Special Issue Article

Journal of Building Physics

Assessing the effect of 2019, Vol. 43(3) 229–249

Ó The Author(s) 2019

night ventilation on PCM Article reuse guidelines:

sagepub.com/journals-permissions
DOI: 10.1177/1744259119848128
performance in high-rise journals.sagepub.com/home/jen

residential buildings

Shahrzad Soudian and Umberto Berardi

Abstract
This article investigates the possibility to enhance the use of latent heat thermal energy
storage (LHTES) as an energy retrofit measure by night ventilation strategies. For this
scope, phase change materials (PCMs) are integrated into wall and ceiling surfaces of
high-rise residential buildings with highly glazed facades that experience high indoor diur-
nal temperatures. In particular, this article investigates the effect of night ventilation on
the performance of the PCMs, namely, the daily discharge of the thermal energy stored
by PCMs. Following previous experimental tests that have shown the efficacy of LHTES
in temperate climates, a system comprising two PCM layers with melting temperatures
selected for a year-around LHTES was considered. To quantify the effectiveness of differ-
ent night ventilation strategies to enhance the potential of this composite PCM system,
simulations in EnergyPlusTM were performed. The ventilation flow rate, set point tem-
perature, and operation period were the main tested parameters. The performance of
the PCMs in relation to the variables was evaluated based on indoor operative tempera-
ture and cooling energy use variations in Toronto and New York in the summer. The
solidification of the PCMs was analyzed based on the amount of night ventilation needed
in each climate condition. The results quantify the positive impact of combining PCMs
with night ventilation on cooling energy reductions and operative temperature regula-
tion of the following days. In particular, the results indicate higher benefits obtainable
with PCMs coupled with night ventilation in the context of Toronto, since this city
experiences higher daily temperature fluctuations. The impact of night ventilation design
variables on the solidification rate of the PCMs varied based on each parameter leading
to different compromises based on the PCM and climate characteristics.

Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, Canada

Corresponding author:
Umberto Berardi, Ryerson University, 350 Victoria street, Toronto, ON M5B 2K3, Canada.
Email: uberardi@ryerson.ca
230 Journal of Building Physics 43(3)

Keywords
Thermal energy storage, phase change materials, thermal comfort, natural ventilation,
night cooling

Introduction
The incorporation of latent heat thermal energy storage (LHTES) in buildings by
the inclusion of phase change materials (PCMs) into the building envelope is a pro-
minent method to stabilize the indoor thermal environment. Different integration
strategies of PCMs in buildings have been reported and discussed so far.
Comprehensive reviews have been recently reported in Cabeza et al. (2011), Kosny
(2015), Kalnæs and Jelle (2015), Kenisarin and Mahkamov (2016), Navarro et al.
(2016), and Lizana et al. (2017). PCMs store LHTES by undergoing a state change
at specific melting temperatures (Tmp). PCMs melt as indoor temperatures
approach the PCM Tmp and start storing excess energy from the surrounding space
until they are completely melted. As ambient temperatures fall at the PCM Tmp,
they solidify and release the stored energy back to the spaces. For full PCM effec-
tiveness, this process of melting and solidification is often targeted to be completed
daily, although recent experiences of seasonal LHTES have been reported.
However, one of the major issues associated with PCMs is the incomplete release
of the accumulated stored energy. In this case, the stored heat is trapped in the
PCMs and the incomplete discharge prevents the full heat storage in the next cycle.
Applying night ventilation or night cooling has been suggested as a prominent
solution to facilitate the solidification process for PCMs (Álvarez et al., 2013;
Berardi and Manca, 2017; Naraid et al., 2016; Ramakrishnan et al., 2017).
Passive night ventilation has been traditionally considered to condition build-
ings during nights as fresh air with cool temperatures circulates indoor spaces and
removes excess heat from the structure. This improves the indoor comfort and
delays the rate at which the room warms up the next day (Barzin et al., 2015; Solgi
et al., 2018). For instance, Santamouris et al. (2010) reviewed the potential of night
ventilation in 214 air-conditioned residential buildings. The results indicated a
maximum cooling energy savings of 40 kWh/m2/yr with the addition of night venti-
lation achieved in buildings with higher cooling energy demand.
While the beneficial application of PCMs has been demonstrated in the litera-
ture, it is also noted that appropriate design considerations are critical for their full
performance. In particular, the design of PCM applications is case specific, and the
correlation between the PCM Tmp and the specific climatic conditions is a main
design criterion. Hence, the application of night ventilation must also consider the
climatic factors and Tmp of the PCMs. For instance, Saffari et al. (2017) discussed
how low the outdoor temperature must be with respect to the PCM Tmp to obtain
the discharge of the stored heat, indicating the need for an appropriate combination
of climate conditions and night ventilation with PCMs. Solgi et al. (2019) investi-
gated the potential of coupling PCMs with night ventilation in different Australian
Soudian and Berardi 231

climate conditions. It was shown that the amount of ventilation air flow does not
impact the transition temperature of the PCMs, while it affects cooling energy use.
Higher cooling energy savings up to 82% were measured in Brisbane, the city with
the highest daily temperature fluctuations.
Numerical and experimental studies reported on the benefits of combining night
ventilation with PCMs. Ramakrishnan et al. (2017) reported that combining night
ventilation with appropriate design in consideration of PCM characteristics could
lead to a 65% reduction in overheating in residential buildings. Adding night venti-
lation further reduced the duration of moderate discomfort in the units with PCM-
integrated surfaces by 169 h with a reduction of 4°C of the indoor room tempera-
tures. Barzin et al. (2015) tested the application of PCM-integrated wallboards in
lightweight test cells in combination with mechanical night ventilation in Auckland.
The authors initially demonstrated the lack of PCM discharge with only air condi-
tioning and no night ventilation. This negatively resulted in 30% higher cooling
energy costs in the PCM-integrated unit as the indoor room temperatures of the
PCM-integrated unit were higher than the reference unit due to increased thermal
inertia. The addition of night ventilation for 10 h resulted in 73% lower cooling
energy use in the PCM-integrated unit, and a complete elimination of the cooling
energy use for 4 days as the prolonged discharge of PCMs at night was achieved.
Different influencing factors tested by combining night ventilation with PCMs
have led to different results in previous studies. Some of the main parameters tested
in the literature include ventilation flow rate and climate variations impacting the
night ventilation temperatures. Zhou et al. (2011) also studied the variation of ven-
tilation period on PCM performance. Evola et al. (2013) tested different rates of
natural ventilation on PCM effectiveness in stabilizing indoor temperatures in two
climates. The results showed that by adding night cooling with natural ventilation,
the PCM was activated for more than 80% of the time during the phase change
cycle, thus improving its heat storage capacity. Becker (2014) showed that night
ventilation was necessary in three different building types in the Mediterranean cli-
mate to improve the performance of PCM panels. Given different internal gain
parameters in each context of an office, a school, and a residential building, it was
observed that the effect of energy storage exceeding the latent heat capacity
occurred during the periods in which the natural ventilation was shut off.
The addition of night ventilation was also emphasized in highly glazed buildings
with high rates of solar gain. Csáky and Kalmár (2015) performed numerical and
experimental analysis to assess the impacts of orientation, ventilation flow rate,
and thermal mass on the indoor air temperature and cooling energy demands of a
xade. The results showed that increasing the flow rates from
test cell with a glazed fac
0.5 to 3 air changes per hour (ACH) increased the demand for cooling energy use
by 12% and showed slight improvements in the lightweight structure in reducing
peak indoor air temperature by 1°C. Moreover, the optimal ventilation scenario
varied based on different orientations. Guarino et al. (2017) also studied the appli-
cation of PCM wallboards in highly glazed solaria combined with natural ventila-
tion for improving the PCM heat discharge in Montreal, Quebec. It was reported
232 Journal of Building Physics 43(3)

in both the simulation and experimental tests that after a prolonged period of solar
gain in the unit and considering the thermal inertia of the PCMs, solidification did
not occur. This led to the start of heat storage in PCM at 19°C, which was within
the melting range of the PCM, thus confirming the need for night ventilation.
In this study, a composite PCM system for annual LHTES for retrofit applica-
tion in highly glazed apartment units is studied in temperate climates to improve
the overall thermal comfort and decrease space conditioning energy use.
Considering the direct relation of high glazing ratios with thermal discomfort and
higher energy demands in high-rise apartments, PCMs have a high retrofit poten-
tial (Bennet and O’Brien, 2017). The aim of applying the PCM system is to
improve not only the daily discomfort due to overheating but also nighttime tem-
peratures that can fall below comfort levels. The performance of the composite
PCM system was previously assessed using experimental test cells and energy simu-
lations with EnergyPlusTM (Berardi and Soudian, 2019). By integrating the PCM
system, overheating in summer due to high solar heat gain was reduced, resulting
in 15% lower cooling energy demand in the city of Toronto (Berardi and Soudian,
2018). The outcome of the tests showed the capability of this PCM system in regu-
lating daily temperature fluctuations by minimizing the extreme peak temperatures
in the summer and shoulder seasons. Nevertheless, the lack of full PCM solidifica-
tion was observed as a critical issue particularly in the summer season. The fre-
quency of solidification in both the PCM panels was high during the shoulder
seasons, indicating full and partial solidification and full solidification in the winter
season considering surface temperatures (Tsurf) below 21°C for the majority of the
days.
The aim of this study is to complement the previous findings by investigating
the potential of night ventilation coupled as a measure to enhance the performance
of the composite PCM system. Particularly, this study focuses on correlating the
amount of night ventilation with the solidification demand of the PCMs. In addi-
tion, the impact of climate is observed by correlating cooling degree days (CDD)
and ventilation effectiveness in discharging PCMs in the climates of Toronto and
New York. The overall performance of the PCMs is evaluated based on cooling
energy use and indoor operative temperature (Top) variations by adding the night
ventilation using energy simulations. The addition of a non-obtrusive measure that
can enhance the indoor thermal comfort in conditioned high-rise apartments with
configurable optimization approaches such as the night cooling is a promising ret-
rofit measure.

Methodology
A composite PCM system consisting of two PCM layers with two different Tmp
was proposed to provide LHTES year-around. To ensure the applicability of the
composite PCM system and to investigate the performance of available PCMs,
commercially available PCM products suitable for building applications were
Soudian and Berardi 233

Table 1. Thermophysical properties of the PCMs.

Product Peak Tmp Latent Specific Thermal Area PCM per

Tmp range heat heat conductivity weight weight of
capacity the panel
(°C) (°C) (KJ/Kg) (KJ/kg °C) (W/m.k) (Kg/m2)

Energain 21.7 18–22 70 2.5 0.18 – solid 4.5 60%

0.14 – liquid
BioPCM 25 21–25 165–200 2.1 0.2 2.7 100%

PCM: phase change materials.

reviewed to select the appropriate PCMs for the context of the research. The com-
posite PCM system as a retrofit measure was intended to be applied to the interior
layer of wall and ceiling surfaces in highly glazed apartment units. The first layer
behind the gypsum board finishing has a Tmp of 25°C to target the summer tem-
peratures. The second PCM layer is the Energain product with a Tmp of 21.7°C to
target the temperature conditions in winter. Table 1 shows the thermophysical
properties of each PCM product in the composite PCM system. The primary selec-
tion of the PCM layers was done using a simulation optimization analysis to pick
the suitable Tmp for the context of research (Berardi and Soudian, 2018). In addi-
tion, lab characterization of the two PCM layers was performed using a heat flow
meter apparatus to measure the thermal conductivity of the layers for their posi-
tioning in the composite PCM system. The measured values were then inserted in
the simulation model for accurate modeling.
To quantify the impacts of the composite PCM system and the impact of night
ventilation on PCM behavior, whole building energy simulations using EnergyPlus
were performed. Two identical single zone units with a floor area of 64 m2 with an
80% glazing ratio on the facade were modeled. The single zone modeling of the
unit allows for a better focus and generalized analysis of the PCM performance
that can be configured in different case studies for specific zoning layouts. One unit
was modeled. As a baseline and the other integrated with the composite PCM sys-
tem. The PCM system was applied to three interior walls and the ceiling of the unit,
covering approximately 180 m2 of surface area. Figure 1 shows the composition of
the PCM-integrated ceiling and wall surfaces modeled. Detailed characteristics of
the modeled units are outlined in Berardi and Soudian (2018). Heat transfer was
only considered through the exterior wall of the unit and all other surfaces were set
to adiabatic, considering the same environmental conditions in the adjacent units.
The modeled units were created with reinforced concrete flat slabs. The total ther-
mal transmittance of the opaque exterior wall was 0.28 W/(m2K), and the double-
glazing windows were modeled with an overall U-value of 2.7 W/(m2K). The three
main walls of the unit were modeled with steel studs and double gypsum boards on
each side.
234 Journal of Building Physics 43(3)

Figure 1. PCM-integrated surfaces in the simulation model (Berardi and Soudian, 2018).

Figure 2. Weather data based on historical records (1981–2017) (Environment and Climate
Change Canada, 2019; National Weather Service, 2019).

The units were modeled facing the south orientation. Simulations were per-
formed for the summer season. The choice to perform the simulations in the sum-
mer period was mainly due to consideration of the low solidification rate of the
PCMs observed in the hottest period of the year, which could be further optimized
with night cooling. The cooling fan coil system was considered to provide cooling
with a set point temperature (Tset) of 24°C and a set back temperature of 25°C.
Cooling period was modeled from 1 June to 30 August, and in consideration of the
unoccupied periods from 9 a.m. to 6 p.m., in which the cooling system operated on
a setback temperature. Mechanical night ventilation was modeled with a fan and
based on ‘zone air flow rates’ considering the total floor area and volume of the
zone in the simulation model. Internal gains from the occupants and lighting in the
building were set to 5405 Wh/m2, considering three occupants. The simulations
were performed in two climates of Toronto and New York that have comparable
climate conditions with cold winters and hot humid summers. Figure 2 shows the
historical weather data for the summer period recorded in the downtown area of
Soudian and Berardi 235

Figure 3. Simulation process.

each city. The total CDD and average daily temperatures in New York are signifi-
cantly higher than in Toronto in the summer season; however, the maximum tem-
peratures in Toronto show slightly higher values.

Parameters of analysis
A comparative analysis was performed to assess the impact of the composite PCM
system on indoor Top and cooling energy consumption patterns in the modeled
unit. The effect of night ventilation was assessed on how its addition changes the
performance of the PCMs in comparison to the non-ventilated scenario. The main
variables tested in this study were the amount and the temperature profile of night
ventilation. The diagram in Figure 3 demonstrates the process of this study. The
amount of night ventilation was controlled with variable ventilation flow rates and
period of operation. The temperature profile of the fresh air provided by mechani-
cal ventilation was controlled with variable Tset. As Figure 3 shows, the primary
scenario tested for mechanical ventilation was performed with a Tset of 22°C and
operated from 12 a.m. to 7 a.m for 7 hours.
The ventilation Tset indicates that the operation of the mechanical ventilation
happens only when outdoor temperatures are below that point to prevent over-
heating; additionally, no night ventilation occurs in the case of outdoor tempera-
tures above indoor room temperatures. Similar night ventilation conditions have
been applied to the baseline unit as well for consistent comparison. It should be
noted that the basis of this study is on comparative analysis and not absolute
236 Journal of Building Physics 43(3)

values. The rate of change in indoor Top and energy consumption by applying the
PCMs and the night ventilation is compared with the baseline unit. The simulation
was performed with a 1-min time step for accurate modeling of PCM behavior
added to the surfaces. The energy use and indoor temperature data were then aver-
aged hourly to demonstrate the relation of PCM performance to night ventilation.

Results
The impact of adding PCMs in the summer period was first tested without night
ventilation in both the cities. The total cooling energy use intensity (EUI) in the
PCM-integrated unit is reduced by 8.1% from the baseline unit in Toronto. In
New York, the overall cooling energy loads are considerably higher in the baseline
unit compared with Toronto due to the higher temperature profiles in summer in
this city. The addition of the PCM system to the New York unit, in fact, has a min-
imal impact on reducing the total cooling EUI by only 1%. Detailed analysis of
the surface and indoor temperatures was performed in both the cities in a represen-
tative week with the highest temperatures to observe the performance of the PCMs
without night ventilation. Considering that the simulations were performed in the
cooling season, only the first layer of the composite PCM system, the BioPCM is
considered to be activated daily. The Tsurf of the window-facing wall in the units in
relation to indoor Top and outdoor temperatures (Tout) are shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4 shows the difference between the outdoor temperature profile of
Toronto and New York City in their hottest periods. The main difference lies in
daily temperature fluctuations, that is, the difference between the maximum and
minimum outdoor temperatures. Although both the cities experience tempera-
tures as high as 32°C, the minimum temperatures in Toronto can get as low as
below 20°C at night. By evaluating the daily outdoor temperature profile of the
summer period in each city, it is demonstrated that the daily fluctuations are
approximately 3.1°C higher in the city of Toronto. Furthermore, the number of
times Tout is below 21°C (the PCM solidification threshold) is 36% more fre-
quent in Toronto.
The performance of the PCM-integrated wall in comparison to the baseline wall
shows much better temperature regulation by reducing the peak high and low tem-
peratures in Toronto. However, as Figure 4 shows, the surface and Top stay above
21°C in both the units during the representative week selected. A similar trend is
observed in New York. Hourly Tsurf assessed in the entire summer period with no
mechanical ventilation showed that in the New York and Toronto units, the Tsurf
of the PCM wall are not reduced beneath the Tmp threshold of the PCM, which is
21°C. Thus, the chances of complete PCM solidification with no night ventilation
are zero in this case. Even the chance of partial solidification of PCM surfaces is
only 1% considering temperatures below 25°C (upper threshold of the Tmp range)
in the New York unit. However, partial discharge of the PCM wall is possible in
Toronto as Tsurf are between 21°C and 25°C for 17% of the summer period with
Soudian and Berardi 237

Figure 4. Daily surface and operative temperatures without night ventilation in the
representative week.

no night ventilation available. In sum, the need for an additional measure is evi-
dent in this case to reduce the PCM Tsurf for better solidification and improvement
of PCM effectiveness. The use of controlled mechanical ventilation was then intro-
duced in the simulation model using a fan.

Ventilation flow rate

The first variable tested for the application of night ventilation was the amount of
night ventilation provided to the units by changing the ventilation flow rates. The
total cooling EUI in each mechanical ventilation flow rate scenario is shown in
Figure 5. As the graph shows, the percentage of savings in the PCM-integrated
unit in Toronto compared with the baseline unit is higher in the mechanically ven-
tilated scenarios compared with the non-ventilated scenario. The trend of cooling
238 Journal of Building Physics 43(3)

Figure 5. Total cooling EUI (1 June–31 August) using different ventilation flow rates.

energy savings in the PCM-integrated unit is linear with increase in the ventilation
flow rates in both the cities compared with the non-ventilated scenario.
By adding 0.1 m3/s of mechanical ventilation each night from midnight to 7 a.m.,
the total cooling EUI is reduced by 15.3%, which is a 7.2% increase in savings com-
pared with nights without ventilation in Toronto. However, by comparing the
range of cooling EUI savings in the PCM-integrated unit as the mechanical ventila-
tion rates are further increased, it is observed that the effect of higher airflow rates
on PCM performance is not increased as much. For instance, by increasing the flow
rate from 0.26 m3/s to 0.53 m3/s, the effect of PCMs in reducing the cooling EUI is
only 1.6% higher. Similar observations for the New York unit show a substantial
increase in cooling energy savings with increased ventilation rates, yet, with a much
smaller percentage of energy savings.
The monthly energy consumption analysis demonstrates that adding night venti-
lation results in higher energy savings in the month of June in both the cities. This
can be explained by the more moderate temperature profile of this month in addi-
tion to lower night temperatures causing increased daily temperature oscillations.
For instance, the energy use in the PCM-integrated unit is decreased by 12% with
the addition of night ventilation with 0.1 m3/s. While in the months of July and
August with the same ventilation flow rate, the energy saving is zero in the PCM-
integrated unit in New York.
Soudian and Berardi 239

Figure 6. Daily Tsurf of the PCM wall with variable ventilation flow rates in the representative
week.

Hourly indoor Top in the units were assessed to check the impact of the PCM
system on the thermal environment and the rate of change with the corresponding
ventilation rates. The main focus of PCM solidification with night cooling is first
the total discharge of the stored heat in the PCMs to achieve full solidification. The
second factor of importance is the readiness of the PCM for the next storage cycle
in the coming day to reduce the overheating in the indoor space. Considering these
two factors and referring to thermal comfort requirements outlined by ASHRAE
55 standard (2017), peak indoor Top above 26°C and below 21°C were monitored
as the threshold limits for thermal discomfort. Table 2 presents the total number of
hours in which the indoor Top were recorded outside of the peak comfort thresh-
olds (out of overall 2209 h tested between 1 June–31 August).
As Table 2 shows, high peak temperatures are significantly dropped in the
PCM-integrated unit in both the cities. The impact of increased flow rate further
improves the performance of the PCM system in reducing the maximum Top. In
fact, adding night cooling reduces the occurrence of the maximum comfortable Top
in the baseline unit as well. The impact of increased ventilation flow rate on Top is
240 Journal of Building Physics 43(3)

Table 2. Total number of hours with peak Top in the units with variable ventilation flow rates.

Toronto New York

Top . 26°C Top \21°C Top . 26°C Top \21°C
Baseline PCM Baseline PCM Baseline PCM Baseline PCM
unit unit unit unit

No ventilation 151 63 74 0 310 239 0 0

0.1 m3/s (2 ACH) 153 65 70 0 283 208 0 0
0.26 m3/s (5 ACH) 127 47 70 0 264 181 0 0
0.53 m3/s (10 ACH) 123 41 78 0 252 165 0 0

PCM: phase change materials.

higher in the New York unit. For instance, by increasing the flow rate to 0.53 m3/s,
the overall number of hours with the maximum temperatures is reduced by 87 h in
the PCM unit. This is 16 h more than the case of ventilation flow rate of 0.1 m3/s.
Considering the minimum thermal discomfort threshold which corresponds to tem-
peratures below 21°C, the impact of thermal inertia in the Toronto PCM-inte-
grated unit is observed. Higher indoor temperatures prevent the occurrence of low
peak temperatures in this city. In New York, however, higher outdoor tempera-
tures and indoor conditions never reach 21°C even in the baseline unit. While Top
below 21°C causes thermal discomfort, low indoor room and Tsurf are needed to
ensure full solidification of the PCM system.
Figure 6 presents the variation of Tsurf in the PCM-integrated units for the repre-
sentative summer week. The amplitude of Tsurf in New York is very low compared
with Toronto and for all the days in the representative week, the Tsurf of the PCM-
integrated wall overlaps considering the different ventilation rates applied. In
Toronto, the trend of the decreased Tsurf is clearly visible in comparison to the non-
ventilated scenario. While the highest rate of Tsurf decrease belongs to the ventilated
scenario with the flow rate 0.53 m3/s, the lowest temperature recorded for this week
is still higher than the threshold of PCM solidification (21°C). Given the high-
temperature profile of the representative week, it is evident that simply increasing
the ventilation flow rate is not sufficient to lower the temperature of PCM-inte-
grated surfaces at night. Changing the boundary conditions at night by varying the
temperature of night ventilation provided to the units could better control the soli-
dification process of the PCMs.

Ventilation Tset
To test the factor of ventilation Tset, the ventilation flow rate was set to 0.1 m3/s (2
ACH) and operated for 7 h to further assess potential improvements. Figure 7
shows the percentage of cooling energy savings in the PCM-integrated unit with
variable ventilation Tset. As is evident, by decreasing the Tset from the Tset of 22°C
Soudian and Berardi 241

Figure 7. Total cooling EUI (1 June–31 August) using different ventilation Tset.

initially tested, the energy use is further reduced in the PCM-integrated unit. The
highest percentage of savings is achieved with ventilation Tset of 18°C in Toronto.
In contrast, by increasing the ventilation Tset to 24°C or 26°C, the amount of cool-
ing energy use is increased in both the baseline and the PCM-integrated units.
Accordingly, the percentage of energy savings is also reduced by nearly 19%
from the Tset of 18°C in the PCM unit. Considering that the set points of 18°C and
20°C are closer to the Tmp of the PCM, it could be observed that the potential dis-
charge of the PCM is reduced in these two Tset scenarios. The context is completely
different in the New York unit, as the amount of energy consumption changes
minimally in both the baseline and the PCM units as the ventilation Tset is chan-
ged, despite the trend of energy savings being similar to the Toronto unit.
Considering the changes in Top in the units, the number of hours with Top below
21°C is increased considerably with ventilation Tset of 18°C in the baseline unit in
Toronto to 275 h. This number is reduced to 110 h in the PCM-integrated unit
showing the impact of thermal inertia regulating low peak temperatures. In line
with this result, by increasing the Tset for night ventilation, the number of hours in
which Top is higher than 26°C is increased in both the units, while the number of
hours with low peak temperatures is reduced to zero. Particularly, by applying Tset
of 24°C and 26°C, the effectiveness of PCM surfaces in reducing the peak Top is
242 Journal of Building Physics 43(3)

Figure 8. Surface temperature variations with variable Tset – Toronto.

reduced drastically. In these cases, the number of hours with overheating in the
PCM-integrated unit is 118 h, only 75 h less than in the baseline unit. In the case of
the New York unit, in the entire summer period, Top stays above 21°C in both the
units. The effectiveness of the PCM in reducing the overheating periods by chang-
ing the ventilation Tset is not changed significantly, with an average reduction of
75 h with Top below 26°C in the PCM unit in all the scenarios.
A further detailed analysis of the Tsurf in both the cities was performed in 4 days
from the representative week. Figure 8 shows the temperature variations for the
Toronto unit. As the graph shows, the Tsurf overlap in the Tset scenarios of 18°C,
and 20°C, and similarly, when the Tset is set to 24°C and 26°C. The relation of the
PCM performance to the night ventilation Tset is evident by comparing the case
with Tset of 20°C and the case with Tset of 26°C. Particularly by observing the low-
est Tsurf recorded on 10 and 11 July, in these cases, the Tsurf of the PCM wall is
reduced further compared with other cases to slightly below 25°C with a Tset of
20°C. While the PCM is not fully discharged, its impact in reducing high peak tem-
perature in the next cycle is displayed on 12 July, as the maximum Tsurf is reduced
by 1.2°C. In the same period, if the Tset is 26°C, the reduction of the peak tempera-
ture is only 0.8°C on the 12th.
Plotting the same graph for the New York unit in the representative week in that
city showed overlapping Tsurf for all the scenarios for both the baseline wall and the
PCM-integrated wall. A further assessment demonstrated the main reason to be the
inactivity of the night ventilation in the representative week in New York, consider-
ing that outdoor temperatures were higher than indoor room temperatures, thus,
the ventilation system did not operate in this week. Removing the restriction on
ventilation performance only at times with Tout lower than indoor temperatures
increases the total cooling energy demand in the unit, which is not an appropriate
solution in this case.
Soudian and Berardi 243

Figure 9. Frequency of partial PCM solidification in relation to the occurrence of night

ventilation.

To check the impact of ventilation Tset on the solidification of the PCMs,

Figure 9 compares the Tsurf of the PCM wall in the three best Tset scenarios,
namely, 18°C, 20°C, and 22°C, in addition to the non-ventilated scenario. Full soli-
dification of the PCM did not occur in any of the scenarios in the summer, consid-
ering Tsurf below 21°C. Thus, Figure 9 shows the occurrence of partial
solidification of the PCM wall in each scenario, considering the Tsurf falling
between the Tmp range of the PCM (21°C–25°C). In order to correlate these values
with the outdoor boundary conditions that determine the operation of night venti-
lation, the temperature difference between indoor Top and Tout in each case is also
measured. Figure 9 presents the significant influence of night ventilation on the
solidification pattern of the PCM wall in both the cities. Although full solidifica-
tion does not occur, the percentage of partial solidification in summer is increased
by approximately 33% compared with the non-ventilated scenario in Toronto.
Same for the New York unit, the partial solidification of the PCM wall happens at
6.5% less when the unit is not ventilated. It must be noted that the difference
between the frequency of partial solidification varies slightly with changes in Tset in
both the cities. Finally, by measuring the difference between indoor Top and Tout
in all days of the summer period, the occurrence of night ventilation is determined
and shown in Figure 9. The total number of hours plotted shows the higher occur-
rence of night ventilation in Toronto considering the lower night temperatures.
244 Journal of Building Physics 43(3)

Table 3. Total number of hours with peak Top in the units with variable ventilation periods.

Ventilation Toronto New York

period
Top . 26°C Top \21°C Top . 26°C Top \21°C
Baseline PCM unit Baseline PCM unit Baseline PCM unit Baseline PCM unit

3h 168 75 127 0 298 216 0 0

5h 150 64 140 0 291 212 0 0
7h 133 54 162 3 280 205 0 0
9h 130 52 189 10 275 202 0 0

PCM: phase change materials.

Ventilation operation period

By observing the trend of outdoor temperature variations in all the three months
of summer, the period between 12 a.m. to 5 a.m. on average experiences the lowest
outdoor temperatures. The initial schedule for the performance of night ventilation
was set to 7 h from midnight. Simulations were performed, considering the ventila-
tion flow rate of 0.1 m3/s (2 ACH), and Ts of 20°C considering acceptable results
achieved in both the cities in previous tests with the potential for improvement. By
increasing the duration of night ventilation in the Toronto unit, the percentage of
energy savings rises consistently. The lowest percentage of energy savings of 14.9%
is measured in the PCM-integrated unit when the ventilation operates from 12 a.m.
to 3 a.m. for 3 h. The highest percentage of energy savings of 19% in the PCM-
integrated unit is achieved when the ventilation performs from 10 p.m. to 7 a.m.
for 9 h. A similar trend is observed in the New York unit; however, the highest per-
centage of savings is 3.2% in the PCM-integrated unit with the longest duration of
ventilation.
Considering the changes in the duration of the night ventilation, the impact of
this variable is assessed on indoor thermal comfort by measuring the peak Top in
the units that fall outside of the ASHRAE-recommended comfort zone. As Table 3
shows, increasing the period of ventilation could significantly reduce the maximum
peak Top in the PCM-integrated unit, while it could increase the number of hours
with low peak temperatures slightly. Another key factor from the table is that
increasing the ventilation period further from 7–9 h does not result in significant
changes in the effectiveness of the PCM in reducing the high peak Top in both the
cities.

Discussion
The simulation results demonstrated the considerable impact of night ventilation
on the effectiveness of PCM-integrated surfaces in reducing overheating periods
and overall cooling energy use. The inclusion of night ventilation in the baseline
Soudian and Berardi 245

unit with no PCM surfaces led to better indoor conditions, which were maximized
by the inclusion of PCMs in the summer period in both the cities of Toronto and
New York. The impact of different variables that control the amount and condi-
tions of night ventilation was established in relation to the solidification rate of the
PCMs. In the Toronto unit, the solidification of the PCM is mostly impacted by
changing the ventilation Tset. On average, the rate of solidification in the best-case
scenario of Tset is 14% higher than the best-case scenario of ventilation flow rate.
In both the New York and Toronto units, the ventilation period has the lowest
impact on the solidification rate of the PCMs.
In the New York unit, changing the ventilation flow rate had the highest impact
on increasing the partial solidification of the PCM surfaces. By applying the venti-
lation flow rate of 0.53 m3/s, the solidification rate is 45% higher than the best-case
scenario of Tset variation. The overall impact of the ventilation flow rate demon-
strates high energy savings in the PCM-integrated unit in both the cities. The
impact of increasing the ventilation flow rate is not consistent in the literature,
while some studies like Solgi et al. (2019) report that a higher flow rate is better for
PCM efficiency, Csáky and Kalmár (2015) reported otherwise. The combination of
different environmental factors in this study showed variable results in each case
related to the PCM Tmp and climate considerations. Thus, selecting only one factor
for the design of night ventilation combined with PCMs is not accurate.
Based on the best results obtained by analyzing different variables, a compro-
mise can be made for the design of appropriate night ventilation in relation to the
performance requirements of the PCM. Considering the range of impacts observed
by each variable on the solidification rate of the PCM wall, two sets of design cases
are proposed and tested in the PCM-integrated unit. The first case considers a ven-
tilation flow rate of 0.26 m3/s (5 ACH), with Tset of 18°C, operated for 7 h from
midnight. The second case considers a ventilation flow rate of 0.26m3/s (5 ACH), a
Tset of 20°C, and an operation period of 5 h. Figure 10 shows the frequency of par-
tial PCM solidification in relation to the monthly CDD in each city. The trend of
higher PCM solidification correlates with lower monthly CDD in both the cities,
while the number of times the PCM wall undergoes partial solidification is nearly
twice in the city of Toronto. Yet the number of CDD is also twice as high in each
month in New York. Another factor concerning the Tout profile is the difference
between the daily high and low peak temperatures. This value is the highest in
June, showing a difference of 11.7°C in Toronto and 9.2°C in New York. Similar
observations were made by Solgi et al. (2019), regarding positive improvements in
night ventilation combined with PCMs when higher temperature differences across
day and night were available.
The two design cases evaluated demonstrate a different overall impact on the
solidification rate of the PCMs. The results show a much higher rate of PCM dis-
charge in Case 1 with lower Tset and higher operation periods in both the cities. As
the ventilation flow rate is kept the same in both the cases, the impact of ventilation
temperature shows a higher impact on the PCM discharge cycle. In this case, a ven-
tilation Tset of 18°C leads to better results, while it is 3°C below the Tmp threshold
246 Journal of Building Physics 43(3)

Figure 10. Frequency of partial PCM solidification and CDD variations in each month.

compared with Tset of 20°C. It can be concluded that based on the effectiveness of
each night ventilation variable on PCM performance, the design cases can be fur-
ther optimized based on the climate variations of each city in relation to the Tmp of
the PCM.
In the case of the PCM-integrated unit in New York, the obtained results
showed a minimal reduction in the overheating periods and overall cooling energy
use. This was even presented in the non-ventilated scenario where the inclusion of
the PCM surfaces led to only 1% energy savings. Although the rate of PCM effec-
tiveness was further increased with the incorporation of the night ventilation, it is
perhaps valuable to study different Tmp ranges in this climate considering higher
temperatures than Tmp of 25°C in this climate. Investigating the parameter of Tmp
for the case of New York City with different Tmp above 25°C for the cooling sea-
son could expand the range of energy saving potential for PCM integration, similar
to the case of Toronto. The correlation of PCM Tmp and the required ventilation
rate is an important design factor to ensure effective PCM performance. This fac-
tor was confirmed in the previous research by Figueiredo et al. (2017).
Applying PCMs to building envelopes requires comprehensive design considera-
tions with regard to the characteristics of PCMs and environmental design factors.
While this study assessed the main design requirements for night ventilation as an
additional enhancement measure to PCMs, a combination of other environmental
design factors could demonstrate better PCM performance. For instance, consider-
ing the lack of full PCM solidification in the summer period, changing cooling Tset
in correlation with night ventilation inclusion might result in full PCM
Soudian and Berardi 247

solidification. The array of factors assessed in this study using simulations showed
the rate of change that can be achieved by combining PCMs and night ventilation
as a retrofit measure; further study is required to validate the results experimen-
tally. Furthermore, as the main operation form for the ventilation was based on
zone air flow rate, other types of ventilation supply (e.g., per person) might lead to
different results. In addition, future simulation studies on the typology of high-rise
apartments could look into weather files specific for dense urban areas considering
the different microclimate characteristic with regard to solar exposure, air flow,
and the height of the high-rise buildings. Finally, by referring to the results
obtained in previous stages of this research in Berardi and Soudian (2018, 2019),
the impact of orientation on PCM performance was observed to be a periodical
impact particularly on peak PCM temperature. Analyzing the impact of night
cooling in the three different orientations of the units could build a generalized
profile for PCM integration as a retrofit measure for future cases.

Conclusions
This article has investigated the effect of night ventilation on the performance of a
PCM system in highly glazed high-rise apartment units in Toronto and New York
as a retrofit measure. Considering the comparable climate in these two cities and
the prevalent typology of residential high-rise apartments, adding PCMs proved to
be a potential retrofit measure in regulating the indoor thermal environment. The
study further showed one of the design considerations that can increase the perfor-
mance of the PCMs. The amount and environmental conditions of the night venti-
lation were the primary factors of analysis. Controlled mechanical ventilation with
variable ventilation flow rates, Tset and operation periods were applied to the mod-
eled units to assess the rate of change in the PCM behavior in regulating the indoor
environment coupled with night ventilation. These factors are particularly impor-
tant in influencing the operation of the night ventilation in units and, thus, PCM
behavior and were primarily selected as the main parameters of the study as they
can be easily controlled and reconfigured.
The main outcome of these tests showed that the average high peak Tsurf and
Top, and cooling energy use were reduced when the ventilation flow rate and dura-
tion were increased, and the Tset was reduced. However, the range of change in the
variables after a point did not yield to a higher percentage of improvements in the
performance of the PCM surfaces. Such as, changing the ventilation flow rate from
0.26 m3/s (5 ACH), to 0.53 m3/s (10 ACH) leads to only 1.6% more energy savings
in the PCM unit. Based on the obtained results, different compromises can be
made to ensure appropriate night ventilation design with PCM applications. For
instance, by varying the Tset of night ventilation with regard to the Tmp of the
PCM, the operation time of the night ventilation can be adjusted. A design case
can then be defined for Toronto with lower CDD that includes lower ventilation
flow rates and duration, yet with a lower Tset. While in New York, higher
248 Journal of Building Physics 43(3)

ventilation flow rates and duration can be defined with the lowest Tset to maximize
the amount of night cooling in the unit.
Finally, accurate considerations involved with designing the PCM system by
matching their thermophysical properties to the context of climate and the building
must be further extended to appropriately design the physical parameters of night
ventilation to complement the addition of PCMs as a retrofit measure.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, author-
ship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, author-
ship, and/or publication of this article: The authors wish to thank the Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) for the financial support through the
grant DG 2016-04904, the Ontario Ministry of Research Innovation and Science (MRIS)
for the ERA award, and the Ontario Center for Excellence for the VIP.

ORCID iD
Umberto Berardi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0508-6195

References
Álvarez S, Cabeza LF, Ruiz-Pardo A, et al. (2013) Building integration of PCM for natural
cooling of buildings. Applied Energy 109: 514–522.
ASHRAE Standard 55 (2017) Thermal environmental conditions for human occupancy.
Barzin R, Chen JJJ, Young BR, et al. (2015) Application of PCM energy storage in
combination with night ventilation for space cooling. Applied Energy 158: 412–421.
Becker R (2014) Improving thermal and energy performance of buildings in summer with
internal phase change materials. Journal of Building Physics 37(3): 296–324.
Bennet IE and O’Brien W (2017) Field study of thermal comfort and occupant satisfaction
in Canadian condominiums. Architectural Science Review 60(1): 27–39.
Berardi U and Manca M (2017) The Energy saving and indoor comfort improvements with
latent thermal energy storage in building retrofits in Canada. Energy Procedia 111:
462–471.
Berardi U and Soudian S (2018) Benefits of latent thermal energy storage in the retrofit of
Canadian high-rise residential buildings. Building Simulation 11(4): 709–723.
Berardi U and Soudian S (2019) Experimental investigation of latent heat thermal energy
storage using PCMs with different melting temperatures for building retrofit. Energy and
Buildings 185: 180–195.
Cabeza LF, Castell A, Barreneche C, et al. (2011) Materials used as PCM in thermal energy
storage in buildings: a review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15(3):
1675–1695.
Soudian and Berardi 249

Csáky I and Kalmár F (2015) Effects of thermal mass, ventilation, and glazing orientation
on indoor air temperature in buildings. Journal of Building Physics 39(2): 189–204.
Environment and Climate Change Canada (2019) Historical weather data. Available at:
https://toronto.weatherstats.ca
Evola G, Marletta L and Sicurella F (2013) A methodology for investigating the
effectiveness of PCM wallboards for summer thermal comfort in buildings. Energy and
Buildings 70: 480–489.
Figueiredo A, Vicente R, Lapa J, et al. (2017) Indoor thermal comfort assessment using
different constructive solutions incorporating PCM. Applied Energy 208: 1208–1221.
Guarino F, Athienitis A, Cellura M, et al. (2017) PCM thermal storage design in buildings:
experimental studies and applications to solaria in cold climates. Applied Energy 185:
95–106.
Kalnæs SE and Jelle BP (2015) Phase change materials for building applications: a state-of-
the-art review and future research opportunities. Energy and Buildings 94: 150–176.
Kenisarin M and Mahkamov K (2016) Passive thermal control in residential buildings using
phase change materials. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 55: 371–398.
Kosny J (2015) Overview of basic solid–liquid PCMs used in building envelopes – packaging
methods, encapsulation and thermal enhancement. In: Kosny J (ed.) PCM-Enhanced
Building Components. Berlin: Springer, 61–106.
Lizana J, Chacartegui R, Barrios-Padura A, et al. (2017) Advances in thermal energy storage
materials and their applications towards zero energy buildings: a critical review. Applied
Energy 203: 219–239.
Naraid J, Jin W, Ghandehari M, et al. (2016) Design and application of concrete tiles
enhanced with microencapsulated phase-change material. Journal of Architectural
Engineering 22(1): 05015003.
National Weather Service (2019) Central Park, NY historical data. Available at: https://
www.weather.gov/okx/CentralParkHistorical
Navarro L, de Gracia A, Niall D, et al. (2016) Thermal energy storage in building integrated
thermal systems: a review. Part 2. Integration as passive system. Renewable Energy 85:
1334–1356.
Ramakrishnan S, Wang X, Sanjayan J, et al. (2017) Thermal performance of buildings
integrated with phase change materials to reduce heat stress risks during extreme
heatwave events. Applied Energy 194: 410–421.
Saffari M, de Gracia A, Ushak S, et al. (2017) Passive cooling of buildings with phase
change materials using whole-building energy simulation tools: a review. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews 80: 1239–1255.
Santamouris M, Sfakianaki A and Pavlou K (2010) On the efficiency of night ventilation
techniques applied to residential buildings. Energy and Buildings 42(8): 1309–1313.
Solgi E, Hamedani Z, Fernando R, et al. (2018) A literature review of night ventilation
strategies in buildings. Energy and Buildings 173: 337–352.
Solgi E, Hamedani Z, Fernando R, et al. (2019) A parametric study of phase change
material behaviour when used with night ventilation in different climatic zones. Building
and Environment 147: 327–336.
Zhou G, Yang Y and XUH (2011) Energy performance of a hybrid space-cooling system in
an office building using SSPCM thermal storage and night ventilation. Solar Energy 85:
477–485.