SURVEYING PRINCIPLESBonvel en ; Sem-2 -~GD) INTRODUCTION TO LAND SURVEYING 1.4 Object and Scope of Surveying SAzarveying is the technology of making scientific measurements on the Earth’s surface in order to have desirable end products such as figure/shape of earth and various kinds of maps. Surveying measurements are essential to lay out any construction works such as: Roads, railways, underground structures (tunnels, pipe-lines, cable lines), overhead systems (electric transmission lines, communication lines), mining (coal, graphite, ete.), civil engineering construction projects (buildings, dams, reservoirs), etc. Surveying measurements are also required to determine the amount of deformation and displacement in existing structures and ground (settlement of buildings, deformation of dams under water load, movement of earth in slopes, etc.). Surveying is essential in town planning, green plantation, development projects, irrigation projects, forestation projects, etc. 1.2 Classification of Surveying : @® Primary classification : (i). Plane Surveying ; The extent of the area covered on the earth’s surface is mall. Therefore, the curvature of thé earth is neglected. The surface is considered as a plane, and triangles formed on this surface as plane triangles. (ii). Geodetic Surveying : The spherical shape of the earth is taken into account while making measurements on the earths surface. Triangles formed on the earth’s surface are considered as spherical. ingles. Geodetic surveys cover large areas on earth's surface, and the measurements are precise Svea ’ (® Classification based on field ofsurveys; (a). Land surveying - Topographical (to show natural and man-made features like contours, rivers, roads, buildings, ponds, reservoirs, towns, etc on maps). Cadastral (to fix boundaries and demarcate properties), City (construction of streets, water supply and sewer lines). (b). Marine or hydrographic surveying. (©). Astronomical surveying, (d). Aerial surveying or photogrammetry. fo(d). Mine surveying. (€). Satellite or space surveying Classification based on instruments used: (a). Chain, (b). Theodolite, (c). Compass, (d). Levelling, (). Plane Tabling, (f. Tacheometry, (g). Total Station, (h). Global Positioning System (GPS) Classification based on object of surveys : (a). Engineering, (b). Military, (c). Geological, (d). Archeological; ete. Classification based on method of surveys : (a). Traversing, (b). Triangulation, (c). Trilateration,, .ete. LECTURE O2 Ca Surveying operations are based upon the following two general principles : 1.3 Principles of Surveying. (1). “Always work from whole to the part” The first consideration is “precise control surveying”, which is followed by subsidiary detail surveying”. The first step in any extensive survey is to establish control points widely distributed over the area by means of triangulation or precise traversing. The * large triangles are further sub-divided into small triangles which may be surveyed with less precision. This approach will minimize or control the probability of error propagation in the field- work of surveying. (2). "Fix the position of a new station by at least two independent processes” This provides a check on the survey work carried out on the field, 1.4 Common D s in Chain, Compass and Plane Table Surveying See Figure 1.1. Survey Stations : Survey stations are ground control points. These points are marked or permanently fixed on the ground, and their positions are known. In chain surveying, stations fixed at the beginning and end of a chain line are called main stations, Stations selected at intermediate points on chain lines are known ‘as subsidiary stations.op fobgiahluye Sheet bocarate ob tw & Sade af |5 50008 Survey Lines: Lines joining the main survey stations are called main survey lines, The longest of the main survey liens is called the Base line, and the various survey stations are plotted with reference to this base line. Check, : Check lines or proof lines are lines which are run on the field to check the accuracy of the work. The length of check line measured on the field must agree with its length on the plan. (each tingle must have atlaist one Chrecie bine) Tie Lines : These join subsidiary stations on the main lines, These serve the purpose of a check line, as well as taking the details of nearly objects. Off Sets : In survey, the positions of details are located with respect to the chain line by means of perpendicular distances. These are referred to as off sets. These are generally perpendicular distances. However, when objects somewhat far away from the lig@are to be located, two distances which are not at right-angles to the chain are taken, These are referred to as oblique offsets. , See Figure 1.2, Every ‘offset involves two measurements - the chainage (distance along the chain) and the perpendicular distance to that point, with the detail of that point. Offsets are measured with the Tinegy tape and should be as short as possible (preferably < 10 m), Perpendicularity is judged'either by eye-estimation or by swinging the near end of the tape Bearing of a Line : Bearing of a survey line is its direction relative to a given meridian (direction). A meridian is any direction such as : (@. ‘True Meridian: This is the plane passing through the True North and South poles at the place of observation, The intersection of this plane with the surface of the Earth (which is considered as a sphere) forms a Great Circle, which is also known as the Meridian (see figure 1.3). A Great Circle is a circle traced on the surface of a Sphere such that both have the same diameter. Since the True Meridian passes through the true N and S, this can be established by astronomical observations. The horizontal angle between the true meridian and the qurvey line isthe “True Bearing’ e x°O"(ii), Magnetic Meridian: The direction indicated by a freely suspended and Greek creed whi “meridian” balanced needle free from all other sources of attractive forces; this can be established by the magnetic compass. The horizontal angle between the i idian and the survey line is the “Magnetic Bearing”. magnetic peridiag an y line i ign wing’ @ (Kee I t — sgrettc dechnaiiar =[L-s) 2 Stlanka pees Fnmugh & detent 4 tre Suth ecritect ‘as 7bearing of finebB . “om fe MOA Land Boundary Figure 1.1 aries Coblique offsets). Ceoperdeular Sides Perpendicular fEset ' mmeagured net by tape feridians s 4 mruenorth Pole Bi 13 XO tbyeograbhic nolntee. : 4 03 & Shen @® & trate circle Aaacecl rev & Sungate of asbheav ag & Same diameter as e © sphere ipseld URE ce ent voces Wert Jo east w(iii), Arbitrary Meridian: Any convenient direction, towards a permanent and prominent landmark (top of a transmission line on a mountain top, etc). The horizontal angle between the arbitrary meridian and the survey line is known as the “Arbitrary Bearing”. Magnetic Declination ; Magnetic declination at a place is the horizontal angle between the True Meridian (T.M.) and the Magnetic Meridian (M.M.) shown by the needle at the time of observation. When M.M. is to the right to T.M., it shows a (+)ve or eastern declination; and when M.M. is to the left of T.M,, it is « (ve or western declination. 1.5 Systems of Surveying In general a point C in a plane may be fixed relative to a given line AB in one of the following ways : (a). Triangulation : This involves angular measurements from a fixed base line. (The length AB is known, and angles a and B are measured to locate C). See Figure 1.4 (b). Trilateration : This involves linear measurements only, (The lengths AC & BC are measured and the position of C can be fixed provided AC + BC > AB). See Figure 15. Therefore this method is used in chain surveying. (c). Traverse Survey : Details of a survey area can be conveniently obtained by a traverse survey. A traverse is a course taken when measuring a connected series of lines, each joining 2 points on the ground. These points are called traverse stations, and the straight line between two traverse stations is called a traverse Jeg, Traverses may be closed or unclosed (open0. (i). Closed Traverse : Ifa traverse emanates from a station and returns to the same station, or runs between two known stations, is a closed traverse. See Figure 1.6. (ii). Open Traverse ; A traverse which neither returns to its starting point nor begins and ends at known stations is called an open or unclosed traverse. A traverse survey involves both linear and angular measurementsFigure 14 Measure ACEC Figure 1.5 c rn F (knowri) + 8 > E (known’) Figure 1.6SUNG EO et _Chatn Suvvening ~ Creer D begining sets, beurchies itaotiee S mg weriddle 2 SHB aE pap 0 derth inewore due to himbarcdwe fF the Reliability os Survey peal EE Pating ethan. eng a widled. At Sources OF Kray thethank Atctclential Omir braretocerLlurinaheds Since every technique of measurement is subject to unavoidable error, engineers and surveyors must be aware of all sources and types or error and how they combine. Accuracy of a measurement is defined as the’nearness of that value to its true value; however, the true value of a measured quantity can never be known.(|ense Count) If a quantity is measured several times the degree of agreement between. the measures is the precision of the set. (Note: A high degree of precision is no indication of great accuracy. Precision may only be regarded as an index of accuracy, when all sources of errors other than accidental errors have been MPA ts clase he (Cnr, co nck linew Ebue tale butere CS eliminated). w » t ‘The surveyor must ensure that the techniques he chooses will produce a result 33 S.¢ that is suificiently accurate; thus he should know. the accuracy required, and rs § should check whether he achieved that level of accuracy. gy 38 SF 1.61 accuracy Required $ XO The accuracy required is defined by the scale of the plot, since there should be no g. g $__plottable error in the survey data gad Poel at ¥ Eg: A good draftsman can plot a length to within 0.25 mm. Thus if the plane S 6G _ being produced is at a scale of 1/1000, (1 mm on the plan represents 1000 mm z <8, 2s (1m) on the ground), the smallest plottable distance is 0.25 m, ‘Thus for a plan of i 128. this scale, all measurements must be taken such that the relative positions of any i q .B2 60 points must be determined to 0.25 m or better. 5a Se ys E EY. Accuracy required for engineering works may be governed by engineering = z & tolerances, and that for property boundary definition by legal standards. & ts a gy Accuracy achieved can be checked, in simple works, by comparing some 3 e z #8 ‘measurements scaled off the plan with their equivalent on the ground. o SS En v [ sPranseer ase 7 7 YS 1.62. Types of Errors pacinese qracty Seredle Lang & 3 aees i i if ro, = GUS A B 5 &° Errors made in surveying may be classified as follows: ‘ z as ms probable, wal bags = 62-43 ihe teh wallue p= 62 g Sigs iy ()- Blunders or mistakes oom £ & (2). Systematic errors 3). Random or accidental errors auecge- Sim| bhnan thou; there oe ere Eten ios dajiabiess S ee Were. aeevey small Uno eager certs "There 8 no Lue value. for amitbasere = 3 eIS no bue value anieasired quanti. : Nceumccey dee notheclefrad » PYe Come PS Used»rece) srry. 8 Pajaction a pgtua) Nae ray iscurved clue fo Q@y: (i). Blunders or Mistakes Lack of concentration by the observers cause most of these errors, and consist of definite mis-reading or mis-booking of whatever the scale being used, eg. missing a chain length, misreading (20 as 10 on a chain line), mis-booking (6.76 as 7.66). This can be very serious, and can be avoided only by concentration, methodical work, cross-checking and careful recording. Systematic Errors ‘These errors follow a definite mathematical or physical law, and may be constant or variable throughout an operation. This may arise out of natural conditions (eg. rise of temperature, refraction, etc.). This error can be eliminated if the observer is aware of the law governing the systematic error. eg: using an elongated chain (30.02 m instead of 30.00 m); zero error in angular measurements; neglecting slope in length measurements. cuyyajuye and Yesrichon evorin lack (iii), Random (Accidental) Errors Errors that remain after systematic errors and blunders are eliminated, are called random or accidental errors. These are generally small, but can never be avoided entirely in measurements. They may arise due to imperfection of instrument, observers’ liability to commit errors, changing conditions, etc. Random errors are treated using the law of probability based on statistical principles. 17. Coordinates on the Earth's Surface Locations on the surface of the Earth are specified by coordinates. The three coordinates to identify a location are the Longitude, the Latitude, and the Altitude. If the Earth's surface is considered as a sphere, the locations on the surface are given by the first two coordinates, and the third coordinate specifies the height above or below a datum surface. The coordinate axes for the Longitudes and Latitudes are the Equator of the Earth and the Prime Meridian, which is the true Meridian through the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, west of London, UK. @ Crabbe reriglion | te reference psa fe Aongitude » ‘Prime mevictione © Bauatov Soe. a ae aia ks dheasil Ba hen babu ine\e" o'o's|i 0! oly =p Intemational Nee tin aate fire ‘The equator of the Earth is the intersection of the plane through the centre of the Earth, perpendicular to its axis of rotation, and the surface of the Earth. It is a Great Circle on the Earth’s surface. The Equator divides the Earth into two halves, the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere. All the Meridians through the N and S poles of the Earth intersect the Equator at right angles. The origin of the surface coordinate system is at the intersection of the Prime Meridian and Equator. The measurement of coordinates is illustrated by Figure 17. Longitude of a location is the angle subtended on the Equator plane at the centre of the Earth by the Meridian through that location, measured to the East or the West from the origin (Prime Meridian). All locations on the Prime Meridian has Iongitude 0° 0 0”. Latitude of a point is the vertical angle measured on the plane of the meridian through that point, to the north or south of the Equator. All points on the equator has latitude 0° 0 0”. North Pole has latitude 90° 0’ 0”N and South Pole has Tatitude 90° 0" 0S. North Pole 60°E SON Parallel circles Latitude Bquator Prime meridian through Greenwich Meridians South Pole Longitude Figure 17 Gridnet on the sphere, longitude / latitudeSlomowh short 2. LINEAR MEASUREMENTS AND CHAIN SURVEYING The science of surveying is developing rapidly. With modern methods like photogrammetry, electronic equipment and satellite surveying techniques, the old techniques of surveying by chain, compass and plane tabling are being outdated. However, the knowledge of these techniques is essential for any engineer or surveyor and these are termed “basic surveying techniques’. If a small extent of area is to be surveyed, the application of these basic surveying, techniques is still economical and convenient. In chain surveying, only linear measurements are made in the field, and no angular measurements are made. The basic principle of chain surveying is always “work from the whole to the part’. This implies “precise control surveying” as the first consideration, followed by “subsidiary detail surveying”. Instruments for Chaining and Chain Surveying ‘The term chaining is used to denote measurement of distances with the help of a chain or a tape. For work of ordinary precision, a chain is used, but for higher precision, a tape is used. Following instruments and accessories are used in chaining and chain surveying: Steel chain - normally 30 meters in length, made of a series of steel wire links, connected together by rings; there are five links per metre, and each meter is marked by a plastic or brass tag, There are no graduations along the chain except for the tags), See Figure 2.1. Steel tape - may be of various lengths like 30m and 50m. These are normally made of a flexible steel strip of 6,25mm wide, and graduations engraved on the strip (down to one millimeter). See Figure 2.2. Plastic coated steel tapes and steel strips of other widths are also available. Linen tape - this is made of a strip of cloth, and is available in different lengths as 20m, 25m, 30m, 50m, etc. There are different varieties such as linen tapes with brass wires enmeshed to increase durability. See Figure 2.3. Ranging pole - wooden or aluminum poles of about 25mm diameter, and 2.0 metre height. There is a pointed iron shoe to facilitate it to be driven into the ground, and to be kept standing upright. These are painted in alternate bands of red and white, or black and white, in order to increase its visibility from a distance. They are used to range long survey lines, as signals with a piece of coloured cloth tied to the top, other ranging works, etc. See Figure 2.4. 10 *Arrow - made of steel wire, with a pointed end to facilitate being driven into the ground, This is about 40 cm in height, and has a loop at the top end, where a piece of coloured cloth can be tied to serve as a signal to indicate a location from a distance. See Figure 2.4. Mallet - a wooden hammer to drive in wooden pegs into the ground. Pegs - pieces of wood, of different height and with cross-sections of 125mm x 125mm or 50mm x 50mm, with a pointed end. Used to be driven into the ground with the mallet, to indicate a location on the ground. Cross Staff, Optical Square - Instruments that can be used to obtain perpendiculars to chain lines drawn on the ground, See Figure 2.5. Clinometer - An instrument which gives the inclination of a slope line. See Figure 2.6 2 Figure 2.2 Steet dupe: vPole Arrow Canging rod) Figure 24 oe °,2.2. Chain Survey Field Work Before actually making measurements on the field, the area to be surveyed is carefully examined and best positions of control points (survey stations) are determined, after being tested for inter-visibility The reconnaissance is done by taking a round of the area (walking around the area), At the end of reconnaissance, a sketch of ground showing the principal features such as buildings, roads, etc, and the arrangement of the lines and the numbering (or lettering) of the stations is prepared. This sketch is knownas the “index plan’, or ‘reference sketch’ or a ‘key plan’, or a ‘prospection diagram’. The ‘key plan’ will indicate the technique of approach to the problem. In this plan, conventional symbols are used to represent various features on the ground. Figure 27 2.2.2, Selection of Stations In selecting stations, the following points should be noted #5 . Bont Rte soa tow mens (a). Survey lines should be as few as practicable, and such that the frame-work can be plotted. aon (b). If possible, a long line should be run through the middle of the area to form a base line on which to hang the triangles. fe 3 (c). Triangles should be well conditioned>wel] Cerditioned means 120 Location Skeich SNe oe Figure 2.8 Calvert on oT 7 v Nol Dred 2.2.4. Measurements (Running Survey Lines} After the preliminary planning and marking of stations are completed, the chaining may be started preferably from the base line. Starting from one station, measurements are taken along the survey lines. ‘The work in chaining a survey line consists of : (i. Chain the line (measure the chain lengths) (ii). Locate the details, by taking offsets in order of their chainages. 2.2.5, Note Keeping It is essential to book the observations simultaneously with the field-work of any kind of surveying. Standard booking procedures are followed in keeping the field notes. : 14In chain surveying, two methods are available to book a chain line: (i). center . line method, and (ji). directional method. Center Dnenedod Figure 2.9 Examples for some field book pages: so.@/2ns Aans [na om pret rm Sproat 30]s0 = 206 Figure 2.10“Where ave Stipes 2 exPrassiow of Sante, | . : Whe of 8 1am =45m' «>? Jenw on the plan=> #5 on actual grund. niyjpc 028 1 3600 271 Length unit on plan => B09 of Same Legtn units on Actual Np HoweleY, bbe or ¢ bipe 02 oe will ne be Ont ga 4 see 3. ii i . ae 2, 23.ScaleinPlotting "> Br forbs Sr boassctanv. f & pees eds Asscale is used for plotting the measured information available in the field book. Plotting is done using a pencil on a drawing sheet. Three types of scales are in use: (1). Type of: Lem = 75m—> each cm on the drawing sheet represents 75m on the ground iy (Q):Type of: 1:5000-> each length unit on the drawing sheet represents 5000 units onthe ground =, (ie. 1 cm on the sheet is 5000 cm or 50m on the actual ground). @). Type of giving the scale on line. sok : i al itd, 90 apn ago lose m, ros fe af exfpression ascot a ee es val even / ; & Subsidiory é The chainages from which off-sets were taken are wiangle marked out along the chain lines and the off-set lengths are scaled off at right angles. Where much Figure 2.12 detail need to be shown, off-set points should be joined up as they are plotted. toot he ost seale Following mistakes are to be noted and guarded against : (). Plotting offsets from wrong points. (ii). Plotting offsets on wrong side of the chain-line. (iii). Omitting offsets. (iv). Joining up wrong offsets. ’ (w). Scaling chainages from wrong end of the lines. 2.4,3, Inking and Finishing of Plan Figure 2.13 After all the pencil work is over, the inking of the plan can be started. Chain lines, picket circles, line pickets and the indication of pickets will be in Prussian Blue. Everything else on the plan will be in Indian Ink, The plan should be provided with a north line, heading, scale and a legend; also the name of the person who has done the survey and plotting, and the date. See Figure 2.14. 2.4.4. Conventional Symbols It is advised to use appropriate symbols when surveying. A list of conventional symbols used in the United Kingdom while taking the field notes‘and booking the details is given in Figure 2.15. 17[= Chicket Circle) Subsidiary Stations Che Pickels) a4 ? F SS. Check lines Figure 2.14 ee Post and rl fence Close ating HEH ees Se ee by Tand ==, ig potion ge and ditch to whieh it belongs Footoaths nae @ ‘Trees (plan) rn) la am Rough pasture Mh Oo ae Brushwood (reas included together) Building _Baen Glasshouse ie Figure 2.1525, Errors and Mistakes in Chaining the Tapin; Me Sor ane Mistakes in Chaining the Taping Errors in ordinary chaining can be classified as follows according to how they affect the final results: Cumulative Errors (Systematic errors and some blunders) : These errors accumulate in one direction or the other. ‘The total chain distance will e either Breater or less than the actual length, Compensating Errors (Accidental errors and some blunders) ; These are accidental errors and ™may be in either direction, and hence they tend to Errors may be caused by erroneous instruments, lack of skill or experience on the Part Of the surveyor, mistakes in reading and booking, and inability to apply 2.5.1. Erroneous Length of Chain Cumulative error (+ or-) Positive exror : recording more than whats found on the ground; this occurs if a chain of length shorter than its nominal length is used; e.g. if a chain of nominal length 30.0m is actually only 298m lon we record 30m for every 298m of ground length. Here, the error is positive, and therefore the correction is negative. Negative error : recording less than what is found on the ground; this occurs if a chain of length longer than its nominal length is used; e.g. if a chain of nominal Jength 30.0m is actually 30.07m long, we record only 30m for every 30.07m of Bround length. Here, the error is negative and therefore the correction is positive, chain itself, or (i), correcting the measurements taken, 25.2. Bad Ranging Cumulative ® Bad rarging This does not seriously affect the length x of the line, but the adverse effect is B Serious when the off-sets are taken. Plan view Figure 2.16 1925.3. Bad Straightening Cumulative (+) If the chain lies curved on the plan, it aS affects the length of the line similar to plan view the case of bad ranging. Offsets are more affected. Figure 2.17 25.4, Non-horizontality Cumulative (+) This error generally occurs during stepping, when surveying on slopes. This also arises from disregarding flat slopes (gentle slopes). The exror is always positive (we measure a greater length than the actual length). See Figure 2.18. Not horizontal Stepping The curve formed by suspended Figure 2.18 Chain is known as” "Catenary” Figure 2.19 25.5. Sag Cumulative (+) See Figure 2.19. When the chain is stretched in the air either in stepping or in measuring over small undulations or obstructions, it will always sag. Thus the distance measured between the ends is more than the actual length (+ ve error). The sag varies with : (a). the weight of the tape, (b). the pull exerted at the two ends of the tape, and (c). the distance between the points of support. ihe error is minimized by : (). Suspending short lengths only, and (i). Pulling firmly, or (ii). Placing the chain or tape on proper supports, 25.6, Careless Holding and Marking. Compensating errors (+) The error is produced by (i). Holding of the chain to one or the other side of the Pole, (i). Fixing arrows, sometimes on one side, and at other times, on the other Side of the true line, and (ii). wrong plumbing (verticalty). See Figure 2.20 ne 20ee bron postions (Shrvey tine) i Plan view A @ o pana Figure 2.20 2.5.7. Variation of Pull (or tension) Compensating (+) In ordinary surveying, this error is not serious. The pull may be too much sometimes, and too little at other times, and thus one compensates the other. To maintain a constant pull, a spring balance may be used. (If pull is greater than the standard, the chain will be too long, and if pull is lesser than the standard, the chain will be too short). 2.5.8. ‘Temperature Variations Compensating (4) This is not very important in ordinary surveying, but in accurate surveying a correction should be applied. This is positive when the temperature is more than the standard, and negative when itis less. 2.6. Mistakes 2.6.1. Displacement of Arrows While chaining, ie. drawing the chain, the arrow may be knocked out and replaced at another wrong point which may lead to the error. To avoid this, before fixing the arrow, mark the point with an X. 2.6.2, Miscounting of Chain Lengths This error may be due to the loss of an arrow, or miscounting the number, and is a serious mistake, The mistake can be avoided, if at each chain, the follower picks up the arrow planted by the leader, and also as a check, both the leader and the follower check the number with each and tally the total. Back end of chain nd of held by follower Front held bi y ‘\ cS LALI leader —>—— Chaining progresses forward in this direction. a Figure 2.212.6.3. Misreading For example, reading the mark 10 in place of 20. To avoid this, one should check it at once, and read the correct one. or, for example, reading the number 20.5 as 25 (the number is read wrongly). 2.6.4. Erroneous Booking Instead of booking a figure as 5.79, it may be recorded as 5.97. To avoid the error, the chainman can read the number loudly, and the recorder should repeat it loudly, 2.6.5. Reading with Offset First and Chainage Later The recorder (or surveyor) should check while chaining, 2.6.7, Reading and/or booking right for left and vise-versa 2.7. Corrections to Measured Lengths 2.7.1, Standardization Correction If the length of the tape of nominal length lis I + 4 the error per unit length is + on. If the measured length is dm, and the true length is di, then, = dnl + 2) £ dt = dm & dm. + when chain is too long. ~ when chain is too short. (see Section 2.5.1) 2.7.2. Correction for Slope The correction is always subtractive. This is normally applied before the standardization and temperature corrections. sed), Si tion C = L-VP-# a cee lope correct =1-¥P- “AE If is measured instead of h, A C = L-LCos @ = L(1-Cos 0) Reaheigint difference es ae Vo (natty (Ue HE an - HD ie abet (oss oH Te aerneusuved fing CORRECTION FOR. SEA LEVEL -EORRECTION FOR SEA LEVEL Correction = L-L, = (Qan)O-RO \ = HO =H 2 LH (gsr) an R 2.7.3, Correction for Temperature a \ If the temperature in the field is more/ less than the temp. at which chain is standardized, the length of chain increases/ decreases, and therefore the correction is additive/ subtractive. Temp. correction C; = @ (Tm ~Ta) L coeff. of thermal expansion mean temp. in the field during measurement standard temperature for the tape measured length 2.7.4, Correction for Pull or Tension If the pull applied during measurement is more/less than the pull at which the tape was standardized, the length of tape increases/ decreases, and therefore the correction is positive/ negative. - @-2), Itis given by, C, GE where, pull applied during measurement standard pull measured length cross-sectional area of the tape Young's modulus of elasticity mut mart 2.7.5. Correction for Sag The difference between horizontal distance and the measured length along catenary is called the ‘sag correction’ and is always negative. The sag correction C, is given by, 3 = £lwe? sap where, £ = length of the tape suspended between the supports p = pullapplied w = weight of the tape per unit length The desired shape of chain Actual ° Shape w of chain Figure 2.23 Ccaterarg) 232.8. Obstacles in Chain Surveying 4 (a). Visibility from Intermediates : Required to align C and D on the line AB. Figure 2.24 (b). Non-visibility from Intermediates Obstacles to Ranging (and not chaining) Place ranging pole at Di and range in Ci on line ADj. From Bi observe Ci and range in Dz on to line BC1. « From Ai observe D2 and range in C; on to line AD3. Repetition will produce Cs, Cy and Ds, Ds ete. until C and D lie on the line AB. This method is known as reciprocal ranging. Required to measure a long line AB on which A and B are not intervisible and intermediate points on this line are not possible. Set out a random line AD close to AB. From 8B, find the perpendicular BC to the line AD. Measure AC & BC. Calculate AB = VAC? + BC.2.8.2. Obstacles to Chaining (and not ranging) (a). Obstacles can be chained around There are many possible ways to perform this, e.g. slit A mt" eee et out 4, _-perpenticulars Set out Co. Measure Ce and Bb and Cc. Be. tine” SO) Compute BC = VBe'y Cc? fegge Then be= BC a ge 5 Be>30m 2 D (i). pA Co i 1 Figure 2.26 Set out line Dd. At d set out the right angle to give C on the chain Tine, Measure Dé and Ca Compute BC = YCd*Da* (b). Obstacles cannot be chained around : ‘A river or stream represents this type of obstacle, ‘There are many possible solutions, og @. A random line CB; is set out. From perpendiculars at D and B, points d and e are obtained. By similar triangles ed D and Ce, >30m_ 4 © _(co+ 08) aes Dd Ee DE x Dd “CD = pa) 25In this method, a right angle need not bbe set out. e Triangles CDX and EX are identical. \ 4 eae 8 N Figure 2.27 (©). Obstacles to both ranging and chaining Some obstacles, e.g. a building, prevents the line from being ranged and, thus, produced beyond the obstacle. These problems can be tackled as follows : (i). Bysetting out right angles On the line ABC, right angles are set out at B and C to produce By and C;., where BB, = cc). f B,C; is now produced to give Di and Ey where right angles are set out to give D and E; so that D,\D =E,E =C:C=B,B. Now D and E are on the line ABC produced, with CD, = CD. On the chain line ABC, a length BC is measured and an equilateral triangle BCD is set up (i.e. BC = CD = DB). BD is extended to a suitable point F, and a length EF measured and an equilateral A EFG is set up (to give the direction of line FGHJ), Line FG is extended to J such that BF =F. : Since CBD = EFG = 60", BEI is an 3 equilateral 4, with BJ = BF = EJ. An Figure 228 equilateral triangle JIH is set up at J, to give the continuation of chain line ABC as UK. 26AleneeS ory 2.8. Perpendiculars to chain lines There are two cases to consider: (1). Dropping a perpendicular from a point to a line; and (2). Setting out a line at right angles to the survey line from a given point on the chain/ steel band. 1. (@). May use eye-estimation for short offsets. Although this is often practiced, this is not an accurate method. (©). Swing the end of the tape on the chain line, while keeping the far (zero) end fixed at the offset point, and take the point on the chain which gives the least off-set distance on the tape. (©). As a variation of the above method, with the free end of the tape at centre P (the point), strike an arc to cut the tape at A and B (Figure 229(a)). Bisect AB at Q. The angle PQA is 90°. : 2. (a). Use cross-staff. (b). Use Optical square/ prism square. (©) Pythagoras’ theorem (3,45 rule, or any multiple thereof, say 9,12,15).; with the zero end of the tape at P (Figure 2.29(b)), take the 24m mark on the tape to A, where AP=12m on the band. Take the 9m mark on the tape in the hand and, ensuring that the tape is securely held at A and P, pull both parts of the tape taut to Q. Then angle APQ = 90°. (@). Take A and B on the band so that PA = PB (Figure 2.8(c )). Strike arcs from A and B with equal radii to intersect at Q. Then angle APQ = 90°. © om Les survey BSS 5 ine a Survey bi ‘suney a a iam tne ~fo pate @ wa «ed Figure 2.29 27\unbeine ae 5. eee... “Bip wai esac Ents (2 the slide Shing howe A e— Reaechat 3, LEVELLING ~ weight cz, ys Levelling is the art of ending the relative heights and depths of the objects on the surface of the earth. Itis that \Z part of surveying which deals with the measurements in the vertical plane. 4 Levelling is of prime importance to an engineer for the purposes of planning, designing and~executing the various engineering projects such as roads, railways, canals, dams, water supply and sanitary schemes, etc. Level surface is a surface which is at all points normal to the direction of gravity as indicated by the plumb line. Owing to the form of the earth, a level surface is not a plane and does ROP Rave a regular form because of the local deviations of the plumb line caused by irregular distribution of the mass of the earth’s crust The surface of a lake shows a level surface. See Figure 3.1. oink A Hoxienta eae oan ec. rab ke on A se Chron A Sing diocore! mi akone MSL) Cry line one \evel sinlaca tsalevelline) Horizon foe e Plumb kine \ Phinb fine. Ghectnn of peihs Figure 3.1 The basic equipment required in leveling are; (i). a device which gives a truly horizontal line (the level). (ii). a suitably graduated staff for reading vertical heights (the leveling staff). A Level Line : This is a line throughout on one level surface, and is normal to the direction of gravity at all points. (A level-line is a line which is at a constant height relative to Mean Sea Level [MSL], and since it follows the mean surface of the earth, it must be a curve). ‘The Horizontal Plane : The horizontal plane passing through a point isa plane normal to the direction of gravity at that point. Thus it js tangential to the level surface at that point and normally coincides with itin ordinary limits of sight. the lal ae Joo S ferrari Uine| Surface. ag gchés tance bane 2 vicinity oh dpseney. (evel tnghament) & heprizonta dime |plane andl level Surdeieai} dene almost Grinedides Conorats negligible) 28Serres. ‘A Horizontal Line : A horizontal line through a point is any line on the horizontal plane. A horizontal line is tangent to a level line through the same point and having the same direction. Datum Surface : This is an arbitrary level surface (ot line) to which the elevation of points may be referred. ‘The Reduced Level : (RLL.) The reduced level of a point is its elevation above the datum adopted. It is also known as elevation of the point. (The elevation is positive or negative according as point lies above or below the datum). . Mean Sea Level (MS.L) : This is the level at some selected station on a coast and is the usual datum to which heights are referred. This is the mean height of the surface of the sea during an indefinitely long period. The accepted MS.L. are the means of the hourly heights extending over 65 years. of Collimation : A telescope is used for leveling work, The imaginary line joining the intersection of the cross-hairs of the diaphgram to the optical center of the object glass of the telescope and the continuation of this line is known as the line of collimation. It is also called the line of sight. terion om object lens Dinphoegen 8 c d Diterence’ neil Byeptece | Make oa ioation — Telesepe Faitrofowaied 7 Figure 3.2 Figure 33 Levelling : Levelling is the determination of the relative heights of points (ie. altitudes of points) on the earths’ surface. 3.1, The Levelling Staff Several types of graduated staff are aveilable - the two important ones are; (i). Telescopic Staff 4m or 5m on extension. Closed length depends on the extended eit tended . Leteting -stadf tel escopf Py Giraduaked eC Preaide level SH 29 (F335) “These are made of mahogany or metal (aluminium alloy). May be of length Oe con bbe Gas: seek" Two methods 6 Leveling © Cltimabion meted @® Rise and fat moethedee Ne ee ” a ee ae ee @ relescobl eleor Part must bee extended sy On the staff, upright figuring with graduations 10mm deep spaced at 10mm intervals are painted, the lower three graduations in each 100mm interval being connected by a vertical band to form an E shape (natural or reversed). suneyrg stats nate telserope onatucin ef feurth st Figure 3.4 In some staffs, a small circular spirit level is attached to the staff to enable it to be held vertically. In imperial staff (inches), a foot is divided into 100 divisions, _ by graduations 0.01' deep -spaced at 0.01 intervals. Intervals of 50mm or 100mm are located by these E shapes. ‘The graduations on the first meter length are coloured black or a white background, with the next meter length showing red gradtations, and so on, alternatively. ea Senn THAI ene pet ®refore any levelling work, tachona, fest Gratin Jandé sole level mgtomang. Same levelg Gre ° 5 tse tei of whey me Rending pug’veoh! : centre 4] \eetistable tay, (ii). Precise Levelling Staff — “elt This (Figure 3.5) is used for more accurate work, (along with a precise level, Figure 3,7). A graduated invar strip is fitted in a wooden frame, being fastened at the bottom and spring mounted at the top so that the calibrated length is unaffected by temperature effects on the frame. Two folding handles and a circular level bubble tube are also provided, and the staff is placed on a steal base plate and supported on two struts of adjustable length, hinged at the top. The staff can be rotated under the hinge. Figure 3.5 3.2, Level The surveyor's level is an instrument designed to give a horizontal line of sight. It consists essentially of a bubble tube attached to the telescope, axis of the bubble tube and the line,of collimation being parallel to each other.’ The instrument is provided with leveling screws by which the bubble is centered and the line of collimation brought into horizontal plane. Conventional levels may be, in general, classified into two types : 1. Dumpy Level (or Gravatt Level) Semi - aulomatic level ( Yainw coleured) 2, Engincer’s Level or Tilting Level = EE has only & civculay bubble. toz bublole tale. 1m addition, there are precise levels and geodetic levels, many of which employ the tilting principle. The instrument (level) is mounted on a tripod, and readings are taken by aiming the horizontal telescope at graduated staffs held (vertically) at points where the RLs aré required. In leveling work, back-sights, fore-sights and intermediate sights are used. ; valor eat OF class Wn atts © casings i Cen Whervé cicila bubble gale Center SE eyenadl etched errcle. Hhé mshement 1s, 3! an bre (atpnimatels) Leet (en e horizantal ane) ewaullay + Ble pilbble.larelirg Vrews. ‘Civailay yoase of tie level fobe, a Crallay Bude, B Levelling 4 srotton)., somnlantbeg tet Figure 3.6 Wild N3 Precision Level. Figure 3.7 jellodne_, erp 04 collimation. =a Pin i Bubbie Tabe 1 | Fiternal Focussing is Telescepe. Figure 3.8 Figure 3.9 Bench Mark anal 400m MSL. Turning Point Oe ce Ghangd Feingy - fermectiate Point ae ee . Thtermediate Point Figure 3.10Back Sight (B.S.) or Back Sight Reading : It is a staff reading taken on a point of known RL, as on a bench mark or a change point (turning point). It is the first staff reading after the level is set up and leveled, Fore Sight (F.S.) or Fore Sight Reading : It is a staff reading taken ona point whose RL. is to be determined. [tis the last staff reading taken before shifting of the level to another position. Intermediate Sight (1.S.) or Inter Sight Reading : It is any reading other than foresight and back-sight taken on a point of unknown R.L. from the same set up of the level. All readings taken between the back and fore sight readings are called inter sight readings. 3.2.1. Dumpy Level * Un the model type of the dumpy level, the vertical spindle and telescope barrel are cast in one pieced The bubble tube is mounted on the left hand side of the telescope, and a small circular bubble mounted on the upper plate of the levelling head enables a preliminary levelling up of the instrument to be made. pines ST pee Neicle cate spindle = - Figure 3.11 ‘The design gives the maximum of rigidity while the reduction in height adds to the stability. Accessory feature are the internal focusing telescope, screw focusing of the eye-piece and the bubble reflector (foldable mirror). Levelling of the instrument not only makes the line of sight horizontal but also makes the vertical axis truly vertical. : ‘The sequence to bring the instrument ready for use : (). Screw the lower plate of the level on the head of tripod whose legs have been opened and firmly fixed on the ground. The circular bubble should be made nearly central. sf Gr Vhenz collivaatio arcs 1g made horizontal (using & standard leveling brs “theSbandle quas 12 auttormtiany Nevtitle. "8 re Persie he felescebe ayers cont} sweepa horizental Plime about verttele shindle Qxt8 dnd ies Fe ani number of realGs ane ten after Jeveting & Instant a no(i). Turn telescope parallel to two of the screws, and by turning these two screws, the bubble in the tube is made central. (The two screws are rotated in opposite directions +> one clockwise and other anti-clockwise) (iii). Rotate telescope by 90°, and bring the bubble in tube to centte using the remaining screw. Repeat operations (ii) & (iii) to check that bubble in the tube remains central at any positing of the telescope. @tmre o y ro Figure 3.12 Figure 313 (iv). Focussing of Level (Telescope) Obie ocadng spt fear a Isnth# Te epg Object fezuera—_Dlaphnan ‘This is done in two steps: Get & Clear -tmage af & Coae—hary (1). Focussing the eye-piece a anon vida of the cross-hairs at diaphragm: Point the telescope towards the sky or hold a-piece of white paper in front of the telescope. Move the eye-piece in and out until a distinct and sharp black image of the cross-hairs is seen. leavers -hair Obtaned by mowine € ey, °C? Look af ectorge- UG tece an and sub. Of. Focussing the 24 for bringing the object into the plane of the sera fend image by turning. & fo cussing Sve . (D teditater affrmdenate leveling. ODN _ se) rake Anc| uge Seveult) a Q O~ - bs center = but Ctretlartatise . able tulb<| felescobe .fap 'E image ts format and crosshairs vo Parallax ie general at right angles to the vertical axis, the telescope should be levelled using the micrometer screw before every observation. N) auncl bortgg: bed 2B levelling sigrews Focussing of the Level (Telescope) is achieved by the same procedure as described for the Dumpy level (Section 3.2.1). 8 Sey 4 10 4 ‘y&Direct the telescope towards the staff Coss Kono ie 2, & mand turn the focussing screw until a Slevelled by fine-setting screw independent of the vertical axis. Thus the line of © 57 8 collimation is not in general at right angles to the vertical axis. This type of level 10 -£ 2) Ys suitable for precise work but is also used for ordinary leveling. oa P ary leveling. a8 ye Bubble mde Diphrap seam fe 2 alk The tilting level has three yee levelling screws attached to the Vase plate carrying the telescope, in z wy ¥ addition to the fine-setting screw. 2 oy 2 Re < ‘The plate carrying the telescope a ie is approximately leveled using = Pave “Tieng serew these three foot screws. 8a Sg iieataes igure 3.15 Bly S| ta Figure 3. 8 36 u| = wO8 When a staff reading is about to be taken, the bubble in the main level (attached ee to the telescope) is centered exactly by means of the fine setting screw 3 Pe) ly by eg & (micrometer screw). This tilts the telescope. Since the telescope axis is not in & pe, op a\é €E] ze z 6 ‘An advantage of the tilting level is that it can be exactly levelled just before each reading using, the fine setting screw. Another advantage is that some time is saved when setting up the instrument, since it is sufficient to only roughly level Ditetelscthe is nor eyidly comecterl to z Slpindle. ® the telescolae an be belbd and nalé horizental foy ead Erling. bow Gtme-setteng) S cvew- @ Belpre cach vading we cles wheter Z bubble Yuloe isaao. centerfP] wr this fakes mere Lime 14 vumber of reaclirg serve Aalten Some Same Sekt bat gsork Is mote Otara fe . Wy Yeading byeit using the leveling screws (foot screws), and the fine leveling can be done rapidly after some practice. However, if large numbers of readings are to be taken from the same instrument location, the tilting level is more time consuming than the dumpy level. Since the line of sights is perpendicular to the vertical axis in a dumpy level, a series of, intermediate sights can be obtained without the necessity for adjusting the leveling screws. 3.3. Some Terms used in Levelling Work Height of Instrument (H.L) : It is the R.L. of the line of collimation when the instrument is correctly levelled, * Note : the height of instrument does not mean the height of the center of the telescope above the ground where the level is set up. » A Station : Any point where the staff is held and the reading taken during the process of levelling is called a station. Note that this is a point where the staff is held and not a point where the level is set up. Change Point (C.P.) : It is a staff station on which two sights FS. and B.S are taken and is used for the purpose of changing the position of the instrument. (this should be any firm point which can be easily located e.g. rock, plinth, rail, parapet, etc.). This is also referred to as a Turning Point (T-P.) Bench Mark (B.M) : A fixed reference point of known elevation. There are permanent bench marks on permanent features like culverts, bridges, plinths etc, established by the Survey Department. ‘If the RL. of a well-defined point is arbitrarily assumed for a small leveling operation, that is called an arbitrary B.M. Temporary bench marks are established so that work for the day can be stopped at that point, and leveling is resumed next day from that point. Focussing of Level (Telescope) : This procedure is done in two parts; ie, Focussing the eye-piece: Point the telescope towaids the sky or hold a piece of white paper in front of the telescope. Move the eye-piece in and out until a distinct and sharp black image of the cross-hairs is seen. Focussing the Object-glass: Direct the telescope towards the staff and turn the focussing screw until a clear and sharp image of the staff graduations is obtained. Parallax is completely eliminated if there is no change in the staff reading when the eye is moved up and down. 363.4._Level-Book and Reduction of Levels Level-book : The levelling field-notes are entered in a note book called a level- ‘book. The pages of a level-book are printed in a tabular form so as to facilitate booking of reading and reduction of levels. Reduction of Levels : There are two methods of working out the reduced levels of the points from the staff readings taken in the field. These are : 1. Collimation Method (or Height of Instrument Method) 2. Rise and Fall Method 3.4.1. Collimation Method It consists in finding the elevation of the plane of collimation (.e. H.I) for every setting of the instrument and then obtaining the reduced levels of the points with reference to the respective plane of collimation. Level-Book Page by Collimation Method Back | Intermediate | Fore | Instrument | Reduced | Remarks | Distance Sight | __Sight _| Sight | _ Height | Level 6.38 56.38 50.00 |Peg A 597 1a7 | 61.18 55.21. |on TPB - - 2.10 59.08 ie 635 54.83 D 10.20 50.98 E 153 822 | 54.49 52.96 |onTP F 0.90 53.59 G 3.76 50.73 H 73.88 13.15 13.15 0.73 Arithmetic check = Last R.L.- First RL, CSODThis check verifies the calculation of R-L.s of the planes of collimation and of the change points only. There is no check on the reduction of RLs of the intermediate points. Any mistake in the calculation of back or fore-sights will be carried throughout. : * Any mistake in calculation of an intermediate point will be undetécted, as is does not affect readings at any other station. This is a disadvantage. BN’ 50,00 Figure 3.16 3.4.2._Rise and Fall Method E In this method, the difference between consecutive points is calculated by comparing each point after the first with that immediately preceding it. The differences in staff readings indicate rises or falls. If a staff reading is greater than the preceding teading, then there is a fall. If otherwise, there is a rise. A level-book page according to this method is shown on the next page. : Arithmetic checks on the accuracy of reduction of levels : DY BS.- PFS. =) Rise— > Fall = Last RL.— First RL. * There is a complete check on the reduction of R.L.s of intermediate stations, 38Level-Book Page by Rise and Fall Method Back | Intermediate | Fore | Rise | Fall | Distance | Reduced | Remarks Sight | Sight | Sight| + -_| Level | | 6.38 | 50.00 |Peg A 5.97 -| a7 | 521 55.21 |on TPB 2:10 387 59.08 ¢ 6.35 425 54.83 D 10.20 3.85 50.98 E 1.53 8.22 | 198 52.96 |on TP F 0.90 0.63 53.59 G 3.76 2.86 50.73 H 13.88 13.15 | 11.69 | 10.96 13.15 10.96 073 073 =I 3.4.3. Checking the accuracy of the leveling operation To check the accuracy of leveling field work, it is often necessary to fly-back (return) from the end point (B) to the starting point (A) after finishing the usual leveling from A to B. The path of fly-back (return) need not coincide with the path of the original levelling path, and usually is performed with back-sights and fore-sights only (usually no intermediate sights). This is the only procedure available to check the accuracy of an open ended leveling operation. Alternatively, if the leveling work is commenced with a Bench Mark and finished with another Bench Mark, fly-back is not necessary. 3.4.4._Comparison of the collimation and Rise and Fall Methods of Reduction of Levels : ation Method Rise and Fall Method 1. In the case of more intermediate 1. It is a labourious method as staff readings, there is considerable reading of each point on the saving of labour and time as it ground, after the first is compared involves only a few calculations. with that ‘preceding it, and the difference entered as a rise or a fall. 39y There is no check on the RL. s of 2, There is a complete check on the intermediate stations. reduction of R.Ls of intermediate : stations. 3. There is one check for arithmetic 3. There are 2 checks for arithmetic accuracy. accuracy. 4. It is generally used for longitudinal 4. It is generally used for earth work and cross leveling operations and calculations and other precise for giving levels of roads and canals _leveling operations. and similar constructional works. 3.45. Booking the Staff Readings The following should be kept in view while entering the staff readings in a level book = 1. The reactings should be entered in the respective columns as soon as they are taken in the order of their observation, 2. The first entry on the level-book-page is always a BS, and the last one a FS. 3. The fore and back sights of the turning (change) points should be written in the same horizontal line. The ELL should be written on the same horizontal line opposite the BS. While carrying forward the readings from one page of the level book to the next, if the last reading is an, intermediate sight, it is entered in both 1S, and FS, columns on this page, and in 1, and B.S. columns as the first entzy gn the next page. The entries in the remaining columns should also be repeated on the next page. 6. Brief description with neat sketches in respect of Bench Marks, change (turning) points and other important points should be given in the remarks column, ae 3.5. Errors in Levelling and their Prevention Main sources or error in levelling : Instrumental errors Errors of manipulation Errors due to settlement of level and staff Common mistakes in levelling Errors due to natural causes gp eV 40‘1. Instrumental Errors : (a). Imperfect Adjustment :- The line of collimation should be parallel to the axis of the level tube. If they are not parallel, an error is introduced, which is proportional to the length of the sight. This error can be eliminated by : (1). Testing and adjusting the instrument, and (2). By selecting equal distances for back sights and fore sights. (b). Defective Level Tube :- The bubble should not be sluggish (then it will remain at the centre even when ‘the tube is not horizontal) or overly sensitive (then much time will be wasted in levelling the instrament). (9. Shaky Tripod :- Tripod should be checked and tightened. (@). Incorrect Graduation of Staff :- New staffs should be checked for the correciness of graduations using an invar tape. (. Wear of Staff :- Readings may be incorrect due to wear of staff at the joints orat the bottom. Wear at bottom is knowm as the zero error, and if the same staff is used throughout, there is no error in the RL.s. 2. Errors due to manipulation :- (a). Careless Levelling of Instrument :- The bubble should be central before and after observation, (b). Careless Handling of Instrument :- The instrument should not be unnecessarily handled or no vertical pressure should be exerted on the instrument while turning. (©). The Staff not being held vertically :- This error is minimized by swinging the staff and taking the reading which corresponds to the least height. The waving (of the staff) should be done in the direction of the line of sight only. For readings below 1m, swinging the staff is not necessary (the error for small readings is negligible). Note : For precise level work, the staff itself has a circular level bubble. (@). The Parallax not removed properly :- Parallax should be completely eliminated before any reading. . 413. Errors due to Settlement of Level and Staff (a). Settlement of Level ;- If the level is set up on soft ground, if will gradually settle between the BS. and FS, thus making the FS, lesser than what it should be. Level should be set up on firm ground, and legs thrust firmly. (b). Settlement of Staff = At change (turning) points, if the staff is held on soft ground, it will settle and the BS. will be larger than it should be. Change points should be selected on firm ground. (9. Displacement of Staff + At change (turning) points, the staff should be held exactly the same place during the F.S. and BS. 4, Common Mistakes in Levelling {a). The levelling-staff not being fully extended. (b). The staff held upside down. (0). Reading the staff in the wrong direction (d). Reading against stadia hairs instead of central hair (©). Omitting an entry (8. _ Entering a reading in wrong column (g). Making a reading with digits interchanged (reading wrong number of meters and decimeters) ‘The distance of important points should not exceed about 65m. 5, Errors due to Natural Causes (a). Wind :- If working in high winds, the instrument should be shielded. Larger staff readings should be avoided in windy conditions. (b). Sun + On hot sunny days, during the mid-day hours, the staff appears trembling (vibrating) near the ground and taking the correct readings (specially for long sights) becomes impossible. To avoid this : (i). Work may be suspended during hot hours; (ii). Line of sight should be kept as much above the ground as possible; (iii). Length of sight kept short.