTEC Industrial Initiative, and associate editor of Heat Transfer
Engineering.
M. R. Malayeri is the head of the heat exchanger
fouling and mitigation research group at the Insti-
tute of Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering
(ITW), University of Stuttgart, Germany. He grad-
uated from the Department of Chemical Engineer-
ing, Amirkabir University of Technology, Iran. He
received his Ph.D. from the University of Surrey, UK.
His research interests include enhanced heat transfer,
heat exchanger fouling and mitigation, multiphase
flows, and numerical modeling.
A. P. Watkinson is a professor of chemical engineer-
ing in the Department of Chemical and Biological En-
gineering at the University of British Columbia, Van-
couver, Canada. He is involved in research on foul-
ing of organic fluids, asphaltene precipitation, coke
formation, scaling in aqueous systems, and on the
pyrolysis, gasification, and combustion of biomass
fuels.
vol. 32 nos. 3–4 2011