Mary Andrus

12/11/19

ARTH 2710 T/TH 7-8:20

Essay Final

Some of the most stunning pieces of art and architecture for art historians come from

Greek Classicism, Imperial Rome, and Early Christianity. Though each is distinct, many of these

eras borrow from previous ones, always building on and developing from a historic foundation.

Greek Classicism was arguably the start of realism in art, especially sculpture. The early

and high classical periods ranged from 480-400 BCE. During this time there was a great

philosophical emphasis on humanism, even to the extent that the Greek Gods were seen simply

as perfect human beings (123). Greeks valued human reason over human emotion, and

consequently the art from this period holds little expression.

Consistent with this value placed on perfectionism, the sculpture of Greek Classicism

generally involves no individuality or portraiture. Instead, it always represents something to

aspire to, such as a god or an athlete. The subjects of these sculptures are represented in static

positions with no emotions. This makes them less emotionally realistic or human, but in the eyes

of the Greeks of the day, that was part of being perfect.

A way to standardize perfection during the Early and High Greek Classical periods was

the use of ​canon​. Canon (“Kanon” in Greek) was the ideal rule of proportions for a perfect

sculpture. Polykleitos’ canon was for each man represented to be 7 “heads” high, and he used

​ ratio of 1:1.618 as his rule for proportions. He also used and further
the ​Golden Mean, a

developed ​contrapposto​ (a tilt of the hips and shoulders in order to make a sculpture more

relaxed and lifelike) and combined it with ​symmetria​, which concerns the tension, relaxation and

position of body parts and their relationship to each other (137).

 Polykleitos’ canon is well represented in his ​Doryphoros​ (​Spear Bearer​). This sculpture

represents a male athlete in the act of holding a spear (which is missing). The weight of the

athlete rests on his right leg, which is tense and straight. His hips tilt downward to his left leg,

which is relaxed and bent, resting on the ball of his foot. Opposite to his legs, the athlete’s left

arm is tense and engaged, poised for holding a spear over his shoulder, and his right arm is

hanging, relaxed, by his side. His head is turned slightly to the right, which again reverses the

pattern of strain. All of these aspects combine to make a balanced sculpture that is pleasing to

the eye. This sculpture is significant because it is one of the first examples of stereotypical

Greek sculpture at its finest.

At the end of the High Classical period the Spartans conquered the Athenians, but after

about a year of oppression, the Anthenians rebelled against the Spartan government and

restored democracy to Greece. Following this, Plato founded a school and trained Aristotle, who

later taught Alexander the Great (144). This ushered in the era of Late Classicism, which lasted

from 400 to 323 BCE.

Some of the defining factors of Late Greek Classicism are the development of even

more realistic art and a huge focus on representing emotion. During this time period some of the

conventions of classical art were relaxed and the canon of previous generations was challenged

(145).

One artist who challenged the canon of Polykleitos and other classical artists was

Praxiteles, as shown in ​Hermes and the Infant Dionysos​, which was sculpted either by him or

one of his followers (146). This sculpture represents the adult god Hermes leaning on a post

and holding the infant god Dionysos. While the sculpture is beautiful, it challenges many of the

ideals from the previous era. Hermes is leaning so far to his left that he must be supported by a

post. The off-balance and extreme s-curve of his body contrast greatly with the perfect balance

of Polykleitos’ work. The textures of this piece also contrast with themselves—smooth, perfect
skin against rough hair and drapery. There is also a small narrative represented in the work—an

adult god sharing a moment in time with an infant god (146).

Another piece that moves beyond the classical canon is Lysippos’ ​Man Scraping

Himself.​ This piece represents an athlete, not while engaged in a sport, but after his exercise.

He scrapes the dust and sweat from his body with a strigil (scraping tool). This work uses a

different canon, with the subject’s feet wider apart and his hands extending into the space

before him. He has a relatively small head, and his face is expressive of emotion rarely found in

works from the Early and High classical periods.

The Hellenistic Period, which lasted from 323 to 31 or 30 BCE was ushered in by the

unexpected death of 33-year-old Alexander in 323 BCE. When he died there was no

organization for a successor or the continuation of the kingdom, so his generals fought each

other and eventually three of them—Ptolemy, Antigonus, and Seleucus—each claimed their

own kingdom (149-150).

Hellenism is defined by the development of artistic practices that were even more distinct

from those of previous eras. Instead of focusing on an ideal of perfection, the artists of this

period focused on individual, specific, expressive, and every-day people and events (150).

Sculpture turned from static poses to candid “snapshots” of daily life, and many of the

sculptures would have been recognizable as representation of a specific person.

The Hellenistic Period also started the trend of stereomorphic sculptures, meaning that

they were intended to be viewed in the round, with expression and action showing on all sides,

rather than having a “front.” Artists of this time also made great use of the Lost-wax method of

sculpture, where a piece would first be carved in wax, and then cast in bronze in such a way as

to make it hollow.

There were two trends in the world of Hellenistic sculpture: one emulated classical

models by combining favorite aspects of early art into new pieces, and the other totally
abandoned classical conventions (152). One example of the second trend is the ​Dying Gallic

Trumpeter,​ likely made by Epigonos. This sculpture represents an injured Gallic warrior trying to

rise from the ground. His right arm bends as it supports his weight and his eyes are downcast.

You can see that he is dying. This sculpture makes use of expressionism, which is the

deliberate attempt to evoke a specific response from the viewer. While looking at this sculpture,

the Greeks were meant to feel both admiration for this warrior’s strength and bravery, and pride

in conquering this dignified hero. Expressionism is an important characteristic of Hellenistic art

(152-153).

The architecture of the Hellenistic period built on the conventions of Greek Classicism

and began to use the elaborate Corinthian column capitals outdoors, when they had been used

only indoors previously. The architects of the day still used many of the previous patterns, such

as rectangular buildings surrounded by columns, standing on a base of steps (150).

Beginning in around 44 BCE and going through the fourth century CE, Rome was ruled

by an emperor. The first Roman emperor was Augustus (born Octavian). After the murder of his

uncle, Julius Caesar, Augustus stepped up to take his place as chief Imperator, which soon

turned to Emperor. Viewed as a great ruler by the Roman people, Augustus paved the way for

advanced art, architecture, and leadership. Under his rule, new forums, basilicas, theaters,

temples, public baths and aqueducts were constructed and the ​Pax Romana​, or Roman Peace

began. It would go on to last for more than 200 years. In 12 BCE Augustus became the high

priest of the empire’s religion, making him the head of both church and state (173-175).

The art in the time of Augustus shifted to a new style that once again heralded the ideals

of Greek Classicism. Portraits were realistic and enriched and historical events were portrayed

on public monuments. Much of the art created was used as propaganda, as is evident in the

statue Augustus of Primaporta. In the statue, Augustus is standing in the position of a Roman

orator, with his right hand extended, but his proportions follow the canon of Polykleitos. The
statue is filled with symbolism and propaganda. Firstly, he is being upheld by a cupid, showing

that he is supported by the gods. He is wearing a skirt and his hair is styled like Caesar’s,

showing his civilization and royal descendancy. On his cuirass is a scene representing his

successful negotiation with the Parthians in retrieving the Roman standards, a highly significant

achievement, and a cornucopia at the bottom of the cuirass represents the peace and prosperity

his reign brought. In all of Augustus’ statues he is portrayed as an eternally young, healthy and

fit ruler. While he is recognizable, he is also idealized. The statue is a representation of the

greatness and majesty of the emperor (175).

Another important work of Roman art, the Ara Pacis Augustae, was begun in 13 BCE

and finished in 9 CE, and was a gift to Augustus as he returned from establishing the empire in

Gaul and Hispania. It consists of four elaborately decorated walls surrounding an altar. The

outside the walls are decorated with marble panels, each displaying a different scene. On one

side panel is a procession of Augustus’ family, including women and children. This panel shows

both the humanity and majesty of the emperor and promotes families. On the other side is a

procession of members of the Senate, all male elders. The inside walls of the monument are

decorated with bountiful garlands and ox skulls, representing the peace and prosperity

established by Augustus. The style of the Ara Pacis Augustae mirrors Greek Classicism, but

instead of unrecognizable figures, the monument represents real, specific people (175-186).

A hallmark of Imperial Rome’s engineering and architecture is how the Romans took

ideas invented by others and improved them. One of the most famous Roman structures is the

Flavian Amphitheater (c. 70-80 CE), more commonly known as the Colosseum. While the

Greeks built theaters against hills, the Romans essentially took two Greek theaters and built

them facing each other, creating free-standing oval theaters such as the Colosseum. The

Colosseum was first used to stage mock naval battles, fueled by the nearby water source from

Emperor Nero’s day. Later, the Colosseum was used to house sporting and entertainment, such
as the fights between gladiators and animals or each other. With a diameter of 615 by 510 feet

and walls standing 159 feet in height, this amphitheater is an amazing feat of engineering.

Underneath the stage are a series of rooms and tunnels, and there were systems for depositing

gladiators and animals right on stage from the lower passages. The inside walls of the

Colosseum consisted of rows of benches, all covered in marble. The outer walls consist of three

levels of arches that are topped with an attic-like final story. One of the great achievements of

Rome was the development of the arch. While they didn’t invent it, the Romans took the arch

and improved it. The Colosseum was also masterfully designed in such a way as to ensure the

quick entrance and exit of thousands of spectators (188-189).

One way in which the Romans improvised on the arch was the dome, which is

essentially an arch in the round. Nothing is a better example of the dome than the Pantheon (c.

110-128 CE). This was a temple built to honor all the Greek gods. A rectangular podium

entrance leads to a round drum surrounded by niches for statues and topped with a magnificent

dome. At 143 feet wide, the dome was the largest one ever attempted when it was built, and it

remained the largest for many years. Because of its size the architects had to find a way to

reduce the weight of the cement at the top in order to prevent it from collapsing. To do this they

first eliminated the oculus (very center and highest point), which bears the most weight in

domes. This allowed the weight to instead be distributed down the sides of the dome. They also

used heavier stone to make the cement at the bottom of the dome than the top, and they used

coffers all the way around it to once again eliminate strain and make the dome more stable. The

Colosseum and the Pantheon are just two examples of a vast collection of Roman architecture

and engineering that would go on to influence the rest of history (197-198).

In the early days of Christianity being a follower of Christ was illegal. Because of this, the

first buildings used for religious worship were unassuming houses with modified interiors suited
to Christian worship (assembly rooms, baptistries etc.) such as the House-Church at

Dura-Europos (222-223). These buildings contained paintings and symbolism, some of which

illustrated pagan myths meant to represent Christian events. When Christianity was legalized,

the Christians were free to build temples and basilicas. The first public Christian churches, such

as Old Saint Peter’s, were based on secular basilicas (rather than other churches or temples)

because Christians didn’t want to be associated with paganism. These churches followed an

elongated plan called the Latin Cross or Basilica plan. Later, some churches would be built with

the Central Cross plan. These buildings held room to worship and housed art depicting Christ

and other important Christian subjects and events. Much of Early Christian art portrayed a Good

Shepherd that was meant to represent Christ, and later they portrayed Christ as the Good

Shepherd.

With the beginning of Charlemagne’s reign the Carolingian Era, or “mini Renaissance,”

began. Many of the churches built in this era used the Latin Cross/Basilica plan. The use of

westwork also became common in the Carolingian Era, such as at the Abbey Church of Corvey.

It is built with strong, imposing masonry, includes many windows, and the westwork sports two

towers that rise high above the roof of the main building (458).

The Ottonian Era marked the return to Christian worship of life-size sculpture and

sculpture in the round. Originally afraid to unintentionally create idols, Christian artists now

made beautiful and imposing life-size sculptures of Christ and His Apostles. Ottonian

architecture tried to combine both the styles of Christian Rome and Carolingian architecture.

One of the important churches from this time is the Convent Church of Saint Cyriakus in

Gernrode. From the outside this church mostly follows the Basilica plan and style of Early

Christian and Carolingian churches. The inside, however, is noticeably different from earlier

architecture, as is evidenced in the use of alternating rectangular piers and round columns

(464-465).
 The hallmark of Romanesque Art is arguably experimentation, such as in the church of

Saint-Etienne, which has indoor arches of all different heights. The Romanesque Era is also

marked by the widespread practice of pilgrimage and a huge building surge following the

realization that Christ had not come in the year 1000, when many Christians had speculated He

would. Pilgrimages took travellers to special Christian spots—if they could not afford to go to the

Holy Land, they would go to Rome or Santiago de Compostela in the Basque region of Spain.

Because these travellers would worship along their pilgrimage routes, the churches lining them

got huge surges of people. Suddenly they had to build new, larger, and modified churches to

accommodate the many worshippers. In the church of Saint-Sernin in Toulouse, France, they

added extra side aisles to the knave to allow travellers to walk through the church without

disrupting the locals’ services. This practice became a common way to cater to both locals and

foreigners. In general, many Romanesque churches made use of round windows, heavy

masonry, and flying buttresses as well.

Gothic architecture began with the Abbey Church of Saint-Denis, built in 1150-1144 CE.

The West end of the church is similar to the Romanesque style, but the East end sports much

cross-vaulting, one of the identifiers of Gothic architecture. In some ways, Gothic architecture

combines all the previous Christian styles into one, including the pointed arch, flying buttresses,

rose windows, and three-part knave elevations. The use of stained glass also became a

hallmark of Gothic architecture. Started by a French architect who read a work from an Iranian

Mystic (thinking it was a treatise from the Christian Saint Denis) that wrote of a “mystical light,”

the use of stained glass became an integral part of creating a spiritual experience through

heavenly, colored sunlight. Because Gothic architects utilized the pointed arch, they were able

to use less and less stone supports and insert more and more stained glass into their churches,

which became increasingly lacey and skeletal in attempts by Gothic cities to outdo each other in

grandeur. In general, the interior of Gothic cathedrals is comprised of four parts: a knave
arcade, second level gallery, third story, and the vaults. The Chartres Cathedral is a beautiful

example of Gothic architecture, especially as most of its stained glass is original and still intact.

Conversely, Byzantine art and architecture drew heavily from classic pagan art. A good

example of Byzantine architecture is the Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. This church

was built in just five years (532-537 CE). It’s central attraction is it’s huge dome, which is

sandwiched between two half-domes. The central dome and half-domes are surrounded by

aisles, and the back of the church contains an apse for an altar. Attached to the church’s front

are an inner and outer narthex. It has two levels, both full of arches, and the base of the dome is

punctuated by a continuous circle of arched windows, an incredible feat of architecture. Now,

thousands of years later, this dome still seems to float. The light, airy effect produced by the

many windows would have been even more stunning when the inside of the dome was still

covered in gold. This church also makes use of pendentives, the preferred Byzantine way of

supporting a dome, and originally its interior was decorated with elaborate mosaics.

Greek Classicism, Imperial Rome, and Early Christianity all hold treasures of art and

architecture too vast to contain in one paper. While the Greeks developed truly realistic art, the

Romans applied realism to portraiture. While the Romans used arches, Chrisianity made them

pointed. Each artistic era is built upon the last to create a world full of incredible art.