03 Load Flow PDF

Load Flow Analysis
ETAP Workshop Notes © 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc.

System Concepts
© 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 2
Power in Balanced 3-Phase
S = V I *
S t
Systems 1φ LN
S 3φ = 3× S 1φ
= 3 ×V LL I *
= P + jQ
Inductive loads have lagging Power Factors.

Capacitive loads have leading Power Factors.
L
Lagging
i Power
P Factor
F t L di Power
Leading P Factor
F t C
Current
t and
dVVoltage
lt
Leading & Lagging Power
F t
Factors
ETAP displays lagging Power Factors as positive and leading Power Factors
as negative
negative. The Power Factor is displayed in percent.
percent
Leading Lagging
Power Power
P
j
Q
Factor Factor + P - jQ P + jQ
3-Phase Per Unit System
kVA B ⎧⎪S = 3VI ⎫⎪ If you have two bases:
IB = ⎨ ⎬ Then you may calculate the other two
3kVB ⎪⎩V = 3ZI⎪⎭
by using the relationships enclosed in
⎧ SB ⎫ b k t The
brackets. Th diff
differentt bases
b are:
(kVB ) 2 ⎪BI =
ZB = ⎪ 3VB ⎪⎪ •IB (Base Current)
⎨ ⎬ •ZB (Base Impedance)
MVA B ⎪Z = B ⎪
V 2
⎪⎩ B SB ⎪⎭ •VB (Base Voltage)

•SB (Base Power)
I actual Vactual ETAP se
selects
ects for
o LF:
I pu = t l Vpu = t l •100 MVA for SB which is fixed for the
IB VB entire system.
g of reference p
•The kV rating point is
Zactual Sactual
Z pu = Spu = used along with the transformer turn
ratios are applied to determine the
ZB SB base voltage for different parts of the
y
system.
Example 1: The diagram shows a simple radial system. ETAP converts the branch
impedance values to the correct base for Load Flow calculations. The LF reports show
the branch impedance values in percent. The transformer turn ratio (N1/N2) is 3.31
andd th
the X/R = 12.14
12 14
Transformer Turn Ratio: The transformer turn ratio is
used by ETAP to determine the base voltage for different
parts of the system. Different turn ratios are applied starting
f
from the
th utility
tilit kV rating.
ti
kVB1 To determine base voltage use:
N1
kV =
1
B kVB2
N2
kVB2
Transformer T7: The following equations are used to find
the impedance of transformer T7 in 100 MVA base.
⎡X⎤
Z pu × ⎢ ⎥
⎣R ⎦ x pu
X pu = R pu =
⎡ ⎤
X
2
⎡X⎤
1+ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢⎣ R ⎥⎦
⎣R ⎦
0.065(12.14) 0.06478
X pu = = 0.06478 R pu = = 0.005336
1 + (12.14) 2 12.14
The transformer impedance must be converted to 100 MVA base and therefore the
following relation must be used, where “n” stands for new and “o” stands for old.
2
o ⎛ VB ⎞ ⎛ SnB ⎞
2
⎛ 13.8 ⎞ ⎛ 100 ⎞
o
Zpu = Zpu ⎜⎜ n ⎟⎟
n
⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟ = (5.33×10−3 + j0.06478)⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = (0.1115+ j1.3538)
⎝ VB ⎠ ⎝ SB ⎠ ⎝ 13.5 ⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎠
% Z = 100 × Z pu = 11.15 + j135.38

Impedance Z1: The base voltage is determined by using the transformer turn ratio. The base
impedance for Z1 is determined using the base voltage at Bus5 and the MVA base.
kVutility 13.5 VB2 (4.0695) 2

VB = = = 4.0695 ZB = = = 0.165608
⎡ N1 ⎤ 3.31 MVA 100
⎢⎣ N2 ⎥⎦
The per-unit value of the impedance may be determined as soon as the base
impedance is known. The per-unit value is multiplied by one hundred to obtain
the percent impedance. This value will be the value displayed on the LF report.
Zactual (0.1 + j1)

Zpu = = = (0.6038+ j6.0382)
ZB 0.1656
% Z = 100 × Z pu = 60.38 + j603.8
The LF report generated by ETAP displays the following percent impedance values
in 100 MVA base
Load Flow Analysis
Load Flow Problem
• Given
– Load Power Consumption
p at all buses
– Configuration
– Power Production at each generator
• Basic
B i R Requirement
i t
– Power Flow in each line and transformer
– Voltage Magnitude and Phase Angle at each bus
Load Flow Studies
• Determine Steady State Operating Conditions
– Voltage Profile
– Power Flows
– Current Flows
– Power Factors
– Transformer LTC Settings
– Voltage Drops
– Generator’s Mvar Demand (Qmax & Qmin)
– Total Generation & Power Demand
– Steady State Stability Limits
– MW & Mvar Losses
Size & Determine System
E i
Equipment t & Parameters
P t
• Cable / Feeder Capacity
• Capacitor Size
g ((Turn Ratios))
• Transformer MVA & kV Ratings
• Transformer Impedance & Tap Setting
• Current Limiting Reactor Rating & Imp
Imp.
• MCC & Switchgear Current Ratings
• Generator
G t Operating
O ti Mode
M d (Isochronous
(I h / Droop)
D )
• Generator’s Mvar Demand
• Transmission, Distribution & Utilization kV
Optimize Operating
C diti
Conditions
• Bus Voltages
g are Within Acceptable
p Limits
• Voltages are Within Rated Insulation Limits

off Equipment
E i t
• Power & Current Flows Do Not Exceed the

Maximum Ratings
• System MW & Mvar Losses are Determined
• Circulating Mvar Flows are Eliminated

Calculation Process
• Non-Linear System
• Calculated Iteratively
– Assume the Load
V lt
Voltage (I
(Initial
iti l C
Conditions)
diti )
– Calculate the Current I Assume VR
C l I = Sload / VR
Calc:
– Based on the Current, Calc: Vd = I * Z
Calculate Voltage Drop Vd Re-Calc VR = Vs - Vd
– Re-Calculate Load Voltage VR

– Re-use Load Voltage g as initial condition until the
results are within the specified precision.
Load Flow Calculation
M th d
Methods
1. Accelerated Gauss-Seidel Method

• Low Requirements on initial values,
b t slow
but l iin speed.
d
3. Fast-Decoupled Method
• Two sets of iteration equations: real
power – voltage angle,
2. Newton-Raphson Method reactive power – voltage magnitude.
• Fast in speed, but high requirement on • Fast in speed, but low in solution
initial values. precision.
• First order derivative is used to speed up • Better for

f radial systems and
calculation. systems with long lines.
Load Nameplate Data
kWRated HP × 0.7457 kVA = (kW ) 2 + (kVar ) 2

kVARated = =
PF × Eff PF × Eff kW
kVARated PF =
FLA3φ = kVA
3 × kV kVA
I3φ = 1000 ×
kVARated ( 3 × kV)
FLA1φ = R t d
kV kVA
Where PF and Efficiency are taken at 100 %
I1φ = 1000 ×
kV
loading conditions
Constant Power Loads
• In Load Flow calculations induction,
synchronous and lump loads are treated
as constant power loads
loads.
• The power output remains constant even
if the input voltage changes (constant
kVA).)
• The lump load power output behaves like
a constant power load for the specified %
motor load.
Constant Impedance Loads
• In Load Flow calculations Static Loads,
Loads Lump Loads
(% static), Capacitors and Harmonic Filters and Motor
Operated Valves are treated as Constant Impedance
Loads.
• The Input Power increases proportionally to the
square of the Input Voltage.
• In Load Flow Harmonic Filters may be used as
capacitive loads for Power Factor Correction.
Correction
• MOVs are modeled as constant impedance loads
because of their operating characteristics.
Constant Current Loads
• The current remains constant even if the
voltage changes.
• DC Constant current loads are used to test
Battery discharge capacity
capacity.
• AC constant current loads may be used to test
UPS systems performance.
• DC Constant Current Loads may be defined in
ETAP by defining Load Duty Cycles used for
Battery Sizing & Discharge purposes.
Constant Current Loads
Generic Loads
Exponential Load
Polynomial Load
Comprehensive
Load
Generator Operation Modes
Feedback Voltage g
•AVR: Automatic Voltage
Regulation
•Fixed: Fixed Excitation
((no AVR action))
Governor Operating Modes
• Isochronous: This governor setting allows the
generator’s power output to be adjusted based on
the system demand.
• Droop: This governor setting allows the generator
to be Base Loaded, meaning that the MW output is
fixed.
Isochronous Mode
Droop Mode
Droop Mode
Droop Mode
Adjusting Steam Flow
Adjusting Excitation
In ETAP Generators and Power Grids have four operating
modes that are used in Load Flow calculations.
Swing Mode
•Governor is operating in
I
Isochronous
h mode
d
•Automatic Voltage Regulator
Voltage Control
•Governor
G is
i operating
ti in
i
Droop Mode
•Automatic Voltage Regulator
Mvar Control
M C t l
Droop Mode
•Fixed Field Excitation (no AVR
action)
ti )
PF Control
D
Droop M
Mode
d
•AVR Adjusts to Power Factor
Setting
• In
I the
th Swing
S i Mode,
M d the
th voltage
lt is
i kept
k t fixed.
fi d P & Q can vary
based on the Power Demand
• In the Voltage Control Mode, P & V are kept fixed while Q & θ
are varied
i d
• In the Mvar Control Mode, P and Q are kept fixed while V & θ
are varied
• If in Voltage Control Mode, the limits of P & Q are reached, the

model is changed to a Load Model (P & Q are kept fixed)
Generator Capability Curve
Maximum & Minimum
R
Reactive
ti P Power
Machine Rating (Power Factor Point)
Field Winding Heating Limit
Steady State Stability Curve
Armature Winding Heating Limit
Field Winding
g
Machine
M hi Rating
R ti
Heating Limit
(Power Factor
Point)
Steady State Stability Curve
Generation Categories
Generator/Power Grid Rating Page
Load Flow Loading Page
10 Different Generation
Categories for Every
Generator or Power Grid
in the System
Power Flow
⎧⎪V1 = V1 ∠δ 1 ⎫⎪
⎨ ⎬
⎪⎩V 2 = V2 ∠δ 2 ⎪⎭
S = V* I = P + jQ
V *V ⎡ V1*V 2 V2 ⎤
2
= 1 2 *SIN (δ 1 − δ 2 ) + j⎢ *COS (δ 1 − δ 2 ) − ⎥
X ⎣ X X ⎦
V1*V
V2
P= *SIN (δ 1 − δ 2 )
X
2
V1*V 2 V2
Q= COS( δ 1 − δ 2 ) −
*COS(
X X
Example: Two voltage sources designated as V1 and V2 are
connected as shown. If V1= 100 /0
/0° , V2 = 100 /30
/30° and X = 0 +j5
j5
determine the power flow in the system.
V1 − V 2 100 + j0 − (86.6 + j50)

I= =
X j5
I = −10 − j2.68
I
V1I* = 100(−10 + j2.68) = −1000 + j268

V2 I* = (86.6 + j50)(−10 + j2.68) = −1000 − j268
| I |2 X = 10.352 × 5 = 536 var
The following graph shows the power flow from Machine M2. This
machine behaves as a ggenerator supplying
pp y g real p
power and
absorbing reactive power from machine M1.
1 1
Power Flow S
( V ⋅E)
( )
⋅sin δ Δ
0
X
2
( V ⋅E)
X
( )
⋅cos δ Δ −
V
X
−2
2
0 δΔ π
Real Power Flow
Reactive Power Flow
Bus Voltage
ETAP displays bus voltage values in two ways
•kV value
•Percent
P t off Nominal
N i lB Bus kV
For Bus4:
kVCalculated = 13.5 kVNo min al = 13.8
kVCalculated
V% = ×100 = 97.83%
kVNo min al
For Bus5:
kVCalculated = 4.03 kVNo min al = 4.16
kVCalculated
V% = × 100 = 96.85%
kVNo min al
Lump Load Negative
L di
Loading
Load Flow Adjustments
• Transformer Impedance
– Adjust transformer impedance based on possible length variation
tolerance
• Reactor Impedance
– Adjust reactor impedance based on specified tolerance
• Overload Heater
– Adjust Overload Heater resistance based on specified tolerance
• Transmission Line Length

– Adjust
djust Transmission
a s ss o Line
e Impedance
peda ce based o
on poss
possible
b e length
e gt
variation tolerance
• Cable Length
– Adjust Cable Impedance based on possible length variation tolerance
Load Flow Study Case
Adj t
Adjustmentt Page
P
Adjustments applied
•Individual
•Global
Temperature Correction
• Cable Resistance
• Transmission Line
Resistance
Allowable Voltage Drop
NEC andd ANSI C84
C84.11
Load Flow Example 1
Part 1
© 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 47
Load Flow Example 1
Part 2
Load Flow Alerts
Equipment Overload Alerts
Bus Alerts Monitor Continuous Amps

p
Cable Monitor Continuous Amps
Reactor Monitor Continuous Amps
Line Monitor Line Ampacity
Transformer
f Monitor Maximum MVA Output
O
UPS/Panel Monitor Panel Continuous Amps
Generator Monitor Generator Rated MW
Protective Device Alerts
Protective Devices Monitored parameters % Condition reported
Low Voltage Circuit Breaker Continuous rated Current OverLoad

High Voltage Circuit Breaker Continuous rated Current OverLoad
Fuses Rated Current OverLoad
Contactors Continuous rated Current OverLoad
SPDT / SPST switches Continuous rated Current OverLoad
If the Auto Display
feature is active, the
Alert View Window will
appear as soon as the
L d Fl
Load Flow calculation
l l ti
has finished.
Advanced LF Topics
Load Flow Convergence
Voltage Control
Mvar Control
Load Flow Convergence
• Negative Impedance
• Zero or Very Small Impedance
• Widely Different Branch Impedance Values
• Long Radial System Configurations
• Bad
B dBBus V
Voltage
lt IInitial
iti l V
Values
l
Voltage Control
• Under/Over Voltage Conditions must be
fixed for proper equipment operation and
insulation ratings be met.
• Methods of Improving Voltage Conditions:

– Transformer Replacement
– Capacitor Addition
– Transformer Tap
p Adjustment
j
Under-Voltage Example
• Create Under Voltage • Method 2 - Shunt
Condition Capacitor
– Change Syn2 Quantity to 6. – Add Shunt Capacitor to Bus8
(Info Page, Quantity Field) – 300 kvar 3 Banks
– Run LF – Voltage is improved
– Bus8 Turns Magenta (Under • Method 3 - Change Tap
Voltage Condition)
– Place LTC on Primary
y of T6
• Method 1 - Change Xfmr – Select Bus8 for Control Bus
– Change T4 from 3 MVA to 8 – Select Update LTC in the
MVA will
MVA, ill notice
ti slight
li ht Study Case
improvement on the Bus8 kV – Run LF
– Too Expensive and time – Bus Voltage
g Comes within
consuming specified limits
Mvar Control
• Vars from Utility • Method 2 – Add Capacitor
– Add Switch to CAP1 – Close Switch
– Open Switch – Run Load Flow
– Run LF
– Var Contribution from the
Utilit reduces
Utility d
• Method 1 – Generator
– Change Generator from • Method 3 – Xfmr MVA
Voltage Control to Mvar
Control – Change T1 Mva to 40 MVA
– Set Mvar Design Setting to 5 – Will notice decrease in the
Mvars contribution from the Utility
Panel Systems
y
Panel Boards
• They are a collection of branch circuits
feeding system loads
• Panel System is used for representing power
and lighting panels in electrical systems
Click to drop once on OLV

Double-Click to drop multiple panels
Representation
A panel branch circuit load can be modeled as
an internal or external load
Advantages:
1. Easier Data Entry
2. Concise System
Representation
Pin Assignment
Pin 0 is the top pin of the panel
ETAP allows up to 24 external load connections
Assumptions
• Vrated (internal load) = Vrated (Panel Voltage)
• Note that if a 11-Phase
Phase load is connected to a 33-
Phase panel circuit, the rated voltage of the panel
circuit is (1/√3) times the rated panel voltage
• The voltage of L1 or L2 phase in a 1-Phase 3-Wire
panel is (1/2) times the rated voltage of the panel
• There are no losses in the feeders connecting a
load to the panel
• Static loads are calculated based on their rated
voltage
lt
Line-Line Connections
Load Connected Between Two Phases of a
3-Phase System
A A
B B
C C
IBC IB = IBC IC = -IBC
Load
LoadB
Angle by which load current IBC lags the load voltage = θ°
Therefore, for load connected between phases B and C: For load connected to phase B
SBC = VBC.IBC SB = VB.IB

PBC = VBC.IBC.cos θ PB = VB.IB.cos (θ - 30)
QBC = VBC.IBC.sin θ QB = VB.IB.sin (θ
Q ( - 30))
And, for load connected to phase C
SC = VC.IC
PC = VC.IC.cos (θ + 30)
QC = VC.IC.sin
C C (θ + 30))
Info Page
NEC Selection
A, B, C from top to bottom or
left to right from the front of
the panel
Phase B shall be the highest

voltage (LG) on a 3-phase, 4-
wire delta connected system
(midpoint grounded)
3-Phase 4-Wire Panel

1 Ph
1-Phase 3 Wi Panel
3-Wire P l
Rating Page
Intelligent kV Calculation
If a 1-Phase p
panel is connected to a 3-Phase bus
having a nominal voltage equal to 0.48 kV, the
default rated kV of the panel is set to (0.48/1.732
=) 0.277 kV
For IEC, Enclosure Type

is Ingress Protection
(IPxy), where IP00 means
no protection or shielding
on the panel
Select ANSI or IEC

B k
Breakers or Fuses
F from
f
Main Device Library
Schedule Page
Ci
Circuit
it Numbers
N b with
ith
Standard Layout
Circuit Numbers with

C l
Column L
Layoutt
Description Tab
Firstt 14 load
Fi l d items
it in
i the
th list
li t are based
b d on NEC 1999
Last 10 load types in the Panel Code Factor Table are user-defined
Load Type is used to determine the Code Factors used in calculating the total
panel load
p
External loads are classified as motor load or static load according to the
element type
For External links the load status is determined from the connected load’s
demand factor status
Rating Tab
Enter per phase VA, W, or

Amperes for this load
load.
For example, if total Watts

for a 3-phase load are
1200 enter W as 400
1200,
(=1200/3)
Loading Tab
For internal loads, enter the % loading for the selected loading category
For both internal and external loads, Amp values are

calculated based on terminal bus nominal kV
Protective Device Tab
Library Quick Pick -

LV Circuit Breaker
(Molded Case, with
Thermal Magnetic Trip
Device) or
Library Quick Pick –

Fuse will appear
depending on the
Type of protective
device selected.
Feeder Tab
Action Buttons
Copy the content of the selected
row to clipboard. Circuit number,
Phase, Pole, Load Name, Link
and State are not copied.
copied
Paste the entire content (of the

copied row) in the selected row.
This will work when the Link
Type is other than space or
unusable, and only for fields
which are not blocked.
Blank out the contents of the entire

selected row.
Summary Page
Continuous Load – Per Phase and Total
Non-Continuous Load – Per Phase and Total
Connected Load – Per Phase and Total (Continuous + Non-Continuous Load)
Code Demand – Per Phase and Total
Output Report
Panel Code Factors
The first fourteen have fixed formats per NEC 1999
Code demand load depends on Panel Code Factors
Code demand load calculation for internal loads are done

for each types of load separately and then summed up

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Load Flow Analysis

ETAP Workshop Notes © 1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc.

Inductive loads have lagging Power Factors.

⎪⎩ B SB ⎪⎭ •VB (Base Voltage)

kVB1 To determine base voltage use:

% Z = 100 × Z pu = 11.15 + j135.38

kVutility 13.5 VB2 (4.0695) 2

Zactual (0.1 + j1)

• Voltages are Within Rated Insulation Limits

• Power & Current Flows Do Not Exceed the

• System MW & Mvar Losses are Determined

• Circulating Mvar Flows are Eliminated

– Re-Calculate Load Voltage VR

1. Accelerated Gauss-Seidel Method

• First order derivative is used to speed up • Better for

kWRated HP × 0.7457 kVA = (kW ) 2 + (kVar ) 2

• If in Voltage Control Mode, the limits of P & Q are reached, the

Field Winding Heating Limit

Steady State Stability Curve

Armature Winding Heating Limit

Steady State Stability Curve

Load Flow Loading Page

V1 − V 2 100 + j0 − (86.6 + j50)

V1I* = 100(−10 + j2.68) = −1000 + j268

| I |2 X = 10.352 × 5 = 536 var

• Transmission Line Length

© 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Bus Alerts Monitor Continuous Amps

Protective Devices Monitored parameters % Condition reported

Low Voltage Circuit Breaker Continuous rated Current OverLoad

• Zero or Very Small Impedance

• Widely Different Branch Impedance Values

• Long Radial System Configurations

• Methods of Improving Voltage Conditions:

Click to drop once on OLV

IBC IB = IBC IC = -IBC

SBC = VBC.IBC SB = VB.IB

And, for load connected to phase C

Phase B shall be the highest

3-Phase 4-Wire Panel

For IEC, Enclosure Type

Select ANSI or IEC

Circuit Numbers with

Enter per phase VA, W, or

For example, if total Watts

For both internal and external loads, Amp values are

Library Quick Pick -

Library Quick Pick –

Paste the entire content (of the

Blank out the contents of the entire

Continuous Load – Per Phase and Total

Non-Continuous Load – Per Phase and Total

Connected Load – Per Phase and Total (Continuous + Non-Continuous Load)

Code Demand – Per Phase and Total

The first fourteen have fixed formats per NEC 1999

Code demand load depends on Panel Code Factors

Code demand load calculation for internal loads are done

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