2/18/2020
CE -342
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING – II
BLOCK_1B
Pavement Types, Layers and Materials
Brig Dr. Sarfraz Ahmed
Military College of Engineering
National University of Sciences & Technology
TN_II @ SA
Granular Bases and Subbases (Ballast and Sub-ballast)
 Purposes:
• Drainage - open graded ballast
• Load Distribution - flexible pavements
• Stability - greater angularity, greater stability
• Raise pavement or track structure (over the subgrade)
Moisture
o Pavements are susceptible to water
o Sources of Water:
(1) Joints and cracks (rigid and flexible pavements)
(2) Shoulders and ditches
(3) Surface permeability (AC & PCC)
(4) Upward movement of ground water table (or capillary action)
(5) Seepage from high ground
(6) Vapor movements
TN_II @ SA
Structure of the Pavement
1. Surface /Wearing Course
 Layer in contact with traffic loads and normally
contains the highest quality materials
 It provides friction, smoothness, noise control, rut and
shoving resistance and drainage
 In addition, it serves to prevent the entrance of
excessive quantities of surface water into the
underlying base, subbase and subgrade
 This top structural layer of material is sometimes
subdivided into two layers
 Wearing Course
 Intermediate/Binder Course
TN_II @ SA
Granular Base and Subbase Layers
1 TN_II @ SA 2
Structure of the Pavement Asphalt Concrete
Aggregate Base Course
Natural Soil (Subgrade)
Aggregate Subbase Course
 Layered Structure,
1. Surface Course: This is the top layer and comes in
contact with traffic
2. Base Course: This is the layer directly below the surface
course and generally consists of aggregates (stabilized
or un-stabilized)
3. Subbase Course: This is the layer (or layers) under the
base layer. A sub-base is not always needed
4. Subgrade: The "subgrade" is the material upon which
the pavement structure is placed.
3 TN_II @ SA 4
Structure of the Pavement
2. Base Course
 It’s is immediately beneath the surface course
 It facilitate load distribution and contributes to
drainage and frost resistance.
 Base courses are usually constructed out of:
 Aggregates: Typically constructed from durable
aggregates (resistant to moisture or frost
action. can be either stabilized or un-stabilized
 HMA: In certain situations, base courses can be
constructed using a variety of HMA mixes. These
HMA mixes usually contain larger maximum
aggregate sizes, are more open graded
5 TN_II @ SA 6
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Structure of the Pavement
2. Base Course
 The recommended minimum thickness of granular
base is 9 inches for traffic upto 2 msa (million std
axle) and 10 inches mm for traffic exceeding 2 msa.
 For heavily trafficked roads, use of WMM(wet mix
macadam) base laid by paver finisher or motor
grader is recommended.
 For roads carrying traffic more than 10 msa, the
minimum thickness of the base course should be 12
inches
TN_II @ SA
Structure of the Pavement
3. Sub-base Course
 A sub-base course is not always needed or used
 For example, a pavement constructed over a high
quality, stiff sub-grade may not need a sub-base
course so it may be omitted from design.
 However, a pavement constructed over a poor
subgrade may require the additional load distribution
characteristic that a sub-base course can offer. In this
scenario the sub-base course may consist of high
quality fill used to replace or cover poor quality sub-
grade
TN_II @ SA
Structure of the Pavement
4. Subgrade
 Although a pavement's wearing course is most
prominent, the success or failure of a pavement is
more often than not dependent upon the underlying
sub-grade
 The material upon which the pavement structure is
built
 Sub-grades be composed of a wide range of materials
although some are muchTN_IIbetter
@ SA
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Structure of the Pavement
3. Sub-base Course
 The sub-base course is between the base course and
the sub-grade.
 It provides structural support but it can also:
 Minimize the intrusion of fines from the sub-grade
into the pavement structure
 Improves drainage
 Minimize frost action damage
 Provides a working platform for construction
 The sub-base generally consists of lower quality
materials than the base course but better than the
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sub-grade soils TN_II @ SA 8
Structure of the Pavement
3. Sub-base Course
 The sub-base material should have minimum CBR of
20% for cumulative traffic up to 2 msa and 30% for
traffic exceeding 2 msa
 The material should be tested for CBR at the dry
density and moisture content expected in the field.
 The thickness of sub-base should not be less than 6
inches for design traffic less than 10 msa and 8 inches
for design traffic of 10 msa and above
9 TN_II @ SA 10
Structure of the Pavement
4. Subgrade
 Preferably the subgrade soil should have a CBR of
min 2%
 If the CBR<2%, the design should be based on a CBR
of 2% and a capping layer of 6 inches thickness of
material with a minimum CBR of 10% shall be
provided in addition to the subbase
TN_II @ SA 12
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Aggregates: Definitions and Functional Requirements
 Granular material that comprises the largest quantity of
material used in most pavement and railroad track structures
• Coarse Aggregate > No. 4 Sieve (4.76 mm)
• Fine Aggregate < No. 4 Sieve
• Mineral Filler < No. 200 Sieve (0.075 mm)
Aggregates: Definitions and Functional Requirements
 Functional Requirements:
• When aggregates are used as an ingredient in asphalt and
PCC, additional functional requirements and tests are
needed: skid/polish resistance, angularity requirements,
freeze/thaw durability, etc.

 Functional Requirements:
• Strength Description of the Best Aggregate for Transportation Uses:
• Distribute Load, Reduce Stresses in Underlying layers via  CRUSHED
thickness and modulus  ANGULAR
• Aid Drainage  ROUGH, TEXTURED SURFACE
• Reduce Damage from Frost (Increase depth to Subgrade), Filler
• Restrain Track Crushed stone is generally a high-quality aggregate for pavements
TN_II @ SA 13 TN_II @ SA 14

Aggregate Properties Base & SubBase Stabilization

Types of stabilized Bases:

 Cement Treated Base, CTB (aggregate plus small amount of

Portland Cement forming a rigid layer, often approaching
stiffness and strength of PCC. Shrinkage cracks in this layer
Property Aggregate with no Aggregate with Aggregate with sometimes causes reflective cracking).
Fines sufficient Fines for great amount of
Max Density Fines
Shear Strength High Very High Very Low  Asphalt Treated Base, ATB (aggregate plus small amount of
Density Low-Med High High
asphalt binder. Usually an emulsified asphalt is used, sometimes
Permeability High Very Low Very High
foamed asphalt. Forms a cohesive or semi-cohesive layer,
Frost Susceptibility Very Low High Very High
improved modulus, strength, and moisture resistance)
Suitability as a Base Excellent Poor Very Poor
Material

TN_II @ SA 15 TN_II @ SA 16

Suitable Materials for Cement Stabilization Mechanically Stabilized Surfaces

 Minimum of 55% passing #4 sieve
Cellular Confinement
 PI < 30 • Cellular confinement systems,
 Less than 1% sulfate sometimes referred to as
 Non-reactive aggregates geocells, are constructed with
a geosynthetic product that
 7 day ASTM D1633 -Compressive Strength Test forms a honeycomb-like
requirements range from 250 to 750 psi (350 to 450 psi cellular structure that is
generally recommended) infilled with aggregate to
create a stabilized aggregate
o Type I cement is normally used layer
o Type III cement is used for early strength • Some aggregate cover is
o It has been successfully used in recycling old pavements required to protect the
geocells from traffic abrasion
TN_II @ SA 17 TN-II-2019 18

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Mechanically Stabilized Surfaces Mechanically Stabilized Surfaces

Fiber Reinforcement Geo-grid Reinforcement
• Materials that have been Geotextiles and geogrids belong to a group of synthetic
used for fiber products collectively referred to as geosynthetics.
reinforcement include Geosynthetic products can be used to reinforce soils
metallic, polypropylene, and to act as filter or separation layers in pavement
glass, wire, straw, and construction.
fibers.
• The fibers are mixed with
the soil to create a
uniformly reinforced soil
mix with discrete,
randomly oriented fibers.
The soil is then placed and
compacted. TN-II-2019 19 TN-II-2019 20

Wearing Course
Wearing Course  The surface course is the layer in contact with traffic loads
and normally contains the highest quality materials.

 It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness,

noise control, rut and shoving resistance and drainage.

 It serves to prevent the entrance of excessive quantities of

surface water into the underlying base, subbase and
subgrade.
 This top structural layer is sometimes subdivided into two
layers:
• Wearing Course.
• Intermediate/Binder Course.
TN_II @ SA 21 TN_II @ SA 22

Wearing Course - Gradation Wearing Course - Types

Dense Graded HMA Gap Graded HMA
HMA mix types differ from each other mainly in maximum All sized particles Particle to Particle Contact
aggregate size, aggregate gradation and asphalt binder Air voids 4% Very Few Mid sized particles
content/type Air voids 4%

In HMA, gradation helps determine almost every important

property including stiffness, stability, durability, permeability,
workability, fatigue resistance, frictional resistance and
resistance to moisture damage (Roberts et al., 1996)

In PCC, gradation helps determine durability, porosity,

workability, cement and water requirements, strength, and
shrinkage.
Open Graded HMA
Very Few Fine particles
Air voids 15 – 20 %
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Wearing Course – Gradation Terminologies
Maximum Aggregate Size
• Maximum aggregate size can affect HMA, PCC and
base/subbase courses in several ways.
• In HMA, instability may result from excessively small
maximum sizes; and poor workability and/or segregation may
result from excessively large maximum sizes.
• In PCC, large maximum sizes may not fit between reinforcing
bar openings, but they will generally increase PCC strength
because the water-cement ratio can be lowered.
• ASTM C 125 defines the maximum aggregate size in one of
two ways:
1. Maximum size. The smallest sieve through which 100 percent
of the aggregate sample particles pass. Superpave defines the
maximum aggregate size as “one sieve larger than the
nominal maximum size” TN_II @ SA 25
Wearing Course - Types
TN_II @ SA 27
Wearing Course
Stone matrix asphalt (SMA)
• SMA is a gap-graded HMA.
• Designed to maximize deformation (rutting) resistance and
durability by stone-on-stone contact.
• As aggregates are all in contact, rut resistance relies on
aggregate properties rather than asphalt binder properties
• Since aggregates do not deform, thus stone-on-stone.
contact greatly reduces rutting.
• SMA is generally more expensive than a typical dense-
graded HMA (about 20 – 25 percent) because it requires
more durable aggregates, higher asphalt content and,
typically, a modified asphalt binder and fibers.
• In the right situations it should be cost-effective because of
its increased rut resistance and improved durability.
TN_II @ SA 29
2/18/2020
Wearing Course – Gradation Terminologies
1. Maximum size. The smallest sieve through which 100 percent
of the aggregate sample particles pass. Superpave defines the
maximum aggregate size as “one sieve larger than the
nominal maximum size”
2. Nominal maximum size. The largest sieve that retains some
of the aggregate particles but generally not more than 10
percent by weight. Superpave defines nominal maximum
aggregate size as “one sieve size larger than the first sieve to
retain more than 10 percent of the material”
Thus, it is important to specify whether “maximum size” or
“nominal maximum size” is being referenced
TN_II @ SA 26
HMA Wearing Course Types
Dense-graded mix
 well-graded HMA mixture intended for general use.
 When properly designed and constructed, a dense-
graded mix is relatively impermeable.
 Dense-graded mixes are generally referred to by their
nominal maximum aggregate size.
 Dense-graded mixes are suitable for all pavement
layers and for all traffic conditions. They work well for
structural, friction, leveling and patching needs.
 Both modified/unmodified asphalt binders are used.
 They can further be classified as either fine-graded or
coarse-graded.
TN_II @ SA 28
Wearing Course
Stone matrix asphalt (SMA)
TN_II @ SA 30
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Wearing Course Bituminous Materials

Open-graded HMA.  Asphalts -Natural or fractional distillation of petroleum
• This includes both open-graded friction course  Tars –Destructive distillation of coal, petroleum, wood
(OGFC) and asphalt treated permeable materials.  Pitches -Fractional distillation of tar
• Open-graded mixes are typically used as wearing
courses (OGFC) or underlying drainage layers
• Because of the special advantages offered by their
porosity.
Barrel of
Crude Oil

TN_II @ SA 31 TN_II @ SA 32

Production of Asphalt Concrete Petroleum-Based Asphalt Binders

 Mixing & placing at low viscosity • Asphalt binder is waste product from refinery
• hot asphalt cement processing of crude oil
• liquid asphalts (Handout) o Sometimes called the “bottom of the barrel” Gasoline
Kerosene
o cutback asphalts • Properties depend on:
Lt. Gas Oil
o emulsified asphalts o Refinery operations Diesel
Motor Oils
 Cannot cast -use compaction, Three stage process o Composition crude source-dependent
Asphalt
(vibratory, pneumatic, steel)
• Need to specify desirable characteristics
• “Desirable characteristics” have evolved over time
and with increasing technological advances

• Purchasing requires specifications

TN_II @ SA 33 TN_II @ SA 34

Asphalt Binders Early Specifications

Background • Lake Asphalts

– Appearance
History of Specifications
– Solubility in carbon disulfide
1. Penetration Grading System • Petroleum asphalt binders (early 1900’s)
2. Viscosity Grading System – Consistency
• Chewing
3. Aged-Residue Viscosity Grading System
• Penetration machine
4. Superpave Grading System
Chapter 2:
Hot Mix Asphalt Materials, Mixture Design and Construction, 2nd
Edition, National Centre for Asphalt Technology. (Handout)
TN_II @ SA 35 TN_II @ SA 36

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Penetration Testing ASTM D5 Penetration Grade Specification

• Sewing machine needle  Pen Five Grades  Uses penetration results to
• Specified load (100 g), time (25 oC), temperature (5 • 40 - 50 specify grade
seconds)  Adds
• 60 - 70
Penetration in 0.1 mm – Flash point test
100 g • 85 - 100
– Ductility
No. 2 sewing • 120 - 150
machine needle – Solubility
• 200 - 300
– Thin film oven aging
»Penetration
»Ductility
Initial After 5 seconds
TN_II @ SA 37 TN_II @ SA 38

Flash Point (Safety) Ductility

• Evaluates the ability of an asphalt binder sample to
stretch at a rate of 5 cm/min at 25oC
Thermometer
Centimeter
Scale
Cup filled with
asphalt binder

Wand attached
to gas line Mold

Asphalt
Sample

TN_II @ SA 39 TN_II @ SA 40

Outside of Oven
Solubility (Purity) Thin Film Oven

ASTM D2042 • TFO simulating the change in

99% Dissolved in Trichloroethylene asphalt binder properties which
or Carbon Disulfide (Hazardous)
occur during tank storage,
mixing and construction
processes.
• Three containers with 50 g
Pan Thermometer
Asphalt in each.
o
• Rotated/kept in oven at 163 C
oven for 5 hours.

Rotating Shelf

TN_II @ SA 41 TN_II @ SA 42

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Penetration Grade Specifications Advantages

 Grades asphalt binders near average in-service temp.

 Fast testing
 Can be used in field labs
 Low capital costs
 Precision well established
 Temperature susceptibility can be determined

TN_II @ SA 43 TN_II @ SA 44

Disadvantages Viscosity Graded Specifications

Testing
 Empirical test Absolute viscosity
 Shear rate • U-shaped tube with timing
– High marks & filled with asphalt
– Variable binder
 Mixing and compaction temp. information not • Placed in 60oC bath
available • Vacuum used to pull asphalt
 Similar penetrations at 25oC (77oF) do not reflect through tube
wide differences in asphalts • Time to pass marks
• Visc. in Pa s (Poise)
Zietfuchs Cross-
Asphalt Institute
Arm Tube
TN_II @ SA 45 TN_II @ SA Tube 46

Viscosity Graded Specifications - Testing Mixing/Compaction Temps

• Mixing temperature corresponds to a viscosity of 0.17 + 0.02 Poise
 Kinematic viscosity • The temperature at which the viscosity is 0.28 + 0.03 is used to
Select the compaction temperature.
– Cross arm tube with timing marks & filled with Viscosity, Pa s
asphalt 10
5
– Placed in 135oC bath
– Once started gravity moves asphalt through
tube 1
.5
– Time to pass marks
.3 Compaction Range
– Visc. in mm2 / s (centistoke) .2 Mixing Range

.1
100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
TN_II @ SA 47 Temperature,
TN_II @ SA C 48

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Comparison of Pen, Viscosity & AR

Penetration Grades

AC 40 AR 16000
Superpave Asphalt Binder
Viscosity, 60C (140oF)

40
100 50 AC 20
AR 8000 Specifications
60
50 AC 10
70 AR 4000
85
100 AC 5
AR 2000
120
150 AC 2.5
200 AR 1000
10
300
5

TN_II @ SA 49 TN_II @ SA 50

Superpave Asphalt Binder Specification Tests Used in Superpave PG Specifications

The grading system is based on Climate Construction

PG 64 - 22 Rutting
Fatigue
Cracking
Thermal
Cracking

Min pavement
Performance temperature RV BBR
DSR
Grade
+ve Temp -ve
PAV
Average 7-day max No Aging Long Term Aging
pavement temperature RTFO (Short Term Aging)

TN_II @ SA 51 TN_II @ SA 52

Permanent Deformation Fatigue Cracking

• Addressed by high temp stiffness • Addressed by intermediate temperature

stiffness
– G*/sin δ on unaged asphalt binder > 1.00 kPa – G*sin δ on RTFO & PAV aged asphalt
– G*/sin δ on RTFO aged asphalt binder > 2.20 kPa binder < 5000 kPa

Heavy Trucks
> Early part of
pavement > Later part of
service life pavement service life

TN_II @ SA 53 TN_II @ SA 54

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Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) - Materials Hot-Mix Asphalt (HMA) Designs

 Surface material for asphalt pavements - temperature and
time dependent (viscoelastic) behavior • Objective:
1. Materials – Develop an economical blend of aggregates and asphalt
• Coarse Aggregate - gravel, crushed stone binder that meets design requirements
• Fine Aggregate - sand
• Mineral Filler • Historical mix design methods
• Asphalt Cement (Binder) - most important: – Marshall
 fills voids between aggregates – Hveem
 provides binding – Texas Gyratory Mix Design
2. Asphalt Cement (Binder) – Empirical Strength Testing
• Grading Based on: • New
a. Old Methods – Viscosity, Needle Penetration – Superpave mix design
b. *Superpave Performance-Grading, using fundamental tests
*SUPERPAVE = Superior Performing Asphalt Pavements
TN_II @ SA 55 TN_II @ SA 56

Marshall Mix Design Procedure Marshall Mix Design Procedure – Design Steps
• Bruce Marshall, 1939 Aggregate selection
• The Marshall method seeks to select the asphalt binder • Determine aggregate physical properties.
content at a desired density that satisfies minimum stability • Toughness and abrasion
and range of flow values • Durability and soundness
• Cleanliness and deleterious materials
Design Steps • Particle shape and surface texture
• Aggregate selection. • Determine other aggregate descriptive physical
• Asphalt binder selection. (Establish mixing and compaction properties.
temperatures)
• Gradation and size
• Sample preparation (Develop trial blends)
• Specific gravity and absorption
• Stability determination.
• Density and voids calculations. • Perform blending calculations to achieve the mix design
• Optimum asphalt binder content selection. aggregate gradation
TN_II @ SA 57 TN_II @ SA 58

HMA Volumetric Analysis HMA Volumetric

Analysis
• Bulk specific gravity (BSG) of compacted HMA, Gmb
• Maximum specific gravity, Gmm
• Air voids
• Effective specific gravity of aggregate
• Voids in mineral aggregate, VMA
• Voids filled with asphalt, VFA

TN_II @ SA 59 TN_II @ SA 60

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Marshall Mix Design Criteria (MS-2, AI-1984) Marshall Design Criteria

Flow vertical deformation corresponding to max load
Light Traffic Medium Traffic Heavy Traffic Marshall Stability is max load at Failure
Mix Criteria (< 104 ESALs) (104 – 106 ESALs) (> 106 ESALs) Marshall
Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Load Stability
Compaction
(#of blows on 35 50 75
each side)
Stability 3333 N 5333 N 8000 N Flow
(minimum) (750 lbs.) (1200 lbs.) (1800 lbs.)
Flow (0.25
mm (0.01 8 18 8 16 8 14
inch)
Vertical Deformation
% Air Voids 3 5 3 5 3 5 Loading rate - 2 inches/minute
These parameters indicate Rutting propensity of HMA
TN_II @ SA 61 TN_II @ SA 62

Marshall Design Criteria - Minimum VMA Marshall Design Criteria

Nominal Maximum Particle Size

Minimum VMA (%)
(mm) (U.S.)
63 2.5 inch 11
50 2.0 inch 11.5
37.5 1.5 inch 12
25.0 1.0 inch 13
19.0 0.75 inch 14
12.5 0.5 inch 15
9.5 0.375 inch 16
4.75 No. 4 sieve 18
2.36 No. 8 sieve 21
1.18 No. 16 sieve 23.5 Use target optimum asphalt content to check if these criteria are met
TN_II @ SA 63 TN_II @ SA 64

Marshall Mix Design Superpave Mix Design

• Advantages Level I: Volumetric Design

– Attention to volumetric properties for durability Level II: Volumetric Design + Intermediate Mix Analysis

– Equipment inexpensive and portable Level III: Volumetric Design + Complete Mix Analysis

• Disadvantages
– Impact compaction unrealistic Traffic Level (ESAL’s) Level of Mix Design

– Marshall stability not related to performance ≤ 106 Volumetric

≤ 107 Intermediate mix Analysis
> 107 Complete mix Analysis
TN_II @ SA 65 TN_II @ SA 66

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Superpave Mix Design Procedure Superpave Design – Moisture Sensitivity

Design Steps • Prepare set of 6 specimens

• Aggregate selection.
• Asphalt binder selection.
• Sample preparation (including compaction).
• Performance Tests.
• Density and voids calculations.
• Optimum asphalt binder content selection.
• Moisture susceptibility evaluation.
– 6 to 8% voids (Represents anticipated in-service voids)
• Determine IDT strength of 3 specimens (with out conditioning)
• Condition remaining 3 in water bath (60oC, 24 hr); Optional
freeze cycles
• Test at 25oC determine conditioned IDT strength

TN_II @ SA 67 TN_II @ SA 68

Superpave Design – Select Design Asphalt Content Superpave Design – Select Design Asphalt Content

Mix Properties Results *Specifications Conclusion

Air Voids, % 4.0 4.0 PASS
VMA, % 10.8 >13.0 FAIL
VFA, % 87 65 - 78 FAIL
Dust Proportion, % 1.1 0.6 – 1.2 PASS
% Gmm @ N8 86.4 ≤90.5 PASS
* For design traffic of 2.5 million ESALs and surface material (Table 5.2,
Superpave Manual)

TN_II @ SA 69 TN_II @ SA 70

Superpave Mix Design - Benefits

• Compaction method which simulates field

• Accommodates large size aggregates
• Able to use in field labs
• Address durability issues
– Film thickness
– Environmental

TN_II @ SA 71

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