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FLY ASH AS SUPPLEMENTARY CEMENTITIOUS

MATERIAL FOR CONCRETE

Undergraduate Design Project

Submitted to the Faculty of the
College of Engineering and Information Technology
Cavite State University
Indang, Cavite

In partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree
of Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

EZRA C. CAPILLO
RALPH T. CRUCILLO

APRIL 2016
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FLY ASH AS SUPPLEMENTARY CEMENTITIOUS

MATERIAL FOR CONCRETE

Ezra C. Capillo
Ralph T. Crucillo

________________________________________________________________________

An undergraduate design project manuscript submitted to the faculty of Department of

Civil Engineering, College of Engineering and Information Technology, Cavite State
University, Indang, Cavite in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering with Contribution No. ________. Prepared
under the supervision of Engr. Renato B. Cubilla.
________________________________________________________________________

INTRODUCTION

In its most basic form, concrete is a mixture of Portland cement, sand, coarse

aggregate and water. The principal cementitious material in concrete is Portland cement.

Today, most concrete mixtures contain supplementary cementitious materials that make

up a portion of the cementitious component in concrete. One of these examples is ash, a

byproduct of coal-fired furnaces. In this study, the primary material to be used is the ash

came out from steel plant and coal plant.

Fly ash is used as a supplementary cementitious material (SCM) in the production

of portland cement concrete. A supplementary cementitious material, when used in

conjunction with portland cement, contributes to the properties of the hardened concrete

through hydraulic or pozzolanic activity, or both. As such, SCM's include both pozzolans

and hydraulic materials. A pozzolan is defined as a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous

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material that in itself possesses little or no cementitious value, but that will,in finely

divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide at

ordinary temperatures to form compounds having cementitious properties. Pozzolans that

are commonly used in concrete include fly ash, silica fume and a variety of natural

pozzolans such as calcined clay and shale, and volcanic ash. SCM's that are hydraulic in

behavior include ground granulated blast furnace slag and fly ashes with high calcium

contents (such fly ashes display both pozzolanic and hydraulic behavior).

Steel is manufactured from iron ore mostly using blast furnace (BF) and basic

oxygen furnace (BOF) and using electric arc furnace (EAF) in case of manufactured from

scrap materials. Solid wastes in steel plants are essential by-products generated during

various processing steps involved in the production of iron and steel. Solid wastes

generated by integrated iron and steel works cause environmental pollution and therefore

must be discarded. Source of solid wastes generated in steel industries is thus coke oven

by product plant, sinter plant, refractory materials plant, blast furnace, basic oxygen

furnace, steel melting shop, rolling mill. The types of solid wastes in steel industry are

mainly classified as coke and coal dust, BF slag, SMS slag, mill scale, scrap, oil sludge,

fly ash, acid sludge, refractory wastes etc. Mill scale, often shortened to just scale, is the

flaky surface of hot rolled steel, consisting of the iron oxides iron(II)

oxide (FeO), iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3), and iron(II,III) oxide (Fe3O4, magnetite).

Coal is a combustible, sedimentary, organic rock, which is composed mainly of

carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. It is formed from vegetation, which has been consolidated

between other rock strata and altered by the combined effects of pressure and heat over

millions of years to form coal seams.

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In this study, the wastes coming from the steel and coal plant were used as

supplementary material for cement. Various mixture proportions was conducted in order

to determine the right amount of material to be mixed with cement to produce a good

quality concrete.

In view of high cost of concrete mixture, it is essential to search cheaper raw

materials which may give similar effect to those of the known construction materials and

at the same time they should be readily available.

Statement of the Problem

The primary problem of the study is to determine, compare and investigate the

economical proportion of cement using steel plant waste (mill scale) and coal plant waste

(coal ash) as partial substitution that will produce concrete mixture which can provide the

standard strength for concrete.

Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this study was to determine if the steel plant waste (mill

scale) and coal plant waste (coal ash) can be used as supplementary cement material for

concrete and determine which has better compressive strength.

Specifically, it aimed to:

1. apply the knowledge of the researcher acquired in the civil engineering program

2. obtain the most economical proportion of mixtures of cement and coal ash and

cement and mill scale as a partial substitute for cement in producing concrete, and

3. determine the compressive strengths of the concrete mixtures and specimens.

4. compare the compressive strengths of the concrete mixtures and specimens.

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Significance of the Study

The result of this study served as guide for students, designers, and practitioners

of civil and structural engineering in determining the appropriate material, mix

proportioning and statistical design method. This also served as future reference material

for those who want to continue and make further research regarding this study.

If proven that coal ash and mill scale are economical to use and has the same

effects like the commercial available cement, then it help reduce the amount of cost in

construction. This would also give a solution to the waste management problem while

minimizing the consumption of cement.

Scope and Limitation of the Study

The study focused on the technical evaluation and analysis of the properties and

proportioning of the materials to be used in producing concrete specimens. This is also

limited to the evaluation of data of the compressive strength of concrete mixed with

different amount using 10, 20, and 30 percent of steel plant waste and coal plant waste

ash as supplementary cementitious material.

Time and Place of the Study

The study was conducted at Cavite State University - Indang Cavite from October

2012 to March 2016.

Definition of Terms

Aggregate. It is a granular material, such as sand, gravel, crushed stone, crushed

hydraulic-cement concrete, or iron blast-furnace slag, used with a hydraulic cementing

medium to produce either concrete or mortar.

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Cement. It is an adhesive or glue, which when set binds particles of fine

aggregate together to produce mortar.

Cementitious Materials. Any of various building materials which may be mixed

with a liquid, such as water, to form cement base substance, and to which an aggregate

may be added; includes cements, limes, and mortar

Compressive strength. It is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand

loads tending to reduce size, as opposed to tensile strength, which withstands loads

tending to elongate.

Concrete. It is a mixture of portland cement or any other hydraulic cement, fine

aggregate, coarse aggregate, and water, with or without admixtures.

Sand. It is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely

divided rock and mineral particles. It is defined by size, being finer than gravel and

coarser than silt.

Silica. It is also known as Silicon dioxide (SiO2) and usually present in cement to

the extent of about 30 percent.

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REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Concrete Materials and Their Properties

The maximum size of coarse aggregate is 20mm used in reinforced cement

concrete work of all types of structures. This is obtained by crushing the stone boulders

of size 100 to 150 mm in the stone crushers. Then it is sieved and the particles passing

through 20 mm and retained on 10 mm sieve known as course aggregate. The particles

passing through 4.75 mm sieve are called as quarry dust. The quarry dust is used to

sprinkle over the newly laid bituminous road as filler between the bitumen and coarse

aggregate and manufacturing of hollow blocks (International Journal of Scientific and

Research Publications, Volume 3, Issue 12, December 2013 1 ISSN 2250-3153).

Concrete

Concrete is a construction material composed of cement (commonly Portland

cement) as well as other cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag cement,

aggregate (generally a coarse aggregate such as gravel, limestone or granite, plus a fine

aggregate such as sand), water, and chemical admixtures. Concrete solidifies and hardens

after mixing with water and placement due to a chemical process known as hydration.

Cement

In the most general sense of the word, cement is a binder, a substance which sets

and hardens independently, and can bind other materials together. The name “cement”

goes back to the Romans who used the term “opus caementitium” to describe masonry

which resembled concrete and was made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder.

Cements used in construction are characterized as hydraulic or non-hydraulic

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Types of Portland Cement

Through all Portland Cement is basically the same, eight types of cement are

manufactured to meet different physical and chemical requirements for specific

applications. Type I is a general purpose Portland cement suitable for most uses. Type II

is used for structures in water or soil containing moderate amounts of sulfate, or when

heat build-up is a concern. Type III cement provides high strength at an early state,

usually in a week or less. Type IV moderates heat generated by hydration that is used for

massive concrete structures such as dams. Type V cement resists chemical attack by soil

and water high in sulfates (http://www.cement.org/tech/cct_faqs.asp)

Pozzolan cement. It is an amorphous silica that harden as silica gel by reacting

chemically with alkali in the presence of water. The name Pozzolan is derived from

Pozzuoli, an Italian town where Pozzolana, a composition of glassy tuff, was found

(Fajardo, 2001).

Aggregates. These are inert materials when bound together into conglomerate

mass by Portland cement and water form a concrete, mortar or plaster. The aggregates

component is about 75 percent of the total mass of concrete (Fajardo, 2001).

Aggregates are classified into two categories:

Coarse Aggregate. This is a portion of an aggregates that is retained on number 4

(4.76 mm) sieve which is usually come from: (a) natural gravel deposits which are

formed by water, wind or glacial action and (b) manufactured by crushing rock, stone,

boulder, and large cobble stone (Fajardo, 2001).

Fine Aggregate. It is generally the product of natural disintegration of silica-

bearing or calcium-bearing rock. Fine aggregates or sand are those that passes through
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No. 4 sieve and predominantly retained by a No. 200 (74 micron) sieve. It is also

manufactured from large pieces of aggregate by crushing, grinding or rolling (Fajardo,

2001).

Basic Concepts

When aggregates and/or inert materials are bond together into a conglomerate

mass using Portland cement and water, they will be formed into concrete, mortar or

plaster. About seventy-five percent (75%) of the total mass of concrete are aggregates

that would densely pack the materials for a better strength of concrete, water resistance,

and economy of concrete.

Fine and coarse aggregates are the two classifications of natural aggregates. Fine

aggregates is generally the product of natural disintegration of silica bearing or calcium

bearing rock. Fine aggregates or sand are those that pass the no. 4 sieve and

predominantly retained by a no. 200 (74 micron) sieve. It is also manufactured by large

pieces of aggregate by crushing, grinding or rolling. Coarse aggregate is the portion of

aggregates that is retained on no. 4 (4.76 mm) sieve. These aggregates are the natural

gravel deposits, which are formed by water, wind or glacial action. Sometimes the coarse

aggregates are manufactured by crushing rock, stone, boulder and large cobblestones to

attain the desired dimensions of the materials. The conditions for maximum size of coarse

aggregates shall easily fit into the forms and in between reinforcing bars and it should not

be larger than one-fifth (1/5) of the narrowest dimension of the forms or one-third (1/3)

the depth of the slab nor three-fourths (3/4) of the minimum distance between reinforcing

bars.
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The five sources of aggregates are the following: recycled concrete, sand, gravel,

and crushed gravel, crushed stone, air-cooled blast-furnace slag and crushed hydraulic

cement concrete.

Strength and size of the aggregates affect the fracture properties of concrete

significantly since the presence of aggregates tends to increase the tortuosity of the

fracture path. Several researchers have investigated the effect of aggregate and specimen

sizes on the fracture parameters of brittle materials. Nallthambi et al. (1984) found that

the size and shape of the aggregate significantly affect the fracture toughness as a result

of the increased resistance for the propagating crack.

The American Society for Testing and Materials publishes an exhaustive listing of

specifications including ASTM D 692 and ASTM D 1073 for various construction

aggregate products, which, by their individual design, are suitable for specific

construction purposes. These products include specific types of coarse and fine aggregate

designed for such uses as additives to asphalt and concrete mixes, as well as other

construction uses. State transportation departments further refine aggregate material

specifications in order to tailor aggregate use to the needs and available supply in their

particular locations.

Sources for these basic materials can be grouped into three main areas: Mining of

mineral aggregate deposits, including sand, gravel, and stone; use of waste slag from the

manufacture of iron and steel; and recycling of concrete, which is itself chiefly

manufactured from mineral aggregates. In addition, there are some (minor) materials that

areusedasspecialtylightweightaggregates: clay, pumice, perlite,and vermiculite.

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_aggregate, Retrieved: August 2015)

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Characteristics of Concrete

Workability. Workability refers to the ability of a fresh concrete mix to fill the

form properly with the desired work and without reducing the concrete’s workability.

Workability depends on water content, chemical admixture, size and shape of the

aggregate, cement content and how far along the mix is in the hydration process

(www.rpi.edu/-casln/37/composition.html).

Expansion and shrinkage. Concrete has a very low coefficient of thermal

expansion, meaning its expansion is small with temperature increase. However if no

arrangements are made for allowing expansion very large forces can be created

(www.rpi.edu/-casln/37/composition.html).

Cracking. Hydration and hardening of concrete during the first three days is

critical. When concrete dries abnormally fast, which can be caused by factors like

evaporation from wind during setting, an increase in tensile stress takes place. This will

result in shrinkage cracks because the concrete has not gained significant strength during

a time in which the concrete has not gained significant strength (www.rpi.edu/-

casln/37/composition.html).

Durability. Concrete must be able to endure severe weather conditions such as

freezing and thawing, wetting and drying, heating and cooling, chemicals, deicing agents,

and the like. An increase of concrete durability will enhance concrete resistance to severe

weather conditions (www.rpi.edu/-casln/37/composition.html).

Strength. It is the capacity of the concrete to resist compression at the age of 28

days (www.rpi.edu/-casln/37/composition.html).
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Proportioning Concrete Mixture

Correct proportioning of the ingredients to produce concrete also provides a

balance between the requirements of economy, workability, strength, durability and

appearance. The right proportioning of all the ingredients for concrete is the most

difficult manufacturing step to control, although it is one of the most important aspects in

producing high quality economical concrete. The two methods adopted in proportioning

concrete were either by volume or by weight measure (Fajardo, 2001).

Water-Cement or Water-Cementitious Ratio

Water-cement is defined as the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of

cement, or the ratio of weight of water to the weight of cement plus added pozzolan.

Either of these ratios is used in mix design and considerably controls concrete strength

(http://concrete.union.edu/basic.htm).

Compressive Strength

Compressive strength is the capacity of a material to withstand axially directed

pushing force. When the limit of compressive strength is reached, materials are crushed

Test For Concrete

Compressive strength test (ASTM C 39). The compressive strength of hardened

concrete is determined from compression tests on standard cylindrical specimens.

Compressive strength test are used during concrete mix design to evaluate the

performance of the materials and to establish mixture proportions that will give the

required strength (www.tpub.com/inteng/13m.htm).

Concrete slump test. Concrete Slump Test is an in situ test or a laboratory test

used to determine and measure how hard and consistent a given sample of concrete is
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before curing. The Concrete Slump Test is, in essence, a method of quality control. For a

particular mix, the slump should be consistent. A change in slump height would

demonstrate an undesired change in the ratio of the concrete ingredients; the proportions

of the ingredients are then adjusted to keep a concrete batch consistent

(en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete_slump_test) .

Universal testing machine

A universal testing machine is used to subject a material sample or structure either

tension or compression for the purpose of experimentally determining certain engineering

properties or characteristics. These properties generally deal with the yield strength of a

material, ultimate or failure strength or a material or structure, or the stiffness and

ductility of a material. (fajardo, 1993)

Material samples may be tested for several reasons. First is to inspect the batch

quality and consistency (e.g concrete), to determine whether a given sample meets ASTM

or other standards for its marked grading and to determine properties of an unknown

material.

Other related studies

According to the U.S Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), beneficial uses of

fly ash include serving as a raw material in concrete, grout and cement or as a fill

material in stabilization projects and road beds. Bottom ash is generally just used as fill or

snow control on roads. Around 43 percent of fly ash in the USA is currently recycled

with the largest use by far being the replacement of portland cement.

Critics have charged that recycling of fly ash in concrete building materials is

dangerous because it offers inferior structural capability and may result in indoor air
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contamination due to leaching chemicals or caustic reactions with other materials.

Variances in the chemical composition of fly ash from different sources compounds the

problem by making it difficult to assure the proper strength of the final concrete products.

(Edge, 2014)

According to Edge, it is clear that coal fly ash waste is a growing problem.

Hundreds of millions of tons of ash waste lie in dangerous piles near homes and

waterways and more is being added all the time. It is also clear that fly ash does have

some beneficial properties when used in masonry, but that quality control and toxic

leachability issues must be addressed. Disguising toxic waste as a building material and

putting it in our homes is no solution, but with proper treatment these concerns can be

alleviated. As concerns over CO2 emissions grow by the day, masonry industries find

themselves in the cross hairs and solutions must be implemented to reduce emissions or

else they face rising costs under any type of carbon price regime. The coal power industry

faces similar concerns as it is beset from all sides by competitive pressures, increased

environmental regulation, and waves of bad publicity and public hostility due to waste

spills. Increased manufacture of fly ash bricks offers a way forward for both industries to

improve their environmental performance and find new revenue streams, assuming that

competitive cost, performance and environmental benchmarks for these new bricks are

achieved.

Optimizing the use of fly ash in concrete

Fly ash is used as a supplementary cementitious material (SCM) in the production

of portland cement concrete. A supplementary cementitious material, when used in

conjunction with portland cement, contributes to the properties of the hardened concrete
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through hydraulic or pozzolanic activity, or both. As such, SCM's include both pozzolans

and hydraulic materials. A pozzolan is defined as a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous

material that in itself possesses little or no cementitious value, but that will, in finely

divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide at

ordinary temperatures to form compounds having cementitious properties. Pozzolans that

are commonly used in concrete include fly ash, silica fume and a variety of natural

pozzolans such as calcined clay and shale, and volcanic ash. SCM's that are hydraulic in

behavior include ground granulated blast furnace slag and fly ashes with high calcium

contents (such fly ashes display both pozzolanic and hydraulic behavior).

The last 50 years has seen the use of fly ash in concrete grow dramatically with

close to 15 million tons used in concrete, concrete products and grouts in the U.S. in 2005

(ACAA 2006). Historically, fly ash has been used in concrete at levels ranging from 15

percent to 25percent by mass of the cementitious material component. The actual amount

used varies widely depending on the application, the properties of the fly ash,

specification limits, and the geographic location and climate. Higher levels (30% to 50%)

have been used in massive structures (for example, foundations and dams) to control

temperature rise.

In recent decades, research has demonstrated that high dosage levels (40% to

60%) can be used in structural applications, producing concrete with good mechanical

properties and durability (Marceau 2002).

The calcium content of the fly ash is perhaps the best indicator of how the fly ash

will behave in concrete (Thomas 1999), although other compounds such as the alkalis

(Na2O and K2O), carbon (usually measured as LOI), and sulfate (SO3) can also affect the
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performance of the fly ash. Low-calcium fly ashes (< 8% CaO) are invariably produced

from anthracite or bituminous coals and are predominantly composed of alumino-silicate

glasses with varying amounts of crystalline quartz, mullite, hematite and magnetite.

These crystalline phases are essentially inert in concrete and the glass requires a source of

alkali or lime (for example, Ca(OH)2) to react and form cementitious hydrates. Such fly

ashes are pozzolanic and display no significant hydraulic behavior. High-calcium fly

ashes (> 20% CaO) may be produced from lignite or sub-bituminous coals and are

comprised of calcium-alumino-silicate glass and a wide variety of crystalline phases ,in

addition to those found in low-calcium fly ash. Some of these crystallinephases will react

with water and this, coupled with the more reactive nature of the calcium-bearing glass,

makes these fly ashe react more rapidly than low-calcium fly ashes and renders the fly

ash both pozzolanic and hydraulic in nature. These fly ashes will react and harden when

mixed with water due to the formation of cementitious hydration products. If the calcium

content of the fly ash is high the fly ash as the sole cementing material (Cross 2005).

Effect of shape of Aggregate on Compressive Strength and Permeability Properties

of Pervious Concrete
For all sizes of aggregates, compressive strength of pervious concrete vary

inversely with the angularity number of the aggregate. Similarly, for all types of

aggregates, pervious concrete mix prepared using smaller size of aggregates

demonstrated higher compressive strength. Also a mix with wet metallic sheen which do

not suffer with paste draw down, produce optimum compressive strength. For all the

lower as well as higher value of water cement ratio than this optimum value, the

compressive strength of the mix is typically lower.

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Based on the aforesaid conclusions, it is recommended that shape characteristics

of course aggregate must be taken in to consideration to manufacture pervious concrete in

order to optimize its compressive strength and permeability. Aggregate of minimum

possible angularity number and size, practically and economically available, shall be used

to manufacture pervious concrete. Aggregate of desired angularity number may be

manufactured to prepare pervious concrete, although further investigation will be

required to study the extra cost involved in producing aggregate with lower angularity

number and cost effectiveness achieved in terms of increased strength (Jain and Chouhan,

2011).
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METHODOLOGY

Data gathering

The data needed in this study were generated from the following:

1. Engineering books for general information about aggregates, cement, sand,

related topics;

2. Compilation of student thesis for information in proportioning, mixing and

testing of concrete; and

3. Internet for most recent findings that were related to the study, particularly about

the properties of coal ash and mill scale.

Materials and apparatus

The following materials used in making concrete sample are coal ash and mill

scale, water, Portland cement, gravel, sand and shovel.

The following materials used for determining the unit weight of coconut shell ash

are metal volumetric measure, tamping rod, steel, 5/8 inches in diameter, 24 inches long

and balance and weights

The following materials used for slump test are mixing board, slump mold, metal

ruler or meter stick, tamping rod, pointing trowel and container

The following material and equipment used to determine the compressive strength

of the concrete sample are compression cylindrical mold, 6 inches in diameter, 12 inches

in height, capping materials and facilities, curing materials and facilities, pointing trowel,

shovel container for mixing sample and universal testing machine

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Unit Weight Test

Compact Weight Determination Procedure

1. Fill 1/3 of the measure, level and tamp 25 times evenly distributed over the

surface.

2. Fill 2/3 of the measure, then to over – flowing. Each time the same procedure as

in step one is repeated. In tamping the rod should penetrate only the layer being

tamped and should not be forced into the bottom of the measure or last layer

placed.

3. Strike off the excess aggregate with the tamping rod.

4. Get net weight of aggregate in measure. Compute unit weight by dividing the net

weight by the volume of measure.

Loose Weight Determination

5. Fill volumetric measure of measure of over flowing by means of a shovel or

scoop. Discharge the aggregation from a height of about 2 inches from the top of

the measure. Exercise care to prevent aggregation of particular sizes.

6. Level – off carefully surface of aggregate

7. Get net weight of aggregate and compute unit weight by dividing net weight by

volume of measure.

Mixing Concrete

Correct proportioning of the ingredients to produce concrete also provides a

balance between the requirements of economy, workability, strength, durability and

appearance.
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The right proportioning of all the ingredients for concrete is the most difficult

manufacturing step to control, although it is one of the most important aspects in

producing high quality economical concrete.

In this study, the researchers conducted 7 different mixes of Type I cement; each

one is placed in three cylindrical molds. The first mixture of concrete wherein no coal ash

and mill scale was added. The amount of cement, aggregates, coconut coal ash/mill scale

and water in every mixture is stated in the statistical mix design sheet.

Procedure for Mixing Concrete

1. The working surface was cleaned off. The materials used were also assured to be

clean.

2. Materials such as coal ash, mill scale, cement, sand and gravel were carefully

weighed according to their respective amount.

3. Sand was placed on the mixing surface together with cement and coal ash/ mill

scale, mixing them to achieve evenly distributed particles of each material.

4. With a shovel, a crater was made in the center of the heap.

5. Gravel was poured around the heap during the mixture by mixing to be evenly

and properly mixed together.

6. With a shovel, another crater was formed in the top of the heap.

7. As water was then added, a shovel was moved from the sides of the heap into the

central crater and turn part of the heap to distribute the water throughout the

mixture.

8. Mixing the mixture within a minimum of almost fifteen minutes or even for much

longer period was done to assure that all ingredients were mixed uniformly.
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Slump Test

Slump of concrete was conducted pursuant to ASTM C143 or the standard test

method for slump of hydraulic-cement concrete. The slump test includes the following

procedures:

1. Place the freshly mixed concrete inside the mold in 3 layers. Each layer is rodded

separately by a 6 mm rod 25 times.

2. Level the mold and lift at once.

3. Measure the slump action immediately by getting the difference in height between

the height of the mold and the top of the slumped concrete.

4. If the slump measures 5 cm, it is called 5 cm slump.

The degree of consistency of concrete could be ascertained by referring to Table 1.

Table 1. Recommended slumps for various construction structures

Types of construction Maximum Minimum
cm. cm.
Reinforced foundation wall and footing 13 5

Plain footing, caissons and sub – structure walls 10 2.5

Slab, beam and reinforced walls 15 7.5

Building columns 15 7.5

Pavements 7 5

Heavy mass construction 7 2.5

Source: Building Construction by Max Fajardo
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Casting Cylinders

This test was carried out following the procedure of ASTM C31 or the standard

practice for making and curing concrete test specimens in the field. Test cylinders were

casted to verify the specified compressive strength of the mix has been achieved. The

procedures for casting cylinders are:

1. After slump test, mix the concrete thoroughly and place the casting molds on the

concrete floor.

2. Fill the mold to 1/3 full by volume (4 inch depth) and rod the bottom layer with

25 strokes evenly spaced

3. Fill the mold to 2/3 full ( 8 inch depth) and rod the second layer with 25 strokes

penetrating the top of the second layer.

4. Heap the concrete on the top of the mold and rod the top layer with 25 strokes

penetrating the top of the second layer.

5. Tap the sides of the mold lightly to close the voids left by the rod.

6. Strike off the top surface of the concrete using a sawing action with the rod.

Smooth the surface and be sure to mark the cylinders with your mix number,

cylinder number, batch number and date.

7. Carefully move the cylinder to temporary storage.

8. Cover the cylinders with a plastic bag.

9. After 20 to 24 hours remove the mold. Place the concrete in container filled with

water for curing

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Curing of Concrete

Following the standard procedure of ASTM C31 or the standard practice for

making and curing concrete test specimens in the field, concrete cylinders were cured at 7

days, 14 days and 28 days period. The procedure involves the following:

1. After removing the concrete from the mold, place the concrete inside the

container filled with water.

2. Cover the surface of the container to avoid evaporation of water.

3. Let the concrete absorb water until the specified days.

4. Be sure that the concrete does not undergo any disturbance.

Compression Test

Cylinders tested for acceptance and quality control are made and cured in accordance

with procedures described for standard-cured specimens in ASTM C 31 standard practice

for making and curing concrete test specimens in the field. An average of 3 consecutive

tests shall be done for each mix design. Compression test involves the following

procedures:

1. For a coarse aggregate not more than 5 cm diameter, prepare a cylindrical

specimen 15 cm diameter and 30 cm long.

2. For a coarse aggregate more than 5 cm diameter, prepare a cylindrical specimen

with a diameter 3 times the maximum size of the aggregate and a height double its

diameter.

3. The mold should be made of metal placed on a plane surface preferably 6 to 12

mm plate.
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4. Place the fresh concrete inside the mold in 3 separate equal layers rodded

separately with 16 mm rod 25 strokes.

5. Level the surface with trowel and cover with a glass or plane steel.

6. After 4 hours, cover the specimen with a thin layer of cement paste and cover

again with plane metal or glass.

7. After 24 hours, start curing in a moist atmosphere at 21 °centigrade.

8. Test should be done at 7 and 28 days period.

9. Be sure that both ends of the specimen are perfectly leveled.

10. Specimen is placed under a testing machine and a compressive load is applied

until the specimen fails. The load that causes the specimen to fail is recorded.

11. The recorded load divided by the cross sectional area of the cylinder gives the

ultimate compressive unit stress of the sample

Statistical Analysis

The experiment was conducted using the Least Significant Difference method

(LSD) in Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). SPSS is a widely used program

for statistical analysis in social science. It is also used by market researchers, health

researchers, survey companies, government, education researchers, marketing

organizations, data miners, and others.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to analyse the data collected. The

results were tabulated and interpreted.

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Statistical Design Mixture

The experiment was conducted with seven different types of mixture. Each of the

mixture composed of the different amounts of coal ash and mill scale. The mixture used

were the following:

A : 0 - 100% - ordinary mix (concrete with 0% fly ash/ mill scale, 100% cement)

B : 10% - 90% - concrete with 10% fly ash, 90% cement

C : 20% - 80% - concrete with 20% fly ash, 80% cement

D : 30% - 70% - concrete with 30% fly ash, 70% cement

E : 10% - 90% - concrete with 10% mill scale, 90% cement

F : 20% - 80% - concrete with 20% mill scale, 80% cement

G : 30% - 70% - concrete with 30% mill scale, 70% cement

 25

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Data Gathering

General information about aggregates, cement, sand and other related topics were

gathered from engineering books. Student thesis and journals were also used as reference

in proportioning, mixing and testing of concrete and internet for most recent findings that

were related to the study, particularly about the fly ash.

The materials used to produce concrete cylinders are cement, sand, ¾ gravel,

potable water and casting cylinders. Slump mold, tamping rod and trowel were also used

for slump test and Universal Testing Machine (UTM) for compression strength test.

Coal Ash And Mill Scale

Coal ash and Mill Scale are the major material used in the study as partial

substitute to Portland cement. The main purpose in using coal ash and mill scale is to

determine which is more economical to use between the mixtures that uses purely cement

the mixture with coal ash and the mixture with mill scale.

Coal ash used in the study was obtained in SEM Calaca Powerplant in Calaca

Batangas. It was produced by burning coal to produce electricity that supplies different

cities and municipalities in the province of Batangas. The sample was smooth and had a

yellowish-gray color that similarly looked like cement. The mill scale sample that was

used in the study was obtained from SOMICO Steel Mill Corporation in Brgy. Aguado

Trece Martires City Cavite. Mill Scale was  produced by rolling red hot iron or steel

billets in rolling mills. Mill scale had a blackish color that similarly looked like sand.

Alumina (Al2O3), silica (SiO2), and calcium oxide (CaO) are some of the elements

present in the coal ash with the amount of 9.45 percent, 50.28 percent and 3.61 percent
 26

respectively while the elements present in the mill scale are ferrous oxide (FeO), calcium

oxide (CaO), and silica (SiO2) with the amount of 92.31 percent, 0.14 percent and 0.67

percent respectively. Table 2 shows the chemical contents of coal ash and mill scale used

in the study.

Table 2. Chemical content of cement, coal ash and mill scale.

CHEMICAL CONTENTS
Chemical Cement (%) Coal Ash (%) Mill Scale (%)
Silica (SiO2) 50.28 50.28 0.67
Alumina (Al2O3) 9.45 9.45 -
Calcium Oxide (CaO) 3.61 3.61 0.14
Ferrous Oxide (FeO) - 92.31
Source: Ostrea Mineral Laboratories Inc.

Unit Weights of Coal Ash and Mill Scale

In determining the unit weights of coal ash and mill scale, the authors used

compact and loose weight method in which two trials were conducted from each method.

In compact weight the unit weights of coal ash are 994.71 kg/m 3 and 977.90 kg/m3

respectively. Mill scale had a 1572.80 kg/m3 and 1626.62 kg/m3 respectively. In loose

weight, coal ash unit weights are 785.20 kg/m3 and 772.71 kg/m3 respectively. Mill Scale

had a 1053.82 kg/m3 and 1024.03 kg/m3 respectively. The average unit weights of

compacted coal ash and mill scale are 986.30 kg/m 3 and 1599.71 kg/m3 respectively

while the loose weights of coal ash and mill scale are 778.95 kg/m 3 and 1038.92 kg/m3

respectively.

In one cubic meter of concrete coal ash and mill scale contents have completed

unit weight of 986.30 kg/m3 and 1599.71 kg/m3 respectively. In loose unit weight, it has

778.95 kg/m3 and 1038.92 kg/m3 respectively (See Table 3).

Table 3. Unit weight of coal ash

COMPACT LOOSE
 27

Unit Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 1 Trial 2

Unit Weight kg/m3 994.71 977.90 785.20 772.71
Average Unit Weight kg/m3 986.30 778.95

Table 4. Unit weight of mill scale

COMPACT LOOSE

Unit Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 1 Trial 2

Unit Weight kg/m3 1572.80 1626.62 1053.82 1024.03
Average Unit Weight kg/m3 1599.71 1038.92

Slump Test

Table 5 shows the slump of the concrete mixes from zero percent up to 30 percent

substitution of coal ash and mill scale to cement. (See table and Appendix)

Table 5. Slump
TREATMENT TRIAL MIX (COAL ASH) Slump (cm)

A 100-0 17
B 90-10 14
C 80-20 19
D 70-30 16
TREATMENT TRIAL MIX (MILL SCALE) Slump (cm)
E 90-10 10
F 80-20 17
G 70-30 15
The slump of a concrete mixture indicates its workability and may also indicate

its compressive strength. It depends on the water-cement ratio, which include cement and

ash. From the research conducted, a good concrete should have a slump of between 10-15

cm to attain high compressive strength.

It may be interpreted in this data, that in order to achieve a given target slump or

optimum workability, concrete may require lower amount of coal ash/ mill scale. The 90-

10 percent mix with 14 cm for coal ash and 10 cm for mill scale appears to be the most

durable as measured by compressive strength.

Compressive Strength
 28

According to ACI, the mix that is composed of aggregate, sand, cement and water

has a 7th day strength of 14.47 MPa, 14th day strength of 18 MPa and 28 th day strength of

20.67 MPa.

7th Day Compressive Strength

On the 7th day period of the concrete, it shows that the higher the amount of coal

ash present in the mixture, the higher the compressive strength of the sample while for

the mill scale the higher the amount of sample the lower the result of the compressive

strength. The treatment A attained the highest compressive strength of 13.16 MPa

(1906.67 psi) with a slump of 17 cm. The treatments B, C, and D attained 10.46 MPa

(1516.67 psi), 11.21MPa (1626.67 psi) and 11.71MPa (1696.67 psi) respectively with a

slump of 14 cm, 19 cm and 16 cm respectively. While treatments E, F and G attained

9.63 MPa (1393.33 psi), 8.41 MPa (1216.67 psi), and 5.97 MPa (866.67 psi) respectively

with the slump of 10 cm, 17 cm and 15 cm respectively. The Table 6 shows the result of

seven days compressive strength expressed in MPa.

Table 6. Seven-day compressive strength of coal ash and mill scale samples
TREATMENT COAL ASH TRIAL MIX MEAN
(%) (MPa)

A 100-0 13.16
B 90-10 10.46
C 80-20 11.21
D 70-30 11.71
TREATMENT MILL SCALE TRIAL MIX MEAN
(%) (MPa)
E 90-10 9.63
F 80-20 8.41
G 70-30 5.97
 29

Figure 1. Equipment used for determining the compressive strength of the specimens

Figure 1 shows the specimens are prepared for the compressive test by the

compression test machine. Twenty one cylinders were tested by the machine according

to its day of curing.

14th Day Compressive Strength

Based on the result of the compression test for the 14 th day curing, it shows that

treatment B with the mixture of 90 percent ordinary Portland cement and 10 percent coal

ash attained the highest compressive strength of 14.03 MPa (2033.33 psi). Treatment A

obtained a compressive strength of 13.42 MPa (1950 psi). The result from 7 days

compressive strength from 14 days compressive strength of the different mixtures of coal

ash and mill scale was inversely proportional to each other wherein 14 days compressive

strength the higher the amount of the sample the lower the compressive strength.

The Table 7 below shows the result of fourteen days compressive strength

expressed in MPa
 30

TREATMENT COAL ASH TRIAL MIX MEAN

(%) (MPa)

A 100-0 13.42

B 90-10 14.03

C 80-20 11.44

D 70-30 11.34

TREAMENT MILL SCALE TRIAL MEAN

MIX (MPa)
(%)
E 90-10 11.95

F 80-20 9.90

G 70-30 7.54
Table 7. Fourteen-day compressive strength of coal ash and mill scale samples
Respectively, the compressive strengths of treatments B, C and D are 14.03 MPa

(2033.33 psi), 11.44 MPa (1656.67 psi), 11.34 MPa (1643.33 psi). While for treatments

E. F, and G are 1733.33 psi (11.95 MPa), 1433.33 psi (9.9MPa), and 1093.33 psi

(7.54MPa) respectively.

28th Day Compressive Strength

The Table 8 below shows the result of twenty eight days compressive strength

expressed in MPa.

TREATMENT COAL ASH TRIAL MIX MEAN

(%) (MPa)

A 100-0 18.38
B 90-10 20.14
C 80-20 17.84
D 70-30 14.89

TREATMENT MILL SCALE TRIAL MIX MEAN

(%) (MPa)
E 90-10 15.41
F 80-20 9.90
G 70-30 9
 31

Table 8. Twenty Eight-day compressive strength of coal ash and mill scale samples

For the 28th day result, the average strength per each mixture did not obtained the

standard strength for 28 days curing. The highest compressive strength attained was

20.14 MPa (2923.33 psi) for the 90 percent ordinary Portland cement and 10 percent coal

ash. Second to the highest was treatment A which had 18.38 MPa (2666.67 psi). The

result for the 28 days compressive strength was similar to the result of the 14 days

compressive strength, as the amount of sample is increasing the compressive strength is

decreasing. Treatments B,C, and D compressive strengths are 2923.33 psi (20.14 MPa),

17.84 MPa ( 2586.67 psi), and 14.89 MPa ( 2156.67 psi), respectively. For the treatments

E, F and G the compressive strengths are 15.41 MPa ( 2236.67 psi), 9.90 MPa ( 1433.33

psi), 9 MPa (1303.33 psi) respectively.

 32

Figure 2. Fractured specimens after being tested

Figure 2 shows the fractured specimens after the test in compression test machine.

The specimens were compressed until it reached its maximum load that can carry. Then

the type of fracture was determined along with the maximum load carry.

Statistical Analysis

Since, all of the F-Computed is greater than the critical value with level of

significance 0.05 (obtained from the F-table), we can conclude that there is a significant

difference between trial mix, curing period and the interaction between the two. And

since F-Computed is also greater than the critical value with level of significance 0.01

(obtained from the F-table), we can conclude that the differences between trial mixes,

curing period and the interaction between the two are highly significant.

From the analysis of variance using both critical values of 0.05 and 0.01, we

conclude that there is no significant difference between the means of any trial mix for

each mix type as well as their interaction with the curing period but there is a significant

difference between the means of the trial mixes per curing period.

There is a highly significant difference between means of any mill scale trial mix

in any curing period. There is a significant difference in the means of coal ash trial mixes

in a 7-day curing period. There is no significant difference between the means of coal ash

trial mixes in a 14-day curing period. The difference between means of coal ash trial

mixes in a 28-day curing period is highly significant.

 33

In a more specific approach, we obtain the following results using Least

Significant Difference method (LSD) in Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).

In a 7-day curing period of mill scale, all the means of the different trial mix have

a significant difference. In a 14-day curing period of mill scale, only the means of trial

mixes 100%-0% and 95%-5% have no significant difference in their means. In a 28-day

curing period, the means of all trial mixes have a significant difference.

In a 7-day curing period of coal ash there is no significant difference between the

means of 100%-0% and 90%-10%, 80%-20% and 70%-30%, 90%-10% and 70%-30%,

90%-10% and 80%-20%. There is no significant difference between the means of any

trial mix in a 14-day curing period. In a 28-day curing period, only the 70%-30% mixture

has a significant difference among the means of the others.

Cost Analysis

In this study, treatment A (ordinary concrete mix) with 1:2:4 (class A) mixture as

estimated for nine cylindrical concrete molds has a total cost of 369.36 Php. This mixture

has compressive strength of 18.38 MPa at the 28th day of curing.

Based on the design met, the amount of cement was substituted with coal ash and

mill scale by 5 percent, 10 percent, and 15 percent of its concentration. Treatment B and

E with 10 percent substitution of coal ash and mill scale had a total cost of 441.44 Php

each sample. The 10 percent coal ash and mill scale (0.6 kg each) amounted to 83.33 Php

each and cement being reduced to 5.4 kg at 101.25 Php per 40 kg bag while the gravel

and sand remains of the same amount worth 144 Php and 102.86 Php respectively.

The other remaining two mix designs (each for coal ash and mill scale) were

conducted the same procedure wherein only the amount of cement and coal ash and mill
 34

scale varies according to the statistical design. Treatment C and F having 20 percent coal

ash and mill scale as replacement for cement costing 166.67 Php using 1.2 kg each. The

amount of cement was then reduced to 4.8 kg costing 90 Php. The mixture had a total

cost of 513.53 Php and attained a compressive strength of 17.84 Mpa for the coal ash and

9.90 MPa for the mill scale on its 28th day curing.

Treatments D and G containing 30 percent coal ash and mill scale obtained a

total cost of 585.61 Php each sample. Coal ash and mill scale weighing 1.8 kg each is

amounted to 250 Php while sand nad gravel remains the same amount and cost. This

mixture attained a compressive strength of 14.89 MPa for the coal ash and 9 MPa for the

mill scale on its 28th day of curing.

The mixture with 10 percent coal ash obtained a compressive strength of 20.14

MPa which appears to be second to the lowest costing at its 28 th day of curing period

compared to other six mixes as stated. Table shows the amount in terms of costs of

concrete and other materials such as coal ash and mill scale.

Table 9. Cost analysis for coal ash

Mixture For production of 9 cylinders (pesos)
Compressive Cost per Cost per
Strength Coal Labor cylinder cu.m.
Gravel Sand Cement Cost
(MPa) Ash Cost

A 18.38 144 102.86 112.50 0 10 396.36 44.04 4050

B 20.14 144 102.86 101.25 83.33 10 441.44 49.05 5491.67
C 17.84 144 102.86 90 166.67 10 513.53 57.06 6933.33
D 14.89 144 102.86 78.75 250 10 585.61 65.18 8375

Total cost 1909.74 215. 33

 35

Table 10. Cost analysis for mill scale

Mixture For production of 9 cylinders (pesos)
Compressive Cost per Cost per
Strength Mill Labor cylinder cu.m.
Gravel Sand Cement Cost
(MPa) scale Cost

A 18.38 144 102.86 112.50 0 10 396.36 44.04 4050

B 15.42 144 102.86 101.25 83.33 10 441.44 49.05 5491.67
C 9.90 144 102.86 90 166.67 10 513.53 57.06 6933.33
D 9.00 144 102.86 78.75 250 10 585.61 65.18 8375

Total cost 1909.74 215. 33

 36

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Summary

The main objective of this study was to determine if the steel plant waste (mill

scale) and coal plant waste (coal ash) can be used as supplementary cement material for

concrete and determine which has better compressive strength. Specifically, it aimed to

apply the knowledge of the researcher acquired in the Civil Engineering program, obtain

the most economical proportion of mixtures of cement with coal ash and cement with

mill scale as a partial substitute for cement in producing concrete, and determine and

compare the comprehensive strengths of the concrete mixtures. The study focused on the

technical evaluation and analysis of the properties and proportioning of the materials to

be used in producing concrete specimens. This is limited to the evaluation of data of the

compressive strength of concrete mixed with different amount using 10, 20, and 30

percent of steel plant waste and coal plant waste ash as supplementary cementitious

material. The study was conducted at Cavite State University - Indang Cavite from

October 2015 to March 2016.

The coal ash used in the study is basically in gray color with smooth texture,

similar to cement available market. Coal ash passes through a 1mm sieve. The millscale

is black, rough in texture, with the same physical property of cement. Considering the

chemical properties of the coal ash, test result showed that in one kilogram sample, it

contain 50.28 percent silica (SiO2), 9.45 percent alumina (Al2O3) and 3.61 percent

calcium Oxide (CaO) and for the composition of millscale, it contain, 92.31 percent iron
 37

(II) oxide or ferrous oxide (FeO), 0.14 percent Calcium Oxide (CaO) and 0.67 percent

Silica (SiO2).

Coal ash and millscale was mixed with cement only the mentioned design mix. It

was the mix with course and fine aggregates with fixed content of water following the

standard procedure in mixing concrete. This was done manually.

After 7 days, Mixture A (100-0) obtained a compressive strength of 13.16 MPa

while the other mixes with coal ash 10 percent, 20 percent and 30 percent (Treatment B,

C and D) had 10.46 MPa, 11.21 MPa, and 11.71 MPa respectively. This indicates that

compressive strength increased as the amount of coal ash increased. For the Mill Scale

treatments E, F and G compressive strength obtained 9.63 MPa, 8.41 MPa, and .97 MPa

respectively. It showed that the compressive strength decreased as the millscale amount

increased.

On its 14th day period, the Mixture B having 10 percentage of coal ash

obtained the highest compressive strength of 14.03 MPa among the other specimen.

Mixture A, C, D, E, F, and G had a compressive strengths of 13.42 MPa, 11.44 MPa,

11.34 MPa, 11.95 MPa, 9.9 MPa and 7.54 MPa repectively.

For 28 days period, compressive strength obtained was 18.38

MPa for Mixture A (100-0). Consequently, the increasing percentage of

coal ash and mill scale in a mixture gives lower compressive strength

results. Mixtures B, C, D, E, F and G attained compressive strengths of

20.14 MPa, 17.64 MPa, 14.89 MPa, 15.42 MPa, 9.90 MPa and 9.0 MPa

respectively.
 38

Mixture B with 10 percent coal ash and 90 percent cement performed to be the

most economical mix with concerning to the compressive strength it achieved being the

highest among all other mixes. With 10 percent coal ash in the mixture, it reached a

compressive strength of 20.14 MPa with a cost of 441.44 php, comparing it to the control

mix with no other proportion or replacement, which had 396.36 php, it was said to be

directly proportional to the strength of attained. When the cost is high, the compressive to

be achieved is high also.

Conclusion

The study shows that concrete mixture with coal ash got the highest compressive

strength compared with other controls. In the study, the application of coal ash as

supplementary cementitious material shows real potential compression strength when

applied to concrete. The replacements of some portions of coal ash produce potential

compressive strength for concrete mixture. The results showed that concrete mixture of

90 percent – 10 percent coal ash attained the highest compressive strength of 20.14 MPa.

The results given by the other proportions or mixtures, lowers as the age of curing

shortened. but at early stage of curing for the concrete mixture at 7 days result, the study

show that it can give you early-strength as the percentage of coal increases in the

proportion. The study proved that the compressive strength of a specimen will be more

ideal if 10 percent replacement will be made for cement of coal ash and same with mill

scale.

The compressive strength of the specimens containing concrete mixture with mill

scale (steel ash) is low, that is easily breaks and cracked when it is in stress or test. The
 39

study concluded when partial supplement of cement is mill scale, it cannot produce good

quality and potential strength that can be used in construction.

Compared to ordinary concrete mixture, the coal ash got the highest compressive

strength and for the mixture with mill scale, opposite occurred, it produced least

compressive strength. The costs of production for concrete mixture with mill scale and

coal ash were higher. The researchers can say that the ordinary concrete mixture may

have the lower cost in production but concrete mixture with coal ash can produce higher

compressive strength.

Recommendation

The researchers main objective was to determine the effects and differences of

partial replacement of ordinary Portland cement with coal ash and mill scale to the

compressive strength of concrete, comparing it to concrete without replacement. In the

conduct of this study the researchers observed factors to be considered that they thought

affect the results of the study. They came up with the following recommendations:

1. aggregates should be acquired at the same source which has good quality and

characteristics.

2. combining the two ashes and see the result for further study.

3. for better mixing of materials for concrete mixture, the use of mechanical mixer is

recommended. If the materials were not mixed well, it affects the strength of the

concrete.

4. use of many samples for better significance of the mixture to each other.

5. for further research related to this study, the days of curing will be lengthened

until it attains its highest compressive strength.

 40

6. further study on increasing the amount of coal ash up to 100 percent replacement

for cement.

7. all mill scale proportion concrete mixture has the compressive strength that can be

recommended for road curves, gutters, path ways, binder riprapping, rubble

masonry, residential slab, concrete walks.