Sixteenth Century English Literature

Cultural Background
1. Reformation. Reformation refers to a revolutionary movement against the
authority of religion that was encouraged by the writings of Martin Luther, a German
priest. This movement resulted in the division of Christianity into Protestantism and
Catholicism. Several factors led to reformation, among them the corruption within
the religious system; the abuse of authority by priests; the reaction of princes against
the religious authority; and the sudden wealth of religious people. In England, it
occurred during the reign of Henry VIII.

2. Humanism. Humanism is a diverse cultural movement that rooted in the writings

of the classic philosophers and writers. It emphasizes the value of man in the universe
as opposed to other entities. It gives due importance to man's ability to discover and
innovate. This movement arose in the sixteenth century injecting a new spirit in man
to achieve new discoveries.

3. Renaissance. Renaissance refers to the rebirth or the revival of the classics. The
term 'classics' is always associated with the great European writers, such as Plato,
Aristotle, Homer, Horace, Dante and Chaucer, whose writings shaped the traditions
of Europe on all levels. The fall of Constantinople to the Turks was the main reason
of Renaissance, which caused the scholars to flee this city to Rome. In Rome, these
scholars started to teach classic texts to people. In the sixteenth century, people
reused the classic writings, after the texts became available to readers with the help of
the invention of printing. Renaissance began in Italy, then spread in all over Europe
and reached England late, during the reign of Elizabeth.
 Literary Background

Just as England as a nation was shaped in the sixteenth century, English literature,
poetry and drama in particular, experienced the same flourish. After Geoffrey Chaucer
died in 1400, there was no real sense of greatness that could have been applied to English
literature. Chaucer is referred to as the father of English language and literature. He
was the first English poet, the first to use English language to write poetry. Before
Chaucer, English was viewed as a vernacular language invalid for literary writings.
Chaucer chose one dialect of English, among many others, and made it the language of his
poetry. With the spread of his poetry, this dialect also spread to become the official
language in England. In addition, Chaucer is considered the first English dramatist, realist
and novelist.
Generally, the sixteenth century is the age of sonnet. It opened with the courtly poets,
who married English traditions to the European ones, and closed with Shakespeare, the
most talented poet and playwright that England ever produced after Chaucer.
The English Civil War (In the 17th Century)

After the death of King James I in 1625 at the age of 58, his son Charles I followed
him. King Charles was a firm believer in in the divine right of kings. From the
start, he quarreled with parliament, most of whom were Puritans.

Puritans were serious Christian believers who wanted to purify their religion from
the formal ceremonies of the Church of England.

From the start, parliament had several advantages. Firstly, it held London and the
customs dues from the port, and this was an important source of money.

Thirdly, the navy supported parliament and made it difficult for the king to receive
help from abroad.

The king advanced towards London but he was stopped at Turnham Green on 13
November 1642.

Then, in September 1643, the parliamentarians persuaded the Scots to intervene on

their behalf by promising to make England Presbyterian (a Presbyterian church is
one organized without bishops). A Scottish army entered England in January 1644.

The parliamentarians then decided to reform their army. In December 1644 they
passed the Self-Denying Ordinance, which stated that all MPs (except Oliver
Cromwell and his son-in-law Henry Ireton) must give up their commands. Early in
1645 parliamentary forces were reorganized and became the New Model Army.

Afterwards the parliamentarians slowly gathered strength. Finally, in May 1646 the
king surrendered to the Scots.
Meanwhile, following civil war radical ideas flourished. In November 1646 a man
named John Lilburne, one of a group of radicals called the Levellers published a
tract called London's Liberty in Chains. He demanded a republic and the abolition
of the House of Lords. He also said that all men should be allowed to vote and that
there should be religious freedom.

Meanwhile in December 1647 Charles made a secret agreement with the Scots.
They agreed to invade England on his behalf. However, Oliver Cromwell crushed
an army of Scots and English royalists at Preston.

The army now felt that parliament was being too lenient with the king. They
occupied London and Colonel Thomas Pride ejected about 140 members of the
Commons. This action was called 'Pride's Purge'. It left a 'rump parliament' of
about 60 members.

On 17 March 1649 parliament passed an act abolishing monarchy and the House of
Lords.
Seventeenth Century English Literature

The 17th century is a period, which many English historians and literary scholars
prefer to any other. During most of it England had its own course both in political
and literary life.
After Queen Elizabeth's death, James VI of Scotland became King James I of
England in 1603. Like Elizabeth he tried to rule without parliament as much as
possible. He believed in the divine right of kings, that is the king was chosen by
God and only God could judge him. He expressed his opinion openly and that led
to trouble with Parliament.
In 1618, the Thirty Years War began, and Parliament wished to go to war against
the Catholics. James I did not agree. Until his death in 1625, he was always
quarrelling with parliament over money and over its desire to play a part in his
foreign policy. His son, Charles I, quarreled with the House of Commons even
more than his father. It was also over money. Finally, Charles I dissolved
Parliament. After that, he had to recall Parliament, because he needed money, but
each time he did so, he quarreled with it.
Charles I disliked Puritans. Puritans were serious Christian believers, who wanted
to purify their religion of the formal ceremonies of the Church of England. They
wanted a democratic Church. They condemned singing, dancing, going to the
theatre, and all popular amusements and pastimes. Many members of Parliament
(MPs) were either Puritans or sympathized with them.
The Civil War between Charles I and his supporters (the Cavaliers) and the
Parliament forces (the Roundheads) began in 1642. Victory went to Parliament at
the end. Charles I was executed in 1649. Oliver Cromwell, a military leader,
became a dictator, calling himself the Protector. From 1649 to l660 Britain was a
republic.
When Cromwell died in 1658, the Protectorate collapsed. Richard Cromwell, his
son, was not a good leader. In 1660 Charles II was invited to return from France,
where he had escaped after his father's execution. The republic was over, and the
monarchy was restored. The Restoration of Monarchy brought about many
changes. The greatest European power at that time was France. French influence in
manners, literature and arts was now irresistible. What was fashionable in Paris
soon became fashionable in London. At that time, two great disasters happened in
Great Britain: the Plague (1665) and the Great Fire of London (1666), which
devastated the old city. However, it was rebuilt under the direction of the famous
architect Sir Christopher Wren.
Literary forms were quick to change and develop during the 17th century. Prose
writing offers us a particularly good example of this change and development. It
moved in two different directions. The earliest development, which can be found in
John Milton's prose, gives us writing of increasing complexity. Sentences in his
prose branch out into dozens of clauses. His prose is quite unlike ordinary speech.
John Milton (1608 - 1674) is considered to be the most outstanding writer of the
17th century. He is a representative of English Puritanism in English literature. He
was brought up in the family where the culture of the Renaissance was combined
with the life of the Puritans. Following his mother's wish, John was preparing for
the religious career, and at the age of 16, he went to Cambridge. His life seems to
have revolted around three great decisions.
At the University, he gave up the idea of taking orders in the Anglican Church.
However, he always remained religious, and poetry was a sacred calling for him.
In 1640s Milton was forced to make a second decision - his role in the Civil War.
He joined the Puritans in Parliament and began to write pamphlets on the Church
reform. He also became Oliver Cromwell's Latin Secretary.
He took his third decision when he was faced with the threat of blindness. If he had
given up his political work, he would not have lost his eyesight, but the call of duty
was powerful. Thus, at the age of 44, he went completely blind.
It was during the last 10 years of his life that Milton, totally blind, completed his
great long poems – “Paradise Lost" and " Paradise Regained". He often dictated
them to his daughters. "Paradise Lost” (completed in 1658, published in 1667) is
the most famous of his poems. It consists of 10 000 lines of grand blank verse.
This poem is considered to be the finest artistic development of the Puritan Age in
England. The poem tells in 12 books the Biblical story of the temptation and fall of
Man in the hands of Satan
The later development (the last twenty years of the century) is quite different: it
begins to reproduce the manner and rhythm of the best talk of the time. John
Dryden (1631 - 1700), though he was primarily a poet, was an original master of
this new kind of prose. The poetry of the 17th century shows an astonishing
variety.
John Donne (1572 - 1631) was the greatest metaphysical poet. He was brought up
as a Roman Catholic, but later joined the Church of England and finally became
Dean of St Paul's Cathedral. His sermons were very popular, but he had the
strongest influence as a poet, first in the 17th century, and then after World War I.
Modern poets turn to him because he was highly intellectual and impassioned. He
used imagery in modern manner. His manner of writing is obscure and unmusical.
Unlike poets of the Elizabethan Age, who praised faithfulness in-love and beauty
in life, he glorified inconstancy and explored the dark paths of the mind. While
they depended on a regular rhythm in verse, he varied lines, meter and stress
whenever he felt it necessary.
The lighter side of literature in the 17th century is reflected in the lyrics of the
Cavalier poets. They sing of love, youth, and happiness. They take life as they
find it- often with a mocking spirit. For example, Richard Lovelace (1618 - 1658),
one of the Cavaliers, who was a gallant and handsome gentleman who spent his
fortune and much of his time in prison for his King. While there, he composed a
number of exquisite lyrics.