FLUID DYNAMICS OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION

ENGINES
An Overview of the Fluid Mechanics of an Engine

May 2016

Brendan Jones [18351262]

Darren Adrian [18349801]

Campbell Burt [18354494]

Tom Chudy [18355507]

Blair Southcott [18359347]

Fluid Dynamics of Internal Combustion Engines: An Overview of the Fluid Mechanics of an Engine, May 2016

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The purpose of this document is to give a brief overview on the fluid mechanics that apply within the
automobile industry. Over the years, engineers have constantly worked on how to improve the automobile in
terms of efficiency and performance wise. Manufacturers strive to better their vehicles which each and every
new model. It is important as an engineer to have an understanding on how fluidic behaviour can impact a
vehicles performance.

Each member of the group has been given a task to research and present their findings on the following
topics:

- Fuel System

- Cooling System

- Lubrication

- Forced Induction

- Waste Gas (Exhaust System)

A brief history of each topic is provided followed by an introduction on the various components that are
involved in the process, as well as their functionalities. An overall process from start to finish is provided and
a progression of changes the system underwent as the years go by to improve performance and reliability.

This document only presents findings on 5 basic systems that most, if not all combustion engine vehicles
share. There are plenty of other aspects where fluid behaviour must be considered that are not directly
discussed in this document. Further research is recommended for a better understanding on how fluid
mechanics impact an IC engine’s performance.

i
Fluid Dynamics of Internal Combustion Engines: An Overview of the Fluid Mechanics of an Engine, May 2016

TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................................... I
1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 1
2. HISTORY ................................................................................................................................ 1
3. FUEL SYSTEM ......................................................................................................................... 1
3.1 Two-Stroke Engine ............................................................................................................... 2
3.2 Four-Stroke Engine ............................................................................................................... 2
3.3 Fuel Tank and Fuel Pump ..................................................................................................... 2
3.4 Fuel Filter ............................................................................................................................ 3
3.5 Fuel Injection ....................................................................................................................... 3
4. LUBRICATION ........................................................................................................................ 3
4.1 Lubrication Systems ............................................................................................................. 4
4.2 Lubricant Properties ............................................................................................................. 4
4.2.1 Viscosity ................................................................................................................ 4
4.2.2 Oiliness ................................................................................................................. 5
4.2.3 Reaction Points ...................................................................................................... 5
5. COOLING SYSTEM .................................................................................................................. 5
5.1 The Cooling System .............................................................................................................. 5
5.2 Types of Cooling Systems ..................................................................................................... 5
5.3 Components within the Cooling System ................................................................................. 6
6. AIRFLOW AND TURBOCHARGERS.......................................................................................... 6
6.1 History ................................................................................................................................ 7
6.2 Principle .............................................................................................................................. 7
7. EXHAUST AND WASTE GASSES .............................................................................................. 8
7.1 Components ........................................................................................................................ 8
7.2 Fundamental Concepts ......................................................................................................... 9
8. CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................................................................... 10
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................ 11

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3-1. Four separate cycles of a four stroke engine [6] ...................................................................... 2
Figure 3-2. Sliced View of a Four-Stroke Cylinder [10] ............................................................................... 3
Figure 4-1. Lubrication Systems [12] ........................................................................................................ 4
Figure 5-1. Cooling System in a Motor Vehicle [18] ................................................................................... 6
Figure 6-1. Exhaust gas pathway through a turbocharged engine [21] ....................................................... 7
Figure 6-2. Ambient air pathway through a turbocharged engine [21] ........................................................ 8
Figure 7-1. Components of an Exhaust System [24] .................................................................................. 8

ii
Fluid Dynamics of Internal Combustion Engines: An Overview of the Fluid Mechanics of an Engine, May 2016

1. INTRODUCTION

The internal combustion engine is an invention that has drastically altered everyday life. Ever since its creation
in 1859 by French engineer J.J. Étienne Lenoir [1], the IC engine has made life easier humans. Today it can
be found in majority of motor vehicles found around the world. The IC engine may seem simple from the
outside, but the processes that go on inside these engines are far from simple. These processes are affected
by many different things, but nothing is more important in an IC engine than the fluid mechanics within the
engine. These fluid mechanics are what make the engine work, and in some cases, are what make the engine
work more efficiently. These mechanics will be described in more detail throughout this report.

2. HISTORY

The internal combustion engine has been utilised in society for hundreds of years but rose to prominence with
the gasoline powered engine we know today. It is possibly the most influential aspect of our day to day lives
and was originally placed in an automobile by Karl Benz in 1886 [2]. The internal combustion engine has since
spread across the world, to effect nearly the entirety of the world’s population. From the initial design until
now many different aspects have changed, including the fuel usage, number of cylinders, forced induction and
to even the design itself with the rare use of rotary engines implemented in some production vehicles.

Although the internal combustion engine was initially implemented by Karl Benz in 1886 it wasn’t until 1908
when the true potential of the motor was realised with the introduction of the first mass produced vehicle, the
Ford Model T [3]. The motor became increasingly popular after the implementation of this vehicle and
continued its uprising through the early stages of the 20th century. Following World War Two where the internal
combustion engine played a hugely significant role, the motor vehicle became more affordable to the wider
community, with many families now being able to afford and own their own vehicle. Such models as the
Volkswagen Beetle became available and were shipped around the world. Since this time the motor industry
has continued to grow, being moulded and shaped by various trends, to where we see it today with hundreds
of car manufacturers being located around the world, making all forms of vehicles to suit the needs of all
people.

3. FUEL SYSTEM

Internal combustion work on the premise of converting a fuel source (LPG, UP, biofuels, diesel) into to power
which is converted through a series of mechanical components to create drive and ultimately forward (or
reverse) movement of a vehicle. The general combustion reaction (complete combustion1) for octane fuel
sources appears as (in different mole ratios):

𝒐𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 + 𝑶𝟐 → 𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶

(1)

This reaction occurs at different molar ratios between oxygen, carbon dioxide and water, depending on the
type of alkane which is present in the combustion. Generally, a combustion reaction will not go to completion
but react to an incomplete combustion as well (eq. 2):

𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 + 𝑶𝟐 → 𝑪𝑶 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶

(2)

A cleaner combustion results in les carbon monoxide produced and more carbon dioxide present after the
reaction.

1
Complete combustion is often referred to as “clean combustion” as it is the oxidation of a hydrocarbon which produces only carbon
dioxide and water. Incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon, however, produces carbon dioxide and particular amounts of carbon
monoxide and/or pure carbon (soot). Many fossil fuels combust in this manner particularly when there is not enough air (oxygen) to
form a complete combustion [4].

1
Fluid Dynamics of Internal Combustion Engines: An Overview of the Fluid Mechanics of an Engine, May 2016

3.1 Two-Stroke Engine

A two-stroke engine contains two cycles which completes the power cycle with two strokes of the piston
(up and down movement of the piston) during one crankshaft revolution [5]. In a two-stroke engine the
beginning of the compression and the end of the combustion occur simultaneously, with the intake and
exhaust happening at the same time [5]. These types of engines often have high power to weight ratios
compared to four-stroke engines. They tend to have a narrow power band range (rotational speeds) and
a greatly reduced number of moving parts which lead the engine to be more compact and significantly
lighter. With less moving parts the fluid flow is limited, compared to the mechanics of a four-stroke engine.

3.2 Four-Stroke Engine

In a four-stroke there are 4 cycles in which the piston completes four separate strokes while turning the
crankshaft as opposed to the two-stroke mentioned previously. The four separate strokes are referred to
as:

1. Intake Stroke: The intake valve is in the open position as the piston pulls the air and fuel mix into
the cylinder by creating a vacuum pressure inside the cylinder as a result of its downward motion.
The exhaust valve is sealed shut to maintain the vacuum.

2. Compression Stroke: Both the intake and exhaust valves are closed and the piston compresses the
fluid mixture in preparation for ignition during the combustion stroke.

3. Combustion Stroke: The sparkplug ignites the compressed fuel causing the combust and expand
rapidly forcing the piston down as the crankshaft completes a full 360-degree revolution. This
compressive force creates mechanical work from the engine to the crankshaft.

4. Exhaust Stroke: The exhaust valve opens, breaking the vacuum seal and the piston forces the
spent air-fuel mix out.

Figure 3-1. Four separate cycles of a four stroke engine [6]

Four-stroke engines are much more complex, having more moving components and much heavier in
comparison to the two-stroke engine. However, four-stroke engines require less maintenance and last
longer than two-stroke engines and have, more often than not, improved fuel efficiency over two-stroke
engines.

3.3 Fuel Tank and Fuel Pump

The fuel tank is, as the name suggests, a storage compartment for the fuel for the car. In more modern
cars the fuel tank contains the fuel pump inside the compartment whereas older model cars tend to have
it externally to the fuel tank [7]. If the fuel pump is situated in the tank or on the frame rail it indicates
that it is electric and is run by the car’s battery. However, if the pump is mounted to the engine it uses the

2
Fluid Dynamics of Internal Combustion Engines: An Overview of the Fluid Mechanics of an Engine, May 2016

motion of the engine to pump the fuel, generally being driven by the camshaft but occasionally the
crankshaft [7].

3.4 Fuel Filter

Maintaining clean fuel is critical to the life of the engine and long term performance, considering fuel
injectors have tiny openings which clog easily , therefore filtering the fuel is a necessity [7]. Filters are
most often made from a paper element which are designed to be disposable and are situated before and
after the fuel pump. However, some performance fuel filters will have a washable mesh, thus eliminating
the need for replacement [7].

3.5 Fuel Injection

There are numerous techniques for fuel injection in motor vehicles, however the most common system is
Direct Fuel Injection also known as Gasoline Direct Injection 2 (GDI) in non-diesel combustion engines. It is
a variant of fuel injection which is employed in most modern two-stroke and four-stroke gasoline engines
and allows gasoline engines to burn fuel more efficiently which produces more power, increased fuel
economy and cleaner emissions [8]. The Gasoline is highly pressurized and is drawn in, with air, as a
mixture into the cylinder. In the cylinder a piston compresses the blend which is then ignited via the spark
plug. This explosive force drives the piston downwards producing power which turns the crank shaft [8]
(see Figure 3-1). Injecting fuel directly into the combustion chamber requires high pressure whereas
injecting fuel into the tract of cylinder port necessitates low pressure. It is the increase and decrease of the
pressure inside the cylinder which forces the piston up and down which is why certain cars require a certain
fuel quality to function properly. If a car which requires Premium Unleaded Petrol (PULP) uses Regular
Unleaded, the combustion can produce too much force inside the cylinder and crack the piston, valves or
cylinder casing. Prolonged use of low octane fuel can cause pinging or pre-detonation which can cause
extremely hot conditions inside the engine which can melt the sparkplug and pistons [9].

fIndirect fuel injection systems include single-point electronic fuel

injection and multi-point fuel injection, pre-mix the fuel and air in the
intake manifold cylinder which is then forced into the piston cylinder
and ignited. A direct injection system, however, does not pre-mix the
air and fuel, instead the system draws the air in via the intake manifold
and the gasoline is injected directly into the cylinder [8]. During
compression and combustion both the intake valve and the exhaust
valve are closed so that the chamber is sealed (see Figure 3-1).

Significant advantages of direct fuel injection are currently observed

in modern car engines, which include more accurate control over fuel
metering (volume of fuel injected) and injection timing (specific timing
of when the fuel is introduced into the cylinder) [8].

Figure 3-2. Sliced View of a Four-Stroke Cylinder [10]

4. LUBRICATION

When two independent pieces of metal are in contact, and if motion takes place between them, a friction force
will always be present. This friction force creates heat, and depending on the type of motion, this friction force
can also be excessively large. Within an IC engine, a high friction force would damage the components of the
engine through excessive rubbing and grinding. The heat caused by the friction can lead to a complete failure
of the IC engine, as it requires a temperature gradient to work correctly. To overcome the problems caused
by friction, thin layers of lubricants are used in-between to contacting metal pieces, in an attempt to decrease
the overall friction.

2
Known also as Petrol Direct Injection, Direct Petrol Injection, Spark Ignited Direct Injection (SIDI) and Fuel Stratified Injection (FSI).

3
Fluid Dynamics of Internal Combustion Engines: An Overview of the Fluid Mechanics of an Engine, May 2016

The lubrication not only acts as a method of decreasing friction, it also has many other uses. For example, it
aids in keeping the components within the engine clean, as it helps to keep impurities away from the surface
of the component by creating a layer between the component, and a flow that takes the impurities away from
the component. It helps provide a seal between the walls of the cylinder and the piston rings. This helps
prevent the escape of gas and air from within the cylinder, which ultimately aids in deterring power loss.

4.1 Lubrication Systems

Within a combustion engine, there are 3 main types of lubrication systems. The first system is the splash
system, and it is incorporated so that the engine walls, piston rings and crank shaft bearings are properly
lubricated. This system involves a container or sump, in which the oil is stored. A scooping device is then
attached to the lower section of the connection rod. As the engine begins to run, the scooping device drops
down and dips into the sump full of oil. This occurs once during every full crank shaft revolution. Through
its revolution, the scooper then splashes the lubricant against the cylinder wall (see Figure 4-1).

The second lubrication system is the pressure system. This system

begins with two variants, a wet sump system and a dry sump system. A
wet sump system stores its oil in the same sump as the oil from the
splash system, whilst a dry oil system stores its oil in a separate tank.
The oil is then pumped through the gear pump, and through an oil filter,
to a main oil gallery at a pressure of approximately 2-4 kg/cm^2 [11].
The oil filter is an important part to this system, as it filters out impurities
such as dust. This oil then travels throughout the engine, reaching
multiple areas. The oil runs through the main bearing, splashes onto the
cylinder wall, and some goes through to the crank pin and then through
to the piston pin where the piston rings are lubricated. Throughout this
process, some of the oil falls back into the oil sump, and the process is
repeated. Whilst this occurs, there is a separate oil line that leads to the
liming gears and the cam shaft.

Figure 4-1. Lubrication Systems [12]

The last lubrication system, the Petroil System, is found in 2 stroke engine, an engine that completes its
power cycle within one crankshaft revolution and two strokes of the piston. This system works by mixing
oil into the fuel in a specific ratio, with the ideal fuel to oil ration being 50:1 [13]. When the fuel goes
throughout the engine, the oil lubricates the components as gravity pulls it down. This is the simplest
system, however, if the engine is not used for a while, the oil and the petrol begin to separate. This will
result in engine troubles as blockages occur.

4.2 Lubricant Properties

It is vital that a correct lubricant is used, as using the wrong kind of lubricant can lead to many engine
problems such as stuck piston rings and worn out bearings. In order to choose a suitable lubricant, it must
adhere to certain properties. Most vehicle lubricants are given a rating along a viscosity scale. This scale
was established by the Society of Automotive Engineers or SAE. It identifies lubricants as SAE 10W, 20W,
30W, 40W, 50W and or 60W. The lower the SAE value, the more suitable the lubricant is for colder weather,
with SAE 10W meeting a limit of -30 °C [14]. The importance of weather suitability will be mentioned
further on in this report.

4.2.1 Viscosity

Firstly, it is preferable for the lubricant to be low in viscosity. Viscosity is a measurement of resistance
to flow, through internal friction, measured by force per unit area. If the temperature within the engine
increases, the viscosity of the lubricant decreases, and vice versa, due to an inverse proportional
relationship between temperature and viscosity. This relationship differs depending on the substance
itself, however a temperature change will always affect viscosity.

4
Fluid Dynamics of Internal Combustion Engines: An Overview of the Fluid Mechanics of an Engine, May 2016

4.2.2 Oiliness

The lubricant itself must also be “oily.” The high oiliness allows for the lubricant to spread throughout
the engine, and to successfully attach and coat the components. If the lubricant has low oiliness, the
level of wear will increase, as there is a less effective layer in between the components. This comes
hand in hand with adhesiveness, as it refers to the lubricants ability to attach to and coat the
components within the engine.

4.2.3 Reaction Points

There are 4 reaction points of interest with regards to lubricants. These are the flash point, the fire
point, the cloud point and the pour point. These 4 points refer to separate scenarios that occur within
the engine. The first point, the flash point, is the minimum temperature at which the lubricant will
“flash,” or briefly ignite. This is similar to the Fire point, however, the fire point occurs once the lubricant
continues to be heated after the flash point, and it refers to the lowest temperature before continuous
ignition and burning. The flash point is the lowest temp at which the temperature will briefly ignite, and
then cease to burn. It is required that both the flash point and the fire point are high, so that the risk
of a fire hazard is decreased.

The next two points, the cloud point and the pour point, also relate to each other. The cloud pint is the
temperature at which the lubricant changes from a liquid to a solid (its freezing point), whilst the Pour
point is the lowest temperature at which the oil can still be successfully poured at. The chosen lubricant
must have a very low cloud point, and a very low pour point, so that the engine can successfully work
in cold conditions. If the lubricant freezes up, and can no longer pour or flow, the engine will also cease
up.

5. COOLING SYSTEM

5.1 The Cooling System

An internal combustion engine works at extremely high temperatures as within it are a very large number
of moving parts and reactions that take place. Ultimately, the cooling system has three main functions [15].
Firstly, because the engine is continuously working and continuously producing heat, the cooling system
helps remove this excess heat which is produced in the combustion chamber. It must do this in order to
avoid any unwanted damages such as warping valves, disintegrating lubricating oil and overheating pistons
and bearings which can cause engine seizure. Secondly, the cooling system maintains the temperature so
that it is suitable for the engine to work at optimal efficiency and thirdly, the cooling system initially assists
the engine in warming to normal operating temperatures as quickly as possible [15].

5.2 Types of Cooling Systems

There are two main types of cooling systems that are used in today’s society, the most common being
liquid cooled while the other being air cooled.

Liquid cooling systems are used extensively in conjunction with large engines with the most obvious
example being in a car. Within a liquid cooled system, a liquid or coolant circulates around the cylinders in
the engine and absorbs heat from the cylinder walls and cylinder head [16]. Coolant can be simply just
water or it can be a mixture of water and antifreeze which provides a better ability to absorb heat due to
its enhanced thermal capabilities. As it moves through the engine absorbing heat it makes its way to the
radiator where the heat is transferred from the coolant so that it is ready to go around again and continue
to take away heat from within the engine. Not only does coolant do this but it also helps lubricate the water
pump and prevent rust and corrosion within the water jacket.

Air cooling systems can be categorised into two different types; natural or forced convection. Systems using
natural flow have metal fins on the outer perimeter from which heat is dissipated. Due to the extra surface
area that the fins provide, the rate at which heat is transfers is boosted. An example of natural flow is while
a car is moving, air enters through the front of the car and as it passes through the engine block, it absorbs

5
Fluid Dynamics of Internal Combustion Engines: An Overview of the Fluid Mechanics of an Engine, May 2016

excess heat and takes it away from the system. While this occurs naturally, forced convection, which is
used in small vehicles such as scooters, uses a fan to propel the air in and take the heat away. Usually,
they are used for enclosed engines where air is not able to easily filter through the system.

5.3 Components within the Cooling System

Within the cooling system of an internal combustion engine the most important components include
coolant, the water jacket, the water pump, the radiator, the fan and the thermostat [17]. Firstly, the coolant
is the fluid that is pumped around the engine within the water jacket which is a body of water that surrounds
the cylinder, cylinder head, and other hot parts of the engine which absorb the heat to be pumped through
to the radiator and cooled. The water pump, is what pushes this water around in engine. The impellor style
pump is driven by belts running of the engine shaft. The radiator is made up of two tanks, either side of
the core, where a hose connects the upper tank is connected to the water outlet of the water jacket while
another hose connects the lower tank with the water outlet of the jacket. As the water flows down from
the upper tank, through the core, the water (or coolant) is cooled by air flowing through the system and
then down into the lower tank where it is injected back into the jacket. The fan helps increases the airflow
through the radiator as it is positioned behind in and while driven by belts off of the engine shafts to help
cool the water through the radiator faster. Finally, the thermostat is effectively a valve which moderates
the flow between the engine and the radiator so that the engine readily heats to desired temperatures and
so that it maintains this temperature [17]. The collaboration of all these components are shown below in
a diagram of an internal combustion engine cooling system (see Figure 5-1).

Figure 5-1. Cooling System in a Motor Vehicle [18]

6. AIRFLOW AND TURBOCHARGERS

In a normal, naturally-aspirated (N/A) engine, combustion air is drawn into the combustion chamber within
the engine block solely through atmospheric pressure acting against the partial vacuum which exists when the
pistons are at the bottom of the cylinder head also known as “half-stroke”. As air is drawn in however the
pressure drops, resulting in a less than 100% volumetric efficiency. [19]

A turbocharger or “turbo” for short utilizes forced induction to increase the air pressure which enters the
combustion chamber by re-circulating hot exhaust gas back into the combustion chamber. The greater mass-
flow rate readily provides more oxygen, which is needed for combustion and thus, improves the engines
efficiency.

6
Fluid Dynamics of Internal Combustion Engines: An Overview of the Fluid Mechanics of an Engine, May 2016

6.1 History

A Swiss engineer named Alfred Buchi first invented the turbocharger we commonly see in modern cars
today. He patented the first turbocharger back in 1905 [20]. Turbos were first used to maximize Locomotive
performance back in the 1920’s before French engineer Auguste Rateau fitted turbochargers to WW1
fighter planes. Rateau discovered that fitting turbos onto plane engines not only increases overall
performance, it also eliminates power loss due to the reduced air pressure at high altitudes. This means,
turbocharged aircrafts are able to fly at higher altitudes compared to their N/A counterparts.

The first turbocharged road vehicle was a diesel truck made by Swiss Machine Works Sauer. However, it
was GM who first turbocharged a mass produced car by fitting a Garrett Air search turbocharger to its 1962
Oldsmobile Cutlass Jetfire. Since then, the turbocharger has become a staple component piece to any form
of motor-racing vehicles as well as daily vehicles.

6.2 Principle

A turbocharger consists of a turbine and a compressor that shares the same shaft. Hot exhaust gas from
the engine drives the turbine, which converts heat energy to rotational kinetic energy due to the constriction
within the turbo housing. This K.E turns the compressor, which shares the same shaft resulting in ambient
air being drawn in and pumped into the intake manifold. The compressor compresses this ambient air and
increases the pressure as this air enters the intake manifold. Ultimately, this results in a greater mass of
air entering the combustion chamber at each “intake stroke”. This method favors combustion and this
increases an engine’s efficiency over an N/A engine, which relies solely on the low-pressure area created
after each downward stroke to draw in air through the intake manifold.

Because the air pressure in the atmosphere cannot exceed 1atm (14.7psi), there is a pressure difference
limit along the intake valves, and this limits the amount of air that can enter the combustion chamber. A
turbocharger circumvents this problem by increasing air pressure at the point where it enters the
combustion chamber, so a greater mass of air (which contains O2 gas vital for combustion) will be forced
in (see Figure 6-1 and 6-2). This additional airflow passes through the intercooler to remove heat buildup
during compression, and allows the engine to perform at a higher revolution speed, increasing the power
and torque output.

Pressure within the cylinder is maintained by venting excess high-pressure gas through a waste gate. This
prevents physical damage to the cylinders as well as the turbo. A waste gate routes some of the exhaust
gas away from the turbocharger’s turbine in a controlled manner to prevent unwanted build-up of pressure.

Figure 6-1. Exhaust gas pathway through a turbocharged engine [21]

7
 Fluid Dynamics of Internal Combustion Engines: An Overview of the Fluid Mechanics of an Engine, May 2016

Figure 6-2. Ambient air pathway through a turbocharged engine [21]

7. EXHAUST AND WASTE GASSES

The exhaust system is a fundamental component of every internal combustion engine. The exhaust system
must remove the exhaust gasses produced by the engine in the process of the combustion of fuel. The fluid
flow of the exhaust gasses is significantly tested to provide the greatest possible performance including the
utilisation of turbulent flow. Many different aspects must be calculated and tested to provide various benefits
to the performance of the car, including power creation and efficiency.

It is not simply the removal of gasses in the shortest time frame as there are many aspects that need to be
considered. A majority of countries require a specific measured reading of the exhaust gasses produced by a
car including Australia which has implemented restrictions since the 1970s [22].These emissions can be altered
significantly by the exhaust system, primarily the catalytic converter. However, every component of the
exhaust plays a significant role and is fundamental to the internal combustion engine. The removal of the
gasses is completed through the utilisation of pressure differentials in the various exhaust components outlined
below.

7.1 Components

The exhaust system of the internal combustion engine comprises of multiple components (see Figure 7-1).
Initially the exhaust gasses exit the engine through exhaust ports in the cylinders. There is initially a large
pressure deviation to ensure the removal of gasses in a significantly small time frame.

The exhaust manifold is bolted directly onto the engine and removes the exhaust gasses from the cylinders.
The manifold is the smallest diameter pipe in the exhaust system. The gasses in this area are comprised
of a high temperature, high velocity turbulent flow.

The exhaust gasses then flow through a down pipe

towards the catalytic converter. A smaller pressure
deviation occurs during this time which results in a back
pressure of the exhaust gasses. However, the pressure
differential in this component is still great enough to
allow for a high velocity flow. The catalytic converter is
comprised of multiple hollow tubes. The catalytic
converter allows for the oxidation of carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons and the reduction of nitrogen monoxide
formed from an incomplete combustion [23]. The
diameter of catalytic converters are often altered to
affect the flow speed of the exhaust reducing the back
pressure to improve power and efficiency of the engine.
High flow catalytic converters follow the same principle
however they are comprised of larger holes in the
Figure 7-1. Components of an Exhaust System [24]
internal structure to allow for a greater flow rate.

8
Fluid Dynamics of Internal Combustion Engines: An Overview of the Fluid Mechanics of an Engine, May 2016

Following the catalytic converter, the exhaust gasses flow through a pipe towards the muffler. This pipe
can be altered to significantly affect the performance of the car. A larger pipe diameter lowers the pressure
in the system allowing for a more efficient flow of gasses and greater output. However, over increasing of
the diameter will decrease the back pressure of the system, an issue that must be properly calculated.
Typically, the diameter may vary according to the type of car from a 1.5-2” pipe for a family car to a 3-
3.5” pipe for a performance car. The larger pipe allows for a lower pressure in the system and therefore a
higher flow rate through this section. The larger pipe size also decreases the relative roughness of the
system if the same material is used (typically stainless steel). This in turn reduces the friction factor of the
system allowing for reduced losses of power and velocity.

The muffler is the most commonly modified component of the exhaust system. The muffler is implemented
to decrease the noise created through the combustion. The muffler is comprised of a number of chambers
and perforations to remove the majority of sound energy created. However, these chambers affect the flow
path of the gasses and can therefore increase the pressure of the system, lowering the velocity and
affecting performance. On family cars, the design is typically dominated by the comfort factor, therefore
trying to lower the noise without a major focus on the decreased performance. This often results in a
second muffler also being implemented in the exhaust system.

It is important in the process of removing the waste gasses in the exhaust system to attempt to leave the
flow undisturbed unless needed such as in the catalytic converter and muffler(s). To do so the design of
the piping must be considered to remain as straight as possible as all bends in the system decrease the
flow rate and increase the pressure, decreasing the efficiency and power.

7.2 Fundamental Concepts

As outlined above it is fundamental for the performance of the internal combustion engine that exhaust
gasses are removed in the most efficient manner often requiring a minimal time period for the process.

Fluids flow from high pressure to low pressure, with a velocity determined by the pressure gradient. The
larger the pressure difference the higher the velocity. This is utilised in the internal combustion engine, as
the system is often designed to obtain the largest pressure gradient from the exhaust valves, through the
components, to the exhaust tip. This allows for the highest velocity of the flow and therefore minimum
time factor.

The pipe size relates directly to the friction factor of the system. The higher the friction factor the greater
the losses in the system. It is fundamental that the losses remain at a minimum. For turbulent flow, such
as the exhaust gasses, the use of the moody chart can determine the friction factor using the equivalent
𝜀
roughness (roughness of the pipe/diameter of the pipe). As the equivalent roughness and therefore
𝐷
friction factor decreases through a greater pipe size it is beneficial that a larger pipe diameter is utilised in
the system [25].

Different pipe sections each have their own characteristics. These include a coefficient of loss. The largest
losses occur in joints and sections with the greatest bend angles due to creating a build-up of pressure and
creating a disturbance in the flow [26]. These result in losses in the system and should therefore be
minimised by implementing sections with the lowest coefficient of losses.

9
Fluid Dynamics of Internal Combustion Engines: An Overview of the Fluid Mechanics of an Engine, May 2016

8. CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, it is simple to realise the importance of the fluid mechanics which occur within internal
combustion engines. In 1859, French engineer, J.J. Etienne Lenoir became the first person to successfully
create a working, gasoline-powered internal combustion engine. And today, due to the constant development
and optimisation over time, these engines have come to form a pivotal part of society.

Fluid mechanics play a very significant role throughout most of the inner workings of an internal combustion
engine. From the fuel system, to the lubrication, cooling system, exhaust and even turbos, none would be
able to operate without the fundamentals of fluid mechanics. From the introduction of fuel into the fuel tank
and pump, which allows an efficient fuel flow to power the engine, to the viscosity of different oils which
manage the lubrication system and even the pressure differentials in the exhaust system, without fluid
mechanics, an internal combustion engine would be unable to function as it should. Hence it is important for
people, particularly engineers and scientists, to understand fluid mechanics and recognise the effects that it
has, not only with internal combustion engines but also throughout practically everything that we see and use
in our day to day lives.

10
 Fluid Dynamics of Internal Combustion Engines: An Overview of the Fluid Mechanics of an Engine, May 2016

REFERENCES

[1] Internal-Combustion Engine. [Online].; 2012 [cited 2016 May 8th]. Available from:
http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/internal-combustion-engine-evolution-internal-combustion-
engine.html

[2] Fjällman J. Unsteady Simulations of the Turbulent Flow in the Exhaust System of an Internal Combustion Engine.
2013.

[3] Ford H,WCH,GJA,&FE. Ford Model T.

[4] Wikipedia. [Online].; 2016 [cited 2016 May 21]. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-stroke_engine

[5] Krans L. Car Basics. [Online]. [cited 2016 May 15]. Available from: http://www.carbasics-1950.com/four-stroke-
engine.htm

[6] Auto Education. Auto Education. [Online].; 2015 [cited 2016 May 19]. Available from:
http://www.autoeducation.com/autoshop101/fuel.htm

[7] Gold A. About Autos. [Online].; 2015 [cited 2016 May 15]. Available from:
http://cars.about.com/od/thingsyouneedtoknow/a/directinjection.htm

[8] What Could Be Greener. [Online].; 2010 [cited 2016 May 20]. Available from:
http://www.whatcouldbegreener.com/142/fuel-octane-choosing-the-wrong-octane-will-cost-you/

[9] C B. Engine Basics. [Online].; 2010 [cited 2016 May 15]. Available from:
http://www.enginebasics.com/Engine%20Basics%20Root%20Folder/Pistons.html

[10] Sarangi S. Lubrication System of I.C Engine. [Online].; 2007 [cited 2016 May 8th]. Available from:
http://scienceandtechnicalprojects.blogspot.com.au/2007/12/lubrication-system-of-ic-engine.html

[11] Way Builder. [Online]. N/a; 2004 [cited 2016 May 8]. Available from:
http://www.waybuilder.net/sweethaven/MechTech/Automotive01/default.asp?unNum=5&lesNum=3&modNum=13

[12] Antony M. Lubrication System of IC Engines. [Online].; 2008 [cited 2016 May 8TH]. Available from:
http://automobile14.blogspot.com.au/2008/10/lubrication-system-of-ic-engines.html

[13] S. How Do YOu Choose the Right Type of Oil for Your Car? [Online].; 2001 [cited 2016 May 8th]. Available from:
http://www.sae.org/news/releases/rightoil.htm

[14] Integrated Publishing. Engine Mechanics. [Online]. Available from:

http://enginemechanics.tpub.com/14081/css/14081_44.htm

[15] sgrsoni45. SlideShare. [Online].; 2014.

[16] Indira Gandhi National Open University. Cooling Systems of IC Engines. [Online]. [cited 2016 May 6]. Available
from: http://www.ignou.ac.in/upload/unit%205.pdf

[17] Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica. [Online].; 2010. Available from: http://media-
2.web.britannica.com/eb-media/15/97215-004-B3C16280.jpg

[18] Woodford C. explainthatstuff.com. [Online].; 2015 [cited 2016 5 Wednesday]. Available from:
http://www.explainthatstuff.com/how-turbochargers-work.html

11
 Fluid Dynamics of Internal Combustion Engines: An Overview of the Fluid Mechanics of an Engine, May 2016

[19] carbibles. carbibles.com. [Online]. [cited 2016 6 18]. Available from:

http://www.carbibles.com/fuel_engine_bible_pg5.html

[20] How a turbocharger works! (Animation).; 2014 [cited 2016 May 2]. Available from:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DqWKNuTppmU

[21] Vehicle Emission Standards. [Online].; 2016. Available from:

https://infrastructure.gov.au/roads/environment/emission

[22] Catalytic Converters. [Online].; n.d.. Available from:

http://www.chemistry.wustl.edu/~eduev/LabTutorials/CourseTutorials/Tutorials/AirQuality/CatalyticConverter.htm

[23] Chen NH. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Fundamentals. 1979;: p. 296-297.

[24] Blair GaGJ. The Pressure-Time History in the Exhaust System of a High-Speed Reciprocating Internal Combustion
Engine. 1967.

[25] Helmenstine AM. About Education. [Online].; 2015 [cited 2016 May 19]. Available from:
http://chemistry.about.com/od/chemicalreactions/a/Combustion-Reactions.htm

[26] Jaggi M. SlideShare. [Online].; 2013 [cited 2016 May 1]. Available from:
http://www.slideshare.net/mayankjaggi1/automobile-exhaust-system-28626560

12