THERMAL

ENGINEERING - I
(For B.E./B.Tech., Mechanical Engineering Students)

(As per New Syllabus of Leading Universities)

Dr. S.Ramachandran, M.E., Ph.D.,

Professor and Research Head

Dr. A. Anderson, M.E., Ph.D.,

Asst. Professor
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Sathyabama University
Jeppiaar Nagar
Chennai - 600 119

AIR WALK PUBLICATIONS

(Near All India Radio)
80, Karneeshwarar Koil Street
Mylapore, Chennai - 600 004.
Ph.: 2466 1909, 94440 81904
Email: aishram2006@gmail.com,
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www.airwalkpublications.com
First Edition: 2nd Feb 2016

ISBN :978-93-84893-66-8
 SYLLABUS
Thermal Engineering - I

Chapter 1: I.C. ENGINES

Four & Two stroke engine - SI & CI engines - Valve and Port
Timing Diagrams - Fuel injection Systems for SI engines - Fuel
injection systems for CI engines- Ignition - Cooling and Lubrication
system - Fuel properties and Combustion Stoichiometry.

Chapter 2: Combustion in SI and CI Engine

Combustion in SI and CI Engine: Normal combustion and
abnormal combustion in SI Engine - Importance of flame speed and
effect of engine variables - Abnormal combustion - Pre Ignition and
Knocking in SI Engine - Fuel requirement and fuel rating - anti
knock additives - combustion chamber - Requirement - types of SI
Engine - Four stages of combustion in CI Engine - Delay period and
its Importance - Effect of engine variables - Diesel knock - Need for
air movement, suction, compression and combustion induced
turbulence in Diesel engine - Open and divided combustion chambers
and fuel Injection - Diesel fuel requirements and fuel rating.

Chapter 3: Testing and Performance of Engines

Indicator diagram and properties - Pressure Transducer- Brake
power measurements. Dynamometers - Performance calculations
-Morse test - Air consumption - Fuel consumption Exhaust gas
compositon - Heat balance sheet.

Chapter 4: Air Compressors

Classification of Compressors - Fans, blowers and compressors
- Positive displacement and dynamic types - Reciprocating and rotary
types
Rotary, Dynamic and Axial Flow (Positive Displacement type):
Roots Blower, Vane sealed compressor, Lysholm compressor -
mechanical details and principle of working - efficiency considerations.
Centrifugal compressors: Mechanical details and principle of
operation - Velocity and pressure variation. Energy transfer - impeller
blade shape - losses - slip factor, power input factor, pressure
coefficient and adiabatic coefficient - velocity diagrams - power.
Axial flow compressors: Mechanical details and principle of
operation - velocity triangles and energy transfer per stage, degree
of reaction, work done factor - Isentropic efficiency - pressure rise
calculation - polytropic efficiency.

Chapter 5: Refrigeration
Mechanical Refrigeration and types - Units - Air refrigeration
system, Details, Principle of operations application - Vapour
compression refrigeration - Calculation of COP - Effect of super
heating and sub cooling - Desired properties of refrigerants and
Common refrigerants - Vapour absorption system - Mechanical
Details, Working and Principle - Use of p-h chart for calculation.

Chapter 6: Actual Cycles and their Analysis

Introduction, Comparison of air standard and actual cycles,
Time loss factor, Heat loss factor, Exhaust Blowdown - Loss due to
Gas exchange processes, Volumetric efficiency. Loss due to Rubbing
friction, Actual and fuel - air cycles of CI engine.
 Contents C.1

Contents

1. I.C. ENGINES
1.1 Introduction. ..................................................................... 1.1
1.2 Basic Terms Connected With I.C. Engines ................. 1.1
1.3 Four Stroke SI (Petrol) Engine ..................................... 1.4
1.4 Four Stroke CI Engine ................................................... 1.6
1.5 Working of Two Stroke Cycle Engine .......................... 1.9
1.6 Working of Two Stroke Petrol Engine ......................... 1.10
1.7 Classification of IC Engines ........................................... 1.12
1.8 IC Engine Components – Functions And Materials .. 1.13
1.9 Valve Timing And Port Timing Diagrams................... 1.24
1.9.1 Valve Timing Diagram for a 4-Stroke Cycle
Petrol Engine.................................................................. 1.26
1.9.2 Valve Timing Diagram of 4-Stroke Diesel
Engine .... ........................................................................ 1.29
1.9.3 Port Timing Diagram of Two Stroke Cycle
Petrol Engine.................................................................. 1.29
1.9.4 Port timing Diagram for Two Stroke Cycle
Diesel Engine ................................................................. 1.32
1.10 Fuel Supply System ...................................................... 1.34
1.10.1 Fuel injection Systems for S.I. Engines.......... 1.34
1.10.2 Different types of Fuel Systems ....................... 1.35
1.10.3 Fuel Injection System In SI Engines.............. 1.36
1.10.4 Fuel Pump (for S.I. Engine) ............................ 1.36
1.11 Carburetor . ..................................................................... 1.37
1.12 Air Fuel Ratio ............................................................... 1.40
1.13 Various Compensation In Carburetors ....................... 1.40
1.14 Types of Carburetors..................................................... 1.43
1.15 Fuel Injection Systems For C.I Engines .................... 1.53
1.15.1 Fuel Pump (C.I. Engine) .................................. 1.53
1.16 Fuel Injection System ................................................... 1.55
C.2 Thermal Engineering - I

1.16.1 Fuel Injector ....................................................... 1.56

1.17 Ignition Systems. ........................................................... 1.57
1.17.1 Spark Plug ......................................................... 1.57
1.17.2 Types of Electronic ignition systems: .............. 1.65
1.18 Lubrication System ........................................................ 1.69
1.18.1 Purpose of Lubrication...................................... 1.69
1.18.2 Systems of Lubrication...................................... 1.70
1.19 Cooling System............................................................... 1.73
1.19.1 Purpose of Cooling............................................. 1.73
1.19.2 Methods of Cooling IC Engine......................... 1.74
1.20 Fuels And Combustion .................................................. 1.77
1.20.1 Introduction ........................................................ 1.77
1.20.2 Classification of fuels: ....................................... 1.78
1.21 Solid Fuels ..................................................................... 1.79
1.22 Gaseous Fuels: ............................................................... 1.80
1.23 Fuel Properties ............................................................... 1.81
1.23.1 Determination of Calorific value of fuel by
Bomb Calorimeter.......................................................... 1.83
1.23.2 Determination of Higher Calorific value of
Gaseous fuel. .................................................................. 1.85
1.24 Combustion Stoichiometry ............................................ 1.88
1.25 Excess Air And Air Fuel Ratio Calculation .............. 1.95
2. Combustion in SI and CI Engine
2.1 Normal Combustion ......................................................... 2.1
2.1.1 Factors affecting normal combustion in S.I
Engines... ........................................................................ 2.3
2.1.2 Flame Front Propagation.................................... 2.4
2.3 Importance of Flame Speed And Effect of Engine
Variables ............ ..................................................................... 2.5
2.3.1 Factors affecting flame speed ............................. 2.5
2.2 Abnormal Combustion ..................................................... 2.8
2.2.1 Pre-ignition ...........................................................
 Contents C.3

2.8
2.2.2 Knocking (or) Detonation (or) Pinking.............. 2.9
2.2.3 The phenomenon of knock in SI Engine .......... 2.10
2.2.4 Effects of knocking in SI Engine ...................... 2.13
2.2.5 Effect of engine variables on knock .................. 2.14
2.3 Fuel Requirement And Fuel Rating ............................. 2.18
2.3.1 Important properties of fuel in SI Engine ....... 2.18
2.3.2 Important characteristics of SI Engine fuel..... 2.18
2.3.5 Octane Number (ON) .......................................... 2.21
2.4 Anti-Knock Additives ....................................................... 2.23
2.4.1 Anti-knock Agents ................................................ 2.23
2.4.2 Effects of Anti knock additives .......................... 2.24
2.4.3 Factors affecting Detonation and Remedies ..... 2.25
2.5 Types of Combustion Chamber In SI Engine ............. 2.26
1. Overhead valve (or) I - Head combustion
chamber.. ........................................................................ 2.26
2. T-Head combustion chamber ................................... 2.27
3. L-head combustion chamber .................................... 2.27
4. F-head combustion chamber .................................... 2.28
2.6 Combustion in CI Engines ............................................. 2.28
1. Ignition Delay period ............................................... 2.29
2. Period of Rapid Combustion (or) Uncontrolled
Combustion ..................................................................... 2.32
2.7 Factors That Affect Delay Period In Diesel Engine .. 2.32
2.7.1 Effect of variables on the Delay period ............ 2.34
2.8 Knocking (or) Diesel Knock............................................ 2.35
2.8.1 The phenomenon of knock in CI engine........... 2.36
2.8.2 Comparison of knock on SI and CI Engines .. 2.38
2.8.3 Characteristics Tending to Reduce Detonation 2.40
2.9 Need For Air Movement In Diesel Engine.................. 2.40
2.10 Combustion Chamber Design For Compression
Ignition Engine . ..................................................................... 2.42
C.4 Thermal Engineering - I

1. Open combustion chamber ....................................... 2.42

(a) Shallow depth chamber .......................................... 2.43
(b) Hemispherical chamber........................................... 2.43
(c) Cylindrical chamber ................................................ 2.43
(d) Toroidal chamber .................................................... 2.43
2. Divided combustion chamber type .......................... 2.45
(a) Turbulent combustion chamber ............................. 2.45
(b) Pre combustion chamber......................................... 2.46
(c) Energy-cell chamber................................................. 2.47
2.11 Diesel Fuel Requirement : For Compression
Ignition Engines ..................................................................... 2.50
1. Knocking characteristics........................................... 2.50
2. Volatility of the fuel ................................................. 2.51
3. Starting characteristics of the fuel ......................... 2.51
4. Smoke produced by fuel and its odour ................. 2.51
5. Viscosity of fuel......................................................... 2.51
6. Corrosion and wear .................................................. 2.51
7. Easy to handle .......................................................... 2.51
2.11.1 Cetane Number (CN)......................................... 2.52
2.11.2 Fuel Rating for CI Engine ............................... 2.52
3. Testing and Performance of Engines
3.1 Performance Calculations (or) Performance Test On
I.C. Engines ....... ..................................................................... 3.1
1. Indicator Diagram .................................................... 3.1
2. Indicated Power (IP) ................................................ 3.2
3. Mean Effective Pressure P m  .................................. 3.2
5. Brake Power (BP) ..................................................... 3.6
6. Different Arrangements used to find Brake
Power...... ........................................................................ 3.6
7. Friction Power (FP) .................................................. 3.9
8. Specific Fuel Consumption (S.F.C)......................... 3.9
9. Mechanical Efficiency mech  .................................. 3.10
 Contents C.5

10. Thermal Efficiency .................................................. 3.10

11. Indicated Thermal Efficiency indicated .............. 3.10
12. Brake Thermal Efficiency Brake  ........................ 3.11
12. Relative Efficiency or Efficiency Ratio ................. 3.11
14. Volumetric Efficiency volumetric ........................ 3.11
3.2 Dynamometer.... ............................................................... 3.12
3.2.1 Hydraulic Dynamometer ..................................... 3.13
3.2.2 Eddy Current Dynamometer............................... 3.15
3.3 Measurement of Indicated Power of Multicylinder
Engine Morse Test . ............................................................... 3.21
3.4 Measurement of Air Consumption ................................ 3.31
3.5 Fuel Consumption ........................................................... 3.34
3.5.1 Volumetric type .................................................... 3.35
3.5.1.1 Burette method .................................................. 3.35
3.5.1.2 Automatic volumetric flow meter .................... 3.37
.........................................................................................
3.5.2 Gravimetric fuel flow measurement................... 3.38
Construction.................................................................... 3.39
3.5.3 Measurement of Heat Carried Away by
Cooling Water................................................................. 3.40
3.6 Exhaust Gas Composition............................................... 3.41
3.6.1 Oxides of Nitrogen............................................... 3.41
3.6.2 Carbon monoxide (CO)........................................ 3.43
3.6.3 Unburnt hydrocarbons......................................... 3.45
3.6.4 Aldehydes .............................................................. 3.47
3.7 Visible Emissions . ........................................................... 3.47
3.7.1 Smoke .................................................................... 3.47
3.7.1.1 Comparison method .......................................... 3.47
3.7.1.2 Obscuration method.......................................... 3.48
3.7.2 Measurement of Heat Carried Away by
Exhaust Gas ................................................................... 3.52
3.8 Heat Balance Sheet ......................................................... 3.52
C.6 Thermal Engineering - I

3.53-3.96
Solved Problems.............................................................
4. Air Compressors
4.1 Introduction. ..................................................................... 4.1
4.2 Classification of Air Compressors.................................. 4.2
4.3 Single Acting Reciprocating Air Compressor ............... 4.3
4.4 Double Acting Air Compressor ...................................... 4.4
4.5 Single Stage Compressor ................................................ 4.4
4.6 Multi Stage Compressor ................................................. 4.5
4.7 Working Principle of Reciprocating Air Compressors 4.5
4.7.1 Workdone during isothermal compression
PV  c without clearance volume............................... 4.7
4.7.2 Workdone during polytropic compression
[ PV n  constant ] without clearance volume .............. 4.8
4.7.3 Workdone During Isentropic Compression
PV   constant Without Clearance Volume............... 4.10
4.8 Minimum Workdone ........................................................ 4.11
4.9 Power Required To Run The Compressor ................... 4.11
4.12-4.15
Solved Problems.............................................................
4.9.1 Clearance Volume ................................................ 4.16
4.10 Workdone By Reciprocating Air Compressor With
Clearance Volume ... ............................................................... 4.16
4.11 Isothermal Efficiency of A Reciprocating Air
Compressor......... ..................................................................... 4.18
4.12 Volumetric Efficiency in A Reciprocating Air
Compressor......... ..................................................................... 4.18
4.12.1 Factors affecting volumetric efficiencies .......... 4.20
4.13 Important Technical Terms .......................................... 4.20
1. Volumetric Efficiency  vo l ........................................ 4.20
2. Clearance Ratio ‘k’ .................................................... 4.21
3. Volume and Volume Rate........................................ 4.21
4. Indicated Power (I.P) and Brake Power (B.P) ..... 4.22
 Contents C.7

5. Free Air Delivered (FAD) ........................................ 4.22

6. Mean Effective Pressure m.e.p .............................. 4.22
8. Swept Volume Vs .................................................... 4.23
9. Piston speed ............................................................. 4.23
4.14 Single Stage Solved Problems......................................
4.23-4.66
4.15 Two Stage Compression ................................................ 4.64
4.15.1. Complete (or) Perfect Intercooling................... 4.65
4.15.2 Incomplete (or) Imperfect Intercooling............. 4.65
4.15.3 Workdone when perfect and imperfect
intercooling. .................................................................... 4.66
4.15.4 Minimum Work Required for 2 Stages and
multi stages .................................................................... 4.66
4.16 Multistage Reciprocating Compressors ....................... 4.67
4.17 Various Types of Compressors Rotary Positive
Displacement Compressors ....................................................4.112
4.18 Roots Blower... ...............................................................4.112
4.19 Vane Type Blower of Compressor ...............................4.117
4.20. Centrifugal Compressor................................................4.125
4.21 Velocity And Pressure Variation .................................4.128
4.22 Static Temperature And Total Head (or)
Stagnation Temperature ........................................................4.129
4.23 Steady-flow Energy Equation .......................................4.132
4.24 Euler’s Equation - (Energy Transfer) .........................4.133
4.24.1 Velocity components at the entry and exit
of the rotor ..................................................................... 4.134
4.25 Impeller Blade Shape - Backward, Radial And
Forward Blade Impellers .....................................................4.137
4.26 Velocity Triangle And Work Done By The
Centrifugal Compressor..........................................................4.140
4.27 Important Formulae ......................................................4.142
1. Power required ........................................................ 4.142
2. Width of Blades of Impeller and Diffuser ............ 4.144
C.8 Thermal Engineering - I

3. Isentropic Efficiency of the Compressor ................. 4.145

4. Slip factor .................................................................. 4.147
5. Work factor ................................................................ 4.149
6. Pressure Co-efficient p .......................................... 4.149
7. Stage Work ................................................................ 4.149
8. Stage Pressure Rise .................................................. 4.151
9. Enthalpy-Entropy Diagram...................................... 4.151
10. Degree of Reaction .................................................. 4.153
11. Mass Flow Rate ...................................................... 4.153
4.154-4.165
Solved Problems.............................................................
4.28 Axial Flow Compressors ...............................................4.166
4.28.1 Working Principles of a Compressor Stage .... 4.167
4.28.2 Stage Velocity Triangles.................................... 4.169
4.28.3 Blade Loading, Flow Coefficients and
Specific Work.................................................................. 4.171
4.28.4 Static Pressure Rise in a Stage....................... 4.171
4.29 Degree of Reaction.........................................................4.175
4.30 Infinitesimal Stage Efficiency (or) Polytropic
Efficiency ............ .....................................................................4.176
4.31 Finite Stage Efficiency ..................................................4.178
4.38 Important Formulae ......................................................4.180
1. Flow coefficient f ................................................... 4.180
2. Head or work coefficient h  .................................. 4.180
3. Deflection co-efficient def ...................................... 4.181
4. Pressure co-efficient p ........................................... 4.181
5. Pressure ratio ............................................................ 4.181
6. Stagnation pressure ratio......................................... 4.181
7. Number of stages ...................................................... 4.181
4.32 Losses In Axial Flow Compressor Stage....................4.182
1. Profile losses on the surface of the blades:........... 4.183
2. Skin friction loss on the annulus walls: ............... 4.183
3. Secondary flow losses: .............................................. 4.183
 Contents C.9

4.33 Surging ...... .....................................................................4.184

4.34 Stalling ...... .....................................................................4.186
4.35 Comparison Between Reciprocating And
Centrifugal Compressors ........................................................4.187
4.36 Comparison Between Reciprocating And Rotary
Air Compressors .....................................................................4.188
4.37 Comparison Between Centrifugal And Axial Flow
Compressors ....... .....................................................................4.189
4.191-4.208
Solved Problems.............................................................
5. Refrigeration
5.1 Introduction. ..................................................................... 5.1
5.1.1 Fundamentals of Refrigeration:.......................... 5.1
5.1.4 Types of Mechanical Refrigeration system........ 5.3
5.1.5 Unit of Refrigeration: (Ton of Refrigeration) ... 5.3
5.2 Air Refrigeration System ................................................ 5.6
5.2.1 Air Refrigeration Cycles ...................................... 5.7
5.3 Reversed Carnot Cycle .................................................. 5.7
5.4 Bell-Coleman Cycle .......................................................... 5.17
5.5 Vapour Compression Refrigeration ................................ 5.39
5.5.1 Different Conditions of the Vapour ................... 5.42
5.6 PH Chart..... ..................................................................... 5.56
5.57-5.65
Solved Problems.............................................................
5.7 Subcooling or Undercooling ............................................ 5.66
5.7.1 Effect of Subcooling............................................. 5.67
5.8 Super Heating .. ............................................................... 5.69
5.8.1 Effect of Super heating ....................................... 5.69
5.70-5.95
Solved Problems.............................................................
5.9 Performance Calculation - Factors Affecting
Performance of A Vapour Compression System ................ 5.99
5.10 Vapour Absorption System ...........................................5.102
5.10.1 Working principle of vapour absorption ......... 5.103
C.10 Thermal Engineering - I

5.10.2 Practical vapour absorption system................. 5.104

5.11 Refrigerant .....................................................................5.106
5.11.1 Characteristics of good refrigerants................. 5.106
5.11.2 Refrigerants Number ......................................... 5.107
5.12 Ammonia - Water Absorption System ........................5.108
5.12.1 Absorption Refrigeration: (Electrolux
Refrigerator).................................................................... 5.108
5.12.2 Lithium Bromide Absorption System .............. 5.109
5.13 Gas Liquefaction System ..............................................5.111
5.13.1 Hampson-Linde Gas Liquefaction System ...... 5.111
5.13.2 Claude System for Liquefying Gases .............. 5.112
5.13.3 Advantages and Limitations of vapour
absorption system: ......................................................... 5.113
5.14 Comparision Between Vapour Compression And
Vapour Absorption System ....................................................5.114
5.15 Application of Cryogenic ...............................................5.114
(i) Application of Liquid Oxygen................................. 5.114
(ii) Application of Liquid Nitrogen ............................. 5.115
(iii) Application of Carbon-di-oxide ............................. 5.115
(iv) Application of Inert Gases .................................... 5.115
6. Actual Cycles and Their Analysis
6.1 Introduction. ..................................................................... 6.1
6.2 Comparison of Air-standard and Actual Cycles .......... 6.2
(a) The working medium.............................................. 6.3
(b) The nature of working substance .......................... 6.3
6.3 Time Loss.... ..................................................................... 6.4
6.4 Heat Loss Factors ........................................................... 6.6
6.5 Exhaust Blowdown........................................................... 6.8
6.6 Loss due to Gas Exchange Process .............................. 6.9
6.7 Volumetric Efficiency ....................................................... 6.10
6.7.1 The amount of air-fuel ratio .............................. 6.10
 Contents C.11

6.7.2 The design of intake and exhaust manifold

and port design ............................................................. 6.11
6.7.3 Compression ratios............................................... 6.11
6.7.4 The intake and exhaust valve timings ............. 6.11
6.8 Loss due to Rubbing Friction ........................................ 6.14
6.8.1 Surface finish ....................................................... 6.14
6.8.2 Lubricant properties ............................................ 6.14
6.8.3 Engine power........................................................ 6.15
6.8.4 Heat Dissipation .................................................. 6.15
6.8.5 Other miscellaneous components ........................ 6.15
6.9 Blowby Losses .. ............................................................... 6.16
6.9.1 Effects of blowby loss on efficiency ................... 6.16
6.9.2 Crankcase ventilation .......................................... 6.17
6.10 Actual and Fuel-Air Cycles of CI Engines ................ 6.19
 Chapter 1

I.C. ENGINES
Four & Two stroke engine - SI & CI engines - Valve and
Port Timing Diagrams - Fuel injection Systems for SI engines -
Fuel injection systems for CI engines- Ignition - Cooling and
Lubrication system - Fuel properties and Combustion
Stoichiometry.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Heat engines: Heat engine is a type of engine or machine
which derives heat energy from the combustion of fuel or
any other source and converts this into mechanical energy.
Heat engines are generally classifed as
1. External combustion engines (E.C. Engines)
2. Internal combustion engines (I.C. Engines)

If the combustion of fuel takes place inside the

cylinder, then the engine is known an Internal
combustion engine (or) IC engine.

Example: Petrol engine, Diesel engine, Oil and Gas

engines.
If the combustion of fuel takes place outside the
cylinder, then engine is known External combustion
engine.

Example: Steam engine, Steam turbine.

1.2 BASIC TERMS CONNECTED WITH I.C. ENGINES

1. Bore. The inside diameter of the cylinder is known as
the bore and it is measured in mm.
1.2 Thermal Engineering - I

2. Stroke. It is the distance travelled by the piston

between two dead centre positions.
3. Dead Centers. They correspond to the position occupied
by the piston at the end of its stroke where the centre lines
of the connecting rod and crank are in the same straight
line. These conditions arise for two positions of the piston.
For vertical engine these are known as Top Dead Centre
(TDC) position and Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) position and
for horizontal engines, these positions are known as Inner
Dead Centre (IDC) position and Outer Dead Centre (ODC)
position (Refer Fig 1.1 (a)&(b))

C O N N EC TIN G R O D
C Y L IN D ER C R AN K R AD IU S,r
B O R E -d

IDC O D C
S W EP T V O LU M E S TR OK E
VS LE N G TH
L=2r
C L E AR AN C E V O LU M E V C
Fig.1.1 (a) P iston in O D C positio n
B O R E -d

IDC O D C
S TR OK E
LE N G TH
L=2r
Fig. 1.1 (b) P iston in ID C po sition
 IC Engines 1.3

4. Top Dead Centre (TDC). The top most position of the

piston towards the cover end side of the cylinder of a
vertical engine is called Top Dead centre (TDC) position.
5. Bottom Dead Centre (BDC). The lowest position of
the piston towards the crank end side of the cylinder of a
vertical engine is known as Bottom Dead Centre (BDC)
position.

6. Crank Throw or Crank Radius. The distance

between the centre of main shaft and centre of crank pin
is known as crank throw or crank radius. This distance
will be equal to half of the stroke length.

7. Piston Displacement or Swept Volume. It is the

volume through which the piston sweeps for its one stroke.
Mathematically, it is equal to the area of cross-section of
the piston multiplied by its stroke length.

8. Clearance Volume. It is the volume included between

the piston and the cylinder head when the piston is at its
Top Dead Centre (in-vertical engine) or Inner Dead Centre
(in horizontal engine).

The piston never enters this portion of the cylinder

during its travel. The clearance volume is generally
expressed as percentage of the swept volume and is denoted
by vc.

9. Compression Ratio. It is the ratio of the total cylinder

volume to the clearance volume.

V s  Swept Volume

V c  Clearance volume

r  Compression ratio
1.4 Thermal Engineering - I

Then, the total cylinder volume  Vs  Vc

Vs  Vc
and Compression ratio, r 
Vc

For petrol engines the value of compression ratio

varies from 5:1 to 9:1 and for Diesel engines from 14:1 to
22:1.

10. Piston Speed. It is the distance travelled by piston

in one minute.

If RPM of engine shaft  N and

Length of stroke  L metre,
Then piston speed  2 LN metre/min.

1.3 FOUR STROKE SI (PETROL) ENGINE

Working Of Four Stroke Spark Ignition Engine
The number of strokes required to complete the
reciprocating engine cycle is four and hence this name four
stroke cycle. The work is obtained only during one stroke
out of these for a single cylinder engine or for every
cylinder individually for a multi-cylinder engine. These
strokes are as follows (Refer Fig. 1.2)

1. Suction or Induction Stroke. [Fig. 1.2 (a)]. During

this stroke, the inlet valve stays open and the exhaust valve
is closed. The piston is moved downward from Top Dead
Centre (TDC) by means of crankshaft which is revolved by
the momentum of the flywheel or by power generated by
the electric starting motor. This movement increases the
size of combustion space thereby reducing the pressure in
it with the result that the higher pressure of the outside
atmosphere forces the air into the combustion space.
 IC Engines 1.5

S park P lug
E xha u st
In le t Valve Valve
In le t p ort E xha u st port

C ylind er

P iston
C ra nk Ca se
C ra nk Sh aft
C onn ecting
R od R

(a )S u ction stro ke (b ) C o mp ressio n stroke

(c) P o wer stroke (d ) E xha ust stroke

Fig. 1.2 Four S troke S park Ignition Engine

A carburetor is put in the passage of incoming air

which supplies a metered quantity of fuel to this air. This
air fuel mixture thus comes into the engine cylinder.
2. Compression Stroke. [Fig 1.2 (b)]. The air fuel
mixture sucked in during the suction stroke is compressed
during this upward stroke. The compression forces the fuel
into closer combination with air. The heat produced during
this compression stroke aids the combustion of fuel. Just a
little before the end of compression stroke, the mixture is
ignited by a spark produced by the spark plug. Both the
inlet and exhaust valves remain closed during this stroke.
1.6 Thermal Engineering - I

3. Working or Power Stroke. [Fig. 1.2 (c)]. Both inlet

and exhaust vales remain closed during this stroke. The
mixture of fuel and air which burns at the end of
compression stroke expands due to the heat of combustion.
It exerts pressure in the cylinder and on the piston and
under this impulse, the piston moves downward thus doing
useful work.
4. Exhaust stroke. [Fig 1.2 (d)]. The inlet valve remains
closed while the exhaust valve opens. The greater part of
the burnt gases escape because of their own expansion. The
upward movement of the piston pushes the remaining gases
out of the open exhaust valve.

This cycle or series of events takes place over and

over again thus delivering power.

Theoretically speaking, the inlet valve opens at the

beginning of suction stroke and closes at the end of this
stroke. Both the valves remain closed at compression and
power strokes. The exhaust valve opens at the beginning
of exhaust stroke and closes at the end of same stroke.

1.4 FOUR STROKE CI ENGINE

WORKING OF A FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

This engine works on Diesel cycle or constant
pressure cycle. Heavy motor vehicles, stationary power
plants, big industrial units and ships mostly employ this
engine. The Diesel or Compression ignition engine which
mostly uses Diesel oil [light and heavy] as fuel differs from
a petrol engine in that in the latter the air fuel mixture
after being compressed in the engine cylinder to a high
pressure, is ignited by an electric spark from a spark plug
 IC Engines 1.7

p
3

2 ATM O SP H E R IC
P R E SSU R E

b 4
5 a 1

o v
Fig. 1.3 Actual pv- diagram
of four stroke cycle Diesel engine

p 2 3

E X HA U ST
1
S U CTIO N
o v
Fig . 1.4 Hypoth etical pv- d iag ram of a fo ur
stro ke D iesel cycle eng in e

while in the former the fuel is ignited by being injected

into the engine cylinder containing air compressed to a very
high pressure, the temperature of this air is sufficiently
high to ignite the fuel. There is no spark plug in a Diesel
engine. The temperature of the air compressed itself is
1.8 Thermal Engineering - I

sufficient to ignite the fuel which in the form of very fine

spray is injected at a controlled rate so that the combustion
proceeds at constant pressure.
1. Suction Stroke (5-a-3). The piston moves down from
the top centre Position. The air is drawn into the cylinder
through the inlet valve which closes at the end of this
stroke. The exhaust valve remains closed during this stroke.

2. Compression Strokes (3-4). The piston moves up

from the bottom dead centre position. The inlet valve is
also now closed. The air drawn into the cylinder in the
previous stroke is entrapped inside the cylinder and
compressed with the upward movement of the piston. As
the compression ratio used in this engine is high (14 to
22), the air is finally compressed to a pressure as high as
40 bar at which its temperature is high - as high as
1000 C enough to ignite the fuel.

3. Constant Pressure Stroke (4-1). As the piston moves

after reaching top dead centre the fuel is injected into the
hot compressed air where it starts burning, maintaining
the pressure constant. At the point 1 the fuel supply is
cut-off. Theoretically, the fuel is injected at the end of
compression stroke and injection continues till the point of
cut-off. In actual practice, the ignition starts before the end
of compression stroke to take care of ignition lag.

4. Power or Working Stroke (1-2). Both inlet and

exhaust valves remain closed during the stroke. The hot
gases and air now expand adiabatically to the point 2, in
the engine cylinder pushing the piston down and hence
doing work. The piston finally reaches the bottom dead
centre.
 IC Engines 1.9

5. Exhaust Stroke (3-b-5). The piston now moves up

once again. The inlet and fuel valves are closed but the
exhaust valve opens. A greater part of the burnt gases
escape due to their own expansion. The upward movement
of the piston pushes the remaining gases out through the
open exhaust valve. Only a small quantity of exhaust gases
stay in the combustion chamber. The exhaust valve closes
at the end of exhaust stroke. The cycle is thus completed.

1.5 WORKING OF TWO STROKE CYCLE ENGINE

There is one working stroke in one cycle of four stroke
cycle engine, ie. in two revolutions of the crankshaft. The
desire to have one working stroke per cylinder for every
revolution of the crankshaft had led to the development of
two stroke cycle engines.
Two stroke cycle engines are very widely employed
for small power required for motor pads (auto cycles)
scooters and motor cycles because of compactness and ease
in manufacture and being simpler although the specific fuel
consumption (S.F.C.), i.e., the fuel consumption per bp kW
hour is more,
In a two stroke cycle engine, the suction and
exhaust strokes are eliminated. Here the burnt exhaust
gases are forced out through the exhaust port by a fresh
charge of the fuel which enters the cylinder nearly at the
end of the working stroke through inlet port. The process
is termed as scavenging. There are no inlet and exhaust
valves as in a four stroke engine but we have inlet and
exhaust ports only.
1.10 Thermal Engineering - I

1.6 WORKING OF TWO STROKE PETROL ENGINE

Fig.1.5 shows a two stroke petrol engine commonly
used in motor cycles. It has no valves but consists of the
inlet or induction port (IP), exhaust port (EP) and a third
port called the transfer port (TP).
Referring to Fig.1.5 (a) let the piston be nearing the
completion of its compression stroke as shown.
The ignition starts due to the spark given by the
spark plug and the piston is pushed down [Fig.1.5 (b) and

S p ark P lu g
S p ark P lu g
C o m p re ss ed .. ........ .......... ....
.. ............... . .... C h arg e .............
............ ........... ......... .. . . ..
. . . ... ..........
...........
....... . . ........... . .....
.
... ...

P iston P iston
Tra nsfe r Tra nsfe r
E xha u st P o rt
P o rt E xha u st P o rt P o rt
In le t P ort O pe n In le t P ort O pe n

C ra nk C a se

(a ) (b )

... ..
.......................................... .... .. . . ........
.......................... .. . ....
......
............. ....... ........
............. .. .... ..... ....... ...................
... ........
.
. .. . ...
.........
...... .. .
.................. .... ................ .
....... . .. . ................
. ........
. .. . . .. . .. .. . .. .
Tra nsfe r .......................................................... E xha u st P o rt O p en
P o rt O p en ............... . .... ...........
.
Tra nsfe r
In le t P ort P o rt E xha u st P o rt
In le t P ort

(d )
(c) Fig. 1.5 Tw o stro ke petrol en gin e
 IC Engines 1.11

(c)] performing the working stroke and in doing so, the air
fuel mixture already drawn from the inlet port inside crank
case in the previous stroke is compressed to a high
pressure. When about four-fifth of this stroke is completed,
the exhaust port (EP) is uncovered slightly and some of the
charge of burnt gases escape to the atmosphere.
Immediately afterwards as the exhaust port is uncovered
by the further downward movement of the piston, the
transfer port (IP) which is only very slightly lower than
(EP) is also uncovered as shown in Fig.1.5 (c) and a charge
of compressed fuel air mixture enters the cylinder and
further pushes out the burnt gases out of the exhaust port
(EP). The top of the piston is made of a particular shape
that facilitates the deflection of the fresh charge upwards
and thus avoids its escape along with the exhaust gases.
After reaching the bottom dead centre, when the piston
moves up it first closes the transfer port (TP) and then the
exhaust port EP. The charge of fuel which previously entered
the cylinder, is now compressed. Simultaneously there is a
fall of pressure in the crank case creating a partial vacuum.
When the piston is nearing its upward movement, the inlet
port opens and a fresh charge of air fuel mixture from the
carburetor enters the crank case. After the ignition of the
charge takes place, the piston moves down for the power
stroke and the cycle is repeated as before.
2. Two Stroke Cycle Compression Ignition Engine
In a two smoke cycle compression ignition engine, all
the operations are exactly the same as those in the spark
ignition except that in this case, only air is taken in instead
of air fuel mixture and the fuel is injected at the end of
1.12 Thermal Engineering - I

compression stroke, a fuel injector being fitted instead of a

spark plug.

1.7 CLASSIFICATION OF IC ENGINES

IC Engines are classified as follows

1. According to type of fuel used

(a) Petrol engine
(b) Diesel engine
(c) Gas engine.
2. According to the ignition method used
(a) Spark Ignition engine (SI engine)
(b) Compression Ignition engine (CI engine).
3. According to number of strokes per cycle
(a) Four stroke engine
(b) Two stroke engine.
4. According to Air standard cycle
(a) Otto cycle engine
(b) Diesel cycle engine
(c) Dual cycle engine.
5. According to number of cylinders used
(a) Single cylinder engine
(b) Multi cylinder engine.
6. According to position of cylinder
(a) Horizontal engine
(b) Vertical engine
(c) Radial engine
(d) ‘V’ engine.
 IC Engines 1.13

7. According to fuel supply system

(a) Carburetor engine
(b) Air-injection engine
(c) Airless injection (or) Solid injection engine.
8. According to cooling system used
(a) Air cooled engine
(b) Water cooled engine.
9. According to speed of engine
(a) Slow speed engine
(b) Medium speed engine
(c) High speed engine.
10. According to location of valves
(a) Overhead valve engine
(b) Side valve engine.
(c) L-head type engine
(d) T-head type engine
(e) F-head type engine
11. According to their uses
(a) Aircraft engines
(b) Marine engines
(c) Automobile engines etc.

1.8 IC ENGINE COMPONENTS – FUNCTIONS AND

MATERIALS
A cross section of water cooled IC engine with
principal parts is shown in the Fig. 1.6. The major
components of IC engine are as follows.

I. Components common to both Petrol and Diesel engines

1.14 Thermal Engineering - I

Va lv e R o c k e r
P u s h rod
Va lv e s p rin g

C om bu s tio n
c h a m be r

Va lv e
S p a rk p lu g

G u d g eo n p in

W a te r ja c k e t
P is to n

P isto n
C on ne c

ring s

Ta p pe t
tin g ro d

C ylin d er

C am
k
an
Cr

C am sh aft

C ra nk pin

C ra nk c as e
Fig. 1 .6 C ros s se c tio na l of w a ter c o ole d S .I E ng in e

1. Cylinder 2. Piston
3. Cylinder head 4. Piston rings
5. Gudgeon pin 6. Connecting rod
7. Crank 8. Crankshaft
9. Bearings 10. Crank case
11. Flywheel 12. Governor
13. Valves or port mechanisms.
II. Components for petrol engine only
(a) Spark plug (b) Carburetor (c) Fuel pump
 IC Engines 1.15

III. Components for Diesel engines only

(i) Fuel pump (ii) Fuel injector

1. Cylinder
The cylinder is the closed part which contains the gas
mixture under pressure and guides the piston. The
combustion of the gas mixture takes place inside the
cylinder. The ideal form of cylinder consists of a plain
cylinder barrel with a liner material in which the piston
slides.

The movement of the piston or stroke is longer than

the diameter or bore of cylinder. The ratio of stroke to bore
is called stroke bore ratio. The upper end consists of a
combustion or clearance space in which the ignition and
combustion of the charge takes place. Since a large amount
of energy is generated during combustion, therefore it has
to be cooled. Generally IC engines are water cooled or air
cooled engines.

The cylinder is made up of hard grade cast iron and

is usually cast in one piece.

2. Cylinder head
One end of cylinder is closed by means of a removable
cylinder head which usually contains the inlet valve for
admitting the gas mixture and exhaust valve for
discharging the products of combustion. These two valves
are operated by means of cam mechanisms geared to the
engine shaft. The passage in the cylinder head leading to
and from the valves are called ports. The pipes which
connect the inlet ports of the various cylinders to a common
intake pipe for the engine is called the inlet manifold. If
1.16 Thermal Engineering - I

the exhaust ports are similarly connected to a common

exhaust system, this system is called exhaust manifold.
The main purpose of the cylinder head is to seal the
working ends of the cylinders and not to permit entry and
exit of gases to engine. The inside cavity of cylinder head
is called the combustion chamber. Its shape controls the
direction and rate of combustion.

The cylinder head is usually made up of cast iron or

aluminium.

3. Piston
A piston is fitted to each cylinder to receive gas
pressure and transmit the force to the connecting rod. The
piston must provide the following

(a) Give tight seal to the cylinder through bore;

(b) Slide freely; (c) Be light; (d) Be strong.

The piston wall called skirt must be strong enough

to withstand the side thrust.

Pistons are made up of cast iron or aluminium alloy

for lightness. Light alloy pistons expand more than cast
iron and therefore need large clearance to the bore.

4. Piston rings
Pistons are generally loose fit with cylinders to avoid
the sticking of piston to cylinder during expansion on
combustion. To provide a good sealing fit between piston
and cylinder, pistons are equipped with piston rings. They
are split at one point so that they can be expanded and
slipped over the end of the piston and into rings grooves
which have cut in the piston. During installation, the rings
are compressed into the grooves and split ends come almost
 IC Engines 1.17

together. The rings fit tightly against the cylinder wall and
against the sides of the ring grooves in the piston. These
rings can expand or contract as they heat and cool and still
make a good seal. Thus they are free to slide up and down
the cylinder wall.
Small two stroke cycle engines have two rings on the
piston. Both are compression rings. Four stroke cycle
engines have an extra ring called the oil control ring. Four
stroke cycle engines are so constructed that they get much
oil in the cylinder wall than two stroke cycle engines.

These rings are usually made up of cast iron or alloy

steel.

5. Gudgeon pin (Or Wrist pin or Piston pin)

These are hardened steel parallel spindles fitted
through the piston bosses and the small end bushes or eyes
to allow the connecting rods to swivel. Gudgeon pins are
press fit and heated in hot oil or water bath to remove it.
Gudgeon pins are made hollow for lightness.

6. Connecting Rod
Connecting rod transmits the piston load to the crank,
causing the latter to turn, thus converting the reciprocating
motion of the piston into rotary motions of crankshaft.

Connecting Rods are made up of Nickel, Chromium

and Vanadium steels.

7. Crank
The reciprocating motion of the piston is converted to
rotatory motion on the wheels by using connecting rod and
crank assembly. The connecting rod connects the piston to
crank. The crank is made up of steel forging.
1.18 Thermal Engineering - I

8. Crankshaft 1 4
Crank is a part of
the crankshaft. The
crankshaft of an IC
engine receives efforts
via cranks supplied by
the pistons through the Fig. 1.7
2 3
connecting rods. All the
engines auxiliary mechanisms with mechanical
transmission are geared in one way or the another to the
crankshaft.
The crankshaft converts the reciprocating motion of
piston to rotary motion of wheels. The crankshaft are
mounted in bearings which encircle the journals so it can
rotate freely. The Fig. 1.7 shows a typical crankshaft layout
for a 4 cylinder engine.
It is usually a steel forging or cast iron like spheroidal
graphite or nickel alloy castings.
9. Engine Bearings
The crankshaft is supported by bearings. The
connecting rod big end is attached to the crank pin on the
crank of the crankshaft by a bearing. A piston pin at the
small end is used to attach the rod to the piston. The piston
pin rides in bearings. Bearings are used to support the
moving parts. The purpose of bearings is to reduce the
friction and allow the parts to move easily. Bearings are
lubricated with oil to make the relative motion easier.
Usually sleeve bearings are used for most engine
applications. Some engines use ball and roller bearings to
 IC Engines 1.19

support the crankshaft and for the connecting rod and

piston-pin bearings.

10. Crank Case

The main body of engine to which the cylinders are
attached and which contains the crankshaft and its
bearings is called crank case. This member also holds other
parts in alignment and resists the explosion and inertia
forces. It also protects the parts from dirt etc and serves
as a part of lubricating system.

11. Fly wheel

A flywheel is secured on the crankshaft. It is made
up of steel or cast iron disc. It performs the following
functions: It stores energy required to rotate the shaft
during preparatory strokes and provides uniform crankshaft
rotation.

12. Governor
A governor is defined as a device for regulating
automatically the output of a machine by regulating the
supply of working fluid to the variation of loads. When the
load on the engine increases, the speed reduces and there is
an increase in supply of fluid and when the load on the
engine reduces, the speed increases and the fluid supply is
reduced. This is controlled by governor. Thus the function of
a governor is to control the fluctuations of engine speed due
to changes in load.

13. Valves and Valve Operating Mechanisms

The inlet and exhaust of internal combustion engines
are controlled by poppet valves. These valves are held to
their seating by strong springs, and as the valves usually
open inwards, the pressure in cylinder helps to keep them
1.20 Thermal Engineering - I

closed. The valve gear mechanisms are shown in the Fig.

1.6. It consists of poppet valve, the steam bushings or
guide, valve spring, spring retainer, lifter or push rod,
camshaft and half speed gear for a 4 stroke engine. The
timing of the valves, i.e. their opening and closing with
respect to the travel of the piston is very important thing
for efficient working of the engines. The drive of the
camshaft is arranged through gears or chain and sprocket
called timing gear.
1.8.1 COMPARISON OF FOUR-STROKE AND TWO
STROKE CYCLE ENGINES
S.
Title/Aspect 4 Stroke Engine 2 Stroke Engine
No
1. Cycle The cycle gets The cycle is
completed in 4 completed in 2
strokes or in two strokes or in one
revolutions of crank revolution of
shaft. crankshaft.
2. Power produced The power produced The power produced
is small since one is large since one
power stroke for 2 power stroke for one
revolutions of revolution.
crankshaft.
3. Flywheel size Heavier flywheel is Lighter flywheel is
required since non required since
uniform turning uniform turning
moment. moment.
4. Cooling and Since one power One power stroke for
Lubrication stroke per two one revolution - high
revolution less cooling cooling and
and lubrication is lubrication system is
required. required.
 IC Engines 1.21

S.
Title/Aspect 4 Stroke Engine 2 Stroke Engine
No
5. Valve and Valve and valve Port mechanisms are
Valve mechanisms are present in 2 stroke.
Mechanism present in 4 stroke
engine.
6. Initial cost Initial cost is high Initial cost is low
but running cost is but running cost is
low. more.
7. Volumetric High volumetric Low volumetric
Efficiency efficiency. efficiency.
8. Part load Better than that of Poor than that of 4
efficiency 2 stroke engine. stroke engine.
9. Thermal High thermal Comparatively lower
efficiency efficiency. thermal efficiency.
10. Applications Used in cars, buses, Used in scooters,
trucks, industrial motor cycles, lawn
engines, aeroplane, movers etc.,.
generators etc.
11. Compactness Heavy and High Compact engine.
engine.
1.8.2 COMPARISON BETWEEN PETROL ENGINE
AND DIESEL ENGINE
Petrol Engine Diesel Engine
(a) During suction stroke, the During suction stroke, only
mixture of air and petrol is air is sucked in the engine
sucked in the engine cylinder. cylinder.
(b) The petrol engine works on The diesel engine works on
Otto cycle diesel cycle
(c) In petrol engine, spark plug In diesel engine, fuel injector
is used to ignite the charge is used. The fuel burns by
with an electric spark. the heat of compressed air.
1.22 Thermal Engineering - I
Petrol Engine
(d) Here carburetor is used
which supplies the mixture
of air and petrol in correct
proportion
(e) The compression ratio is
upto 11. Average
compression ratio in petrol
engine varies from 5:1 to 9:1
(f) Due to lower compression
ratio, petrol engines are
light and less stronger than
diesel engine.
(g) There is a chance of
pre-ignition
(h) Air standard efficiency is
lower due to lower
compression ratio
(i) The initial cost of petrol
engine is less but the
running cost is high because
the cost of petrol is more
than diesel.
(j) Petrol engines are used in
cars, scooters and motorcycles heavy duty vehicles like
trucks, buses and locomotive
(k) It occupies less space.
(l) Maintenance cost is less.
(m) Thermal efficiency upto 25%
Diesel Engine
Here fuel injector is used to
inject the diesel
The compression ratio in
diesel engine varies from
12:1 to 22:1
Due to higher compression
ratio, diesel engines are
heavier and stronger than
petrol engines
As only air is compressed
during compression stroke,
there is no chance of
pre-ignition
Air standard efficiency is
higher due to higher
compression ratio.
The initial cost of diesel
engine is high but the
running cost is low as the
cost of diesel is less.
Diesel engines are used in
engines.
It occupies more space.
It is having more parts. So
maintenance cost is high.
Thermal efficiency upto 40%
 IC Engines 1.23

1.8.3 Advantages of two stroke cycle engines over

four stroke cycle engines
1. The two stroke cycle engine gives one working
stroke for each revolution of the crankshaft. So the
power developed by two stroke cycle engine is twice
that developed by four stroke cycle engine for the
same engine speed and cylinder volume.
2. The turning moment on the crankshaft is more even
in 2 stroke engine and so a lighter flywheel is
required in it.
3. A two stroke engine is more compact, light and
requires less space than a four stroke cycle engine
for the same power. So it is more suitable for auto,
motor cycles and scooters.
4. Weight of engine is less due to absence of valves.
5. It has high mechanical efficiency due to the absence
of cams, cam shaft and rockers etc.
6. It requires fewer spare parts due to its simple
design.
1.8.4 Disadvantages
1. The air standard efficiency of two stroke cycle
engine is less than four stroke cycle engine because
the compression ratio of the two stroke cycle engine
is less than that of four stroke cycle engine.
2. A portion of the fresh air-petrol mixture (in case of
S.I. engine) escapes unused through the exhaust
port. So, the specific fuel consumption is higher. So,
overall efficiency is less.
1.24 Thermal Engineering - I

3. In two stroke cycle engines, the piston gets over

heated due to firing in each revolution and oil
cooling of the piston is necessary.
4. The consumption of lubricating oil is large in a two
stroke cycle engine because of high operating
temperature.
5. The fresh charge is mixed by the burnt gases due
to incomplete scavenging.
6 There is greater wear and tear of moving parts.

1.9 VALVE TIMING AND PORT TIMING DIAGRAMS

Review of Actual Cycle (Actual Indicator Diagram)
for 4-stroke Petrol Engine
The actual cycle (actual indicator diagram) for a
4-stroke cycle petrol engine is shown in Fig.1.8 (a). This
diagram is drawn for one complete cycle ie for two complete
revolutions of the crank. The theoretical P-V diagram of a
4-stroke petrol engine (otto cycle) is also shown in Fig. 1.8
(b) for comparison.
p

3
3
p

A tm os phe ric
Exp pre ssure
2 ans
io n
co m 2
pres
s io n 4 4
ex ha ust b ex ha ust
5
5 suction 1 1
a suction v
v
O
O
(a) A c tual p -v d ia gram o f fo ur
stroke O tto cyc le en gin e
Fig. 1.8
 IC Engines 1.25

1. Suction Stroke 5  a  1: The suction stroke is

shown by the line 5  a  1. The piston moves down from
the Top Dead Centre (TDC). The pressure inside the
cylinder is below the atmospheric pressure. So the air-fuel
mixture flows into the engine cylinder through the inlet
valve. At end of this stroke, the inlet valve closes. The
exhaust valve remains closed during this suction stroke.
2. Compression Stroke 1  2: The piston moves up
from BDC to TDC. The inlet valve closes (IVC) at the end
of suction stroke (or) a little before compression stroke
starts. The air is compressed with the upward movement
of the piston. At the end of this stroke, the air attains high
pressure.

3. Expansion (or) working Stroke 3  4: A short

time before the end of the compression stroke i.e., (TDC)
the air-fuel mixture is ignited (IGN) by the spark plug.
During ignition, the volume remains constant. Both valves
are closed. Due to this ignition, the pressure and
temperature of the charge is enormously increased. This
explosion pushes the piston to BDC. A little before BDC,
the exhaust valve opens. (EVO).

4. Exhaust Stroke 1  b  5: The burnt gases are

exhausted to the atmosphere in this stroke. The piston
moves from BDC to TDC to send the burnt gases out of
the cylinder, through exhaust valve. During this stroke, the
inlet valve is in closed position.

In actual cycle, the corners are rounded off, because

the inlet and outlet valves do not open and close suddenly
but they take sometime to do so. Because of the resistance
of the inlet valve to the entering charge, the actual pressure
1.26 Thermal Engineering - I

inside the cylinder during suction stroke is slightly less

than the atmospheric pressure. Similarly, because of the
resistance of the exhaust valve to the burnt gases leaving
the cylinder, the actual pressure inside the cylinder during
exhaust stroke is slightly higher than the atmospheric
pressure. The hatched area called as negative loop
5  a  1  b  5 is shown in actual cycle. This negative
loop is subtracted from the larger loop (called positive loop)
to get the net workdone during a cycle.
1.9.1 Valve Timing Diagram for a 4-Stroke Cycle
Petrol Engine
The actual valve timing diagram is shown in Fig.1.9.
At the end of exhaust stroke (or) before the beginning of
the suction stroke, the inlet valve opens (IVO) 10 to 20 in
advance of the TDC position to facilitate the inflow of fresh
charge and outflow of burnt gases. When the piston reaches
the TDC, the suction stroke starts. The piston moves down
and reaches BDC position and then it moves up. A little
beyond the BDC, the inlet valve closes (IVC). i.e. The inlet
valve closes (IVC) at 30 to 40 after BDC.

Now during further upward movement, the piston

compresses the charge (with both valves closed).
The spark is produced at 30 to 40 before the TDC
position to give time for the fuel to ignite. (IGN)
Due to ignition, the pressure rises up, the burnt gases
pushes the piston downwards during expansion stroke.
Now the exhaust valve open (EVO) before the piston
reaches the BDC position. i.e. The exhaust valve opens
 IC Engines 1.27

TD C

E .V.C

T
AR
ST
I ON I.V.O
T
NI

o
35 SU
IG
T

IG N
US

CT
o
20

IO
EX HA

M P R E S SI ON

E X PA N
CO

o
35

SIO
o
35

N
I.V.C
E .V.O

Fig. 1.9 Actual valve tim ing diagram for Petrol (Otto) four stroke engine

(EVO) at 30 to 50 before BDC to enable the burnt gases

leave the cylinder.
Now the piston reaches BDC and then it moves up
to perform the exhaust stroke.
The exhaust valve opens till the piston reaches TDC
and then it moves down for suction stroke (i.e. till the
piston is about 8  10 past the TDC). So the exhaust valve
closes (EVC) at 8  10 past the TDC.
1.28 Thermal Engineering - I

But before starting of suction stroke, the inlet valve

opens (IVO) at 15 10  20 before TDC. For a fraction of
time, both inlet and exhaust valve are open. The angle
between the position of the crank at the inlet valve opening
and that at the exhaust valve closing is known as the
angle of valve overlap or simply valve overlap.
Review of Actual Cycle for Four Stroke Cycle Diesel
Engine (Diesel Cycle)
The Fig.1.10 (i) and (ii) shows the theoretical and
actual cycle (P-V diagram) for four stroke cycle diesel
engine. The actual cycle differs from the theoretical one. In
actual cycle, the corners are rounded off because the inlet
and exhaust valve do not open and close all of a sudden
but they take sometime to do so.
Due to the resistance of the inlet valve to the entering
fresh air, the actual pressure inside the cylinder during
suction stroke is slightly less than the atmospheric
pressure.

2 3 2 3
p ressure

4
p ress ure

5 4
Ex hau st Ex hau st b
b
5 1 5
Su ctio n Su ctio n a
a
Vo lum e Vo lum e
(i) Fig.1.10 (ii)
(i) Theoretical and (ii) Actual P-V diagram for
a four stroke diesel engine
 IC Engines 1.29

Similarly, due to the resistance of the exhaust valve

to the exhaust gases leaving the cylinder, the actual
pressure inside the cylinder during exhaust stroke is
slightly higher than the atmospheric pressure. This gives
small hatched area 5  a  1  b  5 in the form of a loop
(called negative loop). This negative loop area is subtracted
from the area of the larger loop (positive loop) to get net
workdone during a cycle.

1.9.2 Valve Timing Diagram of 4-Stroke Diesel Engine

The actual valve timing diagram of a 4-stroke diesel
engine is shown in Fig.1.11.

The inlet valve opens (IVO) at 10 to 25 before TDC

position and inlet valve closes (IVC) after BDC position.

Fuel Injection Valve (FIVO) opens at 5 to 10 before

TDC position and fuel injection valve closes (FIVC) at
15 to 25 after TDC position.

Exhaust valve opens (EVO) at 30 to 50 before BDC

position and exhaust valve closes (EVC) at 10 to 15 after
TDC position.

1.9.3 Port Timing Diagram of Two Stroke Cycle

Petrol Engine
The corners are rounded off since inlet port and
exhaust port are covered and uncovered not in all of a
sudden. Covering and uncovering ports take sometime.

Port Timing Diagram

Step 1: Transfer port closes when crank angle is at 50
after BDC (Suction stroke is accomplished during 120 of
crank rotation. i.e. The angle between “transfer port opens”
and “Transfer port closes” is 120.)
1.30 Thermal Engineering - I

T.D.C

E.V.C(Exha ust Valve C loses)

e
V a lv
on
e c ti
l In j
( F u e n s ) F.I.V.O
O pe F.I.V.C (Fu el Injection
o
5 15
o
Va lve C loses)

I.V.O

Ex
(In le t Va lve

pa
o
25
O pe ns)

Su

ns
o
25

ion
c ti
on
C om pres sion
E xh au st

o
45
o
30

I.V.C
(In le t E.V.O (Exha ust
Valve C loses) Valve O p ens)

B.D.C

Fig. 1.11 Valve tim ing diagram of a four stro ke diesel en gine

Step 2: Exhaust port closes when crank angle is at 60

after BDC. i.e. A little time after transfer port closes, the
exhaust port closes.
Step 3: As soon as exhaust port closes, the compression
starts. Then the inlet port opens at 50 before TDC. i.e.
The crank angle between ‘Inlet port opens’ and ‘Inlet port
closes’ is 100.
 IC Engines 1.31

3 3

2
2

4
Pressure

P ressure
4
1
1

Volum e Volum e
(a) Theoritical cycle (b) A ctual cy cle

T.D.C

S te p 4
S te p 3
I.P.O pens I.P.Closes
5 0o 50
o
E xpa

1 00 o
C om p ressio n

n s io n

S te p 5
E.P.O pens

T.P.O pens
1 40 o
S te p 2 S te p 6
o
E.P.Closes 1 20 70o
T.P.Closes 50
o

S te p 1 80o
o
60
t
aus
Exh

B.D.C
(c.) P ort timing diagram o f a tw o stro ke
petrol en gin e
Fig. 1.12

Step 4: At the end of compression stroke, the spark plug

produces spark. Due to combustion of air-fuel mixture, a
large force is acted upon the piston moving downward.
During downward movement of the piston, the inlet port is
1.32 Thermal Engineering - I

covered by the piston. i.e. The inlet port is closed at 50

after TDC.
Step 5: Further downward movement of the piston, during
expansion stroke, uncovers the exhaust port. i.e. Exhaust
port is uncovered at 80 before BDC. (or) The angle between
‘Exhaust port opens’ and ‘Exhaust port closes’ is 140. The
exhaust stroke starts when exhaust port is uncovered.

Step 6: A little time after ‘Exhaust port opens’, the

‘transfer port opens’. As we have already seen, the angle
between ‘Transfer port opens’ and ‘Transfer port closes’ is
120. i.e. The transfer port opens at 70 before BDC.

1.9.4 Port timing Diagram for Two Stroke Cycle

Diesel Engine
In actual cycle, the corners are rounded off, since inlet
port and exhaust port are covered and uncovered not in all
of a sudden. Covering and uncovering of ports takes
sometime.

Port Timing Diagram

The actual valve timing diagram for two stroke diesel
engine is similar to that of two stroke petrol engine. The
difference between them are given below.

1. In diesel engine, the air is sucked inside the cylinder

instead of air-fuel mixture in case of petrol engine.
2. In diesel engine, the fuel injector injects fuel instead
of spark plug produces spark in case of petrol
engine.
Slight variations of crank angles for EPO, TPO, etc.
which are discussed below:
 IC Engines 1.33

2 3
TDC

F ue l s u pp ly S te p 6

7
p
o
20 o

S te
15

P res s ure
4
F.I.V.O F.I.V.C
S te p 5 1

8
ep
O Volum e

St
IP
(b) A ctua l cy cle

Ex
0 )o

.C

pa
I .P
2

n si
n (1

50 50 o

o n (1
C o m p re s s io

2 0o )
E .P.C E .P.O

T.P.C T.P.O S te p 1
S te p 4
E xh aus t
S te p 3 45 o o
45
60 o
o
60 S te p 2

(c .) BDC

Fig . 1 .13 P ort tim in g diagra m for tw o s tro ke die sel engine

Step 1: Exhaust port opens (EPO) at 60 before BDC

position.

Step 2: Transfer port opens (TPO) at 45 before BDC

position.

Step 3: Transfer port closes (TPC) at 45 after BDC

position.
Step 4: Exhaust port closes (EPC) at 60 after BDC
position.
1.34 Thermal Engineering - I

Step 5: Inlet port opens at 50 before TDC position.

Step 6: Fuel injection valve opens (FIVO) at 15 before

TDC position.

Step 7: Fuel injection valve closes (FIVC) at 20 after TDC

position.

Step 8: Inlet port closes (IPC) at 50 after TDC. By seeing

port timing diagram, the following points are noted.

The compression stroke occurs for angle of 120 of

crank rotation.

The fuel supply occurs for angle of 35 of crank

rotation.

The suction stroke occurs for 100 of crank rotation.

The expansion stroke occurs for 120 of crank

rotation.

The exhaust stroke occurs for angle of 120 of crank

rotation.

1.10 FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEM

1.10.1 Fuel injection Systems for S.I. Engines

To run S.I. engine, the petrol from the fuel tank must
reach cylinder. The petrol vaporize easily at atmospheric
condition, therefore the engine suction is sufficient to vaporize
petrol. In petrol engine, the petrol from the fuel tank reaches
through the fuel pump, filter and carburetor to the cylinder.
Thus, the fuel feed system of a petrol engine consists of the
following components.
 IC Engines 1.35

1. Fuel tank, 2. Fuel pump, 3. Fuel filter

4. Carburetor, 5. Intake manifold, 6. Fuel tubes for
necessary connections, 7. Gauge to indicate to the driver
the fuel level in the fuel tank.

The fuel system is used for the following reasons.

 To store fuel in the fuel tank

 To supply fuel to the required amount and proper
condition
 To indicate to the driver the fuel level in the fuel
tank.

1.10.2 Different types of Fuel Systems

The fuel from the fuel tank is supplied to the engine
cylinder by the following systems:

(a) Gravity system,

(b) Pressure system,

(c) Vacuum system,

(d) Pump system,

(e) Fuel injection system

In gravity system, the fuel tank is placed above the

carburetor. The fuel flows from the tank to the carburetor
due to the gravitational force. Thus the system does not
have fuel pump. This system is cheap and simple one. The
fuel tank is directly connected to the carburetor. Motor
cycles and scooters use this system.

In pressure system, the pressure is created inside

the tank by means of a pump, and the fuel flows to the
1.36 Thermal Engineering - I

carburetor. In this system the tank can be placed above or

below the carburetor.
In a vacuum system, the engine suction is used for
sucking the petrol from the main tank to the auxiliary fuel
tank and then it flows by gravity to the carburetor.
In pump system, a fuel feed pump is used to feed the
petrol from the fuel tank to the carburetor. In this system
the fuel tank can be placed at any suitable position in the
vehicle.
In fuel injection system, a fuel injection pump is
used in place of carburetor. The fuel is atomized by means
of a nozzle and then delivered into an air stream.
1.10.3 FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM IN SI ENGINES
A schematic diagram of fuel supply system is shown
in Fig. Here, the storage tank is located below the
carburetor the fuel pump sucks the petrol from tank and
pumps it to carburetor through fuel filter. Filter is used to
prevent the dust and other materials going along with
petrol.
A Schematic diagram of fuel injection system

Storage Fu el Fu el
filter Carburetor Engin e
Tank Pum p

Fig 1.14 A Schem atic diagram of fuel supply system .

1.10.4 Fuel Pump (for S.I. Engine)

This type of pump is used in petrol engine when the
cam shaft rotates, it pushes the lever in upward direction.
 IC Engines 1.37

O utlet valve
S traine r

D ia p hra gm

P um p C ha mb er

S pring

H in g ed po int

G la ss b ow l

C am
Fig.1.15 Fuel pu mp for S I Engin e

This upward movement pulls the diaphragm downward. It

creates a vacuum in the pump chamber and the petrol
comes to pump chamber from the glass bowl. Strainer is
used to prevent the impurities of the fuel coming along
with fuel. On the return stroke, the spring pushes the
diaphragm in the upward direction and the petrol is forced
to carburetor.

1.11 Carburetor
Carburetor is a device which is used for atomizing
and vapourizing the fuel (petrol) and mixing it with the air
in varying proportions, to suit the changing operating
conditions of the engine.

Atomization is the breaking up the liquid fuel (petrol)

into very small particles so that it is properly mixed with
the air. But vaporization is the change of state of the fuel
from liquid to vapour. Carburetor performs both the process
i.e., atomization of the fuel and vaporization of the fuel.
1.38 Thermal Engineering - I

The working of all modern carburetors are based upon

Bernoulli’s theorem.

1.11.1 SIMPLE CARBURETOR

A simple carburetor consists of following 1. float and
float chamber, 2. venturi and throttle valves and 3. choke
valve.

1. Float and Float chamber

The petrol is supplied to the float chamber from the
fuel tank through the filter and fuel pump. When the petrol
in float chamber reaches a particular level, the needle valve
blocks the inlet passage and thus cuts off the petrol supply.
On the fall of the petrol level in the float chamber, the
float descends down and inlet passage opens. The petrol is
supplied to the chamber again. Thus a constant fuel (petrol)

To E n g ine

T h rottle
F u e l Inle t Va lv e
M ixtu re
N e e d le
Ve n t Fuel
va lv e
Je t
F lo at Ve n tu ri
2 x 2

F lo at
ch a m b er

C h o ke
Va lv e

Fig.1.16 S im ple C arburetor

A ir
 IC Engines 1.39

level is maintained in the float chamber. The float chamber

supplies the petrol to the main discharge jet placed in
venturi tube. The level of fuel in the float chamber is kept
slightly below the top of the jet to prevent the leakage when
not operating.
2. Venturi and Throttle valve
The carburetor consists of a narrower passage at its
centre, called venturi. One end of the carburetor is
connected with the intake manifold of the engine. During
the suction stroke, vacuum is created inside the cylinder.
Due to vacuum, the air is sucked to the carburetor. The
velocity of the air increases as it passes through the venturi
where the area of cross section is minimum. Due to
increased velocity of air at the venturi, the pressure at the
venturi decreases. Therefore a low pressure zone is created
in the venturi. So the jet (nozzle) located at the venturi is
in the zone of low pressure. The fuel comes out from jet
(nozzle) in the form of fine spray. This fuel spray is mixed
with air and the mixture is supplied to the intake manifold
of the engine. The throttle valve is placed between the jet
(nozzle) and the intake manifold of the engine. The quantity
of the mixture is controlled by means of throttle valve.
3. Choke Valve
While starting in cold weather the engine needs extra
rich mixture. So a choke valve is introduced in the air
passage before the venturi. When the choke valve is closed
it creates high vacuum near the fuel jet and small quantity
of air is allowed, to get rich mixture. The fuel flow increases
as the vacuum near the jet increases.
1.40 Thermal Engineering - I

1.12 AIR FUEL RATIO

Oxygen is very much necessary to burn the fuel. This
oxygen is taken from atmospheric air. The proper
proportion of air and fuel mixture should be obtained for
complete combustion of fuel.

For complete combustion, the Air-Fuel ratio should be

approximately 15:1 by weight. This is known as
chemically correct or stoichiometric air fuel ratio.

The normal range of Air fuel ratio is in between 20:1

to 8:1 approximately.

Air fuel ratio during starting is approximately 10:1 -

i.e., very rich mixture.

Air fuel ratio during idling speed (low speed) is

approximately 12:1 - i.e., rich mixture.

Air fuel ratio during normal running condition, is

approximately 15:1 neither rich nor lean mixture.

Air fuel ratio for economic running (medium load), is

approximately 17:1 - economic mixture.

Air fuel ratio during overtaking, is approximately 12:1

- rich mixture.

1.13 VARIOUS COMPENSATION IN CARBURETORS

A simple carburetor can not supply different air-fuel
ratio according to the speeds and loads of the engine.

To supply correct airfuel ratio to meet the existing

condition is known as the compensation in carburetor. The
various compensations in carburetor are given below.

1. Auxiliary (or) extra air valve compensation

 IC Engines 1.41

2. Restricted air bleed compensation

3. Compensating jet compensation
4. Economiser needle in metering jet.
1. Auxiliary (or) Extra air valve compensation

A ir

E xtra a ir
va lve

A ir

P a rt o f floa t
ch a m b er
Th ro ttle

Fig .1.17
To in d uctio n m an ifo ld
A uxilia ry (o r) Extra air va lve co m pensa tio n

An extra air valve is provided to the carburetor to

supply extra air to mixture, when the throttle valve is
opened more and more. So the air-fuel ratio (mixture
strength) is maintained constant.

2. Restricted air-bleed compensation

Here, a jet tube having openings at its periphery is
provided in the carburetor. A restricted air bleed opening
is connecting the main air passage to the outer enclosure
of the jet tube.

During starting and slow speed, more quantity of fuel

flows into venturi to give rich mixture.

During high speed, the throttle valve opens more and

the vacuum in the venturi become more. So more fuel is
1.42 Thermal Engineering - I

A ir
R e stricted a ir
ble ed o pe nin g

O u te r
en clo ser

Je t Tu be P art o f flo at
ch am be r
T hrottle

To ind uction m anifold

R estricted air-blee d co m pe nsatio n F ig .1.18

drawn and sprayed by nozzle. But at this stage, the air

bubbles start bleeding through the jet-tube and make the
mixture lean.
3. Compensating Jet Compensation
In this system, main jet and compensating jet are
provided in the carburetor. The main jet is connected to
float chamber directly. The compensating jet is connected
to float chamber through tube C whose top end is open to
atmosphere. For normal throttle valve openings, both the
jets supply fuel to venturi. But when the throttle opens
more and more, the fuel supply from main-jet increases and
the fuel supply from compensating jet decreases due to
falling level of fuel in tube C. Because of atmospheric
pressure acting in this tube C, the richness of mixture
decreases.
 IC Engines 1.43

To in du ction m an ifo ld

T hrottle

Op en to
atmo sp here
P art of floa t
cha m b er
c

A
M ain jet
B
Com pensating jet
A ir
Fig.1.19
Com pensating jet Com pensation

4. Economiser needle in metering jet

The flow of fuel is controlled by changing the area of
the metering nozzle supplying fuel from float chamber to
the main jet. The area is changed by means of a needle
operated by linkage with accelerator pedal.

1.14 TYPES OF CARBURETORS

There are three important types of carburetor
1. Zenith carburetor
2. Solex Carburetor
3. Amal Carburetor

1.14.1 Simple Calculations involved in Carburetors

We assume that air is incompressible fluid, and the
flow is expressed by using Bernoullis energy equation. Here
‘Suffix a’ stands for air and ‘Suffix f’ stands for fuel.
1.44 Thermal Engineering - I


Mass of air flowing in kg/sec  m a

 a A a V a

where a  density of air constant in kg/m 3

V a  Ve locity of air in m/sec

A a  Cross sectional area of throat in m 2

V 2  Ve locity of air at throat

1



2   P2   
V a  Ca V 2  C a RT 1  1    
1 
P
 1 


ma
Air fuel ratio  
mf

where m f  Mass of fuel flow in kg /sec


ma Aa Ca a  p a
Air fuel ratio   
mf A f C f 
   pa  x  
f f


m a in kg/sec  A a C a 
 2 a pa


Air/fuel  m f  Aa Ca 

2  a  pa


m f  Af C f 
 2 f pa  x  9.81  
 f



2x  9.81 f
V a critical  C a
a
 IC Engines 1.45

where
C a  Coefficient of discharge for airflowin g venturi throat

C f  Coefficient of discharge for fuel jet

pa  Pressure of air in N/m2

A f  Cross sectional area fuel jet

x  height of jet above the float chamber level .

It is called as lip of jet in m.

pa  Drop in pressure causing air flow

f  Density of fuel

PROBLEMS IN CARBURETOR

Problem 1.1: A petrol engine has a fuel consumption of 20 lits

per hour. The air fuel ratio supplied through the carburetor is 15.
The choke has a diameter of 20 mm. Determine the diameter of
fuel jet of carburetor if the top of the jet is 5 mm above the fuel
level in the float chamber. The barometer reads 750 mm of Hg
and the temperature is 32C. Neglect the compressibility of air.
Assume Ca  0.85 and Cf  0.7; f  700 kg/m3

Solution:
A/F  15; Fuel consumption = 20 lit /hr or volume flow
20
of fuel in m 3/sec , Vf   5.5556  10  6 m 3/sec
1000  3600

f  700 kg/m 3; C a  0.85 ; C f  0.7

Choke dia d a  0.02 m ; dia of jet df  ?; x  0.005 m

1.46 Thermal Engineering - I

750
Atmospheric pressure   1.01325  0.99992 bar
760

 0.99992  10 5 N/m 2

Atmo spheric Temperature  32  273  305 K

Density of air: a

P Va  Ra T

Ra T P
Va  and a 
P Ra T

0.99992  10 5
a   1.1423 kg/m 3
287  305

Drop in pressure causing air flow:  pa


m a  Aa Ca 

2 a  
pa and
 
m a  A/F  mf

  m 3 kg
Mass flow m f  Vf  f in 
sec m 3

 5.5556  10  6  700

m f  3.88889  10  3 kg/sec
 
M ass flow ma of air  A/F  mf

 15  3.88889  10  3

 0.058333 kg/sec


Also m a  Aa Ca 

2  a  pa
 IC Engines 1.47

 
0.058333    0.02 2   0.85 
 2  1.1423   pa
4 


 a  144.524
p

pa  20,887.2

To find Af Area of a jet



m f  Af Cf  2 f pa  x f

3.88889  10  3  A f  0.7 
 
2  700 20887.2  0.005  700

 2
A f  1.0282  10  6 m 2  d
4 f

d f  1.1442  10  3 m

Diameter of fuel jet d f  1.1442 mm

Problem 1.2: A single jet simple carburetor is to supply 6

kg/min of air and 0.45 kg/min of petrol whose density is 740
kg/m3. The air is initially at 1.027 bar and 27C. Calculate
the throat diameter of the venturi throat if the speed of air is
92 m/sec, assuming velocity coefficient of 0.8. Assume adiabatic
expansion and  for air is 1.4. If the pressure drop across the
fuel metering orifice is 0.75 of that at the throat, calculate
orifice diameter assuming Cf  0.6, Ca  0.8

Solution:
T 1  27  273  310 K
1.48 Thermal Engineering - I

To find Dia of throat

Va  Ca

 2
1



 P 2   1/ 
R T1  1  
P
 1
 


0.4



2  1.4   P2  1.4 
92  0.8  287  310  1    
0.4 P
  1 

0.4
 P 2  1.4
 P   0.97876
 1
P2
 0.927629
P1

P2  1.027  0.927629  0.952675 bar

1
T2  P2  
 
T1 P
 1
 0.4 
 
T2  310 0.927629  1.4 

 303.42 K

ma   a A a V a

P2 0.95 2675  10 5
a    1.094 kg/m 3
R T2 287  303.42

a  1.094 kg/m 3

m a  a Aa Va
 IC Engines 1.49

6
kg/sec  1.094  A a  92
60

A a  9.93549  10  4m 2

 2
d  9.93549  10  4
4 a

da  0.035567 m

Diameter of throat  3.5567 c m

To find Diameter of jet ‘d f’

Pressure drop at venturi P 1  P 2

 1.027  0.9527

 0.0743 bar

Pressure drop at jet  0.75  0.0743

 0.055725 bar

m f  Af C f 

2 f pressure drop a t jet

0.45
60
kg/sec  Af  0.6 
2  740  0.055725  10 5

 2
A f  4.35265  10  6  d
4 f

d f  2.3541  10  3 m

 2.354 mm

Problem 1.3: A carburetor consumes 6 Kg of fuel/hr. The

density of fuel is 700 kg/m3. The level of fuel in the float
chamber is 3 mm below the top of jet. Ambient conditions are
1.01325 bar and Temperature 17C. The jet diameter is 1.2mm
1.50 Thermal Engineering - I

and its discharge coefficient is 0.6. The coefficient of discharge

for air is 0.85. A/F ratio is 15. Determine the critical air
velocity and throat diameter. Express the pressure depression
in mm of water. Neglect compressibility of air.

Solution:
Given

 6
mf   1.6667  10  3 kg/sec
3600

a  700 k g/m 3 ; x  0.003 m

P 1  1.01325 bar ; T 1  17  273  290 K

d f  2mm  0.002 m; C f  0.6 ; Ca  0.85 ; A/F  15

Density of air a
P1 1.01325  10 5
a    1.21741 kg/m 3
R T1 287  290

a  1.21741 kg /m3

(Compressibility of air is neglected)

To find critical velocity



2x  9.81 f
Critical Velocity V a  C a
a



2  0.0003  9.81  700
 0.85
1.21741

V a  4.945 m/sec
 IC Engines 1.51

[critical velocity is the minimum velocity of air at the throat

of venturi at which the fuel begins to flow.]

1mm of H 2O  9.81 N/m 2

So 3 mm height  0.003  9.81

To find pressure drop


m f  Af Cf 

2 f pa  x  9.81 
f

 
1.6667  10  3    0.00132   0.6 
4 

 
2  700 pa  0.003  9.81  700

pa  20.601   4309.03

pa  4329.03 N/m 2

1mm of H 2O  9.81 N/m 2

4329.03
pa 4329.03 N/m 2   441.3 mm o f water
9.81

To find throat dia ‘d a’

 
m a  A /F  m f

 15  1.6667  10 3  25  10  3kg/sec


m a  A a C a 2 a pa

25  10  3  A a  0.85  
2  1.21741  4329.03

 2
A a  0.28647  10  3  d
4 a

d a  0.0191 m
1.52 Thermal Engineering - I

d a  19.1 mm

Problem 1.4: A four cylinder - 4 stroke engine has bore 10

cm and stroke length 12 cm. It is running at 2000 rpm. Its
carburetor throat dia is 8cm. Determine the suction pressure
at the throat. Assume volumetric efficiency = 70%
3
a  1.3 kg/m ; Ca  0.8; Initial pressure  P1  1.027 bar

Solution:

Stroke volume V s   D2  L  4
4


  0.1 2  0.12  4  3.7699  10  3 m 3
4

Actual volume  0.7  V s  2.6389  10  3 m 3

N
Actua l volume in m 3/sec  2.6389  10  3  for 4 stroke
2  60
engine

2000
 2.6389  10  3 
2  60

V a  0.043982 m 3/sec
 
M ass of air flow m a  V a  a

 0.043982  1.2

m a  0.0528 kg /sec


Also m a  A a C a 
 2  a  pa


0.0528 
4
 0.082  

2  1.2  pa
 IC Engines 1.53

pa  71.835 N /m 2

 71.835  10  5 bar

Suction pressure a t throat  P 1  P 2  1.027  71.835  10  5

 1.02628 bar

1.15 FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS FOR C.I ENGINES

The fuel supply system of a diesel engine (CI Engine)
consists of 1. fuel tank, 2. fuel filter, 3. injection pump,
4. injector, 5. fuel lines for necessary connections, and 6.
fuel gauge.

In petrol engines, carburetor and spark plug are used.

In Diesel engine, fuel injector is used. Remaining elements
are same for both types of engines.

The fuel from the fuel tank flows to pump. It then

passes out to the inlet side of the main fuel filter. Then
filtered fuel proceeds to the inlet side of the fuel injection
pump. From the injection pump it flows under pressure in
the feed pipes leading to the fuel injectors.

1.15.1 Fuel Pump (C.I. Engine)

The plunger is driven by cam and tappet mechanism.
The plunger is reciprocating inside a barrel. The plunger
has a vertical groove at its top side and helical groove at
its bottom side.

Once the diesel in the barrel gets enough pressure, it

lifts off the delivery valve from its seat. When diesel
pressure is down, the spring pushes the delivery valve
down on its seat.
1.54 Thermal Engineering - I

The top passage is

Pa ssa ge (P )
connected to fuel
injector. Diesel is Sp rin g (S)
supplied to barrel
through supply port.
When the plunger
D e live ry valve (V )
is at its bottom, the
diesel enters through
Ba rre l (B )
supply port. When the Sp ill P ort (SP )
Su pp ly p ort
plunger moves up, both Plun ge r (L )
R o ck(R .)
supply port and spill
port are closed and the
diesel gets compressed.
Now the pressure of
diesel increases.
The high pressure
diesel lifts off the Fig 1.20
delivery valve, flows to Fu el p um p (fo r C .I. Engine )
fuel injector through
passage.
When the plunger moves up further, the spill port is
uncovered. i.e., the spill port is connected to the diesel in the
top of plunger through vertical groove and helical groove at
its side. So the pressure of the diesel suddenly comes down.
The delivery valve comes to its seat and stops the diesel flow
to injector. Now the diesel flows through spill port.
The plunger is rotated by the action of Rack and
Pinion arrangement which is activated by governor. By
rotating the plunger, the angular position of helical groove
to supply port is changed. It changes the length of stroke.
So the quantity of diesel supplied to engine is also changed
 IC Engines 1.55

accordingly. So the rack and pinion arrangement is used to

control the quantity of diesel supplied to engine.
Requirements of Fuel Injection System
(a) The fuel injection should occur at the correct
moment, rate and quantity as required by the
engine at different load conditions.
(b) The fuel should be injected in a finely atomized
condition.
(c) The fuel should be distributed uniformly inside the
combustion chamber.
(d) The beginning and end of injection should take place
sharply.

1.16 FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

There are two methods of fuel injection in
compression ignition engines. 1. air injection, 2. airless or
solid or mechanical injection.
1. Air Injection System
This system was developed by Dr.Rudolph Diesel. In
this method, air is first compressed to a very high pressure.
A blast of this air is then injected carrying the fuel along
with it into the cylinder. The high pressure air requires a
multistage compressor. The compressor consumes more
power developed by the engine, thus decreasing the net
output of the engine. This method of fuel injection is costly
and complicated. Therefore it is not used in nowadays.
2. Airless or Solid Injection
In this system the fuel is supplied at a very high
pressure about (150 bar) from the fuel pump to the fuel
injector and from there it is injected to the combustion
chamber. It burns due to the heat of compressed air. This
1.56 Thermal Engineering - I

method requires a fuel pump. This method is used in all

types of diesel engines.

1.16.1 Fuel Injector

The fuel injector is used

(a) To atomize the fuel to the required extent.

(b) To distribute the fuel such that there is complete
mixing of fuel and air.
(c) To start and stop fuel injection instantaneously.

S pring loaded
fuel injector
Lo ck n u t
A d ju s tin g S crew

Le ak-off
co nne ctio n S p ring

F u el inlet

S p in d le

F u el d uct
C a p n ut

S tea m
N o zzle
bo dy
Va lve

Fig.1 .21 Fuel Injecter or A to m iser

 IC Engines 1.57

It consists of a needle valve fitted on its seat in the

nozzle body by a spindle. The spring controls the pressure
on the spindle by which the needle valve opens. The nozzle
is attached to the body by means of a capnut. The fuel
enters the nozzle through holes in the injector body. When
the needle valve is raised from its seat by the pressure of
the fuel, the injection of the fuel into the combustion
chamber takes place. When the injection pressure falls
below the spring pressure, the valve closes.

1.17 IGNITION SYSTEMS

In case of petrol engines during suction operation,
charge of air and petrol fuel will be taken in. During
compression, this charge is compressed by the upward
moving piston. And just before the end of compression, the
charge of air and petrol fuel will be ignited by means of
the spark produced by means of spark plug. And the
ignition system does the function of producing the spark in
case of spark ignition engines.

1.17.1 SPARK PLUG Term ina l

Spark plug is used in SI C en tral

e le ctrod e
engines (Petrol engines) to
produce electric spark to ignite P orce la in
in su la to r
the compressed air fuel mixture
inside the engine cylinder.
M e ta l
The spark plug consists of S crew
three main parts:

(a) A central electrode. S pa rk g a p or

G ro u nd e le ctro de A ir g a p
(b) A metal screw with a
Fig 1.22 Spark plug
ground electrode.
1.58 Thermal Engineering - I

(c) An porcelain insulator separating the two electrodes.

The central electrode in the spark plug is covered by
a porcelain insulator. The central electrode extends for a
short length from the bottom of the insulator. The upper
end of the central electrode is connected to the cable from
the ignition coil. A metal screw surrounds the bottom part
of the insulator. The lower portion of the screw is attached
to a ground electrode and bent towards the central electrode
so that there is a gap between the two electrodes. The air
gap is generally kept between 0.6 mm to 1 mm. The high
voltage current is given to the terminal of the central
electrode. This current jumps in the air gap between the
central electrode and ground electrode. Too large or too
small air gap reduces the efficiency of the entire ignition
system.

A spark plug will fail in its function due to the

following reasons:

(a) The plug may fail due to engine oil entering the
combustion chamber.
(b) Plug fouled by too rich mixture.
(c) Plug gap is too large (or) too small.
(d) Plug gap filled with carbon deposits.
(e) Burned electrode.
(f) Cracked or broken insulator sealing.
Fig. 1.23 shows a typical spark plug used for petrol
engines. It mainly consists of a central electrode and metal
tongue. Central electrode is covered by means of porcelain
insulating material. Through the metal screw, the spark
plug is fitted in the cylinder head. When the high tension
voltage of the order of 30000 volts is applied across the
 IC Engines 1.59

C o nta ct

P o rcela in insulator
C e ntral elec tro de

G as tig ht se al

S e alin g w as he r
M etal scre w

M etal to ng ue

S p ark g ap
Fig. 1.23 Spark plu g

electrodes, current jumps from one electrode to another

producing a spark.
Whereas in case of diesel (Compression Ignition-CI)
engines, only air is taken in during suction operation and
is compressed during compression operation and just before
the end of compression, when diesel fuel is injected, it gets
ignited due to heat of compressed air. Once the charge is
ignited, combustion starts and products of combustion
expand, i.e. they force the piston to move downwards i.e.
they produce power and after producing the power, the
gases are exhausted during exhaust operation.

Basically Conventional Ignition systems are of 2 types

(a) Battery or Coil Ignition System, and

(b) Magneto Ignition System.

Both these conventional ignition systems work on

mutual electromagnetic induction principle. Battery ignition
1.60 Thermal Engineering - I

system was generally used in 4-wheelers, but now-a-days

it is more commonly used in 2-wheelers also (i.e. Button
start, 2-wheelers like Pulsar, Kinetic Honda, Honda-Activa,
Scooty, Fiero, etc.). In this case 6 V or 12 V batteries will
supply necessary current in the primary winding.
Magneto ignition system is mainly used in 2-wheelers,
kick start engines. (Example, Bajaj Scooters, Boxer, Victor,
Splendor, Passion, etc.). In this case magneto will produce
and supply current to the primary winding. So in magneto
ignition system, magneto replaces the battery.
(a) Battery or Coil Ignition System
Fig.1.24 shows line diagram of battery ignition
system for a 4-cylinder petrol engine. It mainly consists of
a 6 or 12 volt battery, ammeter, ignition switch,
auto-transformer (step up transformer), contact breaker,
capacitor, distributor rotor, distributor contact points, spark

Prim ary w ind in g Se co n dary

(2 00 -30 0 tu rns o f C o il w in d in g
2 0 g au g e w ire) (2 10 0 turn s
of (2 00 00 -30 0 00 V)
4 0 g au g e D istribu to r con ta cts
Ig nitio n
sw itch w ire)

1
1 2
C o nta ct 2
Am m eter b rea ke r
3 4 3

C a pa citor 4
Sp ark
p lug s
Ba tte ry C o nta ct b rea ker D istribu to r
(6 or 12 V) o pe rating cam

Fig. 1.24: Schem atic diagram of coil/b attery ign itio n system
 IC Engines 1.61

plugs, etc. Note that the Fig.1.24 shows the ignition system
for 4-cylinder petrol engine, here there are 4-spark plugs
and contact breaker cam has 4-corners. (If it is for
6-cylinder engine it will have 6-spark plugs and contact
breaker cam will be a perfect hexagon).
The ignition system is divided into 2-circuits :
(i) Primary Circuit: It consists of 6 or 12 V battery,
ammeter, ignition switch, primary winding having
200-300 turns of 20 SWG (Sharps Wire Gauge)
gauge wire, contact breaker and capacitor.
(ii) Secondary Circuit: It consists of secondary
winding. Secondary Ignition Systems winding
consists of about 21000 turns of 40 (SWG) gauge
wire. Bottom end of which is connected to bottom
end of primary coil and top end of secondary
winding is connected to centre of distributor rotor.
Distributor rotors rotate and make contacts with
contact points and are connected to spark plugs
which are fitted in cylinder heads (engine earth).
Working
When the ignition switch is closed and engine is
cranked, the contact breaker closes and a low voltage
current will flow through the primary winding. The contact
beaker cam opens and closes the circuit 4-times (for 4
cylinders) in one revolution. When the contact breaker
opens, (breaks the contact), the magnetic field begins to
collapse. Because of this collapsing magnetic field, current
will be induced in the secondary winding. And because of
more turns (21000 turns) of secondary winding, voltage goes
upto 28000-30000 volts.
1.62 Thermal Engineering - I

This high voltage current is brought to centre of the

distributor rotor. Distributor rotor rotates and supplies this
high voltage current to proper spark plug depending upon
the engine firing order. When the high voltage current
jumps the spark plug gap, it produces the spark and the
air-fuel charge is ignited-combustion starts-products of
combustion expand and produce power.

Note:
(a) The function of the capacitor is to reduce arcing at
the contact breaker (CB) points. Also when the CB
opens, the magnetic field in the primary winding
begins to collapse. When the magnetic field is
collapsing, capacitor gets fully charged and then it
starts discharging and helps in building up of
voltage in secondary winding.
(b) Contact breaker cam and distributor rotor are
mounted on the same shaft.
In 2-stroke cycle engines, these are operated at the
same engine speed. And in 4-stroke cycle engines, they are
operated at half the engine speed.

Advantages of Battery Ignition System

(a) It gives better spark during starting speed and idling
speed.
(b) Its initial cost is low. For this reason this system
is used in cars and commercial vehicles.
(c) The maintenance cost is less.
(d) The mechanism of distributor drive is simple.
Disadvantages of Battery Ignition System
(a) The engine cannot be started if the battery is low
(or) discharged.
 IC Engines 1.63

(b) It occupies more space.

(c) It has a complicated wiring.
(d) The spark intensity falls as the engine speed
increases.

(b) Magneto Ignition System

In this case, magneto will produce and supply the
required current to the primary winding. Here, a rotating
magneto with fixed coil or a rotating coil with fixed
magneto is set up for producing and supplying current to
primary, remaining arrangement is same as that of a
battery ignition system.
D istribu to r contact points
D istribu to r ro to r

C o il 3

Sp ark p lu gs

Cam N
Prim ary w ind in g
S
Se con dary w in ding

R o tating m a gn et
C o ntact b rea ker tw o pole sh ow n

Ig nition
sw tich
C a pacitor

Fig. 1.25 :Schematic diagram of Magneto Ig nition system

1.64 Thermal Engineering - I

Both these conventional ignition systems work on

mutual electromagnetic induction principle.

Following are the drawbacks of conventional ignition

systems:

(a) The arcing and pitting of contact breaker points will

lead to regular maintenance problems.
(b) Poor starting: After few thousands of kilometers of
running, the timing becomes inaccurate, which
results in poor starting (Starting trouble).
(c) At very high engine speed, performance is poor
because of inertia effects of the moving parts in the
system.

Advantages of Magneto Ignition System

(a) It occupies less space.
(b) Wiring is simple.
(c) Spark intensity improves as the engine speed
increases.
(d) It is used in motor cycles, scooters, and racing
cars.

Disadvantages of Magneto Ignition System

(a) Starting is difficult.

(b) Cost is more.

(c) It does not give better spark during starting speed

and idling speed.
 IC Engines 1.65

Comparison between Battery and Magneto ignition

system

S.
Battery Ignition Magneto Ignition
No.
1. Battery is must No need of battery
2. A good spark is available During starting the
at low speed also. quality of spark is poor
due to slow speed.
3. Occupies more space Very much compact
4. Battery maintenance is No battery maintenance
required problems.
5. Mostly used in car and bus Used on motorcycles,
for which it is required to Scooters etc.,
crank the engine

1.17.2 Types of Electronic ignition systems:

(a) Capacitance Discharge Ignition system
(b) Transistorized coil Ignition system
(c) Piezo-electric Ignition system
(d) The Texaco Ignition system

(a) Capacitance Discharge Ignition System

It mainly consists of 6-12 V battery, ignition switch,
DC convertor, charging resistance, tank capacitor, Silicon
Controlled Rectifier (SCR), SCR-triggering device, step up
transformer and spark plugs. A 6-12 volt battery is
connected to DC converter i.e. power circuit through the
ignition switch, which is designed to increase the voltage
to 250-350 volts. This high voltage is used to charge the
tank capacitor (or condenser) to this voltage through the
charging resistance. The charging resistance is also so
designed that it controls the required current in the SCR.
1.66 Thermal Engineering - I

DC
con vertor
(C h arg ing resista nce )
R To
SCR spa rk plug
Ignition sw itch

S econda ry
2 50 V 3 50 V

P rim ary
B attery Tan k
6 -12 V cap acitor C
o r condenser SCR
trigg ering
d evice

S tep -up
Fig.1.26 C apacitance d ischarge ignition system transfo rm er

Depending upon the engine firing order, whenever the

SCR triggering device sends a pulse, then the current
flowing through the primary winding is stopped, and the
magnetic field begins to collapse. This collapsing magnetic
field will induce or step up high voltage current in the
secondary winding, which while jumping through the spark
plug gap produces the spark, and the charge of air fuel
mixture is ignited.
Advantages of capacitance discharge ignition system:
(a) Moving parts are absent-so no maintenance.
(b) Contact breaker points are absent-so no arcing.
(c) Spark plug life increases by 50% and they can be
used for about 60000 km with out any problem.
(d) Better combustion in combustion chamber, about
90-95% of air fuel mixture is burnt compared with
70-75% with conventional ignition system.
(e) More power output.
(f) More fuel efficiency.
 IC Engines 1.67

(b) Transistorized Assisted Contact (TAC) Ignition

System
This system incorporates normal mechanical breakers,
which drives a transistor to control the current in the
primary circuit. Since a very small breaker current is used,
erosion of the contacts is eliminated so that good coil output
is maintained. Also it provides accurate spark timing for a
much longer period. When a low inductive coil and ballast
resistor are used with this system, excessive contact arcing
produced by the high primary current is also eliminated.
The basic principle of a breaker-triggered, inductive,
semiconductor ignition system is illustrated in Fig.1.27.
Here, a transistor works as a contact breaker, by acting as
power switch to make and break the primary circuit. The
transistor also performs as a relay, which is operated by
the current supplied by a cam-operated control switch and
thereby called as breaker-trigger.
A small control current passes through the
base-emitter of the transistor when the contact breaker is

Ig nitio n
sw tich

P S

C o nta ct
b reake r

Tra ns is tor
R1
R2

Fig. 1.27 T.A.C Ign itio n S ystem .

1.68 Thermal Engineering - I

in closed condition. This switches-on the collector-emitter

circuit of the transistor and allows full current to flow
through the primary circuit to energize the coil. The flow
of current, at this stage, in the control circuit and transistor
base is governed by the total and relative values of the
resistors R1 and R 2. These resistance values are chosen to
provide a control current of about 0.3A, which is sufficient
to provide a self-cleaning action of the contact surfaces
without overloading the breaker. When the spark is
required, the cam opens the contact to interrupt the base
circuit, which causes the transistor to switch-off. With
sudden opening of the primary circuit, a high voltage is
induced into the secondary, which produces a spark at the
spark plug. This sequence is repeated to provide the
required number of sparks per each revolution of the cam.
The T.A.C. arrangement provides a quicker break of the
circuit compared with a non- transistorised system, and, as
a result, a more rapid collapse of the magnetic flux takes
place. Consequently a high HT secondary voltage is
obtained. The components of this ignition system are
similar to those used with a conventional system except for
the extra control module containing the power transistor.
Advantages
(a) Breaker point contact surfaces last the life of the
engine.
(b) Improved cold starting due to faster rise time offered
by transistor switching.
(c) Improved consistency and repeatability of secondary
voltage energy and waveform without degradation
over time.
 IC Engines 1.69

(d) Ability to fire partially fouled plugs due to

aforementioned rise time improvement.

Disadvantages
(a) As in the conventional system, mechanical breaker
points are necessary for timing the spark.
(b) The cost of the ignition system is increased.
(c) The voltage rise-time at the spark plug is about the
same as before.

1.18 LUBRICATION SYSTEM

Lubrication is necessary for proper maintenance of a
motor vehicle. Use of lubricating oil between the moving
parts is known as lubrication. (The moving parts are
subjected to wear and tear due to continuous rubbing action
of one part on another.)

The main parts to be lubricated in case of IC engines

are: (a) cylinder walls, (b) crankshaft main bearing, (c) big
end bearing of connecting rod, (d) small end bearing of
connecting rod, (e) cam faces where they engage with the
tappets, (f) push rod guides, (g) rocker arm pin, (h) valve
guides, (i) timing gears, and (j) cam shaft bearings.

1.18.1 Purpose of Lubrication

(a) To reduce friction between the mating parts.
(b) To reduce wear and tear of the moving parts.
(c) To keep the engine parts clean.
(d) To absorb shock between bearing and other engine
parts.
(e) To reduce noise and to increase engine life.
(f) To act as a cooling medium for removing heat.
1.70 Thermal Engineering - I

(g) To form a good seal between piston rings and cylinder

walls.
(h) To absorb and carry away harmful substances
resulting from incomplete combustion.
(i) To prevent deposition of carbon, soot and lacquer.
(j) To prevent metallic components from corrosive
attack due to acid formation during combustion
process.
1.18.2 Systems of Lubrication
The different systems for lubricating the engine are:
(a) petroil system, (b) splash system, (c) pressure system,
(d) semi-pressure system, (e) dry pump system.

(a) Petroil System

This system of lubrication is generally used in two
stroke petrol engines like scooters and motor cycles. In this
system oil pump is not required for the purpose of
lubrication. The lubricating oil is mixed into the petrol itself
in a specific ratio. When the fuel goes into the crank
chamber during the engine operation, the oil particles go
deep into the bearing surfaces and lubricates them. The
piston rings, cylinder walls, piston pin etc are lubricated in
the same way.

If the engine remains unused for a long period, the

lubricating oil separates off from petrol and cloggs the
passage of the carburettor, resulting in the starting trouble
of the engine. This is the main disadvantage of this system.

(b) Splash System

In this method, the lubricating oil is stored in an oil
sump. A dipper or scoop is made in the lowest part of the
connecting rod. When the engine runs, the dipper dips in
 IC Engines 1.71

G udge on pin O il
gaug e
C onne cting rod

O il
Journa l hole

Scoop

Pressu re
releas e

~
oil sum p valve
Pum p

Fig.1.28 Sp lash Lub rication

the oil once in every revolution of the crankshaft and the

oil is splashed on the cylinder walls. In this way the engine
wall, piston pin, piston rings, crankshaft bearings and big
end bearings are lubricated. This system works in
connection with pressure system.
(c) Pressure System (Forced Lubrication)
In this system the lubricating oil is stored in a
separate tank or sump and the pump is immersed in the
lubricating oil. The oil pump pumps the oil through the
strainer and delivers it through a filter to the main oil
gallery at a pressure of 200400 kN/m2. The oil from the
main gallery goes to the main bearings and then through
a hole to the crank pin. From the crank pin it goes to the
piston pin through a hole in the connecting rod web, where
it lubricates the piston pin bearings and piston rings. For
lubricating the cam shaft and timing gears the oil is led
through a separate oil line from the oil gallery. The valve
1.72 Thermal Engineering - I

Lo w pressu re o il
to cam sha ft

O il tan k
S caven ge
pu m p s

O il c ooler

P re ssure
pu m p Filter
Lo w pressu re Fig.1.29
H igh p re ssure
relief valv e Fo rce d lu brication
relief valve

tappets are lubricated by connecting the main oil gallery

to the tappet guide surfaces through drilled holes. An oil
pressure gauge is inserted in the oil circuit to indicate the
pressure of oil in the system.
(d) Semipressure System
This system is the combination of splash system and
pressure system. All four stroke engines are lubricated by
this system.
(e) Dry Sump System
In this system the lubricating oil is kept in a separate
tank from where it is fed to the engine. The oil which falls
into the oil sump after lubrication, is sent back to the oil
tank by a separate delivery pump. This system is used
where the vehicle has to change its position continuously
like in aircrafts. The advantage of this system is that there
 IC Engines 1.73

is no chance of breakdown of the oil supply during up and

down movement of the vehicle.

1.19 COOLING SYSTEM

1.19.1 Purpose of Cooling
The maximum temperature attained inside the engine
cylinder is in the range of 2000 C to 2500 C. The large
amount of heat so produced is absorbed by the cylinder
walls, piston, cylinder head and engine valves. So the
temperature of these parts increase. This high temperature
will break the lubricating oil film between the moving
parts. So, this high temperature must be reduced by cooling
system so that the engine can work efficiently. The
overheating of these parts over 250C to 300C may cause
the following defects:

1. At high temperature the lubricating oil decomposes

and carbon deposits is formed in the cylinder.
2. Piston may breakdown.
3. High temperature reduces the strength of the piston
and piston ring.
4. The uneven expansion of cylinder and piston may
seize the piston.
5. High temperature around the valve may cause the
burning of valves and valve seats.
6. There is a tendency for detonation to increase.
7. There is a chance of pre-ignition.
To avoid all the above effects it is necessary to cool
the engine.

The cooling system is designed to remove about 30 to

35% of the total heat produced in the engine cylinder.
1.74 Thermal Engineering - I

1.19.2 Methods of Cooling IC Engine

There are two methods of cooling IC engines:

1. Air cooling, and

2. Water cooling.
1. Air Cooling
The heat from the cylinder walls is dissipated directly
to the air. For this purpose fins and flanges are provided
on the outer surfaces of the cylinder and cylinder head. An
air stream is flowing continuously over the heated surface
of the engine from where heat is to be removed. The
amount of heat dissipated depends upon the following
factors:

(a) Surface area of metal in contact with air.

(b) Rate of air flow.
(c) Temperature difference between the heated surface
and the air.
(d) Conductivity of the metal and convective heat
transfer coefficient between air and metal.
Advantages of Air Cooled Engines
(a) Light weight due to the absence of radiator, cooling
jacket and coolant.
(b) Simple design and less costly.
(c) There is no chance of leakage of coolant.
(d) Anti-freeze not required.
(e) Engine warms up faster than that of water cooled
engines.
(f) Can be operated in cold climate where water may
freeze.
(g) It does not depend on any coolant.
 IC Engines 1.75

Disadvantages of Air Cooled Engines

(a) Less efficient cooling because the convective
coefficient of heat transfer for air is less than that
of water.
(b) Cooling is not even all around the cylinder.
(c) More noisy operation.
(d) Limited use as in the case of motor cycles and
scooters where the cylinders are exposed to air
stream.
2. Water Cooling
In this method the water is circulated through water
jackets around each of the combustion chambers, cylinders,
valve seats and valve stems. The circulating water takes
heat of the combustion. When it passes through the
radiator it is cooled by air drawn through the radiator by
a fan and by air flow developed by the forward motion of
the vehicle. After passing through the radiator, the cooled
water is again circulated.

Systems of Water Cooling

There are various systems of water cooling:

1. Thermo-syphon cooling

2. Forced (or) Pump cooling

3. Cooling with thermostatic repulator

4. Pressurized cooling

Now we shall discuss about the first two types in

detail.

Thermosyphon system or natural circulation system:

In this system of cooling, the circulation of water is
1.76 Thermal Engineering - I

obtained due to the difference

of densities of hot and cold
regions of the cooling water.
There is no pump to circulate
the water. The hot water from
the engine jacket rises up in F in

the hose pipe as it is lighter

and goes to the radiator from
the top. Then it is cooled C yc lind er
Fig. 1.30 Air cooling
there and goes down to the
bottom of the radiator. From
there it goes again in the
engine jacket. This system is
quite simple and cheap, but
cooling is rather slow. To
maintain continuity of the
water flow, the water must be
maintained up to a certain Fig. 1.31 Water cooling
minimum head. If the water (Thermosyphon system )

level falls down, the

circulation will discontinue and the cooling system will fail.
Forced circulation system: In this system of water
cooling the circulation of water is obtained by a pump
which is driven by a V-belt from a pulley on the engine
crankshaft. The water is kept continuously in motion. After
passing through the engine jackets in the cylinder block
and heads, the water passes through radiator. In radiator,
the water is cooled by atmospheric air drawn by fan
through radiator. After passing through the radiator, the
water is drained and delivered to the water pump. The
water is again circulated through the engine jackets. This
 IC Engines 1.77

system is more effective. The circulation of water becomes

faster as the engine speed increases. It is not necessary to
maintain the water up to a particular level.

Advantages of Water Cooling System

(a) The specific fuel consumption is low as compared to
air cooled engine.
(b) Uniform cooling is possible.
(c) It is not necessary to place the engine in the front
of the vehicle as in case of air cooled engine.
(d) Compact engine design with minimum frontal area
is possible.

Disadvantages of Water Cooling System

(a) It is dependent on water supply.
(b) The engine may be damaged in case of failure of
cooling system.
(c) The pump takes considerable power.
(d) Initial and maintenance costs are higher.
(e) There is a danger of leakage and freezing of coolant.
(f) The design of the system is complicated and more
costly.

1.20 FUELS AND COMBUSTION

1.20.1 Introduction
Fuel is a substance which is used to liberate heat
while burning. It starts burning continuously when it is
raised to its ignition temperature.

The combustion of fuels is a Chemical combination of

oxygen with hydrocarbons. (Most of the fuels belong to
hydrocarbon family - i.e., containing hydrogen and carbon).
1.78 Thermal Engineering - I

1.20.2 Classification of fuels:

Fuels are classified as (i) Solid fuels (ii) Liquid fuels
(iii) Gaseous fuel

(i) Solid fuels:

The following are the important solid fuels.

Among all solid fuels, coal is mostly used for power

generation.
1. Wood
2. Peat (mixture of water and decayed vegetable
products)

3. Lignite
4. Bituminous coal

5. Anthracite coal.

(ii) Liquid fuels:

Liquid fuels are mainly derived from the crude oil
(natural petroleum). These crude oil can be taken from
various parts of the world mainly in Arabian countries. The
important liquid fuels are
1. Gasoline (or) Petrol 2. Paraffin

3. Diesel 4. Crude oil (Heavy oil)

5. Kerosene. 6. Benzol

7. Shale oil

(iii) Gaseous fuel

Commonly used gaseous fuels are given below
1. Natural gas 2. Liquified petroleum gas

3. Refinery oil gas 4. Coal gas

 IC Engines 1.79

5. Producer gas 6. Blast furnace gas

7. Blue water gas 8. Carbureted water gas

9. Acetylene C 2H2 10. Methane CH 4

11. Ethylene C 2H4 12. Ethane C 2H6

1.21 SOLID FUELS

Coal passes through different stages given below
during its formation.

Plant debris - peat - Lignite - Bituminous coal

Anthracite coal.

Peat: It is a spongy and humidified substance. It is the

first stage in formation of coal. It has low heat value, and
high moisture content. It is difficult for handling and
storing. So it is not used for power generation.

Lignite: It has brown fibrous structure. It has also low

heat value and high moisture content. So it is also not used
for power generation. It is an intermediate product between
peat and bituminous coal.

Bituminous coal: Next stage to lignite is Bituminous

coal. It has little moisture content. So it is mostly used for
power generation. Bituminous coal has two characteristics
which are ‘Caking’ and ‘Non-Caking’. The Caking coal is
useful for gas manufacturing process, while non-caking is
mostly used for steam generation.

Anthracite: It is the final stage in coal formation. It is

exceptionally good for domestic purposes since it gives
smokeless combustion, low ash content and cleanliness in
1.80 Thermal Engineering - I

handling. It has high calorific value and it is mostly used

for steam power plant.

1.22 GASEOUS FUELS:

Natural Gas: It consists of methane CH4 and ethane
C 2H 6. It has high calorific value of 20,000 kJ/m 3 and is
used for both domestic and industrial heating processes.

Coal gas: It is obtained by carbonisation by heating the

bituminous coal. It consists of hydrogen, carbon monoxide
and various hydrocarbons. It is generally used in gas fired
boilers and for commercial purposes.

Producer Gas: It is obtained by the incomplete

combustion of coal, coke, anthracite coal (or) charcoal in a
current of air. It contains more amount of N 2, so it has
less heating value.

Blue water gas: It is obtained by passing steam through

red hot coke. Since it burns with blue flame, it is called
‘Blue water gas’.

Blast furnace Gas: It is a by-product in the production

of pig iron in the blast furnace. It contains large percentage
of N 2 and has low heating value.

Requirements of a Good fuel:

1. Good fuel should have high calorific value.
2. It should have low ignition temperature.
3. It should burn freely with high efficiency.
4. It should not produce any harmful gases.
5. It should produce very less smoke.
6. It should be economical.
 IC Engines 1.81

7. It should be easily stored and transported.

1.23 FUEL PROPERTIES

Brief explanation of fuel properties are given below.

1. Viscosity of Fuel
Viscosity is the resistance offered by the fuel itself to
its flow. Viscosity decreases when the temperature of fuel
increases and vice versa. Good fuel should have proper
viscosity.

2. Pour Point of Fuel

The pour point (freezing point) of fuel must be less
than the lowest climate temperature of atmosphere. In cold
climate days, the fuel should be in liquid state. So its pour
point should be less sufficiently.

3. Sulphur Content in the Fuel

Sulphur present in the fuel is dangerous to engine.
During combustion, the sulphur in the fuel become sulfuric
acid. This acid cause corrosion of engine parts. So the
sulphur content in the fuel should be removed (or) sulphur
content should be kept as minimum as possible.

4. Volatility
The ability to evaporate is called volatility. If the fuel
evaporates in low temperature, then it has high volatility.
The petrol and diesel should have adequate volatility.

5. Flash Point and Fire Point

Flash point is the minimum temperature of fuel when
the fuel gives a momentary flame (or) flash.

Fire point is the minimum temperature of fuel when

the fuel starts continuously burning.
1.82 Thermal Engineering - I

The flash point and fire point of fuels should be

adequate so that it is used in IC engine without any
problem.

6. Calorific Value of Fuels:

The amount of heat liberated by burning 1 kg (or
3
1 m  of fuel is known as Calorific value of fuel (or Heating
value of fuel).

For solid fuel, the unit for calorific value is expressed

in kJ/kg. For liquid and gaseous fuel, the unit is kJ/m 3
measured in S.T.P. condition (i.e., Standard Temperature
and Pressure  15 C and 760 mm of mercury).

Higher Calorific value:

The amount of heat obtained by the complete
combustion of 1 kg of fuel, when the products of combustion
are cooled down to the temperature of the surroundings is
known as Higher Calorific Value HCV of the fuel.

Here the water vapour formed by combustion is

condensed and the entire heat of steam is recovered from
the products of combustion.

Dulong’s formula is used to determine HCV of a

fuel.

 O2  KJ
HCV  33800 C  144000  H 2    9270 S
 8  kg

where C, H 2, S an d O 2 are the fractions of mass of carbon,

hydrogen and sulphur and oxygen in 1 kg of fuel).

Lower Calorific Value (LCV)

The amount of heat obtained by the combustion of 1
kg of fuel, when the product of combustion is not
 IC Engines 1.83

sufficiently cooled down to condense the steam formed

during combustion is known as Lower Calorific Value
(LCV) of the fuel.
So, LCV of the fuel

 H.C.V  Enthalpy of evaporation of steam formed

 H.C.V.  2466  steam formed  K J/k g 

 H.C.V.  2466  9H 2

where 2466 KJ/kg is the specific enthalpy of evaporation of

steam at 15 C .

1.23.1 Determination of Calorific value of fuel by

Bomb Calorimeter
Dulong formula is used for calculating H.C.V (Higher
Calorific Value) of fuel (solid and liquid fuel)

Dulong’s formula
1   O 
H.C.V   33800 C  144000  H    9270 S  kJ
100   8  
Thus the H.C.V is got by using chemical analysis.

But for determining H.C.V in the laboratory, the

bomb calorimeter is used.

Bomb Calorimeter:
Since the shape of the calorimeter resembles the
bomb, it is named as bomb calorimeter.

The crucible is filled by 1 gm of sample fuel. We

should ensure that the fuse wire has close contact with the
fuel. The bomb is now supplied with oxygen and with a
pressure of 25 atmosphere through oxygen valve. The
1.84 Thermal Engineering - I

Th ermo m eter
C o pp er
C a lorim eter
O2
O xyg en
valve to
allo w O 2
R e lease
valve to
release
exhaust g as
Bo m b
w a ter
(m esured quantity)

Fu se w ire
.. . . .

C rucible
Wa te r Se al fille d
to preve nt w ith
w a ter ente rin g 1gm of
fuel
Leads to
M ains fuse
R h eo stat

Fig. 1.32 Bom b calorimeter

calorimeter is filled with measured quantity of water and

the water is stirred for uniform temperature distribution.
Now due to combustion of fuel, heat is released. This
heat is used to heat the water in the calorimeter.
The thermometer indicates the steady temperature
1
rise of fuel. The temperature readings are noted every
2
min until it reaches the maximum temperature.
Now the bomb is taken out from calorimeter. The
products of combustion are released with the help of release
valve. It is allowed to dry. Unburnt fused wire if any, is
 IC Engines 1.85

collected and weighed. By using above observations, the

temperature - time curve is plotted.
The heat liberated by the fuel on combustion is
absorbed by the water and calorimeter.
By equating,

Heat released by the sample fuel  Heat received by water

and calorimeter.

By using above equation, we can find out Higher

Calorific Value H.C.V of solid and liquid fuel.

1.23.2 Determination of Higher Calorific value of

Gaseous fuel.

By using Juncker’s Gas Calorimeter

This is similar to Bomb Calorimeter

Heat liberated by the gas  Heat gained by surrounding

cold water.

The above equation is used for calculating calorific

value of gas.
The Gas meter is used for allowing measured quantity
of gas by recording its volume. The pressure regulator is
used for measuring the pressure of gas and allowing limited
pressure of gas. When the gas burns, the heat is liberated.
This heat is used to heat the surrounding water. The hot
products of combustion travel upwards in chamber and then
downwards through flues and finally goes through outlet.
During its travel, the heat is transferred to the water.
The exit temperature of travelling gas should be very
close to the atmospheric temperature, so that all the heat
liberated by gaseous fuel should be transferred to cold
1.86 Thermal Engineering - I

co ld w ater Th erm om eter

T herm om e te r
To F low m eter
to m easu re
qu antity of w a te r
H ot p ro duc ts
of com bu stion
(i.e.,exha ust
w ater ga ses)

Th erm om eter

E xhau st
G as m eter ( G ase s) to
atm osp here

P re ssure C ond ens ate

regu la to r

Fig . 1.33 Ju nker’s g as calo rim e ter

water. Thermometers are fitted at various places to

measure the temperatures at various points.
By knowing quantity of gas and water and
temperature of inlet and outlet water, we can find the
calorific value of gaseous fuel.

Atomic mass and Molecular mass:

The atomic mass of Hydrogen is taken as unity. The
atomic mass of other elements are determined with respect
to atomic mass of hydrogen.
For example, the atomic mass of nitrogen is 14 ie
Nitrogen atom is 14 times heavier than hydrogen atom.
Similarly, the atomic mass of oxygen is 16. ie Oxygen atom
is 16 times heavier than hydrogen atom.
Molecular mass: (or) Molecular weight
The molecular mass of a substance is the number of
times a molecule of that substance is heavier than the
hydrogen atom.
 IC Engines 1.87

For example, one molecule of oxygen consists of two

atoms of oxygen.
So molecular weight of oxygen  2  16  32 . i.e., The
molecule of oxygen is 32 times heavier than hydrogen atom.
The following table gives the symbols, atomic weights
(atomic mass) molecular weights (molecular mass) of
various elements and compounds (molecules).
Atomic Molecular
Weight weight
Substance Symbol
(Atomic (Molecular
mass) mass)
Elements
Hydrogen H2 1 2
Oxygen O2 16 32 (ie 2  16
Nitrogen N2 14 28 ie 2  14 
Carbon C 12 12
Sulphur S 32 32
Compounds
(Molecules)
Carbon monoxide CO - 12  16  28
Carbon dioxide CO 2 - 12  32  44
Sulphur dioxide SO 2 - 32  32  64
Water (or) steam H 2O - 2  16  18
Methane CH 4 - 12  4  16
Ethane C 2H 6 - 24  6  30
Acetylene C 2H 2 - 24  2  26
Ethylene C 2H 4 - 24  4  28
1.88 Thermal Engineering - I

1.24 COMBUSTION STOICHIOMETRY

The following chemical equations are used to find the
amount of oxygen required and the amount of gases
produced by the combustion of fuel.

Combustion means burning.

1. For Complete Combustion of Carbon:

When carbon burns by taking sufficient amount of
oxygen in the air, the carbon dioxide is produced. During
this reaction, a large amount of heat is released.

C arbon  O xygen  Ca rbon dioxide

C  O 2  CO 2

Molecular Weights: 12  32  44

8 11
Divide by 12: 1  
3 3

8
i.e., 1 kg of carbon requires kg of oxygen for
3
11
complete combustion and produces kg of carbon
3
dioxide.

8 11
i.e., 1 kg C  kg of O 2  kg of C O2
3 3

2. For Incomplete combustion of carbon:

If the air supplied is insufficient, then sufficient
oxygen will not be available. Then the combustion of carbon
will be incomplete. In this case, the carbon monoxide will
be produced.
 IC Engines 1.89

ie Carbon  Oxygen  Carbon monoxide

2C  O2  2CO

Molecular Weights: 2  12  32  2  28  56

4 7
Divide by 24 : 1  
3 3

4
So 1 kg of carbon requires kg of oxygen and
3
7
produces kg of carbon monoxide.
3

4 7
ie 1 kg of C  kg of O 2  kg of CO
3 3

3. Combustion of Carbon monoxide:

When carbon monoxide is burnt further, it produces
carbon dioxide.

i.e., 2CO  O2  2CO 2

2CO  O 2  2CO 2

Molecular weights: 2  28  32  2  44

4 11
Divide by 56 : 1  
7 7

4
So 1 kg of carbon monoxide requires kg of
7
11
oxygen and produces kg of carbon dioxide.
7

4 11
ie 1 kg of CO  kg of O2  kg of CO2
7 7
1.90 Thermal Engineering - I

4. For combustion of sulphur:

During combustion, sulphur in the fuel burns with
oxygen and produces sulphur dioxide.

Sulphur  Oxygen  Sulphur dioxide

S  O 2  SO 2

Molecular weights: 32  32  64

Divide by 32 : 1  1  2

So 1 kg of sulphur requires 1 kg of oxygen for

complete combustion and produces 2 kg of sulphur
dioxide.

ie 1 kg of S  1 kg of O 2  2 kg of SO 2

5. For combustion of hydrogen:

During combustion, hydrogen in the fuel combines
with the oxygen and produces water vapour (or) steam.

Hydrogen  Oxygen  Water vapour

2H 2  O 2  2H 2O

Molecular weights: 2  2  32  2  18  36

Divide by 4 : 1  8  9

So 1 kg of hydrogen requires 8 kg of oxygen and

produces 9 kg of water vapour (or) steam.

ie 1 kg of H 2  8 kg of O 2  9 kg of H 2O

6. For combustion of methane (or) marsh gas:

During combustion, methane burns with oxygen and
produces carbon-di-oxide and water vapour.

Methane  Oxygen  Carbon dioxide  Water vapour

 IC Engines 1.91

CH 4  2O 2  CO 2  2H 2O

Molecular weights: 16  2  32  4  2  18

11 9
Divide by 16: 1  4  
4 4

So, 1 kg of methane requires 4 kg of oxygen and

11 9
produces kg of carbon-dioxide and kg of water
4 4
vapour.
i.e.,
11 9
1 kg of CH 4  4 kg of O 2  kg of CO 2  kg of H 2O
4 4

7. For combustion of ethylene:

Ethylene  Oxygen  Carbondioxide  Water vapour

C 2H 4  3O2  2CO 2  2H 2O

Molecular weights: 28  3  32  2  44  2  18

24 22 9
Divide by 28: 1   
7 7 7

24
So 1 kg of ethylene requires kg of oxygen to
7
22 9
produce kg of carbon-di-oxide and kg of water
7 7
vapour

24 22
i.e., 1 kg of C 2H 4  kg of O 2  kg of CO 2
7 7
9
 kg of water vapour
7

Atmospheric Air: Atmospheric air contains oxygen,

nitrogen, a little amount of carbon-di-oxide and very very
1.92 Thermal Engineering - I

little amount of neon, argon and kryton etc. The oxygen is

very much necessary for complete combustion of fuel (any
fuel). Normally, the composition of atmospheric air is given
below.

Nitrogen  77 % and Oxygen  23% By weight or mass

Nitrogen  79 % and Oxygen  21% By volume

Minimum mass of (Stoichiometric) air required for

complete combustion of solid and liquid fuels:

The theoretical (or) minimum mass of Oxygen

required for complete combustion of 1 kg of fuel can be
determined by the chemical analysis of the fuel.

Now consider 1 kg of a fuel. It contains

Carbon - C kg
Hydrogen - H 2 kg
Oxygen - O 2 kg and
Sulphur - S kg
For complete combustion
8
1 kg of carbon requires kg of O 2
3

8
So, C kg of carbon requires C kg of O 2
3

Similarly 1 kg of Hydrogen requires 8 kg of O 2

So, H 2 kg of hydrogen requires 8H 2 kg of O 2

Similarly, 1 kg of sulphur requires 1 kg of O 2

So, S kg of sulphur requires S kg of O 2.

 IC Engines 1.93

 Total oxygen required for complete combustion of

8
1 kg of fuel  C  8 H 2  S kg
3

If some amount of oxygen (say O 2 kg ) is already

available in the fuel, then

Net oxygen required for complete combustion of 1 kg

8 
of fuel   C  8H 2  S   O 2 kg
 3 
For 23 kg of oxygen  100 kg of air is required.

. .
[ . Composition of air in mass: N 2  77 % and O 2  23% ]

For
8  
  3 C  8 H 2  S   O 2  Kg of oxygen, the air required
  
100  8 
 C  8H 2  S  O 2  kg of air
23  3 
 Theoretical (minimum (or) stoichiometric) mass of
air required for complete combustion of 1 kg of a fuel is
given by m air m in

100  8 
mair min  C  8H 2  S  O 2  kg
23  3 
Theoretical (minimum) volume of air required for
complete combustion:

Consider 1 kg of a gaseous fuel. It contains

Carbon monoxide - CO m 3
Hydrogen - H2 m3
Methane - CH 4 m 3
1.94 Thermal Engineering - I

Ethylene - C 2H 4 m 3
For complete combustion of the gas
1 m3 carbon monoxide requires 0.5 m3 of O 2

So CO m 3 of carbon monoxide requires 0.5 CO m 3 of O 2

Similarly, 1 m3 of hydrogen requires 0.5 m3 of O 2

So H 2 m 3 of hydrogen requires 0.5 H 2 m 3 of O2

Similarly, 1 m3 of methane requires 2 m 3 of O 2

CH 4 m 3 of methane requires 2 CH 4 m 3 of O 2

Similarly, 1 m3 of ethylene requires 3 m 3 of O 2

C 2H 4 m 3 of ethylene requires 3 C2H 4 m 3 of O 2

Total volume of oxygen required for complete

3
combustion of 1 m of fuel

 0.5 CO  0.5 H 2  2CH 4  3 C2H4 m 3

If some amount of oxygen (say O 2 m 3) is already

available in the fuel, then
Net oxygen required for complete combustion of
3
1m of fuel  0.5 CO  0.5 H 2  2CH 4  3C 2H 4  O 2 m 3

We know that oxygen present in the air is 21% by

volume.

So for 21 m 3 of oxygen  100 m 3 of air is required

[ 0.5 CO  0.5 H 2  2CH 4  3C 2H 4  O 2 ] m 3

For of
oxygen, the air required is
 IC Engines 1.95

100
 [ 0.5 CO  0.5 H 2  2CH 4  3C 2H 4  O 2 ] m 3
21

 Minimum (Theoretical) volume of air required for

combustion of 1 m3 of fuel, V min air

100
V min air  [ 0.5 CO  0.5 H 2  2CH 4  3C 2H 4  O 2 ] m 3
21

1.25 EXCESS AIR AND AIR FUEL RATIO CALCULATION

If just minimum (theoretical) amount of air is
supplied, some amount of fuel may be unburnt. It is due
to the fact, that all the air supplied does not have intimate
contact with the fuel particles. So, the excess air is supplied
to ensure complete and rapid combustion of fuel. The
amount of excess air supplied depends on the quantity of
fuel, rate of combustion, firing conditions etc. Normally,
25% to 50% excess air is supplied. The excess air gives
cooling effect. But this can be avoided by preheating the
air.

Mass of excess air supplied can be calculated by the

mass of unused oxygen available in the flue gases.

100
kg of air is required for 1 kg of oxygen.
23

 Excess air supplied

100
  Mass of oxygen in flue gases
23

Excess air supplied (approximate) per kg of fuel

79  O 2  C

21  33 CO 2  CO
1.96 Thermal Engineering - I

where O 2, CO 2 and CO represents % of them by volume and

C represents % of it by mass.

Total air supplied  minimum Theoretical air  E xcess air

m total  m airmin  mexcess

Total air supplied (approximate) per kg of fuel

N2  C

33 CO2  CO

where N 2 is the % of nitrogen in flue gases by volume.

This is also known as Air fuel ratio.

Mass of carbon in flue gases:

The mass of carbon in flue gases, can be calculated
from the mass of CO 2 and CO present in them. During
combustion,

11
1 kg of carbon produces kg of CO 2
3

3
 1 kg of CO 2 contains kg of carbon
11

7
Similarly, 1 kg of carbon produces kg of CO.
3

3
 1 kg of CO contains kg of carbon.
7

Ma ss of carbon 3 3
  kg of CO 2  kg of CO
in flue gases 11 7

where CO 2 and CO are the amounts of CO 2 and CO present

in 1 kg of flue gases respectively.
 IC Engines 1.97

Mass of flue gases per kg of fuel burnt:

Since there is no loss of carbon during combustion,
the mass of flue gases can be obtained by comparing the
mass of carbon present in the flue gases with the mass of
carbon present in the fuel.

Mass of flue gases per kg of fuel

Mass of carbon in 1 kg of fuel kg of flue gas


Mass of carbon in 1 kg of flue gas kg of fuel

Actual mass of air supplied (or Air fuel ratio)

By volumetric composition of flue gases and mass of
carbon in 1 kg of fuel, we can calculate,

The a ctual mass of air or  Air fuel ratio

 N2  kg of air
 3.03 C  
kg of fuel
 CO 2  CO 
where C  mass of carbon in 1 k g of fuel

N 2  % by volume of N 2 in flue gases

CO 2  % by volume of CO 2 in flue gases

CO  % by volum e of CO in flue gases

By Gravimetric composition of flue gases and mass of

carbon in 1 kg of fuel, we can calculate

The actu al air sup plied or Air fuel ratio

100  N 2  C kg of air

21 CO 2  33 CO kg of fuel

where C  Mass of carb on in 1 kg of fuel

N 2  % by mass of N 2 in flue gases

1.98 Thermal Engineering - I

CO 2  % by mass of CO 2 in flue gases

CO  % by mass of CO in flue gases

Note: If the fuel contains appreciable amount of nitrogen,

then the above two formulae should not be used.

% of excess air
Actual A  F ratio  Stoichiometric A  F ratio

Stoichiometric A  F ratio

Problem 2.5: A sample of coal has the following composition

by mass. C 70% ; H2 8%, O2 10% ; N2 3% ; sulphur S 2% and
ash 7%. Determine its higher calorific value and lower calorific
value per kg of fuel.

Solution:
C  0.7 kg ; H 2  8%  0.08 kg ; O 2  10%  0.1 kg ;
N 2  3% unnecessary data); Ash  7% unnecessary data);
S  2%  0.02 kg

Higher Calorific Value H.C.V

 O2 
H.C.V  33800 C  144000  H 2    9270 S
 8 

 0.1 
 33800  0.7  144000  0.08   9270  0.02
 8 

 33565.5 kJ/kg

Lower Calorific Value L.C.V

L.C.V  H .C.V  9H 2  2466 

 33565.5  9  0.08  2466

 31789.88 kJ/kg
 IC Engines 1.99

Problem 2.6: A fuel consists of 85% Carbon, 12% of hydrogen,

3% of residual matter by mass. Find the Higher Calorific Value
and Lower Calorific Values per kg of fuel.

Solution:
C  85%  0.85 kg ; H 2  12%  0.12 kg

Residual matter  3% [This data is not necessary for

solving problem].
Higher Calorific Value
H.C.V  33800 C  144000 H 2 . .
[ . O2  0 ;
 33800  0.85  144000  0.12 S0]

 46010 kJ/kg

Lower Calorific Value

L.C.V  H.C.V  9H 2  2466 

 46010  9  0.12  2466 

 43,347 kJ/kg
 Chapter 2

Combustion in SI and CI Engine

Combustion in SI and CI Engine: Normal combustion and

abnormal combustion in SI Engine - Importance of flame speed
and effect of engine variables - Abnormal combustion - Pre Ignition
and Knocking in SI Engine - Fuel requirement and fuel rating -
anti knock additives - combustion chamber - Requirement - types
of SI Engine - Four stages of combustion in CI Engine - Delay
period and its Importance - Effect of engine variables - Diesel
knock - Need for air movement, suction, compression and
combustion induced turbulence in Diesel engine - Open and
divided combustion chambers and fuel Injection - Diesel fuel
requirements and fuel rating.

2.1 NORMAL COMBUSTION

A high intensity spark is produced by a spark plug.
This spark travels through the air fuel mixture. This spark
leaves a thin thread of flame behind it. The air-fuel mixture
enveloped around the thin thread of flame gets ignited and
combustion commences. Since the air fuel mixture is in
turbulent condition, the surface area of heat transfer is
more and combustion is speeded up enormously.

In P-V diagram (Fig. 2.1), we can see the stages of

normal combustion. LNQM is the normal compression
curve. At point N, the ignition starts [N is the point 35
before TDC]. At point Q, pressure rise can be noticed. From
point M , sudden pressure rise occurs.

Ignition lag: The time period between first igniting fuel

and commencement of main phase of combustion is called
2.2 Thermal Engineering - I

2
P (kg f/cm )

For b est pe rfo rm ance

o o
a t 1 0 to 12
M ax.P r.

40

Ig nitio n E xpa nsion

a dvance

M
C om p re ssio n Q
N
S
L
o o o o o o o o o

B D C 1 50 1 20 90 60 30 TD C 3 0 60 90
o
1 20 1 50 BDC
Fig.2.1

ignition lag (or) period of incubation. The ignition lag

is normally 0.0015 sec.
(Pre-ignition  Detonation  Engine failure)

Ignition Advance: The ignition actually starts at about

35 before TDC. This angle of crank is called ignition
advance.
Maximum pressure: The maximum pressure inside the
cylinder is attained at about 10to 12 after TDC.

After Burning: Once it reaches its maximum pressure,

the ignition stops. But at this point the whole heat of the
fuel is not liberated. So the remaining heat in the fuel is
burnt after this maximum pressure point. This is called
‘after burning’.
The different steps of normal combustion is shown in
following Fig. 2.2.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.3

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Sp ark C om bu stion C om bu stion C om bu stion

pro duce d starts spreads com pleted
Fig. 2.2.

2.1.1 Factors affecting normal combustion in S.I

Engines
1. Induction pressure
As the pressure falls, delay period increases, and the
ignition must be earlier at low pressures.

Id ea l C om bu stio n
Tem p era tu re

M ax
C o m b ustion
w ith D isso cia tio n

W ea k R ich
A ir Fuel R atio .
Fig. 2.3.

2. Engine speed
When the engine speed increases, the delay period
time needs more crank angle and ignition should take place
earlier.
2.4 Thermal Engineering - I

3. Ignition timing
If the ignition takes place too early, then the peak
pressure will occur early and work transfer falls. If the
ignition takes place too late, then peak pressure will be low
and the work transfer falls.

4. Fuel choice
The calorific value and enthalpy of vaporisation will
affect the temperature achieved. The induction period of the
fuel will affect the delay period.

5. Combustion chamber
The combustion chamber should be designed to give
shorter flame path to avoid knocking and it should give
proper turbulence.

6. Compression ratio
When the compression ratio increases, it increases the
maximum pressure and the work transfer.

7. Mixture strength
The rich mixture is necessary for producing the
maximum work transfer.

2.1.2 Flame Front Propagation

The concept of flame propagation speed is important
in SI engines, as it may lead to detonation.
Flame front is the front surface of the flame that
separates the burnt charges from the unburnt one.
The rate of movement of flame front across the
combustion chamber is based on reaction rate and
transposition rate. The reaction rate is the result of
chemical reaction occurring within a region where unburnt
mixture is heated and converted into products.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.5

The transposition rate is due to the movement of

flame frant relative to the cylinder wall. It is also the result
of pressure differences existing between the burning and
unburnt gases in the combustion chamber.

2.3 IMPORTANCE OF FLAME SPEED AND EFFECT OF

ENGINE VARIABLES

Flame speed
Flame speed is the speed at which the flame travels.

Flame speed affects the combustion phenomena,

pressure developed and power produced.

Burning rate of mixture depends on the flame speed

and shape of combustion chamber.

2.3.1 Factors affecting flame speed

1. Turbulence
It helps in mixing and boosts the chemical reaction.
A lean mixture can be burnt easily without any difficulties.
The flame speed is quite low in non-turbulent mixture and
increases with increase in turbulence. Turbulence consisting
of many minute swirls increases the rate of reaction and
produces a higher flame speed than that of larger and fewer
swirls.

2. Engine speed
When engine speed increases, flame speed also
increases due to the turbulence inside the engine cylinder.
The crank angle required for the flame propagation during
the entire phase of combustion, will remain constant at all
speeds.
2.6 Thermal Engineering - I

3. Engine size
The time taken for flame propagation is smaller in
small engines when compared to larger engines.

In larger engines, the time required for complete

combustion is more because the flame has to travel a longer
distance.

3. Compression ratio
A higher compression ratio increases the pressure and
temperature of mixture.

This reduces the initial phase of combustion and

hence less ignition advance is needed. High pressure and
temperature of the compressed mixture also speed up the
second phase of combustion.

Increased compression ratio reduces the clearance

volume. Thus engines having higher compression ratio have
higher flame speed.

A further increase in the peak pressure and

temperature results in the increase in the tendency of the
engine to detonate.

4. Inlet temperature and pressure

When the inlet temperature and pressure increases,
it results in better homogenous mixture which helps to
increase the flame speed.

5. Fuel-Air ratio
The highest flame speed obtained with slightly rich
mixture gives complete combustion. Lean mixtures have low
thermal energy and hence have low flame speed. A rich
mixture burns readily and completely, resulting in higher
flame speeds. A stoichiometric air fuel ratio is usually
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.7

chosen to prevent compromise on flame speed and air fuel

ratio.

0 .00 6

S tio c hio m e tric M ixture

Tim e in S e con ds

0 .00 4

0 .00 2

60 1 00 1 40 1 80
L ea n R ich
M ixtu re M ixtu re
Fig. 2.4 Effect of m ixture stren gth on flam e pro paga tion tim e

6. Engine output
When the engine output is increased, the cycle
pressure also increases. With the increased throttle opening
the cylinder gets filled to a higher density of mixture. This
results in increased flame speed. When the output is
decreased by throttling, the initial & final pressure
decreases.
Poor combustion at low loads and the necessity of
mixture enrichment causes wastage of fuel and discharge
of products like carbon monoxide etc. in the atmosphere
which are the main disadvantages of SI engines.
2.8 Thermal Engineering - I

2.2 ABNORMAL COMBUSTION

The abnormal combustion deviates from the normal
behavior resulting in loss of performance and physical
damage to the engine.
There are two types of Abnormal combustion.
1. Pre-ignition
2. Knocking (or) Detonation (or) Pinking
2.2.1 Pre-ignition

. .... .
.. . .. ... . .. ... . . . . .. . .. . ..... .. .. ... . .. ... . . . . .. . . .
. .. . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. ... . ....
. . . . . . ... . . .. . . .. . . .. . .

Ignition started Sp ark p ro duced Bo th flam es Bo th flam es

at left side b y ho t by S pa rk Plug S o spread fast C o llide d
carbon deposits regular ig nition
insid e the starts from the
com b ustion right side.
cham ber Ignition b ecause o f ho t d ep osits
also sp read from the
left side . Fig. 2.5. Pre ignition

Pre-ignition
High temperature carbon deposits formed inside the
combustion chamber ignite the airfuel mixture before
normal ignition occurs by spark plug. This ignition due to
hot carbon deposits is called pre-ignition. After some time
of Pre-ignition, the normal ignition starts and both the
flames get collided.
If Pre-ignition occurs much early in the compression
stroke, the work to compress the charge will be increased.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.9

So the net power output will be reduced. Also this may

cause crank failure due to high load to compress charge.
Pre-ignition causes very high pressure and temperature. It
causes the detonation. Pre-ignition is considered as
abnormal combustion.
2.2.2 Knocking (or) Detonation (or) Pinking

Sp ark Com bustion Very h igh temp. Detonation

pro duces starts flam e com press the
remaining charge
Fig. 2.6. D etonation

There are two general theories of detonation:

1. The auto-ignition theory

2. Detonation theory

A sudden and violent noise (knock) experienced inside

the engine cylinder is known as Detonation. This detonation
is due to high pressure waves striking the cylinder walls,
cylinder head and piston with loud noise.

When spark occurs, the combustion of fuel near the

spark plug commences. The flame travels through
combustion chamber with high speed. The high pressure
and high temperature gases produced by this ignition
compress the fresh charge in front of the moving flame.
Hence the temperature and pressure of fresh charge is
2.10 Thermal Engineering - I

increased beyond the limit and a spontaneous ignition takes

place in far away from spark plug. This zone, far away
from spark plugs where spontaneous ignition takes place is
called ‘detonating zone’.
This auto ignition spreads throughout the air-fuel
mixture making its temperature and pressure rise further
and produces loud pulsating sound called ‘pinking’ or
‘knocking’ or ‘hammer-blow’.

The temperature in the detonating zone is higher

than the non-detonating zone. More heat is lost in the
surface of the combustion chamber and as a result, the
output of engine is decreased.

In mild detonation, the engine surface will be heated

up. In severe detonation, fracture may occur on the engine.

Due to detonation, carbon may be deposited inside the

combustion chamber. When this carbon deposit gets heated,
its temperature will be very high to preignite the fresh
charge which is known as pre-ignition.

Detonation occurs after sparking and pre-ignition

occurs before sparking. One of the causes for pre-ignition
is detonation.

The detonation can be reduced by properly designing

the combustion chamber so that there is always a
turbulence of mixture.

2.2.3 The phenomenon of knock in SI Engine

In spark-ignition engine, the combustion is initiated
using spark-plug electrodes which spread combustible
mixture across the chamber. A flame front is used to
separate the fresh mixture from the product of combustion.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.11

In combustion chamber, burnt part of mixture has higher

pressure & temperature than the unburnt mixture. To
maintain a pressure equilization, the burnt mixture will
expand and compress the unburnt mixture adiabatically
there by increasing its pressure and temperature. The
flame front propagates completely till the end of the
cylinder, thereby leaving the unburnt mixture at an
increased pressure and temperature.
The temperature of unburnt mixture exceeds the
self-ignition temperature during preflame reaction and
hence spontaneous ignition occurs at various points inside
the engine. This phenomenon is called knocking.
An important fact about knocking is that it is very
much dependent on the properties of the fuel.
Knocking does not occur when the unburnt charge
does not reach the auto ignition temperature, or in other
words, in ignition lag period, if the flame front takes more
time to burn the unburnt charge, no knocking occurs. But
if the flame front takes less time to burn the unburnt
charge, knocking occurs [since the end charge will
detonate]. Hence, fuels with high auto ignition temperature
and a long ignition lag are often used as fuels for S.I
engines, inorder to avoid detonation.
In summary, during auto ignition, two different cases
are encountered.
 A large amount of mixture gets autoignited
leading to a very rapid increase in pressure
throughout the combustion chamber and there will
be a direct blow on the engine structure. This
results in the thudding sound and consequent
2.12 Thermal Engineering - I

noise from the free vibration of the moving parts.

These noises can be detected by human ears.
 A large pressure difference may exist in the
combustion chamber and the resulting gas
vibrations force the walls of the chamber to
vibrate in the same frequency as that of the gas.
In this case, an audible sound may be evident.
Normally knocking combustion in an engine is often
detected by a distinct audible sound. But a scientific
method of detecting the phenomenon of knocking involves
the use of a ‘Pressure Transducer’.
The output of this pressure transducer is connected
to a cathode ray oscilloscope. The pressure-time traces
obtained due to the presence or absence of knock are shown
in Fig. 2.7.
P re ss ure

Ig nitio n
Po
we
s s io n
C o m p re r

BDC TD C BDC
Tim e
(a) N orm al C o m bu stion
P ressure

Ig nitio n
Po
io n we
ess r
C om pr
BDC TD C BDC

Tim e
(b) K no ck ing C o m bu stion

Fig. 2.7. R esu lts Plo tted b y P ressure Transd ucer.

 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.13

2.2.4 Effects of knocking in SI Engine

1. Noise and Roughness
Knocking produces a loud pulsating noise and
pressure waves. These waves vibrates back and forth across
the cylinder. The presence of this vibratory motion causes
crank shaft vibration and the engine runs roughly.
2. Mechanical Damage
1. The high pressure wave generated during knocking
can increase rate of wear of parts in combustion
chamber. Severe erosion of piston crown, cylinder
head and small holes created on inlet and outlet
valves may result in complete damage of the engine.
2. Due to Detonation, high noise level occurs in engine.
In small engines, the noise can be easily detected
and corrective measures can be taken, but in large
engines, it is difficult to detect knocking noise and
hence corrective measures cannot be taken which
results in complete damage of the piston.
3. Carbon deposits
Detonation leads to a huge amount of carbon
deposition at the engine outlet.
4. Increase in heat transfer
Knocking is accompanied with the increase in rate of
heat transfer across the combustion chamber walls.
5. Decrease in power output and efficiency
Due to increase in the rate of heat transfer, the power
output as well as efficiency of the engine decreases.
2.14 Thermal Engineering - I

6. Pre-Ignition
The increase in heat transfer on the walls causes local
overheating of the spark plug which may reach a
temperature high enough to ignite the charge before the
passage of spark, thus leading to pre-ignition. An engine
detonating over a long period of time often results in
preignition which is the real danger of detonation.

2.2.5 Effect of engine variables on knock

It has already been established that the knocking of
an engine typically depends upon either the quantity of the
charge inside the chamber, the temperature of the chamber
or the time of detonation. Hence, the different variables
which affect knocking can be classified into

 Density factors
 Time factors
 Composition factors
1. Density factors
Density factors deal with the basic mass properties of
the charge present inside the cylinder. The properties
include different thermodynamic variables like the
temperature of the charge, pressure, volume of charge,
density etc. It is evident that the auto ignition can be
prevented if the temperature of the charge entering the
cylinder is minimum. Similarly, a charge at lower pressure
is less likely to cause a knock. This is due to the reduced
energy of the charge, disabling it from combusting
automatically. The different density factors which affect the
knocking/phenomenon are discussed below.

Compression Ratio: Higher compression ratio simply

implies that the pressure of the air-fuel mixture is quite
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.15

high. Hence, the temperature of the gases at the end of

compression is also high. Therefore, upon combustion, there
is a considerable decrease in ignition delay. This directly
increases the possibility of a knock. Hence, to prevent
knocking, it is always wise to limit the compression ratio
to a lower value, but not low enough to drastically decrease
the efficiency of the engine.
Charge temperature: An increased inlet temperature of
the air-fuel mixture causes it to rise above the normal
temperature at the end of the compression stroke. Due to
this increased temperature, the ignition delay is decreased,
resulting in knocking of the engine. However, a low inlet
temperature could result in vapourization and starting
problems in an engine.
Mass of fuel injected: A reduced amount of charge
experiences lower pressure and has lower energy when
compared to normal levels. Thus, the temperature of the
reduced amount of charge at the end of the compression,
is not high enough to cause knocking. Hence, the possibility
of a knock is directly proportional to the mass of the charge
inside the cylinder.
Cylinder wall temperature: The combustion chamber is
continuously subjected to several frictional and thermal
stresses during operation. Hence, the walls of the chamber
may develop minute hotspots which could ignite a fuel
before the anticipated time, thereby resulting in knocking.
Hence, uniform cooling of the walls using an efficient
coolant is of paramount importance. Moreover, the exhaust
valves and the spark plugs are the most hottest regions
inside the cylinder. Hence, the concentration of the
2.16 Thermal Engineering - I

compression against these regions, is to be avoided to

reduce knocking.
Horse power: High powered engines operate at high
temperatures and pressures. Thus the chances of a knock
to occur in a high powered engine is greater than that of
a low powered engine.
2. Time factors
Time factors play an important role in determining
the chances of a knock in an engine. Some common time
factors are flame speed, velocity of the charge, engine speed
etc. The effect of different time factors on the knock of an
engine is discussed below.
Velocity of the charge: A turbulent charge ignites much
faster than a non-turbulent charge. Thus, the flames
propagate much faster, leaving little margin for the end
charge to auto ignite. Thus, the chances of a knock is
reduced effectively by increasing the velocity of the charge,
above its turbulent level.
Engine speeds: At higher engine speeds, the turbulence
of the charge increases greatly. This results in reduced
knocking, as discussed above.
Flame travel distance: It has been well established that
a faster flame reduces knocking possibilities when
compared to a slower flame. Hence, if the time taken for
the flame to travel across the chamber is reduced, knocking
can be prevented. This can be done by either decreasing
the combustion chamber size, or by repositioning the spark
plug appropriately.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.17

A centrally placed spark plug, or usage of two or more

plugs, can effectively reduce the knocking of an engine.

Combustion chamber configuration

A combustion chamber should be designed in such a
way that it promotes the turbulence of the particles inside.
Moreover, the chamber should be made as spherical as
possible with the least possible height. These two factors
can effectively reduce the flame travel time, thereby
preventing knocking.

3. Composition factor
Composition factor deals with the flammability of the
charge present inside the cylinder. Air-fuel ratio and the
octane number of the fuel are the most important
composition factors pertaining to the knocking phenomenon.

(i) Air-fuel ratio: Flame speeds depend upon the air-fuel

ratio. It varies as per the type of fuel used. The flame
temperatures and the reaction time also vary based on the
air-fuel ratio.

If a specific ratio can cause low reaction time, then

this ratio can give way to increased chances of knocking.

(ii) Octane value

Knocking can be reduced by either increasing the
self-igniting temperature of a fuel or by reducing its
pre-flame reactivity.

In general, Aromatic hydrocarbons have the minimum

tendency to knock an engine, where as the paraffin series
are more likely to knock an engine. Any appropriate
compound with a compact molecular structure is less prone
to knock an engine.
2.18 Thermal Engineering - I

2.3 FUEL REQUIREMENT AND FUEL RATING

2.3.1 Important properties of fuel in SI Engine

The fuel characteristics that are important for the
performances of internal combustion engines are

 Volatility of the fuel.

 Detonation characteristics.
 Good thermal properties like heat of combustion
and heat of evaporation.
 Sulphur content.
 Aromatic content.
 Cleanliness of fuel.

2.3.2 Important characteristics of SI Engine fuel

Every engine is designed for a particular fuel
according to its desired qualities.

For good performance of SI engine, the fuel used must

have the proper characteristics like,

 It should readily mix with air to make an uniform

mixture at inlet.
 It must be knock resistant.
 It should not pre-ignite easily.
 It should not tend to decrease the volumetric
efficiency of the engine.
 Its sulphur content should be low.
 It must have adequate calorific value.
 It must have proper viscosity.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.19

2.3.4 Fuel properties

Brief explanation of fuel properties are given below.
1. Viscosity of Fuel
Viscosity is the resistance offered by the fuel to its
own flow. Viscosity decreases when the temperature of fuel
increases and vice versa. Good fuel should have proper
viscosity.
2. Pour Point of Fuel
The pour point (freezing point) of fuel must be less
than the lowest climate temperature of atmosphere. In cold
climate days, the fuel should be in liquid state. So its pour
point should be less sufficiently.
3. Sulphur Content in the Fuel
Sulphur present in the fuel is dangerous to engine.
During combustion, the sulphur in the fuel become sulfuric
acid. This acid causes corrosion of engine parts. So the
sulphur content in the fuel should be removed (or) sulphur
content should be kept as minimum as possible.
4. Volatility
The ability to evaporate is called volatility. If the fuel
evaporates in low temperature, then it has high volatility.
The petrol and diesel should have adequate volatility.
5. Flash Point and Fire Point
Flash point is the minimum temperature of fuel when
the fuel gives a momentary flame (or) flash.
Fire point is the minimum temperature of fuel when
the fuel starts continuously burning.
The flash point and fire point of fuels should be
adequate so that it is used in IC engine without any
problem.
2.20 Thermal Engineering - I

6. Calorific Value of Fuels:

The amount of heat liberated by burning 1 kg (or
3
1 m  of fuel is known as Calorific value of fuel (or Heating
value of fuel).

For solid fuel, the unit for calorific value is expressed

in kJ/kg. For liquid and gaseous fuel, the unit is kJ/m3
measured in S.T.P. condition (i.e., Standard Temperature
and Pressure  15 C and 760 mm of mercury).

Higher Calorific value:

The amount of heat obtained by the complete
combustion of 1 kg of fuel, when the products of combustion
are cooled down to the temperature of the surroundings is
known as Higher Calorific Value HCV  of the fuel.

Here the water vapour formed by combustion is

condensed and the entire heat of steam is recovered from
the products of combustion.

Dulong’s formula is used to determine HCV of a

fuel.

 O2  kJ
HCV  33800 C  144000  H 2    9270 S
 8  kg

where C , H2, S and O 2 are the fractions of mass of carbon,

hydrogen, sulphur and oxygen in 1 kg of fuel.

Lower Calorific Value (LCV)

The amount of heat obtained by the combustion of 1
kg of fuel, when the product of combustion is not
sufficiently cooled down to condense the steam formed
during combustion is known as Lower Calorific Value
(LCV) of the fuel.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.21

So, LCV of the fuel

 H.C.V  Enthalpy of evaporation o f steam fo rmed

 H.C.V.  2466  steam fo rmed  kJ/kg

 H.C.V.  2466  9 H2

where 2466 kJ/kg is the specific enthalpy of evaporation of

steam at 15 C.

2.3.5 Octane Number (ON)

Octane Number (gaseous fuel) indicates the
anti-knock properties of a fuel, based on the comparison of
mixtures of Iso octane and normal heptane.

Fuel rating for SI engine

Octane value is for SI engines

Octane Number: (Applicable for SI Engine) This is a

number to rate the petrol fuel according to its detonating
tendency. If the fuel has the tendency to detonate less, then
it has high octane number and vice versa.

 Iso-octane is a high rating fuel (i.e. detonation is

less).
 Normal heptane is a low rating fuel (i.e. detonation
is more).
Iso-octane and normal heptane are mixed together
and this sample mixture is used for running a test engine.

The octane number of the fuel is the percentage of

octane in this sample mixture which detonates in similar
way as the fuel under the same condition.

High octane fuel’s number is 100. This type of fuel

will not have tendency to detonate. We can make given fuel
2.22 Thermal Engineering - I

into octane number 90 to 100 by adding tetra ethyl lead.

But this addition will reduce the engine life.
Fuels with a higher octane ratings are used in high
performance gasoline engines that require higher
compression ratio.

Fuels with lower octane number are ideal for diesel

engines, because diesel engines do not compress the fuel
but rather compress only air and then inject the fuel.

Two methods that are employed for measuring octane

number are Research Octane Number (RON) and Motor
Octane Number (MON).

The octane numbers measured under two different

engine conditions in a standard “Cooperative Fuels
Research (CFR)” engine has a variable compression ratio.

Research Octane Number (RON)

The most common type of octane rating is Research
Octane Number (RON). RON is determined by using the
fuel in a test engine running at 600 rpm with the variable
compression ratio under controlled condition, and
comparing the results with the mixture of iso-octane and
n-heptane.

Motor Octane Number

Motor Octane Number is determined at 900 rpm
engine speed instead of 600 rpm used in RON.

MON testing uses a similar test engine used in RON

testing but with a preheated fuel mixture, higher engine
speed and variable ignition timing.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.23

RON  MON
Anti-knock Index 
2

Advantages of High-Octane Fuel:

1. We can increase the compression ratio without
detonation.
2. Engine efficiency can be increased without
detonation.
3. Super charging can be done without detonation.
So totally, the unwanted detonation can be reduced.

2.4 ANTI-KNOCK ADDITIVES

Anti knock additives are used to reduce engine
knocking and to increase the fuel’s octane rating by raising
the temperature and pressure at which auto ignition occurs.

The widely used antiknock agents are:

 Tetraethyl lead [TEL] CH 3CH 24 Pb

 Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl

(MMT) CH 3C 5H 4MnCO3

 Ferrocene Fe C5H52

 Iron pentacarbonyl
 Toluene
 Iso octane
2.4.1 Anti-knock Agents
Anti-knock agents are classified into high-percentage
additives like alcohol and low-percentage additives based
on heavy elements.

Internal combustion engine discharges various

substances to the atmosphere. Some of these emissions are
2.24 Thermal Engineering - I

harmful to the environment such as Carbon monoxide,

Nitrogen oxides, unburnt hydrocarbons and certain
compounds of lead.
The catalytic converter is used to oxidize the unburnt
hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide and
to decompose nitrogen oxides into nitrogen and oxygen.

High percentage additives are those organic

compounds that do not contain metals, but require high
blending ratios, such as 20-30% for benzene and ethanol.
Ethanol is inexpensive, and widely available but being
corrosive in nature, it is not used.

Tetra ethyl lead (TEL) CH3CH 24 Pb is a main

additive and it is a common anti knock agent.

Adding a small amount of Tetra ethyl load (TEL)

improves the anti-knock quality of fuel.

2.4.2 Effects of Anti knock additives

 The main problem in using Tetra ehtyl lead is the
lead content in it since lead is extremely toxic and
poisonous.
 A manganese - carrying additive like
methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl
(MMT) directly affects the humans.
The exposure of MMT results in eye irritation,
giddiness, headache and it causes difficulties in breathing.

 Ferrocene Fe C 5H 22 is an organometallic

compound of iron. The iron contents in ferrocene
forms a conductive coating on the spark plug.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.25

2.4.3 Factors affecting Detonation and Remedies

Factors Remedies
1. The type of fuel used is Fuel like alcohol and
the reason for detonation benzol do not cause
detonation.
Addition of a small
quantity of tetraethyl lead
with petrol will suppress
the detonation. (This
process is called doping).
2. The position of spark plug Less distance reduces the
in the combustion chamber chances of detonation. A
determines the distance spark plug placed
the flame travels to reach centrally will reduce the
detonating zone. More detonation.
distance causes detonation
3. High temperature The cooling system should
combustion chamber raise be proper to maintain the
temperature of cylinder cylinder wall temperature
wall and also detonating optimum.
zone.
4. The compression ratio is The compression ratio
the cause for detonation. should not be increased
More compression ratio beyond the limit.
will overheat the engine.
5. The presence of carbon Good quality fuel should
deposits promote be used.
detonation.
2.26 Thermal Engineering - I

Factors Remedies
6. Excessive sparking Ignition system voltage
temperature promotes should be limited to
detonation produce spark with
sufficient temperature to
ignite.

2.5 TYPES OF COMBUSTION CHAMBER IN SI ENGINE

1. Overhead valve (or) I - Head combustion chamber

In this type of combustion chamber, both the valves
are located on the cylinder head, so it is called over head
valve. This type of combustion chamber has two forms.

Bath-tub form
This type of combustion chamber, consists of oval
shaped chamber with both valves mounted overhead. The
spark plug is mounted at the side.

Wedge form
This type of combustion chambers also consist of oval
shaped chamber with both valves mounted overhead at its
side with slight inclination. The spark plug is mounted
centrally. A few features of this combustion chamber are
listed below:

S park front in let valve

p lu g (back exh aust
valve is hid den )

(a) Bath - tub form o f (b) Wed ge form o f

com bustio n chamb er Fig 2.8 com bustio n chamb er
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.27

1. Less heat loss because of less surface to volume

ratio.
2. Less flame travel length and greater freedom from
knock.
3. High volumetric efficiency from larger valve
cylinder.
4. By keeping the hot exhaust valve in the cylinder
head instead of cylinder block, it reflects in
confinement of thermal failure to cylinder head.
2. T - Head combustion chamber
In this type of
combustion chamber, two
valves are placed on
either side of the cylinder
which requires two Exhaust
Valve
camshafts. Fig. 2.9 (a) In T - H ead
Types
a manufacturing point of
Fig 2.9. (a)
view, providing two
camshafts is not recommended.
The distance across the
combustion chamber is very long so
the knocking tendency is high in
this type of engine.
L - He ad
3. L-head combustion chamber Types

In this L - head type two

valves are provided on the same
side of the cylinder which can be
operated by a single camshaft. In
this type, it is easy to lubricate the L - He ad
valve mechanism, with the Fig 2.9. (b )
Types
2.28 Thermal Engineering - I

detachable head provision. The cylinder head can be

removed without disturbing valves, gears etc.
In Fig. 2.9 (b) the air flow has to travel a longer
distance to enter the cylinder. This causes loss of velocity
head and loss in turbulence level. This design reduces
knocking tendency by reducing the flame travel length. This
chamber type gives additional turbulence during
compression stroke.
F - head combustion chamber
The F - head type, exhaust valve is in cylinder head
and the inlet valve is in cylinder block. In this type, the
valves are actuated by two camshafts which is a
disadvantage.

C ylinder he ad Sp ark p lu g
EV

IV
C ylinder block
R e cipro cating
Piston

Fig. 2.10 F-head com bu stion cham ber.

2.6 COMBUSTION IN CI ENGINES

In CI engine, combustion occurs because of the high
temperature of the compressed air. Since the fuel is ignited
with the high temperature of compressed air, it is called
auto-ignition. For the auto ignition, compression ratio
should be maximum (about 12). It requires heavier
construction. So CI engines are heavier and bigger.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.29

The air is compressed and the fuel is injected with

high pressure in the form of fine spray near the end of the
compression. This leads to delay period. This is also called
ignition lag.

The fuel which is in atomized form is slightly colder

than the hot compressed air in the cylinder. An appreciable
time elapses before the actual combustion starts. This
elapsed time is called delay period or ignition lag.

Four stages of combustion in CI Engine.

1. Ignition delay period.

2. Period of rapid or uncontrolled combustion.
3. Period of controlled combustion.
4. After burning.

1. Ignition Delay period

A period in between the start of injection and start
of combustion is called delay period. [shown in Fig 2.11)
80

70
S tart of C om pre ssion
60
com bustio n p ressure
P (kg f / cm )
2

50 Inje ctio n
starts
40
0 .00 1se c
30
1 2 3
20 inje ctio n
10 A tm ospheric

1 20 1 00 8 0 6 0 4 0 2 0 TD C 2 0 4 0 6 0 8 0 1 00 1 20
Tim e , D eg ree s of C ra nksha ft ro tation ( )
Fig 2.11. Combustion in C.I Eng ines
2.30 Thermal Engineering - I

The fuel will not ignite immediately after the injection

of fuel into the combustion chamber. There is a definite
period of inactivity between the time when the fuel hits
the hot compressed air in the combustion chamber and the
time it starts burning.

The ignition delay period is also called the

preparatory phase during which some fuel already gets
admitted but not yet ignited.

If the delay period is more, more fuel will be injected

inside the cylinder and more will be the pressure rise. This
causes diesel knock.

Some delay period is needed to dispense and atomise

the fuel in the air for complete combustion. So we have to
keep the delay period as short as possible.

The delay period in the CI engine is a very great

incluencing factor on both engine design and performance.
It influences the following:

(i) The combustion rate

(ii) Knocking

(iii) Starting ability

(iv) The presence of smoke in the exhaust

This delay period is divided into physical delay period

and chemical delay period.

(i) Physical delay

The physical delay is the time period, in between the
beginning of injection and the starting of chemical reaction.
During the period, the fuel is atomized, vaporized, mixed
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.31

with air and its temperature is raised to its self ignition

temperature.
This physical delay normally depends on the type of
fuel i.e for light viscous fuel, the physical delay is less while
for heavy viscous fuels, the physical delay is more.
The physical delay can be greatly reduced by using
high injection pressure, high combustion chamber
temperature and high turbulence in order to break the jet
and improve evaporation.
(ii) Chemical delay
During the chemical delay period, reactions start
slowly and then gets accelerate till ignition takes place.
Generally, the chemical delay period is longer than the
physical delay period. It depends on the temperature of the
surrounding. At high temperature, the chemical reactions
are faster leading to less chemical delay. The ignition lag
in SI Engine is a similar phenomenon like the chemical
delay in CI Engine.
Factors Affecting Delay Period
1. Temperature and pressure in the combustion
chamber at the time of injection.
2. Air-fuel ratio.
3. Turbulence of air.
4. Presence of residual gases.
5. Rate of fuel injection.
6. The extent of atomization and vaporization and
fineness of fuel spray.
2.32 Thermal Engineering - I

2. Period of Rapid Combustion (or) Uncontrolled

Combustion
After delay period, this period starts. This period is
counted from the end of delay period to the point of
maximum pressure on the indicator diagram. In this stage,
the pressure rise is rapid. About one-third of heat is
released at this stage.

The rate of pressure raised in this stage depends on

1. the amount of fuel sprayed in the delay period.

2. the degree of turbulence.
3. fineness of fuel-spray.
3. Period of Controlled Combustion: This is the third
stage starting after rapid combustion period. The fuel
injected in the stage is burnt immediately and any further
pressure rise can be controlled by injection rate. The period
of controlled combustion is coming to an end at maximum
cycle temperature.

4. After Burning: The unburnt fuel particles will get

inflamed even after fuel injection is over. This is called
after burning. This after burning may continue in the
expansion stroke upto 70 to 80 of crank angle from TDC.

2.7 FACTORS THAT AFFECT DELAY PERIOD IN

DIESEL ENGINE
(i) Compression ratio

(ii) Intake temperature

(iii) Intake pressure

(iv) Engine size

 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.33

(v) Fuel temperature

(vi) Injection time

(vii) Output

1. Compression ratio
The increase in compression ratio reduces ignition lag.
Due to increased intensity of compressed air and the closer
contact of molecules, the time of action is reduced when
fuel is injected.

2. Intake temperature
Increase in intake temperature, increases the air
temperature after compression, resulting in reduced delay
period.

3. Intake pressure (super charging)

Increase in intake pressure reduces the auto ignition
temperature and hence reduces the delay period. The peak
pressure will be higher as the compression pressure
increases with intake pressure.

4. Engine size
The engine size has little effect on the delay period
in the order of milliseconds. Large engines operate at low
revolutions per minute because of inherent stress
limitations. The delay period in terms of crank angle is
smaller and hence less fuel enters the cylinder during this
period.

5. Fuel temperature
Increase in fuel temperature will reduce both physical
and chemical delay.
2.34 Thermal Engineering - I

2.7.1 Effect of variables on the Delay period

Effect on
Increase in
delay Reason
variable
period
Compression ratio Reduces Increases air
temperature and
pressure and reduces
auto ignition
temperature
Intake temperature Reduces Increases air
temperature
Injection pressure Reduces Reduces physical
delay due to greater
surface volume ratio
Cetane Number of Reduces Reduces the
fuel self-ignition
temperature.
Injection timing Reduces Reduced pressure
advance and temperature
when the injection
begins.
Fuel temperature Reduces Increase chemical
reaction due to
better vapourization.
Engine speed Reduces in Reduces loss of heat.
the order of
milliseconds
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.35

2.8 KNOCKING (OR) DIESEL KNOCK

If the delay period is prolonged, a large amount of
diesel will be injected in the chamber. Combustion of the
large amount of fuel may cause high pressure rise and this
high pressure rise cause knocking.
The methods to prevent knocking
1. By reducing the delay period by doping.
Note: Doping is the process of adding 1% ethyl
nitrate to accelerate the combustion and as a result,
we can reduce knocking.
2. By raising the compression ratio, we can raise the
temperature of air much higher than that required
for auto ignition of the fuel. By doing so, we can
reduce knocking.
Note: In petrol engine, detonation occurs if we
increase compression ratio. Here in CI engine, we
can prevent knocking by increasing compression
ratio.
3. By increasing the turbulence of the compressed air,
we can prevent knocking.
4. By adjusting the fuel injector so as to inject only a
small quantity of fuel in beginning.
5. By super charging, we can reduce knocking.
Note: Super charging is the process of increasing
the inlet pressure of air. But super charging will
increase the tendency of detonation in SI engine.
6. By increasing the injector pressure, we can atomize
the fuel efficiently to avoid knocking.
2.36 Thermal Engineering - I

2.8.1 The phenomenon of knock in CI engine

In CI engine, the injection of fuel takes place for a
definite interval of time.
(a) If the, ignition delay of fuel being injected is short,
the actual burning of first few droplets of fuel will
commence in relatively short time. After injection
only the small amount of fuel is accumulated in the
chamber. When the burning commences, the rate of
rise in pressure will exert a smooth force on the
piston. Fig. 2.12.
S ta rt of Injection of fuel
S tart of C o mb ustion

Inje ction of fu el Start

Inje ction o f fuel End

Total Injection Time
D e lay P eriod
TDC
P re ssure

Time
Fig. 2.12.

(b) As the ignition is further delayed, relatively large

amount of fuel gets accumulated inside the chamber.
Hence upon combustion, there is a rapid rise in rate
of pressure, which results in rough engine operation.
 (c)
P ressure P ressure

Sta rt of Injection o f fue l Sta rt of Injection o f fue l

knocking.
S tart of C o m bustio n S ta rt of C om bustio n
TDC TD C

Time
Time

Fig. 2.14.
Fig. 2.13.
Inje ction of fu el Start Injection o f fuel S tarts
D elay P eriod D elay P eriod

Total Inje ction Tim e Total Inje ction Tim e

Injection of fu el End Injection of fu el End

of fuel gets accumulated in chamber. Hence upon
combustion, the instantaneous rise in pressure takes
Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.37

If the ignition delay is quite longer, large amount

place, which results in vibration of engines called

2.38 Thermal Engineering - I

In CI engine, knocking occurs near the beginning of

combustion where in SI Engine, knocking occurs near the
end of combustion.

2.8.2 Comparison of knock on SI and CI Engines

Knocking is a phenomenon which may occur in any
type of engine when excess heat is generated. The amount
of heat generated to cause knocking may very depending
upon the engine. However, in CI and SI engine, knock
predominantly occurs due to auto ignition of the air-fuel
mixture. The Fig. 2.15 shows a graph which traces the
path of the knocking phenomenon. Although an auto
ignition leads to knocking of both CI and SI engines, a few
significant differences can be observed with in the
processes.

Time: In an SI engine, the auto ignition occurs near the

end of the combustion which leads to knocking. It is evident
from the graph that auto ignition starts only after the peak
Start of C om bustion
S tart of In jection
Start o f ign itio n

TD C

TD C
Pressu re

Pressu re

Time Time
S I Eng ine C I E ngine
Fig. 2.15.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.39

pressure in the SI engine. Hence, to avoid knocking, the

auto ignition of the end gas needs to be avoided. On the
contrary, in a CI engine an autoignition occurs before the
peak pressure, at the start of the combustion. Hence to
prevent the knock in a CI engine, autoignition before the
combustion needs to be eliminated.
Preignition: Since the air-fuel mixture is sent together for
the combustion process, preignition could play a major role
in the knocking of a spark-ignition engine. In a CI engine,
only compressed air is taken in and the fuel is injected
only before the Top dead centre. Thus there is no possibility
for a pre ignition in a compression-ignition engine.
Intensity of knock: A spark-ignition engine is more likely
to undergo a detonation process during a knock, when
compared to a compression ignition engine. This is due to
the explosive auto ignition of the homogeneous air-fuel
mixture in a SI engine, where as in a CI engine the
intensity of knock is less severe as the air-fuel mixture is
not homogeneous.
Pressure and other factors: A CI engine operates at
higher pressure limits when compared to an SI engine.
During a normal cycle in a CI engine, an audible noise is
always present. Due to operations at high pressures and
excess heat, the fuel is ignited even before the Top dead
centre. Hence when the audible noise prevails and causes
heavy vibrations in the engine, it is said that the engine
is knocking. Also the factors which prevent knock in a SI
engine may promote knocking in a CI engine. A few factors
which reduce knocking in both the engines have been given
below.
2.40 Thermal Engineering - I

2.8.3 Characteristics Tending to Reduce Detonation

S. SI CI
Characteristics
No. Engine Engine
1. Ignition temperature of fuel High Low
2. Ignition delay Long time Short time
3. Compression ratio Low High
4. Inlet temperature Low High
5. Inlet pressure Low High
6. Cylinder size Small Large
7. Combustion wall temperature Low High

2.9 NEED FOR AIR MOVEMENT IN DIESEL ENGINE

The performance of a diesel engine interms of power
and mileage can be greatly influenced by alternating the
motion of air within the cylinder. A proper mixture of the
compressed air and the injected fuel can lead to increased
efficiency during the combustion process. A well mixed air
fuel solution burns completely and minimizes the amount
of unburnt fuel, thereby reducing emission. The formation
of a proper mixture of air and fuel predominantly depends
upon the motion of air, which in turn depends upon the
geometry and configuration of the combustion chamber and
its various elements.

(i) Swirl: It is defined as the helical path traced by the

discharge of air about the axis of the cylinder. It assists in
the process of mixing the air with the injected fuel, thereby
affecting the combustion process significantly.

A simple initial angular momentum along the side of

the cylinder, when supplied to the discharge, causes the
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.41

swirl motion. It is generated during the intake process by

altering the intake port and intensifies during the
compression stroke based on the configuration of the
cylinder.
(ii) Suction swirl: The air from the inlet valve is sent
tangentially inside the cylinder. After subsequent
deflections from the walls, it assumes a helical path about
the axis of the cylinder. This is known as suction swirl.
The tangential motion of air can be provided by
 Partial masking of the inlet valve.
 Providing a lip in the port on one of the sides.
 Positioning the inlet port in the desired tangential
angle.
(iii) Compression swirl: The suction swirl is usually
intensified in the compression process. As the piston
approaches the Top dead centre, the swirling air is forced
into the piston bowl. For reduced diameters of the piston
bowl, the rotational force is magnified. Thin and deep bowls
usually have higher swirl rate.
(iv) Squish: The squish motion occurs within the small
gap or recess between the piston and the cylinder head as
the piston approaches TDC. The whole volume of air is
compressed into this small recess just before the combustion
stroke and this compression causes an inward radial
movement of air called squish by Ricardo. This recess is
usually created by either the crown on the piston or the
configuration of the cylinder head. The crown on the piston,
generally preferred as the cylinder head, is continuously
subjected to heat loss by the flow of coolant.
2.42 Thermal Engineering - I

(v) Turbulence: A local fluctuation in the flow field of

air often results in increased rate of momentum of the
particles, thereby resulting in a turbulent flow. A turbulent
motion of air vastly contributes to the dispersion and
mixing of the air and fuel. A turbulent flow of air has
higher rates of heat and mass transfer than a laminar flow
or a molecular diffusion process.
This instantaneous increase in momentum and heat
and mass transfer is an essential ingredient in the
satisfactory working of an internal combustion engine.

2.10 COMBUSTION CHAMBER DESIGN FOR

COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE
The combustion chamber characteristics have to be
such as

1. To avoid maximum cylinder pressure.

2. To avoid excessive pressure rise.
3. It is to be designed so that the fuel should be burnt
fully in the expansion stroke.

Types of combustion chamber

1. Open (or) Direct combustion chamber

2. Divided (or) Indirect combustion chamber

1. Open combustion chamber

The open combustion chamber is the simplest form of
chamber. It is suitable for only slow speed four-stroke cycle
engine. In the open chamber, the fuel is injected from the
space on top of the cylinder. The combustion space is
formed by the top of the piston and the cylinder head. It
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.43

is shaped to provide swirling action of the air when the

piston comes up on the compression.
This type of chamber requires a higher injection
pressure and a greater degree of fuel atomization than the
other combustion chamber, to obtain proper fuel mixing. To
equalize combustion in the combustion chamber, multiple
orifice type injector tip is used. In this kind of chamber
design, there is a possibility to attain ignition lag.

Open combustion chambers are further divided as

follows:
(a) Shallow depth chamber
In shallow depth chamber, the depth of cavity
provided is quite small. This chamber is used for large
engines which is running at low speed. In this type, the
squish produced is negligible, since the cavity diameter is
very large.

(b) Hemispherical chamber

The hemispherical chamber gives better performance,
since the depth to diameter ratio for a cylindrical chamber
can be varied to give any desired squish.

(c) Cylindrical chamber

In cylindrical chamber by varying the depth, squish
can also be varied. The swirl was produced by masking the
valve for nearly 180 circumference.

(d) Toroidal chamber

The toroidal chamber is designed to provide a
powerful squish along with the air movement. This will give
better utilisation of oxygen due to powerful squish and the
mask needed on inlet valve is small.
2.44 Thermal Engineering - I

Combustion Chambers for CI Engines

(a) Shallow Depth Cham ber (b) Hem ispherical Cham ber
Direct - In jection (DI) Combustio n Cham ber

( c ) Cylindrical Cham ber (d) Toro idal C ham ber

Open Com bustio n Cham bers
Fig.2.16.

Advantages of open combustion chamber

 Because the surface area to volume ratio is lower,
the loss of heat during compression is minimum.
This enhances better efficiency.
 No cold starting problem.
 Fine atomization is achieved because of multiple
hole nozzle.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.45

Disadvantages
 High pressure is required for fuel injection leading
to complex design of fuel injection pump.
 For small engines, it is necessary for accurate
metering of fuel by the injection system.

2. Divided combustion chamber type

In this type, the combustion chamber is divided into
two or more compartments. In between these divided
compartments, restrictions or throats are provided, which
are so small so that considerable pressure difference occurs
between them during the combustion process.

These chambers are further classified into

 Turbulent combustion chamber

 Pre combustion chamber
 Energy cell

(a) Turbulent combustion chamber

This chamber consists of a spherical-shaped chamber
separated from engine cylinder and located in cylinder
head. The air is passed into the chamber during
compression stroke, which produces a rotary motion to the
compressed air. Hence, the turbulence of the air is
increased. When the fuel is injected into the rotating air,
it is partially mixed and the combustion starts.

The pressure buildup in the chamber forces the

burning and unburnt air-fuel mixture to flow back into
main chamber thus, increasing the turbulence.

This causes considerable heat loss to the walls of the

chamber. It can be reduced by employing heat - insulated
2.46 Thermal Engineering - I

Sp herica l
Sh aped
C h am ber

Sp raying
N o zzle

R e ciprocating
Piston

Fig.2.1 7. Tu rbu len t C o m b us tion C ham ber

chamber. The heat loss in this chamber is greater than the

open combustion chamber.
(b) Pre combustion chamber
Pre-combustion chamber consists of anti chamber
which produces rotary motion to compressed air, which is
connected to main chamber through number of small holes.
This chamber is located at the cylinder head and is
connected to the engine cylinder by small holes.
During the compression stroke, piston forces the air
from the main cylinder to enter into the pre combustion
chamber. At this point, the fuel is injected into the
precombustion chamber and combustion begins. It results
in high pressure and the flaming fuel droplets along with
considerable quantity of air are forced through the small
holes into the main cylinder. The bulk of combustion where
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.47

about 80% of energy is released into the main combustion

chamber.
The pre combustion chamber has multi fuel capability.
The rate of pressure rise is low when compared to open
type chamber.

S p raying
N o zzle

P re c ha m b e r /
A n tich am b er

O rifice

R e cipro c ating
P iston

Fig.2.18. Precom bu stion C ham ber

(c) Energy-cell chamber

In this energy cell chamber, the clearance volume in
the cylinder head is divided in two parts, the main cylinder
and the energy cell. Energy cell is further sub-divided into
2.48 Thermal Engineering - I

two parts, major and minor chamber which are separated

from each other and from the main chamber by narrow
artifice.
During compression, pressure difference occurs
between the main chamber and energy cell due to the
restricted passage between them. During combustion, the
fuel is injected by pintle type nozzle, part of fuel passes
across the main chamber and enters the energy cell.
Combustion starts initially in main chamber, where the
temperature is higher but the rate of burning of air is low
due to the absence of air motion.
In the major and minor chamber of energy cell, fuel
is well mixed with air because of good turbulence resulting
in complete combustion. The design of energy cell is to
reduce ignition lag and to run hot.

M ain C om bu stion
C h am be r
M inor C ell
S p rayin g N ozzle

C ylind er
H e ad
M ajor C ell

R e cipro cating
P iston

Fig.2.19. Energy Cell

 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.49

Advantages of Indirect-injection combustion chamber

 No complex design is needed for fuel-injection pump
since the injection pressure required is very low.
 Direction of spraying is not very important.
 Higher engine speeds can be achieved since
burning is continuous in pre chamber.
Disadvantages
 Heater plugs are required, because of poor cold
starting performance.
 Specific fuel consumption is high as there is a loss
of pressure due to air motion through the duct
and heat loss due to large heat transfer area.
 The increase in temperature and pressure on the
part of the piston leads to cracking and distortion.
2.10.1 Open and Divided combustion chambers

Open combustion Divided combustion

chamber chamber
1. It requires multiple hole 1. It requires single hole
injection nozzles. injection nozzle.
2. It can consume good 2. It consumes poor ignition
ignition quality fuels. quality fuels.
3. Open combustion 3. Divided combustion
chamber is more efficient. chamber leads to pressure
loss and heat losses during
compression and expansion.
So this type is not efficient.
4. It requires high injection 4. It requires moderate
pressure. injection pressure.
5. Cylinder construction is 5. Cylinder construction is
simple and less cost. hard and more expensive.
2.50 Thermal Engineering - I

2.11 DIESEL FUEL REQUIREMENT : FOR

COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINES

The fuel used in Compression Ignition (CI) engine is

diesel, which is a type of hydrocarbon.

Fuel for CI engines should have certain qualities to

be qualified as an ideal fuel for these engines. Diesel is
used as the fuel it CI Engine because it possesses the
quality that are desired for the CI engine.

Some of the desired characteristics of Diesel:

1. Knocking characteristics
In case of CI engine, the burning of fuel occurs due
to compression of air. It is desired that as soon as the fuel
is injected into the cylinder, it starts burning, but in
practical situations, this never happens immediately, there
is always a time lag between the injection and burning of
the fuel.

As the duration of ignition lag increases, more and

more amounts of fuel gets accumulated in the cylinder
head. When the fuel is burnt, large amount of energy is
released, which produces extremely high pressure inside the
engine. This causes the knocking sound in the engine. Thus
the engine should have short ignition lag so that the energy
is produced uniformly inside the engine and can avoid the
abnormal sound in engine.

The knocking capacity of the fuel is measured in

terms of cetane rating of the fuel. The fuel used in CI
engine should have high cetane number to avoid knocking
of engine.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.51

2. Volatility of the fuel

The fuel should be volatile in nature. Within the
operating temperature range in the cylinder head, it gets
converted into its gaseous state when mixed with
compressed air.

3. Starting characteristics of the fuel

For smooth starting of vehicle, the fuel should have
good volatility so that it mixes with the air uniformly and
it should have high cetane number so the ignition of fuel
will be fast.

4. Smoke produced by fuel and its odour

The exhaust gases produced from the fuel should not
have too much smoke and odour.

5. Viscosity of fuel
The fuel should have a low viscosity so it can easily
flow through the fuel system and it should not be frozen
at the lowest working temperature.

6. Corrosion and wear

The fuel used in CI Engine should not cause corrosion
to the components of the engine before (or) after
combustion.

7. Easy to handle
Large quantities of fuel for a CI engine have to be
transported and so it should be easy to handle and
transport.

The fuel should have high flash point and high fire
point to avoid the catching of fire during transport.
2.52 Thermal Engineering - I

2.11.1 Cetane Number (CN)

Cetane Number (diesel fuel) refers to the ease at
which diesel fuel ignites at a relatively low temperature.

Lower cetane number will result in cold starting

problems.

Higher cetane number results in faster ignition.

Diesel Index
The Diesel index indicates the ignition quality of the
fuel. It is found to correlate, approximately to the cetane
number of commercial fuels.

Diesel index and cetane number are usually about 50.

Lower value will result in smoky exhaust.

2.11.2 Fuel Rating for CI Engine

Cetane Number (applicable for CI engine)
Octane number is for rating Petrol.

Cetane number is for rating Diesel.

The cetane number is a number to rate diesel fuel’s

ability to auto ignite quickly when it is injected into the
high pressure, high temperature air in the cylinder.

Higher the cetane number, lesser is the ‘Diesel

knocking’ tendency.

Procedure for finding Cetane Number

 Cetane C 10 H34  has high ignitabilty.

 methyl-napthalene C 11 H10  has low ignitability.

 Both are mixed together and this sample mixture

is used for running a test engine.
 Combustion in SI and CI Engine 2.53

The cetane number of the diesel is the percentage of

cetane in this sample mixture which knocks in a similar
way as the diesel under the same condition.
 Lower cetane number, higher are the hydrocarbon
emission in the exhaust gases.
 Lower cetane number, higher are the noise level.
 Lower cetane number, increases the ignition delay.
Note: Generally, fuel having higher octane number means
it has low cetane value.
 Chapter - 3

Testing and Performance of Engines

Indicator diagram and properties - Pressure Transducer-
Brake power measurements. Dynamometers - Performance
calculations -Morse test - Air consumption - Fuel consumption
Exhaust gas compositon - Heat balance sheet.

3.1 PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS (OR)

PERFORMANCE TEST ON I.C. ENGINES
IC Engines can be tested for their performance.
During this test, we can find out the following quantities.
1. Indicated power, 2. Indicated Mean Effective
Pressure (MEP), 3. Brake power, 4. Mechanical efficiency,
5. Indicated thermal efficiency, 6. Brake thermal efficiency,
7. Relative efficiency (or) Efficiency ratio, 8. Volumetric
efficiency, 9. Air consumption, 10. Fuel consumption,
11. Heat balance sheet.
1. Indicator Diagram
An indicator diagram is a P-V diagram traced by the
indicator which is attached to the piston. The P-V diagram
represents the work done by
the engine in one cycle. P
a = A rea re pre se n tin g
d
w o rkd on e in on e cy cle
The power developed 1 E q uiva le nt
re ctan gle
inside the engine cylinder is o f a rea = a d

known as indicated power.

This is measured by indicator
diagram.
2
V
Fig. 3.1
3.2 Thermal Engineering - I

We can measure ad (area of indicator diagram) by

using planimeter. Now we can draw an equivalent rectangle
whose area is equal to the area of indicator diagram. And
the height of this rectangle gives the Mean effective
pressure Pm.

2. Indicated Power (IP)

P m A LN or N /2  n
IP  kW
60

where P m  Mean effective pressure in kN/m 2 or K Pa

A  Area of piston in m 2

L  Length of stroke in m

N  Speed of the engine in r.p.m.

. .
N for 2 stroke engine [ . In two stroke engine, the
cycle is completed in two strokes of the piston or in one
revolution of the crankshaft.]

. .
N/2 for 4 stroke engine [ . In four stroke engine,
the cycle is completed in 4 strokes of the piston (or) in two
revolutions of the crankshaft.]

and n or k No. of cylinders in the engine.

3. Mean Effective Pressure Pm

The mean effective pressure ‘P m’ can be calculated
from the following formula.

ad
Pm  S
ld
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.3

where ad  Area of indicator diagram (or) rectangle in

m 2.

ld  length of the diagram in m.

S  Spring constant (or) Spring number used in

engine indicator - unit in N/m 2/m or bar/m.

MEASUREMENT OF CYLINDER PRESSURE

Cylinder pressures can be easily obtained using
several analytical equations relating to the temperature and
the volume of the working fluid. Indicator diagrams are one
of the most common tools needed to compute the pressure
of a cycle. However, several electronic and mechanical
components are being used to verify the pressure at each
stage manually.

A typical pressure measuring component consists of

the following:

 A pick-up transducer
 Amplifier
 Recorder
 Display unit
TRANSDUCER
A transducer is a device capable of converting one
form of energy into another. A pressure transducer typically
converts the pressure exerted on an object into noticeable
output like displacement, electrical signals etc. Since the
cylinder of an engine is subjected to various thermal and
shear stresses, the pressure transducer must be capable of
withstanding all the stresses. Most transducers are likely
to fail when subjected to the enormous heat and forces from
3.4 Thermal Engineering - I

an engine. One of the main challenges in measuring a

cylinder pressure is to identify the transducer which is
capable of working accurately under such conditions.
A piezo electric transducer is a device which can
withstand the energy from an engine, and also determine
the pressure more accurately. It works on the principle of
piezo electric effect by which certain materials can generate
an electric charge in response to an applied mechanical
stress.
It consists of a piezo electric crystal resting upon a
diaphragm. The ends of the crystal are connected to an
electronic device. The external pressure which is to be
measured is received by the diaphragm which transfers it
to the crystal. Due to applied mechanical stress, the crystal
gives out amperage which can be measured using the
electronic device. The amount of current flowing through
the circuit is directly proportional to the applied mechanical
stress.

Pressu re

O utput C rystal
+ + +
O utput D ia phra gm
  

Externa l Pre ssure

Pressu re
(a) Piezoe le ctric effect (b) Piezoe le ctric pressure tra nsducer
Fig. 3.2 Piezoelectric transd ucer

Since the electrical output from the crystal is small,

an amplifier is used to scale up the signals appropriately.
Then comes the recorder circuit which records the variation
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.5

in pressure over time. The main drawback in this system

is to calibrate the output according to the varying pressure.
Strain gauges are also nearly effective in determining the
pressure. However, due to several inertia forces acting on
it, the usage of strain gauges is not preferred.
Now that the pressure has been noted and the output
is usually displayed through a cathode ray oscilloscope
(CRO). Since, CRO provides an inertia free recording and
the electrical signals can be directly used to manipulate the
beams, a CRO can accurately display the variation of

80
C ylind e r Pre ssu re ( B a r )

60

40

20
TD C BDC

0 2 00 3 60 
(a) C ra nk a ng le (  )

4
C ylin d e r P res sure ( B a r )

1 TDC BDC

300 500 700

(b)
C ran k a n g le (  )
F ig . 3 .3 A Typical P- d iagram
3.6 Thermal Engineering - I

pressure with respect to time and with respect to the crank

angle. Typical CRO unit consists of an input from the
transducer and another set of inputs from the time
recording device and the crank angle measuring device. The
outputs are plotted in the form of a graph with pressure
along the y-axis and crank angle along the x-axis.
5. Brake Power (BP)
The power available at the crankshaft of the engine
is known as brake power. The brake power is measured by
some brake mechanism, hence the name brake power.
6. Different Arrangements used to find Brake Power
(i) Rope brake arrangement
(ii) Prony brake arrangement
(iii) Band brake arrangement.
(i) Rope Brake Arrangement
The rope makes one complete turn
around the flywheel keyed to the Sp rin g ba la nce

crankshaft of the engine. One end of the

rope carries a dead load and the other
end is connected to spring balance. Here
the flywheel is rotating clockwise and
the pull of the dead load makes
RO PE BR AKE
anticlockwise torque. A rra n g e m en t

The engine is started with no load.

Fig 3.4
Then gradually load is increased by
adding weights in the dead load hanger.
At any steady condition,
The effective radius R at which the net resisting force
is acting
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.7

Dd
R m
2

Resisting torque acting on the brake wheel is given by

T  W  S  R in kNm

2 NT
Brake Power  in kW
60

2N  D  d 
B.P   W  S   in k W
60  2 
where W  Dead load in kN S

S  Spring balance reading in kN

R
D  Dia. of Brake drum in m

d  Dia. of rope in m
Fig. 3.5
N  Speed of the engine in rpm. W

(ii) Prony Brake Arrangement

It consists of brake shoes which touch on the rim of

the brake wheel by means of bolts, nuts and springs. The
N ut
Loa d lever
Brake shoe
Spring

Brake
drum
W

Fig. 3.6 L
3.8 Thermal Engineering - I

pressure on the rim can be varied by adjusting the nut in

the arrangement.
When the brake drum is rotating in anticlockwise
direction, the dead load produce clockwise torque.
So the resisting torque (clockwise) ‘T’  W  L

where W  Weight on load carrier in kN.

L  Distance from the centre of the brake drum to

the point of load in m.

2NT
Brake Power B.P  in kW
60

2NW L
B.P  in kW
60

(iii) Bank Brake Arrangements

A flat belt is put around the rim of the S
S p rin g
b alan ce
brake wheel. The two ends of the flat belt is
attached with W 1 and W 2. Another belt is
B e lt
integrated with the flat belt and its other end
w2
is connected to the spring balance. B a nd b rake w1
Fig.3.7
Now the resisting torque ‘T’ is given
below.
T  [ W 1  S  W 2 ]  R

where W 1  Wt. on right side load carrier in kN

W 2  Wt. on left side load carrier in kN

S  Spring balance reading in kN

R  Effective radius of the brake drum in m.

 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.9

2NT
Brake Power  B.P  in k W
60

2N
B.P  [ [ W 1  S ]  W 2]  R in kW
60

7. Friction Power (FP)

The Power available in the engine flywheel
(crankshaft end) is less than the power developed inside
the engine. i.e. The BP is less than the IP. Because, there
is a loss of power due to friction between the moving parts.
The Power lost in this way is known as friction power.

So, F.P  I.P  B.P

The difference between the indicated power and brake

power is known as friction power.

8. Specific Fuel Consumption (S.F.C) in kg/kW hr

It is defined as the amount of fuel consumed per unit
of power developed per hour.

mf
The ratio is known as specific fuel
B.P or I.P

consumption per kW per hour. [Here m f  mass of fuel
consumed in kg/hr.]

mf
BSFC  kg/kW  hr
B.P

mf
ISFC  kg/kWhr
I.P

where, BSFC - Brake Spepcific fuel consumption.

ISFC - Indicated Specific fuel consumption)
3.10 Thermal Engineering - I

9. Mechanical Efficiency mech 

Mechanical efficiency is defined as the ratio of the
power available at the engine crankshaft and power
developed inside the engine cylinder.

Brake Power
Mechanical Efficiency, mech 
Indicated Power

10. Thermal Efficiency

The ratio of B.P (or) I.P to the energy supplied by fuel
during the same interval of time is known as thermal
efficiency.

If it is based on I.P, then it is known as Indicated

thermal efficiency.

If it is based on B.P, then it is known as Brake

thermal efficiency.

11. Indicated Thermal Efficiency indicated

I.P in kW  3600
 indicated  
mf  C.V.

where C.V  Calorific value of fuel in kJ/kg


m f  Mass of fuel in kg/hr

If C.V is given in kJ/m 3, then

I.P in kW  3600
 indicated thermal  
V f  C.V.


where Vf  Volume of gas fuel supplied in m 3/hr
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.11

12. Brake Thermal Efficiency Brake 

B.P in kW  3600
Brake  
mf  C.V.

where C.V in kJ/kg.

B .P in kW  3600
If C.V is in kJ /m 3, then  Brake  
V f  C.V.

 Brake   indicated  mech

Brake thermal efficiency is also known as overall

efficiency.

i.e.,  Brake   overall

12. Relative Efficiency or Efficiency Ratio

The ratio of the indicated thermal efficiency or the
brake thermal efficiency to the air standard efficiency is
known as relative efficiency or efficiency ratio.

Relative efficiency,

Indicated o r Brake thermal efficiency

 relative 
Air standard efficiency

14. Volumetric Efficiency volumetric

The ratio of the actual volume of the charge admitted
into the cylinder to the swept volume of the piston is known
as volumetric efficiency.

Volume of charge admitted at NTP condition

volumetric 
Sw ept vo lume

NTP = Normal temperature 0C and pressure

(1.01325 bar) condition.
3.12 Thermal Engineering - I

3.2 DYNAMOMETER
Dynamometer is used to measure the brake power.

The brake power is measured by coupling the brake

dynamometer to the engine shaft.

Let W  Load measured in the dynamometer in N

R  Arm length in m

Resisting torque  T  WR in N-m

2NT
Brake Power  in kW
60  1000

2NWR
 in kW
60  1000

In the hydraulic dynamometer, the arm length R is

fixed. So the factor 2R/60  1000  is constant and is
known as reciprocal of dynamometer constant.

WN
So, B.P 
K

 60  1000 
where K  Dynamometer constant   
 2R 
Dynamometer can be classified into two types

(i) Absorption dynamometers

(ii) transmission dynamometer

(i) Absorption dynamometer

These types of dynamometers are used to measure

and absorb the power output of the engine to which they
are coupled. The power absorbed is usually released as heat
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.13

(or) by other forms of energy. Eg., Hydraulic, Eddy current

dynamometer etc.
(ii) Transmission Dynamometer

Transmission dynamometer is also called as Torque

meter. The purpose of these meters is to simply sense the
torque. It doesnt supply (or) receive any energy. Torque
meters employ normal measuring units like a strain gauge
to directly determine the torque acting on a shaft. Usually,
more strain gauges are fixed on a rotating shaft and the
angular strain of the shaft obtained from the gauges is
directly proportional to the torque acting on the shaft.
These dynamometers have high accuracy, and are often
employed in automatic units.

Absorption Dynamometers
3.2.1 Hydraulic Dynamometer
The water brake is of hydraulic nature and it is the
simplest example for hydraulic dynamometer. Generally the
water brake is used for large capacity systems as compared
to prony brake system, because large amount of heat is
dissipated to the water in water brake system.

 This device uses fluid friction and not dry friction.

Description
The main parts of this system are shown in Fig. 3.8

 A rotating disk is fixed to the driving shaft.

Semi-elliptical grooves are provided on the disc
through which a stream of water flows.
 A casing is stationary in which the disc rotates.
 The casing is mounted on anti-friction bearings
and it carries a braking arm and a balance
3.14 Thermal Engineering - I

C ham be r

D isc
W ater in

A ntifriction
B earin gs

D rivin g sha ft

W ater

W ater ou t C asin g

Fig : 3.8 Water Brake or Hydraulic Dyn am om eter

system. Therefore, the casing can rotate freely, but

its movement can be restricted by the arm.

Operation
 When the driving shaft rotates, water flows in a helical
path in the chamber. Due to vortices and eddy-currents
setup in the water, the casing tends to rotate in the
same direction as that of the driving shaft.
 By varying the amount of water and its pressure, the
braking action can be initiated. Braking can also be
provided by varying the distance between the rotating
disk and the casing.
 The heat developed due to the power is cooled by the
continuous supply of working fluid.
 Power absorption is approximately the cube of rotational
speed and the fifth power of disc diameter
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.15

 The housing is constrained by a force-measuring load

cell placed at the end of the arm of radius r.
Torque T  F  r

where F  force m easured at radius r

2  NT
Power P 
60

3.2.2 Eddy Current Dynamometer

It is an absorption type dynamometer. It works on
the basis of Faraday’s Laws of induction, by which loops of
opposing currents are induced in a conductor under a
changing magnetic field.

B e aring

S tato r

E n co d er
M otor
R o tor
R o tatin g
m em b er
W a tt m e te r

L oa d c e ll

Fig. 3.9 Ed dy C urre nt dy nam om eter

The arrangement consists of a stator, made up of

electromagnets and a rotor coupled to the shaft of the
engine. The rotor is made of copper or steel or other
conducting materials. When the rotor rotates, Eddy
currents are induced in the stator. This current acts in the
opposite direction, thereby intending to stop the change in
the magnetic flux. Due to this opposing force, a torque acts
on the shaft, thereby loading the engine. This load is
measured using a moment arm. As the eddy currents
3.16 Thermal Engineering - I

produce a significant amount of heat, the system requires

a cooling arrangement for the purpose of heat dissipation.
Performance Curves
The following are the performance curves.
1. B.P. vs speed
2. I P vs speed
3. SFC vs speed
4. Mechanical efficiency vs speed

80
70 0 .5
60
50 0 .4
BP
IP

B ra ke S FC

40 0 .3
B P & IP

30
20 0 .2
M ax
10 0 .1
P ow er
5 00 1 50 0 2 50 0 3 50 0
5 001 50 0 2 50 0 3 50 0 S pee d (rpm )
S pee d (rpm )
(a) BP & IP Vs Speed Cu rves (b) Brake SFC Vs Speed
Fig 3.10
M echa n ic a l
E ffic ien cy

Bra ke T he rm al E fficie ncy

40
35
90 30
al
rm

80 25
he
Bt

70 20
60 15
10
50
5
40
5 00 1 50 0 2 50 0 3 50 0
5 00 1 50 0 2 50 0
S pe e d (rpm ) S pee d (rpm )
(d)
(c) m ec h V s S p ee d B ra ke T herm al E fficien cy V s S p ee d
Fig 3.11
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.17

5. Brake Thermal efficiency vs speed

The sample curves for the above are shown here in
the Fig 3.10 and 3.11
PROBLEMS ON PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS
OF IC ENGINES
Problem 3.1: During test on single cylinder oil engine,
working on the four stroke cycle fitted with a rope brake, the
following readings are taken.
Effective diameter of Brake wheel = 600 mm. Dead load on
brake = 200 N; spring balance reading = 30 N; speed = 450
r.p.m; Area of indicator diagram  400 mm2; length of indicator
diagram = 60 mm; spring scale = 1.1 bar per mm. Bore = 100
mm; stroke = 150 mm; Quantity of oil = 0.815 kg/hr. Calorific
value of oil = 42000 kJ/kg. Calculate the brake power,
indicated power, mechanical efficiency, brake thermal efficiency
and brake specific fuel consumption and Indicated thermal
efficiency.

Solution:
600
Given: Effective Radius R   300 mm  0.3 m
2

(Dead load)W  200 N, S  30 N, N  450 r.p.m.

ad  400 mm 2, ld  60 mm , s  1.1 bar/mm,
Bore dia. D  100 mm  0.1 m, L  150 mm  0.15 m,

Mass of fuel m f  0.815 kg/hr, C.V  42,000 kJ/kg.

Brake power (BP)

2NW  S  R
B.P 
60
3.18 Thermal Engineering - I

2  450  200  30   0.3


60

B.P  2403.32 W  2.403 kW

Indicated Power (IP)

Before that, we have to find mean effective pressure
P m

ad  s 400
Pm    1.1  7.333 bar
ld 60

P m  7.333  10 2KPa

 
Area of cylinder A   D2   0.1 2
4 4

A  7.854  10  3m 2

P m AL N /2  n
Indicated Power I.P 
60
. .
[ . N/2 for 4 stroke engine]
7.333  10 2  7.854  10  3  0.15  450/2  1
I.P. 
. 60
.
[ . n  1 for single cylinder]
 3.2396 kW

Mechanical Efficiency mech 

B.P 2.403
 mech  
I.P 3.2396

 0.74175

 74.175 %
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.19

Brake Thermal Efficiency

B.P.  3600
 Brake  
m f  C.V

2.403  3600
  0.25273
0.815  42,000

 25.273 %

Indicated Thermal Efficiency

I.P  3600
 indicated  
m f  C.V

3.2396  3600
  0.3407
0.815  42,000

 34.07 %

Brake specific fuel consumption SFCBrake


mf
S FCBrake 
B.P.

0.815 kg

2.403 kWhr

kg
 0.3392
kWhr

Problem 3.2: A Four stroke four cylinder gasoline engine has

a bore of 60 mm and a stroke of 100 mm. On test, it develops
a torque of 66.5 Nm when running at 3000 rpm. If the
clearance volume in each cylinder is 60 cc, the relative
efficiency with respect to break thermal efficiency is 0.5 and
calorific value of the fuel is 42 MJ/kg, determine the fuel
consumption in kg/h and the break mean effective pressure.
(JNTU - Jan/Feb - 2015)
3.20 Thermal Engineering - I

Given data: 4 stroke; 4 cylinder; D  0.06 m ;

L  0.1 m ; T  66.5 Nm ; N  3000 rpm
V c  60 cm 3  60  10  6 m 3 ; relative  0.5 ;

CV  42  10 3 kJ/kg

Solution:
Com pression ratio  Air std   Brake thermal 

BP  mf  Pmbrake

To find r
 
Vs   D 2  L   0.06 2  0.1  2.83  10  4 m 3
4 4

V s  V c 2.83  10  4  60  10  6
r   5.712
Vc 60  10  6

1
Air standard efficiency  1 
r  1

1
1  0.5
5.7120.4

[Since it is gasoline engine, it is considered as petrol

engine. So otto cycle  ]
Brake therm al efficency
Relative efficiency 
Air standard efficiency

Brake thermal efficiency  0.5  0.5  0.25

2  NT 2   3000  66.5
Brake power BP    20891.6 watts
60 60

 20.892 kW
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.21


To find fuel consumption mf
B.P  3600
We know, brake thermal efficiency  
m f  Cv

 20.892  3600
mf 
0.25  42  10 3

 7.16 kg /hr

To find brake mean effective pressure Pmbrake

B.P  60
P m brake 
N
LA   n
 2 
N
[ for 4 stroke; n  4 for 4 cylinder]
2
20.892  60

  3000 
0.1   0.062   4
4  2 
 738.9 kPa  7.4 ba r

3.3 MEASUREMENT OF INDICATED POWER OF

MULTICYLINDER ENGINE
MORSE TEST
This method is used to measure the indicated power
without the use of indicator diagram in multicylinder
engines. The brake power of the engine is measured by
cutting off each cylinder in turn. The cylinder of a petrol
engine is cut off by shorting the spark plug and in case of
diesel engine, this is done by cutting off the diesel supply
to the required cylinder.

For example, consider a 4 cylinder engine. First of

all, measure the brake power of the engine when all the
3.22 Thermal Engineering - I

cylinders are in operation. Then cylinder 1 is cut-off so that

it does not develop any power. The speed of the engine
decreases. In order to attain the initial speed back, the load
on the engine is reduced. Now, the brake power is
measured with this new condition which gives the brake
power of the remaining three cylinders.
Similar way, we can cut-off each cylinder one by one
and measure the brake power of the remaining three
cylinders by maintaining the engine speed as original
speed.

Let I1, I2, I3 and I4  Indicated power of cylinder 1, 2,

3 and 4 respectively.

F 1, F 2, F 3 and F 4  Frictional power of cylinder 1, 2, 4

and 4 respectively.

When all the cylinders are in operation the total

brake power B.P. simply B is given as follows.

B  Total indicated po wer  Total Friction P ower ... (1)

B  I1  I2  I3  I4  F 1  F 2  F3  F 4

when cylinder 1 is cut off, I1  0, but the frictional

losses of the cylinder 1 remain the same

 Brake power of the remaining three cylinders  B 1

B 1  0  I2  I3  I4  F 1  F 2  F3  F 4 ...(2)

Subtracting the equation (2) from equation (1), we get

B  B 1  I1 (or)
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.23

Indicated power of the first cylinder, I1

I1  B  B 1

Similarly, I.P. of 2nd cylinder I2

I2  B  B 2

IP of 3rd cylinder, I3

I3  B  B 3

I.P. of 4th cylinder, I4

I4  B  B 4

and the total indicated power IP  I1  I2  I3  I4

Problem 3.3: In a test with a four cylinder, four stroke petrol

engine, the following results were found:
B.P with all cylinders working = 24.25 kW
B.P with cylinder No:1 cut off = 16.53 kW
B.P with cylinder No:2 cut off = 17.2 kW
B.P with cylinder No:3 cut off = 17.34 kW
B.P with cylinder No:4 cut off = 17.8 kW
Estimate the indicated power of the engine and its mechanical
efficiency

Solution:
Given B.P. or simply B = 24.25 kW, B 1  16.53 kW;
B 2  17.2 kW ; B 3  17.34 kW; B 4  17.8 kW

I1  B  B 1  24.25  16.53  7.72 kW

I2  B  B 2  24.25  17.2  7.05 kW

I3  B  B 3  24.25  17.34  6.91 kW

3.24 Thermal Engineering - I

I4  B  B 4  24.25  17.8 6.45 kW

Total Indicated Power IP  I1  I2  I3  I4

 7.72  7.05  6.91  6.45

 28.13 kW

B.P
Mechanical efficiency  mech 
I.P

24.25
  0.8621
28.13

 86.21 %

Problem 3.4: During a brake on a four cylinder, four stroke

engine coupled to a hydraulic dynamometer at constant speed,
the following readings were obtained.
B.P. with all cylinders working = 14.7 kW
B.P. with cylinder No.1. cut off = 10.14 kW
B.P. with cylinder No.2. cut off = 10.3 kW
B.P. with cylinder No.3. cut off = 10.36 kW
B.P. with cylinder No.4. cut off = 10.21 kW
Petrol consumption = 5.5 kg/hr
Calorific value of petrol = 44,000 kJ/Kg
Dia of cylinder  8cm
Stroke of piston  10 cm
Clearance volume 0.1 litre
Calculate (1) Mechanical efficiency (ii) Relative efficiency on the
basis of IP.

Solution:
Given: B.P (or) simply B = 14.7 kW; B 1  10.14; B 2  10.3;

B 3  10.36 ; B 4  10.21 ; m f  5.5 kg/hr
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.25

C.V = 42,000 kJ/Kg; D = 0.08 m; L = 0.1 m

V c  Clearance volume  0.1 litre  0.1  10  3 m 3

. . 1
[ . 1000 lit  1 m 3; So 1 lit  m 3]
1000

I1  B  B 1  14.7  10.14  4.56 kW

I2  B  B 2  14.7  10.3  4.4 kW

I3  B  B 3  14.7  10.36  4.34 kW

I4  B  B 4  14.7  10.21  4.49 kW

Total I.P.  I1  I2  I3  I4  4.56  4.4  4.34  4.49

 17.79 kW

B.P. 14.7
1. Mechanical efficiency: mech  
I.P 17.79

 0.8263  82.63%

Indicated thermal efficiency: indicated

I.P.  3600
 indicated  
m f  C.V

17.79  3600
  0.27724
5.5.  42,000

 27.725 %

Air Standard efficiency: Air standard

1
 air stand ard  1 
1
r

[Since it is a petrol engine the otto cycle efficiency is used]

3.26 Thermal Engineering - I

Vs  V c
where r  compression ratio
Vc

where Vs  Swept volum e an d V c  Clearance volume

 
Vs   D2  L   0.08 2  0.1  5.027  10  4 m 3
4 4

V c  0.1  10  3 m 3 given 

V s  Vc 5.027  10  4  0.1  10  3
So, r  
Vc 0.1  10  3

 6.027

1
 air standard  1   0.51252
6.0271.4  1

 51.252 %

Relative efficie ncy 

or   indicated 0.27724
   0.541
Efficiency ratio 0.51252
 air standard
on the ba sis of IP 

 Relative  54.1%

Problem 3.5: A four stroke petrol engine 8 cm bore and 10

cm stroke is tested at full throttle at constant speed. The fuel
supply is fixed at 0.065 kg per minute and the spark plugs of
four cylinders are successively short circuited without change
of speed. load being adjusted accordingly. The Brake powers
are measured and given below.
With all cylinders working = 12 kW
With cylinder No:1 Short circuited (not firing) = 8.46 kW
With cylinder No:2 Short circuited = 8.56 kW
With cylinder No:3 Short circuited = 8.6 kW
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.27

With cylinder No:4 Short circuited = 8.5 kW

Determine the indicated power of the engine under these
condition. Determine the indicated thermal efficiency if the
calorific value of the fuel in 43500 kJ/kg. Find the relative
efficiency, if the clearance volume of one cylinder being
70 cm3

Solution:
Total B.P. with all cylinders firing = B = 12 kW

I1  B  B 1  12  8.46  3.54 kW

I2  B  B 2  12  8.56  3.44 kW

I3  B  B 3  12  8.6  3.4 kW

I4  B  B 4  12  8.5  3.5 kW

Total IP  I1  I2  I3  I4  3.54  3.44  3.4  3.5

 13. 88 kW

I.P  3600
Indicated thermal efficie ncy  
m f  C.V

m f  0.065  kg/min  0.065  60  3.9 kg /hr

13.88  3600
indicated   0.29454
3.9  43500

 29.454%

Air standard efficiency : air standard


Swept volume V s   D 2  L for on e cylinder
4


  0.08 2  0.1  5.0265  10  4m 3
4
3.28 Thermal Engineering - I

Clearance volume V c  69.5 c m3  69.5  10  6 m 3

V s  V c 5.0265  10  4  69.5  10  6
compression ra tio  r  
Vc 69.5  10  6

 8.2324

1
 air standard  1 
1
r

[Otto cycle efficiency formula is used since it is a

petrol engine]

1
1  0.56968
8.2324 1.4  1

 56.97%

indicated
Relative efficie ncy on the basis of IP 
air standard

0.29454
  0.51702
0.56968

 51.702 %

Problem 3.6: In a test of four cylinders four stroke petrol

engine of 75 mm bore and 100 mm stroke, the following results
were obtained at full throttle at a constant speed and with a
fixed fuel supply of 0.082 kg/min
BP with all cylinder working  15.24 kW
BP with cylinder number 1 cut off  10.45 kW
BP with cylinder number 2 cut off  10.38 kW
BP with cylinder number 3 cut off  10.23 kW
BP with cylinder number 4 cut off  10.45 kW
Estimate the Indicated power of the engine under this
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.29

condition. If the calorific value of the fuel is 44,000 kJ/kg,

find the Indicated thermal efficiency of the engine. Compare
this with the air standard efficiency. The clearance volume of
one cylinder being 115 cc, (JNTU - Jan/Feb - 2015 - Set 2)

Solution:
Given data:
B  15.24 kW ; B 1  10.45 kW ;
B 2  10.38 kW B 3  10.23 kW ; B 4  10.45 kW

To find the Indicated Power (IP)  I1  I2  I3  I4

I1  B  B 1  15.24  10.45  4.79 kW

I2  B  B 2  15.24  10.38  4.86 kW

I3  B  B 3  15.24  10.23  5.01 kW

I4  B  B 4  15.24  10.45  4.79 kW

IP (Indicated Power)  I1  I2  I3  I4

 4.79  4.86  5.01  4.79

 19.45 kW

Calorific value of fuel  44000 kJ/kg

Dia of Bore  75 mm  0.075 m

Stroke length 100 mm  0.1 m

I.P  3600
(i) Indicated thermal efficiency  
m f  C.V

m f  0.082 kg/min  0.082  60

 4.92 kg/hr
3.30 Thermal Engineering - I

19.45  3600
Indicated   0.32345
4.92  44000

 32.345%

Air standard efficiency: air standard


Swept volume V s   D 2  L for one cylinder
4


  0.075 2  0.1
4

V s  4.4178  10  4 m3

V c  115 cm 3  115  10  6 m 3

Vs  Vc 4.4178  10  4  115  10  6
Compression ratio  r  
Vc 115  10  6

 4.8415

[Otto cycle efficiency formula is used since it is a petrol

engine]

1
 air standard  1 
1
r
1
1  0.4679
4.8415 1.4  1
 46.79%
ind icated
Relative efficiency on the basis of IP 
air standatd

0.32345
  0.6912
0.4679

 69.12%
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.31

3.4 MEASUREMENT OF AIR CONSUMPTION

Orifice chamber method is used in laboratory for
measuring the consumption of air. The arrangement of this
system is shown in Fig. 3.12.
It consists of an air tight chamber in which a sharp
edged orifice is fitted. The orifice is situated away from the
suction connection of the engine. A rubber diaphragm is
provided to further reduce the pressure pulsations. There
is a pressure depression due to the suction of the engine
which causes the flow through the orifice for obtaining a
steady flow. The volume of the chamber should be
sufficiently large as compared with the swept volume of the
cylinder. Generally 500 to 600 times the swept volume. The
pressure difference which causes the flow through the
orifice is measured with the help of manometer fitted in
the airbox. The pressure difference is kept to 10 cm of
water to make the compressibility effect negligible.

Let A  Are a of orifice in m 2

hw  Head of water in m
d  D iameter of orifice in m

w  Density of water kg/m 3

a  Density of air in kg/m 3

C d  Coefficient of discharge of orifice
M ea su re m e nt of A ir C o nsum p tion
Head in terms of air in m is th rou gh the orifice cha m b er m eth od
given by
w . .
H  hw ;  . H  a  h w w 
a  
3.32 Thermal Engineering - I

The velocity of air passing through the orifice is given by

V  
2 g H m/s

 The volume of air passing through the orifice is given

by V a  A  V  C d  C d  A  


2gH

Mass of air passing through the orifice is given by,



m a  V a  a kg/sec

The density of atmospheric air is given by

Pa Va  m a R a Ta

ma Pa Pa
a   
Va Ra Ta 287  T a

The volumetric efficiency of the engine is given by

Actual volum e of air tak en in m 3/sec

Vol. 
D isplacement volume in m 3/sec

Cd  A  

2gH
 2
D  N 
L or N  2   No . of cylinders
4  60 
when the volumetric analysis of the exhaust gas is known,
then the mass of air supplied per kg of fuel is given by

NC
m a/kg of fuel 
33 C 1  C 2

where N  Percentage of nitrogen by volume in exhaust gas

C  Pe rcen tage of carbon in fuel by weigh t

C 1  Percentage of CO 2 by volume in exhaust gas
C 2  Percentage of CO by volum e in exhaust gas
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.33

PROBLEM IN MEASUREMENT OF AIR SUPPLIED

Problem 3.7: Following readings were obtained during the
test on a single cylinder, 4 stroke IC engine.
Dia of orifice of the air tank = 21 mm; pressure causing air
flow through the orifice = 10 cm of water. Find the quantity
of air consumed per second, if its density under atmospheric
conditions is 1.15 kg/m3. Take coefficient of discharge for the
orifice as 0.7.

Solution:
h w  0.1m of water ; a  1.15 kg/m 3; C d  0.7


Area of orifice A   0.021 2  3.464  10 4m 2
4

Head causing flow of air through orifice (H)

w
H  hw 
a

1000  . . .   1000 kg/m 3 

 0.1  w
1.15  

H  86.957 m of air column


Quantity of air flow in m 3/sec  V a  C d A 

2gH

 0.7  3.464  10 4 

 2  9.81  86.957

V a  0.010016 m 3/sec

Mass of air flow in kg/sec  V a  a

 0.010016  1.15  0.01152

3.34 Thermal Engineering - I

m 3 kg
 0.01152  or kg/s ec
sec m 3


m a 0.01152 kg/sec

3.5 FUEL CONSUMPTION

Fuel consumption can be specified in terms of volume
or by weight of fuel consumed. For automobiles it is
expressed in terms of kilometer per litre.

Measurement of fuel consumption is very important

in engine testing. Fuel consumption measurement is a
tedious process as it is affected by a number of factors:

(i) Vapour bubbles formed in the fuel line could cause

a back flow in the movement of fuel. Some flow
meters cannot distinguish between a back flow and
a forward flow.
(ii) In the case of turbine type flow meter, if there is
any swirl in the fuel flow, then it is registered as
a higher flow rate.
(iii) The density of fuel may vary according to the
temperature thereby causing errors in the
measurements.
(iv) Some flowmeters use light beam where the
measurement may be affected by the colour of the
fuel.
The basic flow measuring methods are

(i) Volumetric type

(ii) Gravimetric type

 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.35

3.5.1 Volumetric type

Time taken by the engine to consume the required
volume is measured by using stop watch.
Volumetric flow rate is defined as the rate of
consumption of fuel over time
Consumption o f fuel
V olumetric flow rate 
Time

There are two methods to measure fuel consumption

based on volumetric type.
1. Burette method
2. Automatic volumetric flow meter
3.5.1.1 Burette method
A simple arrangement for
measuring fuel consumption rate is
shown in Fig 3.15(a). A small
glass tube burette is fitted to the
main fuel tank. When the fuel
consumption rate is to be
measured, the valve is closed and
the fuel is consumed from the
burette as shown in the figure.
For a known value of fuel consumption, the time is
measured and the fuel consumption rate is calculated as
under.

V cc  Sp.gravity of fu el
F ue l consumption kg/hr 
1000  time

In practical, the burette method is modified as shown

in Fig. 3.13.
3.36 Thermal Engineering - I

Fu el Stora ge Tank

3 - w a y cork

Index

1 00 cc
2 00 cc

Index

3 - w a y cork

To E ngin e
Fig. 3.13(b). Burette M ethod of M easuring Fuel Con su mption

This method consists of two spherical glass bulbs

having 100 cc and 200 cc capacities. They are connected to
three way corks, where one is used to feed the engine while
the other is being filled.
The volume of fuel lost in one of the bulb is equal to
the volume of fuel gained in the other. Glass bulbs of
different volumes are used so as to account to the small
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.37

variations in the fuel head which is highly essential in case

of carburetor engines.
Another reason to use the glass bulbs of different
capacities is to maintain the test timing as a constant
regardless of the engine load.

To avoid the error, the calibrations on the burette are

illuminated using photo cells.

A stop watch is used to determine the time taken for

fuel consumption and the volumetric fuel flow is thus
determined.

3.5.1.2 Automatic volumetric flow meter

This automatic volumetric type fuel flow measuring
instrument is commercially available. It consists of
measuring volume chamber (V) which has photocell (P) and
lighting source (S) fitted in tubular housings. These
housings are put opposite to each other at an angle so that
a point of light is formed on the axis of measuring volume
(V). Light source are also placed on the lower and upper
portions of the measuring cylinder. An equalization
chamber (E) is connected to the measuring tube through
the airtube (F) and, Magnetic valve (M) and an equalization
pipe (G) which are used to provide an air cushion. This
cushion is used to maintain the supply line pressure and
to store fuel during measurement.

WORKING
On pressing the start button, the lamps in the two
photoelectric systems light up so that the Magnetic valve
stops the flow on the lower end. The fuel level in the
measuring volume chamber starts falling down at a rate
depending on the engine consumption. At the same time,
3.38 Thermal Engineering - I

Po sition 1 Po sition 2 N o rm al flow

E F E F E F

S P S P S P

U U U

M easuring G G G
M easuring M easuring
Volum e Volum e
Volum e
S P S P S P
L L L

M M M

M eter M eter M eter

Fig. 3.14. Autom atic Vo lum etric Flow M eter.

an equal amount of fuel flows through equalization tube to

equalization chamber. When the fuel level reaches the
upper measuring level (U) inside the measuring chamber,
the focussed beam of light is reflected upon the photocell
at the lower end which in turn converts it into an electrical
signal. This signal opens the valve and starts the timer
counter.
When the fuel level falls to lower measuring level (L)
the corresponding signal stops the timer counter. Thus the
time period of consumption of fuel can be accurately
determined.

3.5.2 Gravimetric fuel flow measurement

Volumetric fuel flow meters are often used to
determine the time taken for fuel consumptions in liters.
Hence it is necessary to relate the output to the specific
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.39

Fuel Tan k

To E ngin e
Valve 1

Valve 2

Flask

Pa n of W eighing
Ba lance

Fig. 3.15. G ravim etric Fuel Flow Measuring Unit Schematic Diagram

gravity of the fuel in order to determine the efficiency of

the engine. Due to various external factors, this may lead
to several errors. Since the efficiency of an engine is
directly related to the mass of fuel and not its volume,
gravimetric fuel flow measuring device provides higher
accuracy relatively.
This method is used for weighing the fuel supplied to
the engine by an arrangement shown in Fig. 3.15.
Construction
It consists of a fuel tank which is connected to the
engine through a one way valve V1. The measuring unit
is a flask which is placed on a balance. A part of the fuel
3.40 Thermal Engineering - I

can enter the flask through a two way valve V2 as shown
in the figure.

Working
When the measurement is not needed V1 is opened
and V2 is closed, so that the fuel flows directly to the
engine. To measure the fuel consumed, V2 is now opened
and a part of the fuel from V1 is sent to the flask. The
weight of the fuel is recorded. V1 is then closed and the
fuel from the flask is syphoned off to the engine. The time
taken to completely consume the fuel from the flask is
recorded using a timer. This effectively determines the
mass of fuel consumed per unit time. Thus the fuel
consumption in gravimetric units are obtained.
3.5.3 Measurement of Heat Carried Away by Cooling
Water
The heat carried away by cooling water is measured
by measuring the quantity of water flowing through the
jacket and the rise in temperature of the cooling water. The
quantity of water flowing through the jacket is measured
by collecting it in a bucket for a specified time or directly
with the help of a flow meter. The inlet and outlet
temperatures of the water are measured by thermometers
which are inserted in the pockets provided. The heat
carried away by cooling water is given by

Q w  m w  C pw To  Ti

w here m w  mass of wa ter/minute

C pw  Specific heat of water generally taken as 4.187 kJ/kg

To  Outlet temperature of water in C

T i  Inlet temperature of w ater in C
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.41

3.6 EXHAUST GAS COMPOSITION

Emissions can be defined as the unburnt fuel and
other by-products exiting the combustion chamber. Based
on the visibility, emissions can be broadly classified into

 Visible emissions
 Invisible emissions
Some common emissions found are:

(i) Varbon dioxide

(ii) Water vapour
(iii) Unburnt hydrocarbons
(iv) Oxides of nitrogen
(v) Aldehydes
(vi) Carbon monoxide
(vii) Smoke
(viii) Particulate matter

Based on the type of emission, it’s effect on the

environment can vary.

3.6.1 Oxides of Nitrogen

Oxides of Nitrogen occur only in the engine exhaust
and are a combination of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen
dioxide NO 2. Nitrogen and oxygen react only at high
temperatures. More amount of nitric oxide (NO) is formed
when the proper amount of oxygen is available and when
the combustion temperature is high.

The NO x concentration in exhaust is affected by the

mode of vehicle operation and the engine design. Air-fuel
ratio and spark advance also play a key role in it. The
concentration of NO x is low at rich and lean air fuel
3.42 Thermal Engineering - I

Sp an G a s inle t Sa m ple G a s in let

Air in le t

P
Flow M eter

NOX / NO
C o nvertor

O 3 G e n erator

Scrubb er 3 W a y Valve

R e action C ham be r

Ph oto
M ultip lier
Tube

Fig. 3.16. M easu ring O xides of

Nitro gen b y Chemilum inescence M eth od
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.43

mixtures. The maximum NO x is formed at air-fuel ratios

between 14:1 and 16:1. If the ignition advance is increased,
it will result in lower peak combustion temperatures and
high exhaust temperature and thus high NO x concentration
is obtained in the exhaust.
Chemiluminescence analyzer is a method used for
measuring Oxides of Nitrogen. The principle of
measurement is based a chemiluminescence reaction
between ozone and NO which results in the formation of
excited NO 2. This excited NO 2 emits light of intensity
proportional to the concentration of NO. Photo multiplier
tube is used to amplify and measure the light intensity.

Thus the concentration of NO x can be measured

effectively. However, Nitrogen dioxides NO 2 are not
measured by the analyser.

To analyse all the oxides of Nitrogen, a converter is

fitted in reaction chamber to convert oxides of nitrogen into
nitric oxide.

3.6.2 Carbon monoxide (CO)

Carbon monoxide is emitted in engine exhaust as a
result of the incomplete combustion either due to
insufficient amount of air in air-fuel mixture, or insufficient
time in the cycle to complete the combustion. Theoretically
the gasoline engine exhaust can be made free from CO if
the air-fuel mixture ratio is greater than 16:1.

When the engine is in idling conditions, due to low

oxygen concentrations, production of CO is high. Upon
acceleration, due to enough oxygen supply, the formation of
CO is reduced. The amount of CO produced is minimum
3.44 Thermal Engineering - I

during accelerations and at constant speeds. During

decelerations, the supply of oxygen is minimized by closing
the throttle valve. Hence a high amount of CO is produced
at the exhaust.
The instrument used for measuring of CO is Non
Dispersive Infra-red Analyzer. This instrument is commonly
used for testing and legal certification of some automotive
exhaust emissions. This method of detection is based on
the principle of attenuation of light to the properties of the
material through which the light is travelling.

NDIR Method (Non Dispersive infrared method)

An NDIR setup typically consists of a sampling
chamber, a reference chamber, an infra-red light source and
an infra-red detector (Fig. 3.17). A chopper wheel is
mounted between the chambers and the light source, and
it is controlled by using a DC motor. The detector is placed
at the end of the chambers, directed towards the chamber.

The sampling chamber consists of the gas which is to

be detected (Carbon Monoxide emissions) while the
reference chamber consists of a known gas, typically
Fo c usin g S a m ple
L en s C h am be r

E m itter D e tec to r
R e feren ce
C h op pe r C h am be r
W h e el
Fig.3.17. S ch em atic D ia gram o f N D IR
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.45

Nitrogen. When the IR light is turned on, the radiations

excite the gases present in the chambers. These gases
absorb a portion of the radiation. The remaining
unabsorbed part of radiation is sent to the detector. The
wavelength of radiation produced in the sampling chamber
is compared with the wavelength from the reference
chamber and thus the amount of CO present in the
sampling chamber can be determined.

3.6.3 Unburnt hydrocarbons

In the case of incomplete combustion, the unburnt
hydrocarbon emission occurs. The induction system design
and combustion chamber design are the two key factors
which affect the amount of hydrocarbon emitted. Other
variables like air-fuel ratio, speed, load, mode of operations
and maintenance also play a major role in the emission
conditions.

The air-fuel ratio of the engine mainly depends upon

the configuration of the induction chamber. Since unburnt
hydrocarbons are a result of improper mixing of air and
fuel, the induction chamber directly influences these
emissions.

Engine maintenance also determines how long an

engine will operate in the designated air-fuel ratio. Piston
ring wears, coolant effectiveness, lubrication, deposits and
other factors regarding wear are also more likely to affect
the air-fuel ratio, thereby influencing the emissions.

The design of combustion chamber is important. A

portion of the air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber
comes into direct contact with chamber walls where it is
quenched due to cooling action and do not burn completely.
3.46 Thermal Engineering - I

In exhaust stroke, this unburnt air-fuel mixture is forced

out from the chamber. Thus a sizable amount of unburnt
fuel exits the engine, thereby leading to high emission of
unburnt hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbon emissions are usually measured using a
flame ionization detector Fig. 3.18. It works on the
principle that electrically charged particles move towards
the respective electrodes after ionization. The emitted
hydrocarbons are ionized to a plasma state inside a
chamber. The movement of ionized carbon atoms is
obtained in the form of micro ampheres. This is directly
proportional to the concentration of hydrocarbons.

H 2 + Air Fla m e

A m p lifie r

C ollector P late s E xit

G a ses

H eated M etal A ir D istrib utor

B lock
Flam e
C ham b er

A ir Fuel G a s
C apilla ry
C olu mn
Fig. 3.18. Flam e ion ization metho d for unburn t
hydrocarbon detection
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.47

3.6.4 Aldehydes
The fuels which contain aldehydes can lead to higher
level of oxygenated hydrocarbon emissions. Emission of
odorous hydrocarbons from the engine is generally known
as carcinogenic. These aldehydes are responsible for the
pungent smell from the engine exhaust.

Based on wet chemical principle, the measurement for

aldehydes are done by following methods.

(i) Dinitrophenol hydrozine method

(ii) Iodine titration method

(iii) Chronotropic acid method

3.7 VISIBLE EMISSIONS

Visible emissions are often considered as a nuisance.
For several diesel engine like cars, trucks, ships, buses,
motor cycles etc. smoke is one of the visible emissions.

3.7.1 Smoke
In combustion process, due to incomplete combustion,
smoke is formed and carried out from the engine exhaust.
Smoke in diesel engines are of blue, white and black in
colour. Smoke measurement can be done using comparison
method and obscuration method.

3.7.1.1 Comparison method

The regulation of smoke emissions is based on
estimation of density of smoke from exhaust. Among
comparison methods, ringelmann chart is one of the
commonly used methods. The amount of dense black smoke
from exhaust is directly correlated to the combustion
3.48 Thermal Engineering - I

2 0% B lack 4 0% B lack 6 0% B lack 8 0% B lack

C h art 1 C h art 2 C h art 3 C h art 4
Fig. 3.19. Ringelm ann Ch art

efficiency. If the smoke is darker, then the engine has poor

efficiency.
Ringelmann developed a chart, to categorize the
density of black smoke into four shades of gray, pure white
background and all black grids. To remove the difficulties,
the shades are built in black lines of varying widths.

By placing the charts nearly 10 m away from the

exhaust, the grids appear as shades of grey. Comparing the
shades of smoke with the corresponding shade on the charts
the density of the smoke can be determined. The charts
are numbered from 1 to 5 with 1 being clean smoke and
5 being most dense and black.

3.7.1.2 Obscuration method

This method can be divided into

(i) Light extinction type

(ii) Continuous filtering type

(iii) Spot filtering type

 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.49

(i) Light extinction type

In this method, the intensity of light beam, is reduced
due to presence of smoke, which is a measure of smoke
intensity.

P h otoe le ctric c ell Illu m ina to r

( D e te ctor ) ( L ig ht S o urce )
E n gine
To Im ag e E xha u st
S e nso r

In dica ting M eter

Fig. 3.2 0. O bscu ration Metho d F or M easuring Smo ke

An exhaust sample of smoke is continuously passed

through a tube of 50 cm in length.

One end of the tube has a source of light while the

other end has a photocell. The intensity of light falling on
the photocell produces a relative amount of photocurrent.
The amount of photo current produced is inversely
proportional to the intensity of the smoke. Smoke level or
smoke density is defined as the ratio of electric output from
the photocell when sample is passed through the tube to
the electric output when clean air is passed through it.

(ii) Continuous Filtering Type

This type provides provision for continuous checking

of the quality of the exhaust. The measurement of smoke
intensity is carried out by passing the exhaust gas
3.50 Thermal Engineering - I

continuously through a moving strip of filter paper. The

filter paper collects the particles emitted from it.
Van Brand Smokemeter works on this principle.

E ngine
E xhau st

Filte r B locks

Filte r Ta pe R o ll
Filte r Ta pe D rive

Fig. 3.21. Con tin uou s F ilter Type Sm oke M eter.

The exhaust gas sample is passed continuously at

constant rate through a strip of filter paper which is
moving at preset speed. While moving the strip, a stain
due to emission is imprinted on the paper. The intensity
of the stain is directly proportional to the intensity of the
smoke produced. Amount of light passing through the paper
is usually used to determine the intensity of the stain.

(iii) Spot filtering type

The smoke intensity is measured by filtering the

quantity of exhaust gas through a fixed filter paper
Filte r Ta pe

E ngine E xh au st P um p

Fig. 3.22. Sp ot Filterin g Type Sm oke Meter.

 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.51

Bosch smokemeter is based on this concept. From the

exhaust, a definite quantity of exhaust gas is passed
through a fixed filter paper. The amount of smoke stains
on filter paper are evaluated by using a light source. Now
this type is modified by using a pneumatically operated
sampling pump and an electronic unit (Photo cell) to
measure the intensity of smoke stain. The intensity of the
smoke stain is directly proportional to the intensity of the
smoke.

La m p

P hoto Ele ctric

D e te ctor

R o llin g Filter
P aper d isc P ow e r
S ource

R e ciproca tin g
P iston

10

P neum a tic
Tripp in g D ev ice M icrom eter sc aled
0 to 1 0 sm oke num ber
(M ea su ring U n it)

B ellow s
S etting
K nob

Fig. 3.23. B osch S moke M eter.

3.52 Thermal Engineering - I

3.7.2 Measurement of Heat Carried Away by Exhaust

Gas
The mass of air supplied per kg of fuel is calculated
by the equation

 NC 
ma  o r m a can be measured by an orifice
33 C 1  C 2

(The mass of exhaust gases can be obtained by adding

together the mass of fuel supplied and the mass of air
supplied)

The heat carried away by exhaust gas per kg of fuel

is given by

Q g  m g C pg  T g  T a  m a  1  C pg Tg  Ta 

where m a  1   mass of exhaust gas formed

per kg of fuel supplied

C pg  Specific heat of exhaust gases

T g  Temperature of exhaust gases coming out of the engine in C

Ta  Ambient Temperature in C

3.8 HEAT BALANCE SHEET

A heat balance sheet is an account of heat supplied,

heat utilised and dissipated in different ways in a system.
The performance of the engine is obtained from the heat
balance sheet.

A heat balance account includes the following items.

 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.53


Heat supplied by the fuel to the engine  mf  L.C.V

where m f is the mass of fuel supplied per minute and L.C.V
is the lower calorific value of the fuel.

1. Heat equivalent of brake power =

Brake power  60 kJ/min . where Brake power is in kW.

2. Heat lost to jacket cooling water

 m w C pw T o  T i kJ/min

3. Heat lost to exhaust gases

 m g C pg  Tg  Ta  kJ/min

4. The remaining heat is lost by convection and radiation.

This cannot be measured and so this is known as
unaccounted loss. This is calculated by the difference of
heat supplied and the sum of (1) + (2) + (3). i.e
Q ua  Q s  [Q I.P or B.P  Q w  Qg kJ/hr]

A heat balance sheet is shown in Table below

Heat Balance Sheet

Heat supplied Heat expenditure

kJ % kJ %
per minute per minute
Heat supplied by — 100 1. Heat equivalent of — —
the combustion of brake power (or)
fuel Indicated Power
2. Heat lost to — —
jacket cooling water
3. Heat lost to — —
exhaust gases
4. Unaccounted heat — —
= Heat supplied –
[(1) + (2) + (3)]
Total — 100 Total — 100
3.54 Thermal Engineering - I

Problem 3.8: A gas engine, working on 4 stroke constant

volume cycle (Otto cycle) gave the following results when loaded
by friction brake during a test of an hour’s duration.
Cylinder diameter = 250 mm; Stroke length = 500 mm
Clearance volume  4450  10 6 m3 Effective circumference of
the brake wheels = 3.86 m; Net load on brake 1260 N at overall
speed of 230 rpm. Average explosion/min 77; m.e.p = 7.5 bar.
Gas used 13m3/hr at 15C and 771 mm of Hg. L.C.V (Lower
Calorific Value) of gas 49500 kJ/m3 at NTP; Cooling jacket
water 660 kg raised to 35C. Heat lost to exhaust gases 10%.
Calculate 1. I.P. 2. B.P.; 3. Indicated thermal efficiency 4.
Relative efficiency; 5. Also draw a heat balance sheet for the
engine.

Solution:
1. To find I.P
P m AL n.e. 
I.P. 
60

where n.e. = no of explosion/min

7.5  10 2  /4  0.25 2  0.5  77

I.P 
60

 23.623 kW

2. To find B.P
2  NT 2  N[W  S  R ]
B.P.  
60 60

where R = effective radius; (W-S) Net load on brake = 1260 N

Effective circumference  d  3.86 m

d  1.2287 m
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.55

R  0.6143
2   230  1.26   0.6143
B.P 
60
 18.6437 kW

3. To find the Indicated thermal efficiency:

indicated

I.P  3600
indicated  
[V f  C.V]at N.T.P

First of all we have to find out V f at N.T.P condition
[i.e., N.T.P means Normal temperature 0C and pressure
760 mm of Hg]
C.V  49,500 kJ /m3

V f  V olume of fuel ga s at NTP in m 3/hr

TNTP  0C  273  273 K
P NTP  760 mm of Hg  1.01325 bar

Gas used V 1  13 m 3/hr; T 1  15  273  288K;

P 1  771 mm of Hg
P NTP V NTP P 1 V 1

TNTP T1
P 1 V1 TNTP
771  13 273
V NTP    
T1 P NTP 288 760

 12.50127 m 3/hr  V f

23.623  3600
 indicated   0.13743
12.50127  49500

 13.743 %
3.56 Thermal Engineering - I

4. To find Relative efficiency

Relative efficiency on the basis of indicated thermal 

Indicated thermal efficiency


Air standard efficiency

1
 air standard  Air standard efficiency  1 
1
r

 Total volume  Vs  Vc
where r  compression ratio   
 Clearance volume  Vc

 
Swept volume V s   D2  L   0.25 2  0.5
4 4
 0.02454 m 3
Clearance volume V c  4450  10  6 m 3
Vs  Vc 0.02454  4450  10  6
r   6.515
Vc 4450  10  6

1
 air standard  1   0.5275  52.75 %
6.515 1.4  1 [For air   1.4]
0.13743
Relative efficiency   0.260554
0.5275
 26.06 %
To draw Heat Balance Sheet [in min basis]

V f  C.V
Heat supplied by fuel Qs 
60
12.50127  49500

60
 10313.55 kJ/min
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.57

Q s  10,313.55 kJ/min

To find Q IP
Heat utilised for I.P.  23.623 kW  23.623  60

 1417.38 kJ/min

Q I.P.  1417.38 kJ /min

Q I.P 1417.38
Q I.P in%   100   100  13.74%
Qs 10313.55

Heat carried out by cooling water


Q w  m w Cpw t2  t1

 660
m w  660 kg/hr  Kg/min  11 kg/min
60

C pw  4.187 kJ/kg K

t2  t1   t  35 C

Q w  11  4.187  35  1612 kJ/min

Q w  1612 kJ/min

Qw 1612
Q w in%   100   100  15.63%
Qs 10313.55

Heat lost through exhaust gases

Q g  10% of Q s  0.1  10,313.55  1031.36 kJ/min

Q g  1031.36 kJ /m in

Qg 1031.36
Q g in%   100   100  10%
Qs 10313.55
3.58 Thermal Engineering - I

Unaccou nted heat loss  Q s  [QI.P  Q w  Q g]

 10313.55  [1417.38  1612  1031.36 ]

 6252.81 kJ/min

Q unaccounted  6253 kJ/min

Q ua 6253
Q ua in%   100   100  60.63%
Qs 10313.55

Now we can draw the heat balance sheet.

Heat Balance Sheet

CREDIT DEBIT
Heat Heat
kJ
supplied kJ/min % expenditure %
min
per minute per min
Heat supplied 10313.55 100% 1. Heat 1417.38 13.74%
by the utilized for
combus- tion I.P. QI.P.
of fuel
2. Heat 1612 15.63 %
carried out
by cooling
water Qw
3. Heat lost 1031.36 10%
through
exhaust
gases Qg
4. 6252.81 60.63%
Unaccounted
heat loss
Qunacc
Total 10313.55 100% 10313.55 100%
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.59

Problem 3.9: During the trial of a single cylinder 4-stroke oil

engine, the following results were obtained. Cylinder dia 20 cm;
stroke 40 cm, MEP 6 bar, torque 407 N-m, speed 250 rpm, Oil
consumption 4 kg/h, Calorific value 43 MJ/kg, cooling water
flow rate 45 kg/min, air used per kg of fuel 30 kg, rise in
cooling water temperature 45C, temperature of exhaust gases
420C, room temperature 20C, mean specific heat of exhaust
gas 1 kJ/kgK. Find the indicated power, brake power, and
draw the heat balance sheet for the test in kJ/hr.
(JNTU - August 2014 set (2))

Solution:
To find Indicated Power
N
Pm  L  A 
2
I.P 
60 . .N 
 . 2 for 4 stroke 
 
  250
600  0.4    0.2 2  
 4  2
  15.71 kW
60

To find Brake Power

2  NT 2   250  0.407
BP    10.65 kW
60 60

To draw Heat Balance Sheet [in hour basis]


Heat supplied by fuel Q s  m f  C.V

 4  43  10 3  172  10 3 kJ/hr

Q ip
Heat utilized for I.P  15.71  3600

 56.556  10 3 kJ /hr
3.60 Thermal Engineering - I

Qw
Heat carried out by cooling water

Q w  m w Cpw t2  t1

 4.5  60  4.187 45  50.872  10 3 kJ/hr

Heat lost through exhaust gases ‘Q g’


Q g  m g  C pg   tg

A : F  30 : 1

m g  Air  Oil consum ption/hr

 30  4  4  124 kg/hr

Q g  124  1  420  20  49.6  10 3 kJ/hr

To find Unaccounted loss ‘Q U ’

Q u  Q s  [Q IP  Q w  Q g]

 172  10 3  [56.56  10 3  50.872  103  49.6  10 3]

Q  14.972  10 3 kJ/hr

Now we can draw the heat balance sheet.

 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.61

Heat Balance Sheet

CREDIT DEBIT
Heat Heat
kJ
supplied kJ/hr % expenditure %
hr
per hour per hour
Heat 172  103 1. Heat 56.56  103 32.9.%
supplied by utilized for
the combus- I.P. QI.P.
tion of fuel
2. Heat 50.87  103 29.6 %
carried out
by cooling
water Qw
3. Heat lost 49.6  103 28.8%
through
exhaust
gases Qg
4. 14.97  103 8.7%
Unaccounted
heat loss Qu
Total 172  10 3 100% 172  103 100%

Problem 3.10: In a test of oil engine, under full load, the

following results were obtained. IP 33 kW, Brake power 27 kW,
oil consumption 8 kg/h, Calorific value 43 MJ/kg, cooling
water flow rate 7 kg/min, rate of flow for water through gas
calorimeter 12 kg/h, rise in cooling water temperature 60C,
final temperature of exhaust gases 80C, room temperature
17C, Air-fuel ratio as mass basis 20, rise in water temperature
through exhaust gas calorimeter 40C, mean specific heat of
exhaust gas 1 kJ/kg. Draw the heat balance sheet and find thermal
and mechanical efficiencies. (JNTU - Aug 2014 - Set 3)
3.62 Thermal Engineering - I

Solution:
IP  3600 33  3600
Indicated thermal    
m f  CV 8  43  10 3
 0.3453  34.53%
B.P  3600 27  3600
Brake thermal   
m f  CV 8  43  10 3
 28.26%

B.P 27
Mechanical    81.82%
I.P 33

To draw Heat balance sheet


Heat supplied by fuel Q s  mf  C.V

 8  43  10 3  344  10 3 kJ/kg

Q IP
Heat utilized for IP

Q IP  33  3600  118.8  10 3 kJ/hr

Qw
Heat carried out by cooling water

Q w  m w Cpw  Tw

 7  60   4.187  60

 105.51  10 3 kJ/hr
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.63

Q cal
Heat lost through gas calorimeter

Q cal  12  4.187  40  2  10 3 kJ/hr

Heat lost through exhaust gases ‘Q g’


Q g  m g  C pg  Tg

A : F  20 : 1


m g  Air  Fuel co nsumption/hr

 8  20  8  168 kg/hr

Q g  168  1  80  17  10.58  10 3 kJ /hr

To find Unaccounted loss

Q U  Q S   Q IP  Q w  Q cal  Q g 
 

 344  10 3  [118.8  10 3  105.51  10 3  2  10 3

 10.58  10 3]

 107.11  10 3 kJ/hr

Now we can draw the heat balance sheet

3.64 Thermal Engineering - I

Heat Balance Sheet

CREDIT DEBIT
Heat Heat
kJ
supplied kJ/hr % expenditure %
hr
per hour per hour
Heat 344  103 100 1. Heat 118.8  103 34.53
supplied by utilized for
the combus- I.P. QI.P.
tion of fuel
2. Heat 105.51  103 30.67
carried out by
cooling water
Qw
3. Heat lost 10.58  103 3.08
through
exhaust gases
Qg
4. Heat lost 2  103 0.006
through gas
calorimeter
Qcal
5. 107.11  103 31.14
Unaccounted
heat loss Qu
Total 344  10 3 100 344  103 100%

Problem 3.11: Following data are available for a four stroke

4 cylinder petrol engine: Air-fuel ratio (by weight) 15.5:1
Calorific value of fuel 45,000 kJ/kg
mech  80%; air standard  53% ; Relative efficiency  70%
Volumetric efficiency 80%; stroke/bore ratio 1.25
Suction condition 1 bar and 27 C; Speed - 2400 rpm
Power at brakes = 75 kW: Calculate (1) compression ratio
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.65

(2) indicated (3) Brake specific fuel consumption (4) Bore and
stroke

Solution: 1. To find compression ratio:

Since it is petrol engine, we can use air standard
efficiency for otto cycle.

1
A ir stan dard efficiency  1 
1
r

1 . .
0.53  1  [ .   1.4 for air]
1.4  1
r

1
0.4
 1  0.53  0.47
r

1
r0.4 
0.47

r  6.603

2. Indicated thermal efficiency:

Indicated thermal 
Relative efficiency 
Air standard 

Indicated thermal   Relative   Air standard 

 0.7  0.53  0.371  37.1 %

3. To find brake specific fuel consumption


First of all, we have to find fuel consumption m f in
kg/hr

To find m f in kg/hr
We can use this formula

I.P  3600
Indicated thermal efficiency  
mf  C.V
3.66 Thermal Engineering - I

To find IP
B .P
Mech  
I.P.

B.P 75
I.P    93.75 kW
 mec h 0.8

 I.P.  3600
mf 
 indic ated  C.V.

93.57  3600
  20.216 kg/hr
0.371  45,000

 5.6155  10  3 kg/sec

mf 20.216
B.S.F.C    0.26954 kg/kW.hr
B.P 75

To find Bore and Stroke

For every 1 kg of fuel, mass of air-fuel mixuture
 1  15.5  16.5 kg

 For 5.6155  10  3 kg/sec of fuel, the mass of air-fuel

mixture  16.5  5.6155  10  3

 0.092655 kg/sec

To find volume of air-fuel mixture in m 3/sec V 
 
P V  m RT

 m
RT 0.092655  287  27  273
V 
P 1  10 5

 0.07978 m 3/sec
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.67

Actua l volume in m 3/sec

Volumetric efficiency 
S wept volu me in m3/sec

 V 0.07978
3
 Swept Vo lume in m /sec V s  
vol 0.8

 0.09972 m 3/sec

   N
Vs    D2  L   n
4  2  60
N
[ for 4 stroke cycle engine;
2

n  No of cylinders = 4;

L
 1.25; L  1.25 D ]
D

 2400
0.09972   D 2  1.25 D   4  78.54 D 3
4 2  60

B ore D  0.1083 m

S troke L  1.25 D  1.25  0.1083  0.1354 m

Problem 3.12: Calculate the bore and storke of a four stroke

single cylinder diesel engine designed to the following
particulars. B.P = 25 kW when running on diesel fuel having
composition by mass C = 85% and H2  15% and lower calorific
value of 41000 kJ/Kg. The fuel oil is burnt with 25% excess
air and volumetric efficiency calculated on atmospheric
condition of 1.01325 bar and 10C is 80%. Assume mechanical
efficiency of 0.9, indicated thermal efficiency of 0.35. Assume
R = 0.287 kJ/kg K and bore to stroke ratio of 1:12. Assume
speed of the engine 300 rpm.
3.68 Thermal Engineering - I

To find quantity of air required

Minimum air required per kg of fuel

100  8  O2  
  C  8  H2  S
23  3  8  
100  8 
  0.85  8 [0.15  0]  0 
23  3 
 15.0724 kg of air/kg of fuel

Since the fuel is burnt with 25% excess air quantity

of air required

 1.25  15.0724

 18.841 kg of air/kg of fuel

To find mass of air in kg/sec

B.P 25
I.P    27.78 kW
 mec h 0.9

I.P  3600
indicated  
m f  C.V.

where m f  mass of fuel in kg/hr

 I.P  3600
mf 
indic ated  C.V

27.78  3600
  6.969 kg/hr
0.35  41000

To burn 1 kg of fuel  18.841 kg of air required

to burn 6.969 kg/hr of fuel  18.841  6.969

 131.296 kg/hr
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.69

So to burn 6.969 kg of fuel/hr, 131.296 kg of air/hr

is required.

The mass of air required = 131.296 kg/hr.

To find volume of air in m 3/sec

 
P V  m RT

 131.296  287  10  273

V 5
 105.25 m 3/hr
1.01325  10

 105.25
V  0.029235 kg/sec
3600

To find swept volume: V s
 Actual volume in m 3/sec
Swept vo lume V s 
vol

V 0.029235
 
 vol 0.8

   N
Also swept volume V s    D 2  L   n
4  2  60

D
 1.2; L  1.2 D
L

   300
V s  0.03654    D2  1.2 D   1
 4  2  60

 2.3562 D 3

D  0.2494 m

L  1.2 D  0.29925 m
3.70 Thermal Engineering - I

Problem 3.13: A nine cylinder petrol engine of bore 150 mm

and stroke 200 mm has a compression ratio 6:1 and develops
360 kW at 2000 rpm when running on a mixture of 20% rich.
The fuel used has a calorific value of 43 MJ/kg and contains
85.3% carbon and 14.7% hydrogen. Assuming volumetric
efficiency of 70% at 17C and mechanical efficiency of 90%,
find the indicated thermal efficiency of the engine.
(April/May - 2013 (set-4))

Solution:
To find minimum air required per kg of fuel
100  8  O2  
  C  8  H2  S
23  3  8  
100  8 
  0.853  8 [0.147  0]  0 
23  3 
 15 kg of air/kg of fuel

To find Indicated thermal 

I.P  3600
indicated  
m f  CV

So we have to find IP and m f

To find IP
BP 360
IP    400 kW
mech 0.9

To find m f
(Actual mass of fuel consumed in kg/hr)

Assume P  1.01325 bar  101.325 kPa


V  Volume of mixture sucked inside the cylinders in m 3/s
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.71

 N or N/2
V  V   vol   No.of cylinders
60

 2 N
Where V  D  L and for 4 stroke and n  9
4 2
cylinder.
   2000  1 
V    0.15 2  0.2  0.7     60  9 
 4  2  
 0.3711 m 3/s
 
PV  m RT

 P V 102.325  0.3711
m    0.452 kg/s
RT 0.287  290

15 kg of air is required for 1 kg of fuel

0.452
Mass of fuel used   0.03012 kg of fuel/sec
15

Since it is 20% rich mixture,

Actual amount of fuel used  0.03012  1.2

 0.03614 kg of fuel/sec

m f  mass of fuel/hr  0.03614  3600  130.11 kg /hr

To find indicated
I.P  3600 400  3600
indicated   
m f  CV 130.11  43  10 3

 0.2574

 25.74%

Problem 3.14: Air consumption for a four stroke petrol engine

is measured by means of a circular orifice of diameter 3.5 cm.
3.72 Thermal Engineering - I

The Cd of orifice is 0.6 and the pressure across the orifice is

14 cm of water. The barometer reads 760 mm of Hg.
Temperature of air in the room is 24 C. The piston
3
displacement volume is 1800 cm . The compression ratio is 6.5.
The fuel consumption is 0.13 kg/min of calorific value 44000
kJ/kg. The brake power developed at 2500 rpm is 28 kW.
Determine 1. Air fuel ratio, 2. the volumetric efficiency on the
basis of air alone 3. the brake mean effective pressure 4. the
relative efficiency on the basis of brake thermal efficiency

Solution:
To find air consumption in kg/sec
w
Head of air column causing flow H  h w
a

h w  14 cm  0.14 m

w  1000 kg/m 3

P 1.01325  10 5
where a  
RT 287  24  273

 1.18872 kg /m3

1000
H  0.14   117.774 m o f air
1.18872

V  A ir consu mption in m 3/sec  C d A 

2gH

C d  0.6


Area of orifice A   0.035 2  9.62112  10  4 m 2
4

V  0.6  9.62112  10  4 
2  9.81  117.774
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.73

 0.02775 m 3/sec
 
m  Air consumption in kg/sec  V  a

 0.02775  1.18872

 0.03299 kg/sec

Air fuel ratio

Mass of air in kg/sec 0.03299 15.23
Air fuel ratio   
Mass o f fuel in kg /sec 0.00216 1

Air consumption in one stroke (V)

 N
VV
2  60

V  2  60 0.02775  2  60
V 
N 2500

 1.332  10 3 m 3

V s  Sw ept volum e  piston displaceme nt volum e given

 1800 cm 3  1800  10 6m 3

To find volumetric efficiency

Actual volume in m 3
 volumetric 
Swept volume in m 3

1.332  10  3
  0.74
1800  10  6

 Volumetric  74%

To find Brake mean effective pressure

N
P m  LA n
2 . .
I.P  [ . N/2 fo r 4 stroke ]
60
3.74 Thermal Engineering - I

Pmbrake  LA N/2  n
Also B.P 
60

B.P  60
So P mBrake 
LA  N/2  n

LA  D isplaceme nt volume  1800  10  6 m 3

B.P  28 kW

28  60
P mBrake 
6
1800  10   2500 /2  1
[n  1 for single cylinder]

 746.667 kP a  7.47 bar

To find Brake thermal efficiency

B.P  3600
 brake  
m f  C.V

m f  m ass of fuel in kg/hr  0.13  60 kg/hr

C.V  44000 kJ/kg

28  3600
brake   0.29371  29.37 %
0.13  60  44000

To find Air Standard efficiency

[for otto cycle since petrol engine]

[compression ratio r = 6.5 given]

1 1
air standard  1  1  0.527
1 1.4  1
r 6.5

 52.7%
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.75

To find relative efficiency on the basis of brake

brake 0.2937
Relative     0.5573  55.73 %
air standard 0.527

Problem 3.15: The following data were recorded during a test

on a 4 stroke cycle gas engine.
Area of indicator diagram  90 cm2 ;
Length of indicator diagram  7 cm ;
Spring scale  0.3 bar/mm [  3 bar/cm]
Diameter of piston  20 cm
Length of stroke  25 cm
Speed  300 rpm
Determine (i) Indicated mean effective pressure
(ii) Indicated Power. JNTU - January 2014 - Set 1

Solution:

To find Indicated mean effective pressure

P m indicated
ad  s 90  3
P m indicated  
ld 7

 38.57 bar

To find IP
N
P m in  AL  n
IP   2 
60

 2  2  300  
 38.57  10   0.2  0.25   1
4  2
  
60
. .N
[ . for 4 stroke]
2
3.76 Thermal Engineering - I

[n  1 for single cylinder]

 75.73 kW

Problem 3.16: A four stroke cycle gas engine has a bore of

20 cm and a stroke of 40 cm. The compression ratio is 6. In
a test on the engine, the IMEP is 5 bar, the air to gas ratio
in 6:1 and calorific value of the gas is 12 MJ/m3 at NTP. At
the beginning of the compression stroke, the temperature is
77C and pressure 0.98 bar. Neglecting residual gases, find the
indicated power and the thermal efficiency of the engine at 250
rpm. (JNTU - August 2014 - Set 4)

Solution:
Given data: 4 stroke; D  0.2 m ; L  0.4 m; r  6 ;
P mindicated  5 bar ; A : F  6, Cv  12  10 3 kJ/m 3 at NTP.

t1  77C; T 1  350 K ; P 1  0.98 bar

N
Pm  LA  n
Indicated power IP   2 
60

  250
5  10 2  0.4    0.2 2   1
4  2
I.P 
60

 13.09 kW

. .
[ . N/2 for 4 stroke and n  1 for single cylinder]

To find V f
 
V 1  V s   D 2  L   0.22  0.4  0.013 m3
4 4

 N /2 0.013  250/2

Vs  Vs    0.0271 m 3/s
60 60
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.77

V s  Volume of gas  Volume of air
  
 Vf  6 V f  7V f  0.0271 m 3/s

 0.0271
Vf   3.87  10  3 m 3/s
7

To find V f at NTP condition
NTP means T  0  273  273 K;P  1.01325 bar

P NTP V NTP P 1 V 1

T NTP T1

101.325  V NTP 98  3.87  10  3


273 350

V NTP  2.92  10  3 m 3/s  V f at NTP

To find indicated thermal efficiency

IP  3600 13.09
indicated   
Vf  CVNTP 2.92  10  3  12  10 3

 0.3736  37.36%

[V f is given in m 3/s ]
3.78 Thermal Engineering - I

Problem 3.17: The following data refer to an oil engine

working on Otto four-stroke cycle:

Brake power  14.7 kW

Suction pressure  0.9 ba r
Mechanical efficiency  80%
Ratio of compression 5
Index of compression curve  1.35
Index of expansion curve  1.3
Maximum explosion pressure  24 bar
Engine speed  1000 r.p.m
Ratio of stroke: bore  1.5

Find the diameter and stroke of the piston.

[JNTU - January - 2014 set (4)]

Solution:
Refer Fig.

P
3

Ex
pa
ns
io n
2 PV 1 .3

Co =C
mp o ns
re s t.
s io
nP
V 1 .3
5
=C 4
on
s t.

V
V2 = V3 O TTO C ycle V1 = V4
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.79

B.P.  14.7 kW, P 1  0.9 ba r,  mech  80%, r  5, P 3  24 bar

L
N  1000 r.p.m ,  1.5; D  ?, L  ?
D

V1 V4
Compression ratio r  
V2 V3

To find P 2: (compression process 1-2)

P 1 V 1.35
1  P 2 V 1.35
2

1.35
 V1 
or P2     P 1  51.35  0.9
V
 2
 P 2  P1  8.78  0.9  8.78  7.9 bar

To find P 4: (Expansion process 3-4)

P 3 V 1.3 1.3
3  P4 V 4

1.3
 V4 
[P 3/P 4]     51.3  8.1
V
 3
P3 24
P4    2.96 bar
8.1 8.1

Work done/cycles  Area 1  2  3  4

 Area under the curve 3  4  area under the curve 1  2

P 3 V 3  P 4 V4 P 2 V 2  P 1V 1
 
1.3  1 1.35  1

10 2 24V 3  2.96 V 4 10 2 7.9V 3  0.9V 4

 
0.3 0.35 . .
[ . V1  V4 and V2  V3]
3.80 Thermal Engineering - I

 [80 V 3  9.87 V 4  22.57 V 3  2.57V 4]  10 2

 57.43 V 3  7.3 V 4  10 2

 . . V4 
 57.43 V3  7.3  5V 3  10 2  . V 5
 3 

 2093 V 3 kN  m

Mean effective pressure

Work done/cycle
Pm 
Stroke volume V s
2093 V 3 2093 V 3
   523.25 kPa  5.23 bar
V 4  V 3 5V 3  V 3
B.P.
Now, mech 
I.P.
B.P. 14.7
 I.P.    18.37 kW
m ech 0.8

To find D and L:
N
P m LA  n
 2 
I.P 
60

. .N
[ . for 4 stroke n  1 for single cylinder]
2

  1000
523  1.5D    D 2   1
 4  2
18.37 
60

D 3  3.5795  10  3
D  0.152 m
L  1.5D  1.5  0.152  0.229 m
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.81

Problem 3.18: A 2 cylinder 4 stroke engine runs at 240 rpm

developing a torque of 5 kN-m. The bore and stroke of cylinder
are 30 cm and 60 cm respectively. Engine runs with gaseous
fuel having calorific value of 16.8 MJ/m3. The gas and air
mixture is supplied in proposition of 1:7 by volume. The
volumetric efficiency is 0.85. Determine, (i) Brake Power
(ii) The piston speed in m/s. (iii) The brake mean effective
pressure (iv) The brake thermal efficiency.
(JNTU - Apr/May 2013 - Set 1)

Solution:
(i) Brake Power

2  NT 2   240  5
B.P    125.67 kW
60 60

 LN 
(ii) Mean piston speed  2 
 60 
2  0.6  240
vp   4.8 m/s
60

(iii) Pmb Brake mean effective pressure

N
P mb  LA  n
2
B.P 
60

. .N
[ . for 4 stroke n  2 cylinder]
2
125.67  60
Pmb 
   240 
0.6    0.3 2    2
 4   2 

 740.95 kPa  7.41 b ar

3.82 Thermal Engineering - I

(iv) Brake thermal efficiency  brake

B.P
  3600
 brake 
V f  CV

To find V f
 
Vs   D2  L   0.3 2  0.6  0.0424 m3
4 4

Actual volume V  0.0424  0.85  0.036 m 3 in 1 cycle

 N
Actual volume of mixture in m 3/s  V  V  n
2  60
. .N
[ . for 4 stroke n  2 for 2 cylinder]
2
 240
V  0.036  2
2  60

 0.144 m 3/s
  
V  Volume of mixture  V a  V f  0.1442

[V f  Volume of fuel in m 3/s ]
  
 7 V f  V f  8 Vf  0.1442

 0.1442
Vf   0.018 m 3/s
8

V f in m 3/hr  64.8 m 3/hr

Brake thermal     3600

B.P
V f  CV

125.67  3600
  0.4156
64.8  16.8  10 3

 41.56%
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.83

Problem 3.19: A four stroke four cylinder diesel engine

running at 300 rpm produces 250 kW of brake power. The
cylinder dimensions are 30 cm bore and 60 cm stroke. Fuel
consumption rate is 1 kg/min while air fuel ratio is 10. The
average indicated mean effective pressure is 0.8 MPa.
Determine indicated power, mechanical efficiency, brake
thermal efficiency and volumetric efficiency of the engine. The
CV is 43 MJ/kg. The ambient conditions are 1.013 bar and
27C (JNTU-Apr/May -2013 (set 2))

Solution:

(i) To find Indicated Power

N
Pm  L  A  n
2
I.P 
60 . .N
[ . for 4 stroke, n  4 for 4 cylinder]
2
 300
0.8  10 3  0.6   0.3 2  4
4 2

60

 339.3 kW

(ii) Mechanical efficiency

B.P 250
 mech    0.737  73.7%
I.P 339.3

(iii) Brake thermal 

B.P  3600
 brake  
m f  CV

[m f  1  60  60 kg/hr]

250  3600
  0.349  34.9%
60  43  10 3
3.84 Thermal Engineering - I

(iv) Volumetric 
V actual
vol 
Vs

Mass of air fuel mixture  1  10  11 kg/min

 0.183 kg/s
 
P V  m RT

 0.183  0.287  300

V  0.156 m 3/s
101.3
 N
V  V actual per cycle  n
2  60

V  2  60
V actual per cycle 
Nn

0.156  2  60

300  4

V actual  0.156 m 3/cycle

  
Vs   D 2  L    0.3 2  0.6 
4 4 
 0.0424 m3

V actual 0.0156
vol    0.368  36.8%
Vs 0.0424

Problem 3.20: A 4 stroke cycle automobile engine is tested

while running at 3600 rpm. Inlet air temperature is 18C and
the pressure is 101.36 kN/m2. The engine has eight in-line
cylinders with a total piston displacement of 4000 cc. The
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.85

airfuel ratio is 15 and the bsfc is 0.39 kg/kWh. Dynamometer

readings show a power output of 89 kW. Find the volumetric
efficiency. (JNTU - May 2013)

Solution:
Brake specific fuel consumption BSFC  0.39 kg/kWh

mf 
BSFC   mf  0.39  89  34.71 kg/hr
B.P

Mass of air/hr  15  34.71  520.65 kg/hr

Total air fuel mixture  555.36 kg/hr

 
m  m af  0.154 kg /s
 
PV  m RT

 m
RT 0.154  0.287  291
V   0.127 m3/s
P 101.36

Actual volume of mixture V  0.127 m 3/s

V s swept volume in 1 cycle  4000 cm 3

 4000  10  6 m 3

N
  2 
V s in m 3/s  V s   n
60

4000  10  6  3600  8

2  60

 0.96 m 3/s . .
[ . n  8 cylinder]

V 0.127
 vol     0.1323  13.23%
Vs 0.96
3.86 Thermal Engineering - I

Problem 3.21: A four stroke petrol engine with a compression

ratio of 6.5 to 1 and total piston displacement of
3 3
5.2  10 m develops 100 kW brake power and consumes 33
kg of petrol per hour of calorific value 44300 kJ/kg at 3000
r.p.m. Find.(i) Brake mean effective pressure (ii) Brake
thermal efficiency (iii) Air standard  and (iv) Air fuel ratio
by mass. Assume volumetric efficiency of 80%. One kg of petrol
vapour occupies 0.26 m3 at 1.013 bar and 15C. Take R for
air 287 J/kgK. (JNTU - April/May-2013) (set 3) )

Solution:

(i) Brake mean effective pressure

B.P  60
P mb 
N
AL   n
 2 
. .N
[ . for 4 stroke n  1 for single cylinder]
2

100  60
P mb 
 3000 
[5.2  10  3]   1
 2 
[AL  Total piston displacement
 769.23 kPa  7.7 bar
 5.2  10 3 m 3  V s ]

(ii) To find Brake thermal efficiency: brake

B.P  3600 100  3600
brake     0.2463  24.63%
m f  CV 33  44300

(iii) To find Air standard efficiency

1
air standard otto  1 
1
r
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.87

1
1  0.527  52.7%
6.50.4

(iv) Air Fuel Ratio by mass

 N
Vs  Vs 
2  60

3000
 5.2  10  3 
2  60

V s  0.13 m 3/s

Actual volume of air fuel mixture V  vol  VS

V  0.8  0.13  0.104 m 3/s

   P V 101.3  0.104
P V  m RT  m    0.127 kg/s
RT 0.287  288

Mass of air fuel mixture


m  0.127  3600  459 kg/hr

Mass of air/hr m a  (mass of air fuel mixture – mass of fuel)

 459  33  426 kg /hr

Air in kg/hr 426

Air Fuel ratio on mass basis  
Fuel in kg/hr 33

 12.9

Problem 3.22: A four cylinder, four stroke cycle petrol engine

80 mm bore, 130 mm stroke develops 29 kW brake power while
running at 1500 rpm and using a 20% rich mixture. If the
volume of air into the cylinder when measured at 15.5C and
760 mm of mercury is 70% of the swept volume, the theoretical
air fuel ratio in 15, the heating value of the petrol used is
3.88 Thermal Engineering - I

44000 kJ/kg and the mechanical efficiency of the engine is

90%, find (a) Indicated thermal efficiency and (b) Brake mean
effective pressure. Take R = 0.287 kJ/kg K.

Solution:
Given : No of cylinders = 4; Type 4 stroke; Bore =
80mm = 0.08 m; L = 0.130 m; B.P = 29 kW; N = 1500
rpm; Mixture strength = 20% Rich; Volume of air at
15.5C and 760 mm of Hg = 70% of V s. Theoretical Air fuel
ratio = 15; C.V = 44,000 kJ/kg.
mech  0.9; R  0.287 kJ/kg K

To find Indicated thermal 

I.P  3600
indicated  
m f  C .V

So we have to find IP and m f

To find I.P.
B.P 29
I.P    32.22 kW
mec h 0.9

To find m f (Actual mass of fuel consumed in kg/hr)
760 mm of Hg  1.01325 bar

V  Volume of mixture sucked inside the cylinders in m 3/sec
 N or N/2
V  V  vol   No . o f cylinder
60
 N
where V   D 2  L and for 4 stroke.
4 2
  1500
So V   0.08 2  0.13  0.7  4
4 2  60
 0.022871 m 3/sec
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.89
 
P V  m RT
 5
 P V 1.01325  10  0.022871
m 
RT 287  15.5  273

m  0.02798 kg /sec

Theoretically 15 kg of air is required for 1kg of fuel

0.02798
So mass of fuel used 
15

 1.8653  10  3 kg o f fuel/sec

Since it is 20% rich mixture

Actual amount of fuel used  1.8653  10  3  1.2

 2.2384  10  3 kg of fuel/sec

m f  m ass of fuel/hr  2.2384  10 3  3600

 8.05824 kg of fuel /hr

To find in dicated

I.P  3600
indicated  
m f  C.V

32.22  3600

8.05824  44000

 0.32714  32.714 %

To find Brake Mean effective pressure

P m AL N/2
I.P   No. of cylinders
60

Pmb AL N/2
S im ilarly B.P.   No. of cylinders
60
3.90 Thermal Engineering - I

B.P.  60
P mb 
AL  N/2  4

29  10 3  60

 2 1500
  0.08   0.13  4
4  2

 887595 N/m 2

Break mean effective pressure P mb   8.87595 bar

Problem 3.23: A two stroke cycle 20 cm bore  30cm stroke,

single cylinder oil engine gives the following results. Speed 350
rpm, Net brake load = 600 N; Diameter of brake drum = 1m
Oil consumption = 4.25 kg/hr. Indicated mean effective
pressure = 275 kN/m2; C.V = 43000 kJ/kg; A.F = 32; Temp
of room air = 20 C; Temp of exhaust gases = 370C. Calculate
1. Indicated power; 2. Brake power; 3. indicated ; 4. brake
and 5. % heat lost to exhaust gases. The Cp for exhaust gases
in 1.

Solution:
To find Indicated Power
Pm  L  A  N . .
I.P   No .of cylinders [ . N fo r 2 strok e
60
n  1 for single cylinder)]

 
275  0.3    0.2 2   350
4 
  1512 kW
60

To find Brake power

2  N W  S R
B.P 
60  1000
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.91

2  350 600  0.5


60  1000

 10.996 kW

To find in dicated

I.P  3600
indicated  
m f  C.V

m f  4.25 kg/hr ; C.V  43,000 kJ /kg

15.12  3600
indicated thermal   0.29785  29.79 %
4.25  43,000

To find Brake
B .P  3600 10.996  3600
Brake thermal     0.21661
m f  C .V 4.25  43,000

 21.661 %

To find % heat lost in exhaust gases

Mass of fuel consumed in 1 hr = 4.25 kg
For 1 kg of fuel, mass of air required = 32 kg
 For 4.25 kg of fuel,
Mass of air required  32  4.25  136 kg
 Total mass of exhaust gases = Mass of fuel + Mass of
air consumed.

 4.25  136  140.25 kg/hr

Heat carried out by exhaust gases in 1 hr
 m e C p t2  t1
 140.25  1  370  20
 49087.5 kJ/hr
3.92 Thermal Engineering - I

% heat lost in exhaust gases

Heat carried away by exha ust gas

Heat supplied by fuel

49087.5
  0.2686  26.86 %
4.25  43,000

Problem 3.24: A single cylinder 4 stroke diesel engine gave

the following while running on full load.
Area of Indicator diagram  3 cm2; Length of the diagram =
4 cm; spring constant  1000 kN/m2/cm; speed of engine = 400
r.p.m; Load on the brake = 400 N; spring balance reading =
50 N; Diameter of the brake drum = 1.2 m; Fuel consumption
= 3 kg/hr; C.V = 42,000 kJ/kg; Dia. of cylinder = 17 cm;
stroke = 20 cm.
Calculate (1) Indicated mean effective pressure; (2) Indicated
power; (3) Brake mean effective pressure; (4) Brake specific fuel
consumption and (5) Brake thermal and indicated thermal
efficiencies.

Solution:
To Find (1) Indicated Mean Effective Pressure
Area of in dicator diagram
Pm   spring constant
Length of indicator diagra m

3
  1000  750 KN/m 2
4

2. To Find Indicated Power

P m L AN/2 . .N 
I.P   . 2 for 4 strokes 
60  
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.93

  400
750  0.2    0.17 2  
4  2
  11.35
60

I.P  11.35 k W

3. To Find Brake Power

2NW  S  R
B.P 
60  1000

2  400  400  50   0.6


60  1000

B.P  8.7965 kW

To Find Brake Mean Effective Pressure Pmb 

N
P mb  LA  
B.P   2 
60

B.P  60
P mb 
N
LA  
 2 
8.7965  60

  400
0.2    0.17 2  
 4  2

 581.32 kN/m 2

To Find Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (B.S.F.C)

Fuel consumed in kg/hr
B.S.F.C 
B.P

3
  0.341 kg/kWhr
8.7965

 0.341 kg/kWhr
3.94 Thermal Engineering - I

To find in dicated thermal

I.P  3600
 indicated thermal  
m f  C.V

11.35  3600
  0.3243
3  42,000

 32.43%

To Find brake therm al

B.P  3600
 brake thermal  
m f  C.V

8.7965  3600
  0.25133
3  42,000

 25.133%

Problem 3.25: The compression curve on the indicator

1.3
diagram from a gas engine follows the law pv  constant.
At two points on the curve at 1/4 stroke and 3/4 stroke, the
pressures are 140 kN/m2 and 360 kN/m2 respectively.
Determine the compression ratio of the engine. Calculate the
thermal efficiency and the gas consumption per kW hour on
indicated power basis if the relative efficiency is 0.4 and the
gas has the C.V of 18,840 kJ/m3.

Solution:
V s  Swept volume in m 3

V c  Clearance volume in m 3

Assume the point (1) is at 1/4th of stroke and the

point (2) is at 3/4th of stroke on the PV diagram.
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.95

To Find Compression Ratio

1
V1  Vc  Vs  Vs  Vc  0.75 Vs ... (i)
4

3
V2  Vc  Vs  V  Vc  0.25 Vs ... (ii)
4 s B

P 1V1.3 1.3
1  P 2V 2 P2 2 PV
1.3
=C

1.3
 V1  P2 P1 1
A
V  
P1
 2 V C= C le ara nce
Vo lu m e
1
V1  360 
1.3
0 .25 V S
  2.068
V 2  140  VC 0 .75 V S
V S = S w ep t Vo lu m e

V1  2.068 V 2 ... (iii)

from (i) and (ii), substitute the value of V1 & V2 in (iii)

Vc  0.75 Vs  2.068 Vc  0.25V s  2.068 V c  0.517 V s

0.233 V s  1.068 V c

Vs
 4.583
Vc

Total volume
Compression ratio 
Clearance volume
Vc  Vs Vs
 1
Vc Vc
 1  4.583  5.583
To Find Thermal Efficiency
1 1
 air stand ard  1  1
1
r 5.583 1.4  1

 49.74%
3.96 Thermal Engineering - I

Indicate d thermal 
Re lative efficiency 
A ir standard 

Indicated thermal    relative  air standard

 0.4  0.4978

 0.1989  19.89 %

To Find Gas Consumption in m 3/kWhr

I.P  3600
indicated thermal  
V f  C.V

Substitute I.P  1 kW

Then Vf is in m 3/kWhr

 1  3600
So Vf   0.9605 m 3/kWhr
0.1989  18840

V f  0.9605 m 3/kWhr

Problem 3.26: Calculate the relative efficiency based on

indicated power and A:F ratio for a four stroke gas engine
working on otto cycle from the following data:
Brake power = 5 kW; Speed = 180 r.p.m; Volumetric
efficiency=85%; Clearance volume  1500 cm3; Swept volume
 6500 cm3; mech  80%; Fuel consumption 4 m3/hr
C.V  17,000 kJ/m3.

Solution:
To Find relative
Indicated thermal 
 relative 
Air standard 
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.97

B.P 5
I.P    6.25 kW
 mech 0.8

I.P
  3600
Indicated thermal 
V f  C.V

6.25  3600
  0.331  33.1%
4  17,000

1
 Air standard  1 
r  1

Vc  Vs
where r  Compression ratio 
Vc

1500  6500
  5.333
1500

1
 Air standard  1   0.4881  48.81%
5.333 0.4

indicated thermal 0.331

 relative    0.6782
air std 0.4881

 67.82%

V cycle in m 3  V s  vol [If vo l is not given, then vo l  1 ]

 N o r N/2
V in m 3/sec  Vc yc le   No . of cylinders
60

[N for 2 stroke and N /2 for 4 stroke]

Volume of mixture admitted into the cylinder per cycle

V cycle in m 3  V s  vol  6500  0.85  5525 cm 3

 5525  10  6m 3
3.98 Thermal Engineering - I

4 1
Volume of fuel consumed per cycle  
60 N/2

4 1
 
60 90

 7.4074  10  4m3

So volume of air per cycle

 5525  10  6  7.4074  10  4

 4.7842  10  3m 3

4.7842  10  3
A:F ratio by volume 
7.4074  10  4

 6.4588 :1

Problem 3.27: Determine the bore and stroke of a single

cylinder 4 stroke oil engine from the following data:
Brake power = 18.5 kW; Engine speed = 250 r.p.m. At suction,
Volumetric   80%; Pressure at the end of suction = 100 kPa;
Temp. at the end of suction  10C mech  88%;
indicated thermal  35%. % of C and H in the fuel used 85% and
15%. C.V. of fuel used = 42,000 kJ/kg; Excess air supplied =
24%; Stroke-bore ratio = 1.5.

Solution:
Brake pow er 18.5
Indicated Power    21.023
mech 0.88

I.P  3600 21.023  3600

 indicated thermal  0.35    
m f  C.V m f  42,000

 21.023  3600
mf   5.15 kg/hr
0.35  42,000
 Testing and Performance of Engines 3.99

5.15 5.15
Mass of fuel per stroke  
60  N /2  250 
60   
 2 

 6.867  10  4kg

C  O 2  CO 2 and 2H 2  O 2  2H 2O

12  32  44 and 4  32  36

Actual amount of air required per kg of fuel

 32 32  100
  0.85   0.15    1.24  18.69 kg
 12 4  23

 Air required per stroke  6.867  10  4  18.69

 0.012834 kg

Volume of air required per stroke

mR T 0.012834  287  10  273

V  3
 10.42  10  3m 3
P 100  10

10.42  10 3
Volume of cylinder 
 vol

10.42  10  3 3
 m
0.8

 13.03  10  3

 
  D 2  L   D2  1.5D
4 4

D  0.223 m ; L  1.5 D  0.3342 m

 Chapter 4

Air Compressors

Classification of Compressors - Fans, blowers and

compressors - Positive displacement and dynamic types -
Reciprocating and rotary types
Rotary, Dynamic and Axial Flow (Positive Displacement
type): Roots Blower, Vane sealed compressor, Lysholm compressor
- mechanical details and principle of working - efficiency
considerations.
Centrifugal compressors: Mechanical details and principle
of operation - Velocity and pressure variation. Energy transfer -
impeller blade shape - losses - slip factor, power input factor,
pressure coefficient and adiabatic coefficient - velocity diagrams -
power.
Axial flow compressors: Mechanical details and principle
of operation - velocity triangles and energy transfer per stage,
degree of reaction, work done factor - Isentropic efficiency -
pressure rise calculation - polytropic efficiency.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Air compressors are used to compress the air and to

raise its pressure. The air compressor sucks the air to the
cylinder from atmosphere, compresses it and then delivers
the same under a high pressure.
4.1.1 Applications of Compressed Air
1. It is used to inflate the automobile tyres.
2. It is used to inject fuel in air injection Diesel
engines.
3. It is used for spray painting.
4.2 Thermal Engineering - I

4. It is used to operate pneumatic circuits.

(such as pneumatic drills, hammers, hoist, air
brakes, pile drivers and blast furnaces)
5. It is used to start IC engine and for supercharging
IC engines.
6. It is used for gas turbine plants.
7. It is used for cleaning purposes.
8. It is used in the processing of food and farm
maintenance.

4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF AIR COMPRESSORS

1. According to working
(a) Reciprocating air compressors
(b) Rotary compressors.
2. According to action
(a) Single acting;
(b) Double acting.
3. According to number of stages
(a) Single stage;
(b) Multistage compressors.
4. Air compressors may be further classified as
(i) Air pumps and exhausters
(ii) Blowers and superchargers
(iii) Air Boosters.
5. According to method of cooling
(i) Air cooled (ii) Water cooled
6. According to number of air cylinders
(i) Simplex (ii) Duplex (iii) Triplex
 Air Compressors 4.3

7. According to power drive

(i) Direct drive (ii) Belt drive (iii) Chain drive
8. According to applications
(i) Rock drill compressor;
(ii) Pneumatic land tool compressor;
(iii) Trench digging compressor;
(iv) Sand blasting compressor;
(v) Spray painting compressor etc.
9. According to principle of operation
(i) Positive displacement compressors
(eg) reciprocating, rotary compressor
(ii) Dynamic compressors
(eg) centrifugal, axial flow compressor
10. According to nature of installation
(i) Portable (ii) Semifixed (iii) Fixed

4.3 SINGLE ACTING RECIPROCATING

AIR COMPRESSOR

A ir

Fig. 4.1

In this compressor, only one side of the piston is used

to suck the air, compress it and to deliver the air.
cycle
So, for Single acting, y  1
revolution
4.4 Thermal Engineering - I

4.4 DOUBLE ACTING AIR COMPRESSOR

In this compressor, both sides of the piston are used
to suck the air, compress it and to deliver the air when
suction is occurred in one side, compression and delivery
will be taken on the other side. So simultaneously, two
cycles will be completed in one revolution of the crank.

$LU
$LU

Fig.4.2

cycles
So for Double acting, y  2
revolution

4.5 SINGLE STAGE COMPRESSOR

Initial Pressure Final Pressure

S ingle stage
Air Com pressor

Fig. 4.3

The compression of air from initial pressure to final

pressure is carried out in one cylinder.
 Air Compressors 4.5

4.6 MULTI STAGE COMPRESSOR

The compression of initial pressure to final pressure
is carried out in more than one cylinder.

Interm ediate pressure

Inter cooling

Air Air
Com pressor Com pressor
Stage 1 Stage 2
Fig 4.4

4.7 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF RECIPROCATING

AIR COMPRESSORS
Fig 4.5 (a). The piston is moving downward. The
inlet valve opens. The fresh air enters the cylinder. So
suction stroke is completed. During this stroke delivery

D elivery C om pressed
valve closed Air delivery
Inlet valve
Inlet valve closed
T open T
T T
C ylinder
Air Inlet
Piston

C onnecting
rod

C rank
(a) (b)

Fig.4.5 W orking of Reciprocating Air Com pressor

4.6 Thermal Engineering - I

valve is closed. This stroke is completed in 180 of crank

revolution (1/2 rev.).
During the return stroke, the piston moves upward.
Both valves are closed. So the compression of air takes
place. When the air is compressed to required pressure the
delivery valve opens (Fig 4.5 (b). So the compressed air is
delivered through delivery valve.

So the return stroke is completed by partly

compression and partly delivery. This stroke is completed
in remaining 180 of crank revolution (remaining 1/2
revolution).

So the suction, compression and delivery completes in

one cycle.

Refer Fig. During return stroke, the air is

compressed by its major part (i.e compression stroke 1-2).

3 2
3 2 com pression
2
1 W ork done
A B on com pression
W ork done B C
on 4 1
delivery 4 1
W ork done
by suction
A C
A B C
V4 V2 V1
D elivery
valve

S uction
valve
3 2 1
D elivery C om pression
Fig 4.6
 Air Compressors 4.7

The compression continues till the pressure reaches P 2

which is sufficient to open the delivery valve. Once the
delivery valve opens, no more compression takes place
during remaining part of the return stroke. During this
time, the compressed air is delivered till the piston reaches
the cylinder end. Thus the cycle is completed. Again the
fresh air is sucked into the cylinder in the next cycle.
The compression of air may be isothermal or
polytropic or isentropic process. We can find the workdone
to compress the air in one cycle for the three cases.

4.7.1 Workdone during isothermal compression

PV  c without clearance volume
Workdone  Area 1-2-3-4

 V1 
W  P 2V2  P 2V 2 ln    P 1V 1
V
 2

 V1   V1 
 P 2V 2 ln    P 1V 1 ln  
V V
 2  2 . .
[ . P 1V 1  P2V 2 ]

3 2

W = Area o f w hich gives w ork d one per cycle

w ithout clearance volum e.
4 1

3 2 3 2 2
= (+ )

4 1 1 4 1
(-)
Fig 4.7 A B B C A C
4.8 Thermal Engineering - I

 V1  . .
 mRT ln   [ . P1V1  mRT ]
V
 2

4.7.2 Workdone during polytropic compression

n
[ PV  constant ] without clearance volume
If the compression is done by polytropic process, then

P 2V 2  P 1V 1
W  P 2V 2   P 1V 1
n1

n  1 P 2V 2  P 2V 2  P 1V 1  n  1 P 1V1

n1

n
 P V  P 1V 1
n1 2 2

n  P 2V 2 
 P 1V 1  1
n1 P V
 1 1  ... (i)
For polytropic compression,

P 1V n1  P2Vn
2

1 1
n n
V2  P1  V1  P 2 
  or  
V1 P V2 P
 2  1

V2
Substitute the value of in eqn. (i)
V1

n   P 2   P 1  1 n 
W P 1V 1    1
n1 P P
 1  2  
n1
n   P2  n 
W P 1V 1   1
n1 P
 1  ... (ii)
 Air Compressors 4.9

n1
n   P2  n 
W mRT 1   1
n1 P
 1  ... (iii)

Note:
n1
 P2  n
T2
Also,   
 P1  T1

P1V1  m RT1

P1V1 P 2V2

T1 T2

T2 P 2V 2

T1 P1V1

P2  P 1  1 n . . V 2  P 1  n
1

   .  
P1 P V1
 2  P2 

P2  P 2  1n
  
P1 P
 1

n1
T2  P2  n
 
T1 P
 1

n  T2 
So, W mRT 1 1
n1 T
 1 

n  T2  T1 
 mR T1 
n1 T1
 

n
Workdone W  mRT 2  T 1
n1 ... (iv)
4.10 Thermal Engineering - I

4.7.3 Workdone During Isentropic Compression


PV  constant Without Clearance Volume
Here the polytropic index n can be changed by
isentropic index  and we get the workdone in the same
way as already discussed.
Workdone in one cycle
1
   P2   
W  P 1V 1   1
1 P
 1  ... (v)
1
   P2   
W  mRT 1   1
1 P ... (vi)
 1 

W  mR T 2  T 1
1 ... (vii)
CP
The ratio of sp. heats 
Cv

CP
i.e., C v  and C P  C v  R

CP
i.e., CP  R

 1
Cp 1    R
  

1
Cp R
  
Substitute R value in (vii)

  1
W m C p  T  T 1
1    2

W  mC pT 2  T 1 ... (viii)

 Air Compressors 4.11

4.8 MINIMUM WORKDONE

The workdone on air is P Isotherm al( P V = C )
minimum when the air is Polytropic( P V n = C )
22 21 2
compressed in isothermal

Is e
process.

n tr
op
The isothermal process

ic (
PV
requires compression very slow


=C
to maintain the temperature

)
constant. Practically, it is not 1 V
possible. So isothermal process Fig 4.8
can be approached but not
obtained.
The isothermal process can be approached (i) by air
cooling or water cooling during compression, (ii) by inter
cooling in multistage compressors.

4.9 POWER REQUIRED TO RUN THE COMPRESSOR

N 2N
P  Work done pe r cycle  or
60 60

N  for single acting

2N  for double acting.

Problem 4.1: A single stage reciprocating air compressor is

required to compress 1 kg of air from 1 bar to 5 bar. The initial
temperature is 27C. Compare the work requirement in the
following cases: 1. Isothermal process, 2. Polytropic compression
with PV1.2  constant and 3. Isentropic compression.
4.12 Thermal Engineering - I

Solution:
Isothermal Compression
 P2   P2 
W  P1V 1ln   mRT1ln  
P
 1
P
 1 ..
[ . P1V 1  mRT1 ]
5
 1  0.287  27  273 ln 
1
..
[. R for air = 0.287 kJ/kg K]

. .
 138.573 kJ [ . T1  27  293  300 K]

Polytropic Compression PV 1.2  C

n1
n   P2  n 
W  mRT1    1
n1 P
 1 

0.2
1.2 5 
  1  0.287  300    1.2  1   158.94 kJ
0.2 1 
Isentropic Compression
1
   P2   
W  mRT 1   1
1 P
 1 

0.4
1.4 5 
  1  0.287  300    1.4  1 
0.4 1
  
 175.93 kJ

We can see that workdone is minimum in isothermal

process and maximum in isentropic process.

Problem 4.2: A single stage reciprocating air compressor is

required to compress 60 m3 of air from 1 bar to 8 bar at
 Air Compressors 4.13

22C. Find workdone by the compressor, if the compression of air

is (i) isothermal (ii) adiabatic (iii) polytropic with index as 1.25.
(Ap. 2007 - AU)

Given: V 1  60 m 3; P 1  1 bar; P 2  8 bar;

T 1  22  273  295K.

Solution:
Case (i) Isothermal
 P2 
W  mRT1 ln  
P
 1

P 1V 1 1  10 5  60
P 1V 1  mRT1  m    70.87 kg
RT1 287  295

8
W  70.87  0.287  295 ln  
1

 12,477 kJ

Case (ii) Adiabatic (i.e. Reversible adiabatic (or)

Isentropic)
So, n    1.4

1
   P2   
W  m  R  T 1   1
1 P
 1 

0.4
1.4  8 
  70.87  0.287  295    1.4  1 
0.4 1
  
 17,041 kJ
4.14 Thermal Engineering - I

Case (iii) Polytropic with index n  1.25

n1
n   P2  n 
W  mRT1   1
n1   P1  
0.25
1.25 8 
  70.87  0.287  295    1.25  1 
0.25 1
  
 15,472 kJ

Problem 4.3: A single stage single acting reciprocating air

compressor with 0.3 m bore and 0.4 m stroke runs at 400 rpm.
The suction pressure is 1 bar at 300 K and the delivery
pressure is 5 bar. Find the power required to run it, if the
compression is isothermal, adiabatic and compression follow
pv1.3  C. Also find the isothermal efficiency.
(JNTU - Apr/May 2013)

Given Data
D  0.3 m; L  0.4 m; N  400 rpm ; P 1  1 bar;

T 1  300 K; P 2  5 bar;

 2 
Vs  V1  D  L   0.3 2  0.4  0.0283 m 3
4 4

Isothermal compression work

 P2  5
W  P 1 V 1 ln    100  0.0283  ln  
P1 1
 

 4.55 kJ/kg

N 400
Power  W   4.55 
60 60

 30.33 kW
 Air Compressors 4.15

Adiabatic compression work

n    1.4
1
  
   P  
2
W  P 1 V 1     1 
1 P
 1 
0.4
 1.4 
1.4 5 
  100  0.02873     1

0.4 1
  
 5.78 kJ /kg

400
Power  5.78   38.55 kW
60

(iii) Polytropic compression work with n  1.3

n1
 n 
n
P  
2
W  P1 V 1    1
n1  P1  
  
0.3
 1.3 
1.3 5 
  100  0.0283     1
0.3 1 
  
 5.52 kJ /kg

400
Power  5.52   36.97 kW
60

(iv) Isothermal efficiency

I.Pisothermal 30.33
isothermal    0.8248
I.Ppolytropic 36.77

 82.48%
4.16 Thermal Engineering - I

4.9.1 Clearance Volume

V s  Swept volume (or) Stroke volume (or)
Displacement volume

 This swept volume is defined as the volume swept

by the piston in one stroke.
V c  Clearance volume

 Clearance volume is required so that the piston

does not hit the cylinder end at the end of the
stroke.
 Clearance volume is essential to give some space
for valve movements:
 In general, clearance volume is expressed as a
percentage of stroke volume Vs.
 Clearance volume is the volume of air which
remains in the cylinder after the piston has
reached the end of its return stroke.

4.10 WORKDONE BY RECIPROCATING AIR

COMPRESSOR WITH CLEARANCE VOLUME
Refer Fig 4.9. From point 1, the piston starts
compressing the air till it reaches the point 2. (i.e. till it
reaches the pressure P 2). At point 2, the delivery valve
opens and the piston is further moving inside so that the
compressed air is delivered through valve. At point 3, the
delivery of compressed air stops. Vc is the clearance volume
and it is filled with some amount of compressed air. From
the point 3, the piston starts moving in the opposite
direction (i.e. in the right side direction). This makes the
trapped air in the clearance volume expand. This trapped
high pressure air will expand according to PVn  C. The
 Air Compressors 4.17

P
P2 6 3 2

n
P V =c

P1 5 4 1
V 3 =V C V4 V1
V
C learance E ffective sw ept
volum e = V 3 =V C Volum e = V 1 -V 4
S w ept Volum e
=V 1 -V 3 = V s
Total Volum e =V 1
Fig.4.9

expansion occurs till the piston reaches point 4 (i.e. till the
pressure comes down to intake pressure). At this point 4,
the suction valve (inlet valve) opens and the fresh
atmospheric air enters the cylinder. So the actual volume
of air taken inside the cylinder in one stroke is V1  V4.
This volume is called effective swept volume.
So, Vactual  V effective  V1  V4.

Workdone/cycle  Net area 1 2 3 4 1

 Area 1 2 3 6 5 1  Area 3 6 5 4 3
n1
n   P2  n 
  P1V1   1
n1 P
 1 
n1
n   P2  n 
 P 1V 4    1
n1 P
 1 
4.18 Thermal Engineering - I

n1
n   P2  n 
W/cycle   P 1V1  V4    1
n1 P
 1 

n1
n   P2  n 
W/cycle   mRT1   1
n1 P
 1 

where V 1  V 4 and m are the actual volume and mass of

air sucked by piston per cycle respectively.

4.11 ISOTHERMAL EFFICIENCY OF A

RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSOR
Isothermal efficiency of a reciprocating air compressor
is defined as the ratio of isothermal workdone to the actual
workdone

Isotherm al workdone
Isothermal efficiency 
Actual workdone

Isothermal compression cannot be achieved in practice

but an attempt is made to approach isothermal case by
cooling the compressor either by addition of cooling fins or
a water jacket to the compressor cylinder. Thus the higher
the isothermal efficiency, the more nearly has the actual
compression approached the ideal isothermal compression.

4.12 VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY IN A RECIPROCATING

AIR COMPRESSOR
The volumetric efficiency of a compressor is the ratio
of free air delivered to the displacement of the compressor.
It is also the ratio of effective swept volume to the swept
volume.
 Air Compressors 4.19

Effective swept volume V1  V 4

Volumetric efficiency  
Swept volume V1  V3

Because of the presence of clearance volume,

volumetric efficiency is always less than unity. It varies
from 60% to 85%.

Clearance volume V3 Vc
The clearance ratio    k
Sw ept volum e V1  V3 Vs

As a percentage k varies from 4% to 10%

Volumetric efficiency

V1  V4
 vol 
V1  V3

V 1  V 3  V 3  V 4 V3 V4
 1 
V 1  V3 V1  V3 V1  V3

V4 V 3 V 4/V 3
 vo l  1  k  1k
V1  V3 V 1  V3

V4  . . V3 
 1  k  k.  . k
V3 V 1  V3
 
1 1
 P3  n  . . V 4  P3  n 
 vol  1  k  k    .   
P
 4 
V3  P4  
1

1  n 
 P2  n   P2  
 vol  1  k  k   1k   1
P  P1 
 1   
. .
[ . P 3  P 2 ; P 4  P 1]
4.20 Thermal Engineering - I

1
 V1   . .  P 2  n V1 
 vol  1  k  k    .    
V2
    P1  V2

 V4 
or  vol  1  k  k  
V3
 
  V1  Pi T a 
Also  vol   1  k  k   
V P aT i
  2  
1
  P 2  n  P i Ta
or  vol   1  k  k   
P P T
  1  a i
a : Ambient condition
i : Inside condition
Note: This efficiency should not be used for finding out
the dimensions of the cylinder. For finding out the
dimensions of the cylinder, volumetric efficiency based on
suction condition only should be used.

4.12.1 Factors affecting volumetric efficiencies

(i) Very high speed
(ii) Very large clearance volume
(iii) Leakage past piston
(iv) Obstruction at the inlet valves
(v) Overheating of the air
(vi) Inertia effect of air at suction pipe.

4.13 IMPORTANT TECHNICAL TERMS

1. Volumetric Efficiency vol

It is the ratio of free air delivered to the displacement
of the compressor. It is the ratio of effective swept volume
to the swept volume.
 Air Compressors 4.21

Effective s wept volume V1  V 4

 vol  
Swept vo lume V1  V 3

V actual Va V1  V4
i.e.,  
Vswept Vs V 1  V3

2. Clearance Ratio ‘k’

1 1
n
 P 
 2   P2  n
 vol  1  k    11kk 
  P1   P
 1
 
Vc
where k  Clearance ratio 
Vs

Note: If k is not given, k  0; then  vol  1.

3. Volume and Volume Rate


V  Volume rate in m 3/s ec
V  Volume in m3
v  Specific volume in m 3/kg

Suffix ‘a’ stands for actual (or) effective.

Suffix ‘s’ stands for swept (or) stroke (or)

displacement.
 N rev.
VV  yZ  m 3   m 3/sec
60 sec

where y  1 single acting

y  2 for double acting

Z  number of cylinders (or) number of stages.

  m 3 kg
Also V  vm    m 3/sec
kg sec
4.22 Thermal Engineering - I

4. Indicated Power (I.P) and Brake Power (B.P)


I.P  m W where W in kJ/kg
kJ kJ
 kg/sec    kW
kg sec

I.P
mech 
B.P

Note: Whenever  mech is given, the power involved will be

B.P.

5. Free Air Delivered (FAD)

Free air delivered is defined as the actual volume rate
of air reduced to atmospheric condition and expressed in
m 3/min or m3/sec

P atm V FAD P 1V a 
  mR
Tatm T1

atm - means atmospheric condition (or) Ambient

condition.

Suffix ‘1’ - means suction (or) beginning of

compression.

Note: If atmospheric condition is not given, then


FAD  V a .

6. Mean Effective Pressure m .e.p

It is found mathematically - dividing the workdone
per cycle by the stroke volume.

W I.P
MEP    in kPa (or) Pa
V s Vs
 Air Compressors 4.23

7. Isothermal Efficiency: It is the ratio of isothermal

work to polytropic work.
W isothermal I.P isothermal
isothermal  
W polytropic I.Ppolytropic

 P2 
Wisothermal  mRT1 ln   in kJ/kg
P
 1

  P2 
I.Pisothermal  mR T1 ln   in k W
 P1 

8. Swept Volume V s
 2    N  3 
Vs  D  L in m 3  V s  V s  60  yz in m /sec 
4    
where D  Bore (or) Dia. of cylinder.

L  Stroke (or) Stroke length.

Note: 1000 litre  1 m3

2LN
9. Piston speed  in m/sec
60

4.14 SINGLE STAGE

n1
n   P2  n 
W/cycle   P 1V1  V4    1
n1 P
 1 

n1
n   P2  n 
W/cycle   mRT1   1
n1 P
 1 

where V 1  V 4 and m are the actual volume and mass of

air sucked by piston per cycle respectively.
4.24 Thermal Engineering - I

Workdone/cycle

n1
n   P2  n 
  P 1V 1  V 4    1
n1 P
 1 

To Find I.P
Theoretical power (Indicated power)

n1
n    P2  n 
 m RT 1   1
n1 P
 1 
1
 n 
  P2   P1 T a
 vol    1  k  k   
   P1  P atm  T1
   
Problem 4.4: A single stage, single acting reciprocating air
compressor has a bore of 200 mm and a stroke of 300 mm. It
receives air at 1 bar and 25C and delivers it at 6 bar. If the
compression follows the law PV1.3  constant and clearance
volume is 5% of the stroke volume, determine 1. mean effective
pressure and 2. the power required to run the compressor, if
the speed is 800 r.p.m.

Given:
D  0.2 m ; L  0.3 m ; P1  1 bar ; T 1  25  273  298 K

P2  6 bar

Solution:
Vs  Stroke volume (or) Swept volume

 2
 D L
4
 Air Compressors 4.25

 p
  0.2 2  0.3
4 P 2 =P 3 3 2

 9.425  10  3m 3

Clearance volume

V c  0.05  V s P 1 =P 4 1
Vc 4
Vs
 0.05  9.425  10  3 v
V 3 = Vc V4 V1
 4.7124  10  4m 3  V3 V eff
Fig

1n 1
n
V4  P3   P2 
   
V3 P
 4  P1 
1n
 P2 
V 4  V 3 
P
 1
1
1.3
 4 6
 4.7124  10 1
 

 1.8699  10  3m3

V actual  Veffective  V 1  V 4

V 1 V c  V s  4.7124  10  4  9.425  10  3

 9.89624  10  3m 3

V eff  V 1  V 4  9.89624 10  3 1.8699  10  3

 8.02634  10  3m 3
4.26 Thermal Engineering - I

Workdone/cycle

n1
n   P2  n 
  P 1V 1  V 4    1
n1 P
 1 
0.3
1.3 6 
  1  10 5  8.02634  10 3    1.3  1 
1.3  1 1
  

W  1781.04 J  1.781 kJ

To Find Mean Effective Pressure (MEP)

Work done /cycle
MEP 
Stroke volume

1781.04

9.425  10  3
 188969.61 N/m 2
 1.89 bar

To Find Power
WN
P
60
1781.04  800

60

 23.747 kW

Problem 4.5: A single acting compressor has zero clearance,

stroke 200 mm and piston diameter 150 mm. When the
compressor is operating at 250 rpm and compressing air from
10 N/cm2, 25 C, to 40 N/cm2, find (i) the volume of air
handled (ii) the ideal power required.
(JNTU Jan/Feb - 2015 Set - 2)
 Air Compressors 4.27

Given Data
L  0.2 m; D  0.15 m; N  250 rpm; P 1  10 N/cm 2  1 bar;

T1  25  273  298 K;P 2  40 N/cm 2  4 bar

Solution:
Volume of air handled in m 3/min
 
 Vs   D2  L  N  y  Z
4

y  1 for single acting

Z  1 for single stage

 
V s   0.15 2  0.2  250  1  1
4

 0.8836 m 3/min

V s  0.8836 m 3/min

Ideal power
Mnimum power (Ideal power) can be obtained by
using Isothermal process.
  P2 
Isothermal power  P 1 V1 ln  
 P1 
0.8836 4  
 100   ln    V  V in m 3/s 
60  1 s 
1
 2.04 kW

Problem 4.6: A single stage, single acting reciprocating air

compressor has a bore of 20 cm and a stroke of 30 cm. The
compressor runs at 500 rpm. The clearance volume is 4% of
the swept volume and index of expansion and compression is
4.28 Thermal Engineering - I

1.3. The suction conditions are 0.97 bar and 27C and delivery
pressure is 5.6 bar. The atmospheric conditions are at 1.013
bar and 17C. Determine (i) the free air delivered in m3/min
(ii) the volumetric efficiency referred to the free air conditions
(iii) the indicated power. (Nov/Dec - 2011 - AU)

Given
D  20 cm, L  30 cm; N  500 rpm ; V c  4% Vs

P 1  0.97 bar ; n  1.3 ; P 2  5.6 bar ; P a  1.013 bar

T a  17C ; T1  27 C

Solution:
 2 
Vs  D  L  0.202  0.30  9.42  10  3 m 3
4 4

Va
vol 
Vs

1
 n 
  P2   P1 T
a
vol   1  k  k   
 P  P a T1
  1 
1
 1.3 
  5.6   0.97  17  273 
  1  0.04  0.04   
  1.013  27  273 
  0.97  
vol  0.82  82%

Va
0.82 
9.42  10  3

V a  7.728  10 3 m3
 Air Compressors 4.29

Free air delivered


Va   Va  y  Z  N  7.728  10 3  1  1  500  0.0644 m 3/s

. .
 . y  1 for single acting 
 z  1 for single stage 

Indicated Power
n1
n   P2  n

W P1 Va    1
n1 P
 1 
1.3  1
1.3   5.6  1.3 
W  0.97  10 2  7.728  10  3    1
1.3  1   0.97  

W  1.62 kJ

W  N 1.62  500
IP    13.5 kW
60 60
IP  13.5 kW

Problem 4.7: A single stage single acting reciprocating air

compressor delivers 15 m3/min of free air from 1 bar to 8 bar
at 300 rpm. The clearance volume is 5% of the stroke volume
and compression and expansion follow the law PV1.3 
constant. Calculate the diameter and the stroke of the
compressor. Take L/D  1.5. The temperature and pressure of
the air at suction are the same as atmospheric air.
(JNTU - Apr/May 2013 - Set 4) (Apr/May - 2008 - AU)

Given
 15 m 3
FAD  Va   0.25 m 3/sec
60 sec
P1  1 b ar; P 2  8 ba r; N  300 rp m
4.30 Thermal Engineering - I

L
k  5%  0.05; n  1.3;  1.5
D
Solution:
1
 n 
  P2  
Volumetric efficiency vol  1  k    1
 P1 
  
1
 1.3 
8 
 1  0.05    1
 1 
  
 0.802
 
Va  Va
Also vol    V s 
Vs vol

m3  0.25
Swept volume in ,V   0.3115 m 3/s
sec s 0.802

 N
We known V s  V s   yZ
60

Here y  1 for single acting

Z  1 for single stage

 60
Vs  Vs 
N

60
 0.3115   0.0623 m 3
300

 2
We know, VS  D L
4

 2
0.0623  D  1.5 D
4
 Air Compressors 4.31

D  0.375 m

L  1.5 D  0.563 m

Diameter D  0.375 m

Stroke L  0.563 m

Problem 4.8: A single stage single-acting air compressor

delivers 0.6 kg of air per minute at 6 bar. The temperature
and pressure at the end of suction stroke are 30C and 1 bar.
The bore and stroke of the compressor are 100 mm and 150
mm respectively. The clearance is 3% of the swept volume.
Assuming the index of compression and expansion to be 1.3,
find:
(i) Volumetric efficiency of the compressor,
(ii) Power required if the mechanical efficiency is 85%, and
(iii) Speed of the compressor. (May/June- 2012 - AU)

Given
Mass of air delivered m  0.6 kg/min

Delivery pressure, P 2  6 bar

Suction pressure, P 1  1 bar

Suction temperature T1  30  273  303 K

Bore D  100 mm  0.1 m

Stroke length, L  150 mm  0.15 m

Clearance volume, V c  0.03 V

Mechanical efficiency, mec h  85%

4.32 Thermal Engineering - I

Solution:

P (bar)

3 T2
P 2= 6 2

1.3
pV =C
Exp
ansi

Co
on

m
pr
es
s io
n
T 1 =303 K
P 1= 1 1
4
3
V(m )
Vc= Vs
0.03V s

(i) Volumetric efficiency of compressor, vol

1/ n
  P2  
vol  1  k    1
P
 1 
Vc
Where k   0.03
Vs
1
6 1.3 
 vol  1  0.03     1   0.91096  91.096%
1 
 Air Compressors 4.33

(ii) Power required to drive the compressor

n1
 
n    P2   n  
Indicated power  m RT 1    1
n1 P
 1 

1.3  1
1.3 0.6 6 1.3 
   0.287  303     1   1.93 kW
1.3  1 60 1 

 Power required to drive the compressor

1.93 1.93
   2.27 kW
mech 0.85

(iii) Speed of the compressor, N:

Free air delivery, F.A.D.

m RT 1 0.6  0.287  303
  2
 0.5218 m3/min
P1 1  10

Displacement volume

 F.A.D 0.5218
Vs    0.5728 m3/min
vol 0.91096

 2
Also, 0.5728  D LN
4 . .
 . y  1 for singleacting com pressor 
 Z  1 for single s tage 


or 0.5728   0.1 2  0.15  N
4

 Speed of compressor

0.5728  4
N  486.2 r.p.m
  0.1 2  0.15
4.34 Thermal Engineering - I

Problem 4.9: A single stage double acting air compressor

running at 300 rpm delivers 15 m3 of free air per min at 700
kPa, 200C. Clearance volume is 8% of stroke volume and the
index of compression and expansion are same. Find the
volumetric efficiency, swept volume referred to (i) intake
condition (ii) free air conditions of 101 kPa and 15C
(JNTU - April/May 2013-Set 1) (Oct-2000, Madras University)

Given : N = 300 rpm; y = 2 cycles/rev (double acting); Z = 1

(single stage); FAD = 15 m 3/min ; P 2  700 kPa ;
T2  200  273  473 K ; k  8%  0.08

Solution:

Case (1) Swept Volume refered to Suction Condition

= Intake condition
 15
FAD  V a  15m 3/min   0.25 m 3/sec
60

Assume n    1.4 [since n is not given we can

assume n  ]

P 1  1 bar [since initial pressure is not given, assume

P 1  1bar]

  P 2 1/ 
vo l  1  k    1
P
 1 

  7 1/1.4 
 1  0.08    1
 1 
 0.758833  75.88%

Va
Also vol  0.758833  
Vs
 Air Compressors 4.35

 Va 0.25
Vs    0.3295 m3/sec
vol 0.758833

  N 
But V s  V s   yZ
 60 
y  2 for dou ble acting ; Z  1 (for single stage)

Vs 0.3295
Vs    0.032945 m 3
N/60  y  Z 300 /60  2  1

Case (ii) Swept volume referred to Atmospheric

conditions

Given
P atm  101 kPa; T atm  15  273  288 K

1 0.4
T1  P1   1
  ; T1  473   1.4  271.3 K
T2 P2 7
 

P 1 V a P atm FAD

T1 Tatm

1  10 5  V a 101  10 3  0.25

271.3 288

V a  0.238 m 3/sec

  P 2 1/ 
vol  1  k    1
P
 1 

  7 1/1.4 
 1  0.08     1   0.7588326
 1 

V a 0.238
vol  0.7588326    
Vs Vs
4.36 Thermal Engineering - I


V s  0.31364 m 3/sec

V s  V s N/ 60  y Z

0.31364
Vs   0.031364 m 3
300/ 60  2  1

Problem 4.10: An air compressor takes in air at 0.98 bar and

20 C and compresses it according to the law pv1.2  C. It is
then delivered to a receiver at constant pressure of 9.8 bar.
Determine (i) the temperature at the end of compression:
(ii) the work done per kg of air: (iii) the heat transferred
during the compression; and (iv) the work done during
delivery. Take R  287 J/kg K and   1.4.
(JNTU - August 2014 - Set (4))

Given Data
P 1  0.98 ba r; T 1  20  273  293 K; n  1.2; P 2  9.8 bar;

T2  ? ; m  1 kg

Solution:

To find T 2
n1 n1
T2  P2  n  P2  n
   T2  T1  
T1 P P
 1  1

0.2
 9.8  1.2
T 2  293    430 K
 0.98 

T 2  430 K
 Air Compressors 4.37

(ii) To find workdone per kg of air

n1
  P2  n 
n
W  m RT 1    1
n1   P1  
0.2
1.2
1.2   9.8  
  1  0.287  293    1
0.2   0.98  
 236.03 kJ /kg

(iii) Heat transfered during compression

Q  m C n T 2  T 1

 n 
C n  Polytropic specific heat  C v  
1n
 1.4  1.2 
 0.718     0.718 kJ /kg K
 1  1.2 
Q  1   0.718  430  293   98.37 kJ/kg

 sign indicates heat lost to surroundings

(iv) Workdone during

P
delivery
3 2
Area of 2  3  A  B  2 W = P 2V 2
gives W on delivery

W  P 2 V 2  mRT 2
4 1
 1  0.287  430
V
A B
 123.41 kJ /kg

Problem 4.11: A single acting of single stage air compressor

with 5% of clearance volume compresses air from 1 bar to 5
bar. Find the change in volumetric efficiency if the exponent of
4.38 Thermal Engineering - I

expansion process changes from 1.25 to 1.4.

(Apr-2006, Anna University)

Given: k  5%  0.05 ; P 1  1 bar; P 2  5 bar

Solution:

Case (i) n  1.25

  P 2  1 n 
 vo l  1  k    1
P
 1 
1
5 
 1  0.05    1.25  1   0.8688  86.88 %
1
  

Case (ii) n    1.4

  P 2 1/ 
 vo l  1  k    1
P
 1 
1
  5  1.4 
 1  0.05     1   0.8922  89.22%
1 
Change in  vol

Fina l  vol 0.8922

 1  1  0.02688  2.7%
Initial vol 0.8688

Problem 4.12: A single acting 14 cm  10 cm reciprocating

compressor is operating at P1  1 bar, T1  20  C, P2  6 bar
and T2  180 C. The speed of compressor is 1200 rpm and
shaft power is 6.25 kW. If the mass of air delivered is 1.7
kg/min, calculate the actual volumetric efficiency, the indicated
power, the isothermal efficiency, the mechanical efficiency and
the overall efficiency.
(JNTU - January 2014 - Set 4) (Nov/Dec - 2010 - AU)
 Air Compressors 4.39

Given:
Suction pressure P 1  1 bar

Suction temperature T1  20  273  293 K

Discharge pressure P 2  6 bar

Discharge temperature T2  180  273  453 K

Speed of the compressor N  1200 rpm

Shaft power P shaft  6.25 kW


m a  1.7 kg  min

Solution:

(i) Actual volumetric efficiency P

  here 
   3 2
V s  D2 L  N  y  Z  y  1 
4 Z1 
 
P V n =C
 2
   0.14    0.10   1200 4 1
4

 1.8473 m2  min V


m RT1 1.7  0.287  1000  293
FAD   5
 1.4295 m3  min
P1 1  10

FAD
 1.4295
vol    100  77.38%
Vs 1.8473

(ii) Indicated Power

n1

n    P2  n 
IP  m RT 1    1
n1   P1  
4.40 Thermal Engineering - I

n1
T2  P2  n
 
T1 P
 1

Taking ln on bothsides.

n1 P2 T2
ln  ln
n P1 T1

 T2   453 
ln   ln  293 
n1 T1  
  
n  P2  6
ln   ln  

P1
 1

n  1.32

1.32  1
1.7 1.32
1.32  6  
IP    0.287  293    1
1.32  1 60  1  

IP  5.346 kW

(iii) Isothermal efficiency

  P2 
Isothermal power  m RT1 ln  
 P1 

17 6
  0.287  293 ln    4.269 kW
60 1
4.269
Iso   100  79.85%
5.346

IV. The Mechanical efficiency

Indicated Power 5.346
mech    100  85.5%
S haft Power 6.25
 Air Compressors 4.41

(v) Overall Isothermal efficiency  over iso 

 
Isothermal Power 4.269
 overIso    100  68.3%
Shaft Power 6.25

Problem 4.13: A single stage, double acting compressor has

a free air delivery of 14 m3/min, measured at 1.013 bar and
15C. The pressure and temperature in the cylinder during
induction are 0.95 bar, 15C. The delivery pressure is 7 bar
and index of compression and expansion is 1.3. The clearance
volume is 5% of the swept volume. Calculate (i) Indicated
power required (ii) Volumetric efficiency.
(JNTU - Apr/May 2013 - Set 3)

Given data:
y  2; Z  1; FAD  14 m 3/m in; P atm  1.013 bar;
Tatm  15 C; P 1  0.95 bar; T 1  15 C; P 2  7 bar; n  1.3;
k  0.05

Volume of air required at suction condition:


P atm FAD  P1 Va

T atm T1

 1.013 14
Va    0.249 m3/s
0.95 60 [ Tatm  T1]
n1

n    P2  n 
IP  P1 Va    1
n1 P
 1 
0.3
1.3
1.3  7  
  95  0.249    1
0.3   0.95  
 60 kW
4.42 Thermal Engineering - I

1
 n  1
  P2    7 
1.3

vol  1  k    1   1  0.05   1
 P1   
     0.95  
 0.8176  81.76%

Problem 4.14: Determine the size of the cylinder for a double

acting air compressor of 40 kW indicated power, in which air
is drawn at 1 bar and 15  C and compressed according to
the law PV1.2 constant to 6 bar. The compressor runs at 100
rpm with average piston speed of 152.5 m/min. Neglect
clearance. (JNTU - January - 2014 - Set (4))

Given Data
I.Power  40 kW; P 1  1 bar; T 1  15  273  288 K

PV 1.2  C; P 2  6 bar; Double acting; N  100 rpm;

Piston speed  152.5 m/min;

2LN 152.5
Piston speed   m/s
60 60

152.5
L  0.7625 m
2  100
n1
   P2  n 
n
Indicated power  P1 V a    1
n1 P
 1 
 n1 1
V a  IP  
n n1
 n

 P  
2
P1    1

P1
  
 Air Compressors 4.43

 0.2 1
V a  40  
1.2 0.2
 1.2 
6 

100    1
 1 
  
 0.192 m 3/s
 
Since Vol  is not given, Vs  Va  0.192 m3/s

 N  y  2 for double acting 

Vs  Vs  yZ  Z  1 for sin gle stage 
60  
100
0.192  V s  21
60

V s  0.0575 m 3/cycle

 2
and Vs  D L
4


0.0575   D 2  0.7625
4

D  0.309 m

Size: D  0.309 m

L  0.7625 m

Problem 4.15: A single stage single acting reciprocating air

compressor has a bore of 200 mm and stroke of 300 mm. It
receives the air at 1 bar and 20C and delivers it at 5.5 bar.
If the compression follows the law PV1.3  C and the clearance
volume is 5% of the stroke volume, determine the power
required to drive the compressor, if it runs at 500 r.p.m.
(Oct-97, Madras University)
4.44 Thermal Engineering - I

Given: D  0.2 m; L  0.3 m; P 1  1 bar; T1  293 K;

P 2  5.5 bar ; n  1.3; k  5%  0.05; N  500 r.p.m.

Solution:
  P 2  1n  1
  5.5  1.3 
 vo l  1  k     1   1  0.05  1  1
P1   
  

 0.864442

 
Swept volume V   D 2  L   0.2 2  0.3
4 4

 9.4248  10  3m3
 N
Vs  Vs  yZ
60
500
 9.4248  10  3   1  1  0.07854 m 3/sec
60

Va  
 vo l   So, V a  vol  Vs  0.864442  0.07854
Vs
 0.067893

V a  0.067893 m 3/sec

   P 1V a 1  10 5  0.067893
P 1Va  mRT1 So, m  
RT 1 287  293

 0.080738 kg/sec
n1
n    P2  n 
Power  m RT1   1
n1 P
 1 
0.3
1.3   5.5  1.3 
  0.080738  287  293    1
0.3  1  
 14181.14 W  14.18114 kW
 Air Compressors 4.45

Problem 4.16: A single stage reciprocating air compressor has

clearance volume 5% of stroke volume of 0.05 m3/sec. The
intake conditions are 95 kN/m2, 300 K. The delivery pressure
is 720 kN/m2. Determine the volumetric efficiency referred to
(i) intake conditions (ii) atmospheric conditions of 100 kN/m2
and 290 K (iii) FAD and (iv) power required to drive the
compressor, if the ratio of actual to indicated power is 1.5.
Take index of compression and expansion as 1.3.
(Nov/Dec-2010 - AU)

Given Data
A single stage Reciprocating Air compressor

V c  5% V s

V a  0.05 m 3  sec ; P 1  95 kN  m 2 ; T1  300 K

P 2  720 kN  m 2

Solution:
(i) Volumetric efficiency
P
(a) Intake condition
1n 3 2
 P2 
vol  1  k  k  
P W
 1
5
Vc V 4 1
100 s
k   0.05
Vs Vs

1
VC VS

720  1.3 V
 vol  1  0.05  0.05  
 95 
vol  81.3%
4.46 Thermal Engineering - I

(b) Atmospheric condition of volumetric efficiency

1
  P2  n  P 1 Ta
 vol    1  k  k   
 1   P atm  T 1
   P

Patm  100 kN  m 2 given

1
  720   1.3 95  290
 vol   1  0.05  0.05      0.7462
  a tm   95   100  300

  vol   74.62%
 atm

(ii) Free Air Delivered FAD   0.05 m3  sec

(iii) Power required to Drive the Compressor

n1
n    P2  
n
P P1 V a    1
n1 P
 1 
1.3  1
1.3   720  1.3 
  0.95  10 2  0.05    1
1.3  1   95  
P  12.26 kW

Problem 4.17: A four cylinder, double acting compressor is

required to compress 30 m3/min of air at 1 bar and 25C to
a pressure of 15 bar. Determine the capacity of motor required
and cylinder dimensions if the following data are given: Speed
of the compressor 310 r.p.m.; Clearance volume 3.5%; Stroke
to bore ratio 1.2; mech  82%; Index of compression 1.3.
Assume no pressure change in suction valves and the air gets
heated by 12C during suction stroke.
(Apr.98, Madras University)
 Air Compressors 4.47

Given
Hint: Here atmospheric condition and suction
condition are different. So the given volume rate is FAD.

Z  4 cylin ders; Double acting so y  2;

30 3
FAD  30 m3/min  m /sec  0.5 m 3/sec ;
60

P atm  1 bar; Tatm  25  273  298 K; n  1.3

N  310 r.p.m. ; k  3.5%  0.035 ;  mech  0.82;

P 1  Patm  1 bar [Atmospheric pressure and suction
pressure are same]. T1  Tatm  12  298  12  310 K.

Solution:

To Find Va

P atm FAD P 1V a

Tatm T1

P
P2 5 3 2
n
P V = C on sta n t

P1 6 1
V4 4 S u ction Volum e (V a )
v
Vc S w ept Volu m e (V s )
Fig.
4.48 Thermal Engineering - I

[atm - atmospheric conditions; suffix 1 stands for suction

condition]

5
1  105  0.5 1  10  Va

298 310

V a  0.52013 m 3/sec

To Find m
 
P 1V a  mRT1

 P 1V a 1  10 5  0.52013
m   0.58462 kg/sec
RT 1 287  310

To Find I.P
Theoretical power (Indicated power)
n1
n    P2  n 
 m RT 1   1
n1 P
 1 
0.3
1.3   15  1.3 
  0.58462  0.287  310     1
0.3  1  
 195.67 kW

To Find B.P
Brake power (Actual power required for motor)

I.P 195.67
B.P  
mech 0.82

i.e. Capacity of motor  238.62 kW

To Find Cylinder Dimensions

  P 2 1n 
 vol  1  k    1
P
 1 
 Air Compressors 4.49

1
  15  1.3 
 1  0.035    1
 1  

 0.75397

Va
Also vol  
Vs

 Va 0.52013
Vs    0.689856 m 3/sec
vol 0.75397

 N
But V s  V s  yZ
60

Vs 0.689856
Vs    0.01669 m 3
N/60  y  Z 310/60  2  4


Vs   D 2  L  0.01669 m 3
4


  D2  1.2D  0.01669 m 3
4

. . L 
D  0.260653 m  . D  1.2 
 

L  1.2D  0.312783 m

Problem 4.18: The free air delivery of a single stage

reciprocating air compressor is 2.5 m3/min. The ambient air is
at N.T.P condition and the delivery pressure is 7 bar. The
clearance volume is 5% of stroke volume and law of
1.25
compression and expansion is pv  C. If L  1.2 D and the
compressor runs at 150 rpm, determine the dimensions of the
cylinder. (April / May - 2011 - AU)
4.50 Thermal Engineering - I

P 2 =P 3 3s 2

P
W

P1
4 1

VC VS V

Given
 
FAD  Va  V 1  2.5 m 3/m in

NTP
P 1  1.013 bar ; T 1  0  273  273 K
 
k  0.05 ; P 1 V 1  m RT1

Solution:

 P 1 V 1 1.013  10 5  2.5
m 
RT1 287  273  60

kg
m  0.054
sec

1
  P2  n 
vol  1  k    1
P1
  

1
  7  1.25 
 1  0.05     1   0.8153
  1.013  
 Air Compressors 4.51

Displacement Volume

V a  Vs  y  Z  N  vol

Va . .
 . y  1 single a cting 
VS  
 volume  N  y  Z  Z  1 single stage 

2.5 
VS   D2  1.2 D
150  0.8153 4

D  0.2789 m  27.89 cm

L  1.2 D  1.2  0.2789  33.47 cm

Problem 4.19: A single stage double acting air compressor

delivers air at 7 bar. The pressure at the end of suction stroke
is 1 bar and temperature 25C. It delivers 2.2 m3 of free air
per minute when the compressor is running at 310 r.p.m. The
clearance volume is 5% of stroke volume. The pressure and
temperature of atmospheric air are 1.03 bar and 20C. Determine
volumetric efficiency, B.P. of compressor if mechanical efficiency
is 85% and diameter and stroke of the cylinder if both are
equal. Assume index of compression and expansion are 1.3
(Oct. 98, Madras University)

Given: y  2 for double acting;

FAD  2.2 m 3/min; P2  7 ba r; P 1  1 b ar;

T1  25  273  298 K; N  310 r.p.m ; Vc  0.05V s;

P atm  1.03 bar;

Tatm  20  273  293 K; mech  85 %; D  L; n  1.3.

4.52 Thermal Engineering - I

Solution:

P atm FAD  P 1V a

T atm T1

5
1.03  10 5  2.2/60 1  10  V a

293 298

V a  0.038411 m 3/sec
 
P 1 V a  m RT 1

 P 1V a 1  10 5  0.038411
m   0.044912 kg/sec
RT 1 287  298

To Find vol
  P 2  1 n 
vo l  1  k    1
P
 1 
1
7 
 1  0.05    1.3  1   0.82662
1
  
P
P2 5 3 2
n
P V = C o n sta n t

P1 6
V4 4 S u c tio n Vo lu m e (V a )
v
Vc S w e p t Vo lu m e (V s )
Fig.
 Air Compressors 4.53

To Find Cylinder Dimensions


Va
 vo l  
Vs

 0.038411
Vs   0.04647 m 3/sec
0.82662
 N
But V s  Vs  y Z
60

Vs 0.04647
Vs  
 N   310 
 60   yZ  60   2  1
   
 . .
 4.496862  10  3   D2  L [ . DL]
4
D  0.1789 m

L  0.1789 m

To Find Theoretical Power: (I.P)

n1
n    P2  n 
Power  m RT 1    1
n1 P
 1 
0.3
1.3 7 
  0.044912  0.287  298    1.3  1 
0.3 1 
 9.4349053 kW

To Find B.P
I.P 9.4349053
Brake Power    11.0999 kW
 mech 0.85

Problem 4.20. A single stage double acting air compressor

delivers 15 m3/min of air measured at 1.013 bar, 27C. The air
is delivered at 7 bar. The conditions at the end of suction stroke
4.54 Thermal Engineering - I

are pressure 0.98 bar and temperature 35C. The clearance

volume is 4% of stroke volume, the L/D ratio is 1.3 and the
compressor runs at 300 rpm. Calculate the volumetric
efficiency, cylinder dimensions and isothermal efficiency of the
compressor. Take index of expansion and compression as 1.3
and R  0.287 kJ/kg.K (Apr/May - 2011 - AU)

Given:

P 1  0.98 bar ; T1  35  273  308 K ; Va  15 m 3/min

P atm  1.013 bar ; T atm  27  273  300 K ;

L
P 2  7 bar ; k  0.04;  1.3; N  300 rpm
D

Solution:
1 1
  P2  n    7  1.3 
v  1  k    1   1  0.04    1
P  0.98  
 1 

v  85.85%

P 3 2

1.3
PV =C

Free air

0.98
bar 4 1

V
 Air Compressors 4.55

Volume of air Required at Inlet Conditions


P atm FAD  P 1 V a

Tatm T1

 P atm FAD 
Va   T1
Tatm  P 1

 15 308 1.013 m3
Va     0.2653
60 300 0.98 sec

Displacement Volume
 Volume rate 0.2653 m3
VS    0.3090
v 0.8585 sec

  . .
300  . y  2 for double acting 
V S  D2  1.3 D  2  1 
4 60  Z  1 for single stage 

 3 300
0.3090  D  2.6 
4 60

D  0.31163 m or 31.16 c m

L  0.405 m or 40.5 cm

n1
n    P2  
n
IP  P1 Va    1
n1 
P1  

0.3
1.3   7  1.3 
  0.2653  0.98  10 2     1
1.3  1   0.98  

IP  64.68 kW
4.56 Thermal Engineering - I

  P2 
Isothermal work  P 1Va ln  
P
 1

 7 
 0.98  10 2  0.2653 ln  
 0.98 
 51.12 kW

Isothermal efficiency
51.12
  79.03%
64.68

Problem 4.21: An air compressor takes in air at 5 bar and

30C and compress it according to law PV1.5  C. It is then
delivered at a constant pressure of 20 bar. R  0.287 kJ/kg K.
Determine (i) Temperature at end of compression (ii) Workdone
and heat transfer during compression per kg of air.

Given: T 1  30  273  303 K ; T 2  ? ; P1  5 bar

P 2  20 bar ; R  0.287 kJ/kg K ; PV1.5  C

Solution:

(i) Temperature at end of compression.

We know that

n1 n1 1.5  1

T2  P2  n  P2  n  20  1.5
  or T2  T1    303    481 K
T1 P
 1
P
 1  5 

 Temperature T2  481 K.

(ii) Workdone during compression

n1
 n   P2  n 
Workdone W   m RT1   1
n  1   P1  
 Air Compressors 4.57

1.5  1
 1.5    20  1.5 
 1  0.287  303     1
 1.5  1    5  

Workdone W  153.24 kJ/kg of air

Heat transferred during compression Q


P 1V 1  P2V2
Q  W  U   C V T2  T1
n1

R T 1  T 2 
  C V T 2  T 1 
n1

 R 
 T 2  T 1  CV 
 n  1 

 0.287 
 481  303  0.718 
 1.5  1 

Q  25.632 kJ/kg

Problem 4.22: A single acting reciprocating compressor

24 cm  20 cm has following parameters under testing. Suction

pressure  2 ; Suction temperature  30C; Discharge pressure
 12 bar; Discharge temperature  280C; Speed N  1200 rpm;
Shaft power P  10 kW; mass of air delivered  2.7 kg/min.
Calculate (i) the actual volumetric efficiency, the indicated
power, the isothermal efficiency, the mechanical efficiency, the
overall isothermal efficiency.

Given: P 1  2 bar ; P 2  12 bar ; T1  30  273  303 K, D  0.24 m

L  0.20 m ; T 2  280  273  553 K


N  1200 rpm ; Power P  10 kW ; m  2.7 kg/min
4.58 Thermal Engineering - I

Solution:

(i) Actual volumetric efficiency vol

We know that

Free air delivered F.A.D

vol   100    100
Displacement volum e Vd

m RT 1 2.7  0.287  303
F.A.D    1.174 m 3/min
P1 2  10 2

 2 
Vd  D L  N    0.24 2   0.20   1200
4 4

D  0.24 m

L  0.2 m

 10.858 m 3/min

FAD 1.174
 vo l   100   100  10.81 %
Vd 10.858

(ii) Indicated power (I.P)

We know that indicated power (I.P)

n1
n    P2  n 
 mRT1    1
n1 P
 1 

n1
 P2 
T2
n
Also,   T akin g ln on both sides,
T1  P 1 

n1  P2   T2 
ln    ln  
n P T
 1  1
 Air Compressors 4.59

n  1 ln T 2/T1

n ln P 2/P 1

1 ln T 2/T1 1  ln T2/T 1 
1  or   1   
 ln P 2/P 1 
n ln P 2/P 1 n

1  ln 553 /303 
1 
n  ln 12/2  

1
 1  0.3357
n

1
n  1.505
1  0.3357

1.505  1
1.505 2.7   12  1.505 
 I.P    0.287  303    1
1.505  1 60  2  

I.P  9613 Watts or 9.613 kW

(iii) Isothermal Efficiency


Isothermal power  m RT1 ln P 2/P 1

2.7  12 
  0.287  303 ln    7.012 kW
60  2 

Isothermal power  7.012 kW

Isotherm al power
isothermal Efficiency 
Indicated power

7.012
  100  73.04%
9.6

 iso  73.04 %
4.60 Thermal Engineering - I

(iv) Mechanical efficiency me ch:

I.P 9.6
 mech   100   100  96%
S haft power 10

(v) Overall isothermal efficiency over iso

Isothermal power 7.012
 overiso   100   100  70.12 %
Shaft power 10

Problem 4.23: A single stage single acting air compressor

delivers 2.6 kg of air per minute at 10 bar. The temperature
and pressure at the end of suction stroke are 40C and 1 bar.
The bore and stroke of the compressor are 200 mm and 350
mm respectively. The clearance is 2% of swept volume.
Assuming the index of compression and expansion to be 1.5.
Find (i) vol (ii) power required if mech is 85% (iii) speed of
compressor in rpm.

Solution:

Given: m  2.6 kg/min ; P2  10 bar ; P1  1 bar ;

T1  40  273  313 K ; D  200 mm  0.2 m ;

L  350 mm  0.35 m; n  1.5 ;  mech  85 % ; k  0.02

(i) Volumetric efficiency of compressor, vol

1
 P2  n
We know that vol  1  k  k  
P
 1
1
 10  1.5
 vol  1  0.02  0.02    0.927 or 92.7 %
 1 
(ii) Power required to drive the compressor
n1
n    P2  n 
Indicated Power  m RT 1    1
n1 P
 1 
 Air Compressors 4.61

1.5  1
1.5 2.6   10  1.5 
   287  313    1
1.5  1 60  1  
Indicated power  13481 J /s or 13.481 kW

Power required to drive the compressor

13.481 13.481
   15.86 kW
mech 0.85

(iii) Speed of compressor


m RT1 2.6  287  313
F.A.D  
P1 1  10 5

 2.3356 m 3/min

 2
Displacement volume  D L  N For s ingle acting
4


Vd   0.2 2  0.35  N
4

F.A.D
We know that vol 
Displa ce me nt volume

2.3356
 0.927 

 0.2 2  0.35  N
4

or N  229.1 rpm

Speed of compressor 229.1 rpm

Problem 4.24: A single stage double acting air compressor

delivers air at 7.5 bar. The pressure and temperature at the
end of suction stroke are 1 bar and 25C. It delivers 2.2 m3 of
free air per minute when the compressor is running at 310
rpm. The Vc  0.05 Vs. The pressure and temperature of
4.62 Thermal Engineering - I

ambient air are 1.03 bar and 20C. Determine (i) vol (ii)
Dimensions of cylinder if L/D  1 (iii) I.P and B.P if mec h is
85%. Take nc  1.25 ; ne  1.3

Given:
P 1  1 bar ; P 2  7.5 bar ; T1  25  273  298 K,

FAD  Vamb  2.2 m 3/min ; N  310 rpm; Vc  0.05 V s ;

P amb  1.03 bar ; Tamb  20  273  293 K ,  mech  0.85,

nc  1.25, n e  1.3

Solution:
The P.V diagram is shown

(i) Volumetric Efficiency vol 

1
  P2  n  P
vol  1  k    e1
P P 2 =P 3 3
 1  2 1.25
PV =C
1
  7.5  1.3  PV
1.3
=C
 1  0.05    1
 1  
 0.814  81.44% or
P 1 =P 4
4 1
V1  V4 Vc
V s=V 1 -V 3
We know that V c  V
Vs V1
V3 = Vc V4
Veff=V 1 -V 4
Also we know that F ig

1.3
P 2V1.3
3  P1 V 4 (from diagram)

1/1.3 1
 P2   7.5  1.3 . .
 V4  V3    Vc    4.71 Vc [ . V3  Vc]
P
 1  1 
 V 4  4.71 V c  4.71  0.05 V s  0.2355 Vs
 Air Compressors 4.63

V1  V4 V c  V s  0.2355 Vs
vol  
Vs Vs

0.05 V s  V s  0.2355 Vs

Vs

Vs
 vol  1.05  0.2355   0.8145 or 81.45 %
Vs

(ii) Dimensions of cylinder L and D

We know that

 P amb V amb T1 1.03  2.2  298
V1    2.305 m 3/mi n
P 1 Tamb 1  293

Volume of air delivered per min

 . .
 . y2
V 1  V s   vol  N  2  1 
 Z  1 

2.305  V s  0.8145  310  2

2.305
 Vs   0.00456 m 3
0.8145  310  2


 V s  D 2  L  0.00456
4

 . .
or  D 3  0.00456  . D  L
4

or D 3  5.805  10  3 or D  0.1797 m or D  17.97 cm

D  L  17.97 cm
4.64 Thermal Engineering - I

(iii) I.P and B.P

Workdone per cycle of operation
n1  1
  n1   P2  n1

W2 P 1V 1    1
P
  n1  1  1 
n2  1
 n2   P3  n  
 P 4V 4    2 1 
n 1 P
 2  4  

P 3  P2 and P 4  P 1 ; n 1  1.25 ; n2  1.3

V 1  Vc  V s  0.05 V s  V s  1.05 V s ; V 4  0.2355 V s

1.25  1
  1.25 5   7.5  1.25 
 W/cycle  2   1  10  1.05  0.00456    1
 1.25  1  1  

1.3  1
 1.3   7.5  1.3 
  1  10 5  0.2355  0.00456    1
 1.3  1  1  

 2 1188.08  275.47 

 1825.7 J/cycle

 Indicated power

W.D/cycle  N 1825.7  310

   9.43 kW
60  1000 60  1000

I.P 9.43
Brake power B.P    11.09 kW
mech 0.85

4.15 TWO STAGE COMPRESSION

When the air is required to be compressed to a very
high pressure, we cannot go for single stage compression.
The air should be compressed in two or more stages.
 Air Compressors 4.65

Inte rcoo ler

Cooling water

2 3
P2V T 2 P V2 T 3

L.P.Cylinder H.P.C ylinder

Ist Stage 2nd S tage

1 4 P 3’
P 1’ T 1 T4
Air in Air out
Fig.4.10
Two stage reciprocating
air com pressor w ith intercooler

Intercooling: Intercooler is introduced in between two

cylinders to reduce the temperature of the air leaving the
compressor at very high pressure. Also the temperature of
air is cooled by intercooler to maintain the temperature.
T3  T1

4.15.1. Complete (or) Perfect Intercooling

If the temperature of air leaving the intercooler T 3
is equal to the original inlet temperature of air T 1, then
the intercooling is known as perfect intercooling. If T 3
is not given, assume T 3  T 1. Then the intermediate
pressure P 2  

P 1P 3

4.15.2 Incomplete (or) Imperfect Intercooling

If the temperature of air leaving the intercooler T 3
is greater than the original inlet temp. of air T1, then the
intercooling is imperfect intercooling.
4.66 Thermal Engineering - I

Here T 3  T 1

4.15.3 Workdone when perfect and imperfect

intercooling.
W  W for LP cylinder + W for HP cylinder.

n1 n1
n   P2  n  n   P3  n 
  P1 V1    1  P 2V 2    1
n1 P
 1  n1
P
 2 

when the intercooling is perfect, T 3  T 1

i.e., P 1V1  P 2V 2

n1 n1
n   P2  n  P3  n 
So, W  P 1V 1      2
n1 P P
 1  2 

n1 n1
n   P2  n  P3  n 
 mRT 1      2
n1 P P
 1  2 

P atmFAD  P 1VaLp
Also, 
Tatm T1

Q  Heat removed in the intercooler  mC pT2  T 3

If m is not given, then q  CpT2  T3

4.15.4 Minimum Work Required for 2 Stages and

multi stages
The atmospheric pressure is fixed i.e. P 1 is fixed. The
delivery pressure is fixed i.e. P 3 is fixed. So the workdone
required will be minimum, if we get the intermediate
pressure optimum.

i.e., if P 2   P1P3 then W is minimum.


 Air Compressors 4.67

Substitute P 2   P1P3 in the W equation, then



Minimum W for 2 stages

n1
n   P3  2n

2  P1V 1     1  for 2 stages.
n1 P
 1 
Minimum W for 3 stages
n1
n   P4  3n

3  P1V 1    1
n1 P
 1 
Minimum W for Z stages
n1
n   Pz  1  zn

Z  P1V 1    1
n1 P1
  

4.16 MULTISTAGE RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

Multistage compression is a series arrangement of
cylinders in which compressed air from the cylinder 1,
becomes the intake air for the cylinder 2 which follows as
shown in Fig. 4.11.

Inter H igh pressure air

cooler

LP Cylinder IP Cylinder H P C ylinder

1 2 3
d 2
d 1 d 3
Inter
A ir in take cooler

Fig 4.11 Th ree stage com pressor

4.68 Thermal Engineering - I

The low pressure ratio in the low-pressure cylinder

means that the clearance air expansion is reduced and the
effective swept volume of this cylinder is increased since
this cylinder controls the mass flow through the machine,
because it is the cylinder which introduces the air into the
machine, so there is greater mass flow through the
multistage arrangement than the single stage machine. If
an intercooler is installed between cylinders, in which the
compressed air is cooled between cylinders, then the final
delivery temperature is reduced. This reduction in
temperature means a reduction in internal energy of the
delivered air and since this energy must have come from
the input energy required to drive the machine, this results
in a decrease in input work requirement for a given mass
of delivered air. Two stage and three stage compressors are
common. The complexity of the machinery limits the
number of stages.
The diameters d 1  d 2  d3  gets reduced as the
pressure goes on increasing the volume gets reduced.

A General P.V diagram is shown Fig 4.12.

Cycle 8156 -: Single stage compressor

P W ork saved
D elivery 3
6 5
pressure n
HP PV = C
P 3 or P d
P erfe ct
Iso the rm al intercooling
Inte rm ediate process
7
pressure P 2 4
2
Inta ke LP
pressure 8
1
P 1 or P S
v
Fig 4.12
 Air Compressors 4.69

Cycle 8147,7456 -: Two stage without Intercooling

Cycle 8147,7236 -: Two stage with perfect Intercooling

Perfect intercooling means that after the initial

compression in L.P cylinder,the air is cooled in an
intercooler to its original intake temperature T1  T2.

Case 1. Single - Stage Compressor

Cycle 8156 is that of a single stage compressor
neglecting clearance, for this cycle.
n1
n   P5  n 
Workdone W   P1V 1    1
n1 P
 1 
n1
 P5  n
Delivery Temperature T 5  T 1  
P
 1
Case 2. Two - Stage Compressor
(i) Without Intercooling
Cycle 8147 is low pressure compression

Cycle 7456 is high pressure compression

 The workdone

n1
n   P4  n 
W   P 1V 1    1
n1 P
 1 
n1
n   P5  n 
 P4V 4    1
n1 P
 4 
(ii) With Perfect intercooling
Cycle 8147 is low pressure compression

Cycle 7236 is high pressure compression

4.70 Thermal Engineering - I

n1
  P4  n 
n
Workdone W   P1V1    1
n1   P1  
n1

n   P3  n 
 P V   1
n  1 2 2   P2  

Delivery temperature

n1 n1
 P3  n  P3  n . .
T3  T2    T1   [ . T1  T2]
P P
 2  2

Now since T 1  T 2 ; P 2V2  P 1V1 also P 2  P 4

 Workdone

n1 n1
n   P2  n  P3  n

W P 1V 1      2
n1 P P
 1  2  ...(1)

4.16.3 Conditions for Minimum Workdone

Differentiating (1) w.r.t to P 2 and equating to zero.

n1 n1
  P2  n  P3  n 
d    
P P
dW  1  2 
 0
dP 2 dP2

n1 
1 n1  1
    P 2 n 
n1
P 1   n 
n

n1  n1 n1

 10
 P 3  n   P 2  n 
 n 
 Air Compressors 4.71

n1 
 1
P2  n  n1  n1 
   1
 n  n 
  P3  P2  
n1
P 1  n 

 1
 
P 2 n  n1
n
  P 1P 3
n1 
P2   n  1 

1
 2n  1  n1
  
 P2 n  P n   P 1P 3 n

2n  2 n1
 P 2  n  P 1 P 3  n

n1 n1
 P 22  
n   P 1P 3 n

or P 22  P1P 3

 Intermediate pressure P 2  

P 1P 3 ...(2)

Substituting P2   P 1P 3 ; P 2  P4 ; P 2V2  P 1V 1
 in
equation (1), we can get minimum workdone.
n1

2n   P 3  2n 
W min  P 1V 1    1
n1 P
 1 
Case (iii) Multistage Compressor
We know that for single stage compressor
n1
n   P2  n 
W P 1V 1    1
n1 P
 1 
For double stage compressor
4.72 Thermal Engineering - I

n1
2n   P 3  2n 
W P 1V 1    1
n1 P
 1  
 For three stage compressor
n1
3n   P 4  3n 
W P 1V 1    1
n1   P1  
 For Z stage compressor
n1
Zn   P Z  1  
Zn
W P 1V 1    1
n1   P1  
4.16.4 Intermediate Pressures for Z Stage
compressor Running under Ideal Condition
P2 P3 P4 PZ  1
    y say
P1 P2 P3 PZ

P 2  yP1; P 3  yP2  y2P1

 P Z  1  yP Z  yZP 1

4.16.5 Heat Rejected per stage per kg of air

For a single stage, the heat rejected is given by
n
W C  C V T 2  T 1 [Without Intercooling]
n1 P

Heat rejected per stage with perfect intercooling.

 n 
W  [C P  C V  ] T 2  T 1 per kg of air.
n1
 Air Compressors 4.73

4.16.6 The Change in Entropy in First Stage

Compression
n  T2 
S2  S1  C p Cv ln  
n1 T
 1

4.16.7 For Two Stage Compression

S 2  S 1  C p  C v ln P 3/P 1

 Cp  Cv   P3 
S2  S1  
2
 ln 
P
  for minimum work
   1
condition.

Problem 4.25: A two stage compressor takes in 3 m3 of air

per minute at a pressure of 1 bar and temperature of 25C. It
delivers the air at 9 bar. The compression is carried out in
each cylinder according to the law PV1.2  C. The air is cooled
to its initial temperature in intercooler. Neglecting clearance,
find the minimum power required to drive the compressor.

Given:

V 1  3 m 3/min; P 1  1 b ar; P 3  9 bar; n  1.2.

T1  25  273  298 K;

Solution:
Since the air is cooled to its initial temperature, it is
perfect intercooling. So, P 2   P 1 P3




1 9  3 bar

To Find Minimum Work

n1
n    P3  
2n
W min  2   P 1V 1    1
n1 P
 1 
4.74 Thermal Engineering - I

0.2
1.2 3   9  1.2  2 
2  1  102  1
0.2 60   1  
 12.0562 kW

Problem 4.26: A single acting, two stage reciprocating air

compressor with complete intercooling delivers 0.175 kg/sec of
air at 16 bar from 1.013 bar. The compression and expansion
follows the law PV1.3  constant. Calculate the power required
to drive the compressor. Take R  0.287 kJ/kgK
(Nov/Dec 11 - AU)

P 1  1.013 bar  1.013  10 5 N/m 2

P 3  16 bar  16  10 5 N/m 2

T1  273 K

n1 1
n   P3  n

Z

WZ  P1 V 1     1
n1 P
 1 
Z  No. of stages  2
P 1 V 1  mRT 1

1.3
W2  0.175  0.287  273 
1.3  1
1.3  1 1
  16  1.3  
2
  1.013   1
  
 44.62 kJ/sec

P  44.62 kW

Problem 4.27: 2 kg/s of air enters the LP cylinder of a two

stage, reciprocating air compressor. The overall pressure ratio
is 9. The air at inlet to compressor is at 100 kPa and 35C.
 Air Compressors 4.75

The index of compression in each cylinder is 1.3. Find the

intercooler pressure for perfect intercooling. Also, find the
minimum power required for compression, and percentage
saving over single stage compression. Take R  0.287 kJ/kg K
and Cp  1 kJ/kg K (Nov/Dec - 2011 -AU)

Given:
m  2 kg/sec ; P 1  100 kPa  1 bar

T 1  35C  35  273  308 K ; n  1.3

P3
 9 given
P1

Solution:
Intercooling Pressure P2
P2   P1 P3  
 
1 9  3 bar

Minimum workdone
1 n1
n   P3  Z  n 
WZ  P 1 V1    1
n1 P
 1 
P 1 V 1  mRT 1

1 1.3  1
1.3 9  
2  2  0.287  308    2 1.3
1
1.3  1 1 
W  442.132 kJ/sec

W min  442.132 kW

(ii) % Saving by two stage instead of Single Stage

n1
n   P3  n

W P1 V 1    1
n1 P
 1 
4.76 Thermal Engineering - I

P 1 V 1  mRT 1

1.3  1
1.3 9 1.3 
  2  0.287  308    1
1.3  1 1 

W single  505.92 kW

W single  W min 505.92  442.132

% saving  
W single 505.92

 0.126  12.6%

Problem 4.28: A two stage air compressor compresses air

from 1 bar, 20C to 42 bar. If the law of compression is
PV1.35  constant and intercooling is perfect, find per kg of air
(i) the work done in compression. (ii) the mass of cooling
water necessary for abstracting the heat in the intercooler, if
the temperature rise of the cooling water is 25C.
(JNTU April/May 2013 - Set 2)

Given Data:
2 stage; P 1  1 bar; T1  20  273  293 K

P 3  42 bar; n  1.35 ; Perfect intercooling; m  1 kg

Solution:

Work done
n1
n   P3  2n 
W2 m RT1    1
n1 P
 1 
0.35
2  1.35
1.35   42  
2  1  0.287  293    1
0.35  1  
 Air Compressors 4.77

 404.4 kJ/kg

Q rejected in intercooler:
Q  m C p T2  T3

P2  

P1 P3  
   6.48 bar
1  42

n1 n1
T2  P2  n  P2  n
   T2  T1  
T1 P P
 1  1
0.35
 6.48  1.35
T2  293    475.7 K
 1 
Q  1  1.005  475.7  293

 183.56 kJ/kg [ T3  T1  293 K ]

This heat Q  183.5 kJ/kg is taken away by cooling

water.

Q  183.56  mw  C pw Tw

183.56
mw 
C pw  Tw

183.56
  1.754 kg/s
4.187  25

Mass of cooling water m w  1.754 kg/s

Problem 4.29: A single acting two stage reciprocating air

compressor with complete inter cooling delivers 8 kg/min at 16
bar pressure. Assume an intake condition of 1 bar and 15C
and the compression and expansion processes are polytropic
with 1.35. Calculate (i) power required (ii) the isothermal
efficiency. (JNTU - H - May 2013)
4.78 Thermal Engineering - I

Given Data:

2 stage; m  8 kg/min; P 3  16 bar

P 1  1 bar; T1  15  273  288 K; n  1.35

Solution:
n1

2n    P3  2n 
Power  mRT 1    1
n1 P
 1 
0.35
2  1.35
2  1.35 8   16  
   0.287  288    1
0.35 60  1  
Polytropic power  36.76 kW

  P3 
Isothermal power  m RT1 ln  
P
 1
8  16 
  0.287  288  ln  
60  1 
 30.56 kW

Isothermal pow er
Isothermal 
Po lytropic po wer

30.56
  0.8312
36.76

isothermal  83.12%

Problem 4.30: A two-stage single acting reciprocating

3
compressor takes in air at the rate of 0.2 m /s. The intake
pressure and temperature of air are 0.1 MPa and 16C. The
air is compressed to a final pressure of 0.7 MPa. The
intermediate pressure is ideal and intercooling is perfect. The
 Air Compressors 4.79

compression index in both the stages is 1.25 ad the compressor

runs at 600 r.p.m. Neglecting clearance, determine (i) The
intermediate pressure, (ii) The total volume of each cylinder,
(iii) the power required to drive the compressor, and (iv) the
rate of heat rejection in the intercooler. Take
Cp  1.005 kJ/kg K and R  287 J/kgK.
(JNTU - August - 2014 - (Set 3))

Given Data:
 
2 stage; V a  0.2 m3/s  V 1;
P 1  0.1 MPa  1 bar; T 1  16  273  289 K;
P 3  0.7 MPa  7 bar; n  1.25 ; N  600 rpm;

Solution:
(i) To find P 2

P2  
 P1 P3 

1 7  2.65 bar

[Since intermediate pressure is ideal and perfect

intercooling]

(ii) Total volume of each cylinder

Swept volume for LP cylinder
   . .
V a  V1  V s  0.2 m 3/s [ .  vol is not given ]

V 0.2
Vs    0.02 m 3/cycle
N/60 600/60

V s LP  0.02 m3/cycle

Swept volume for HP cylinder

V s LP P2
  2.65
V s HP P1
4.80 Thermal Engineering - I

V s HP 0.02
V s HP    7.55  10  3 m 3/cycle
2.65 2.65

V s HP  0.00755 m 3/cycle

n1

2n    P 3  2n 
(iii) Power  P1 Va    1
n1   P1  
0.25
2  1.25
2  1.25 7 
  100  0.2    1
0.25 1 
 42.96 kW

To find m
 
P 1 V a  m R T1

 P1 Va 100  0.2
m   0.2411 kg/s
RT 1 0.287  289

(iv) Rate of heat rejection in intercooler


Q  m C p T2  T1

n1 n1
T2  P2  n  P2  n
   T2  T1  
T1 P P
 1  1
0.25
 2.65  1.25
T 2  289    351.2 K
 1 
Q  0.2411  1.005 351.2  289  15.1 kW

Q  15.1 kW

Problem 4.31: A two-stage single acting reciprocating air

compressor draws in air at a pressure of 1 bar and 17C and
 Air Compressors 4.81

compresses it to a pressure of 60 bar. After compression in the

L.P. cylinder, the air is cooled at constant pressure of 8 bar
to a temperature of 37C. The low pressure cylinder has a
diameter of 150 mm and both the cylinders have 200 mm
stroke. If the law of compression is pv1.35  C, find the power
of the compressor, when it runs at 200 r.p.m. Take R = 287
J/kg K. (JNTU - August 2014 (Set - 2))

Given Data:
2 stage; P 1  1 bar; T1  17  273  290 K;

P 3  60 bar; P 2  8 bar; T3  37  273  310 K;

D LP  0.15 m; L HP  L LP  0.2 m; PV 1.35  C;

N  200 rpm; R  0.287 kJ/kgK; IP  ?

Solution:
 2
Swept volume of LP cylinder  Vs  D L
4


  0.152  0.2
4

 3.53  10  3 m3

Swept volume rate of LP cylinder  Vs

 N
V s  Vs  yZ
60

[y  1 for single acting; Z  1 for single LP cylinder]

 200
V s  3.53  10  3  11
60

 0.0118 m 3/s
4.82 Thermal Engineering - I

Since volumetric  is not given,

 
V a  V s  0.0118 m 3/s

To find mass flow rate of air : m
 
P 1 V a  m RT 1

 100  0.0118
m  0.0142 kg/s
0.287  290

To find indicated power

 
Power  W LP  W HP for imperfect intercooling . .
[ . T1  T3]
n1
  P2  n 
n 
 m RT1    1
n1 P
 1 
n1

n    P3  n 
m RT 3    1
n1 P
 2 
0.35
1.35
1.35 8 
  0.0142  0.287  290    1
0.35 1 
0.35
1.35
1.35   60  
  0.0142  0.287  310    1
0.35  8  
 3.257  3.343  6.6 kW

Problem 4.32: A two stage air compressor with perfect

intercooling takes in air at 1 bar pressure and 27C. The law
of compression in both the stages is pv1.3  constant. The
compressed air is delivered at 9 bar from the H.P cylinder to
an air receiver. Calculate per kg of air (i) the minimum work
 Air Compressors 4.83

done, and (ii) The heat rejected to intercooler.

(JNTU - August 2014 - Set 1)

Given Data:
2 stage; P 1  1 b ar; T1  27  273  300 K

PV 1.3  C; P3  9 bar;

Solution:
To find minimum work:
n1

n   P 3  2n 
W min  2  mRT 1    1
n1 P
 1 
0.3
2  1.3
1.3 9 
2  1  0.287  300     1
0.3 1 
[m  1 kg ]

 215.32 kW

To find optimum intermediate pressure P2

P2  
 P1 P3 

1 9  3 bar

To find Q in the intercooler:

Q  m Cp T2  T3

Here T 3  T 1 since it is perfect intercooling.

Hence Q  m Cp T 2  T 1

To find T 2
n1 n1
T2  P2  n  P2  n
   T2  T1  
T1 P P
 1  1
4.84 Thermal Engineering - I

2
0.3
 3  1.3
T 2  300    386.57 K
1
Q  m C p T 2  T1
 1  1.005  386.57  300  87

Q  87 kJ /kg

Heat rejected in the intercooler

Problem 4.33: A three stage reciprocating air compressor
compresses air from 1 bar and 17C to 35 bar. The law of
compression is PV1.25  constant and is same for all stages of
compression. Find the minimum power required to compress
15 m3/min of free air. Also find the intermediate pressures.
Assume perfect intercooling and neglect the clearance.
(Apr/May-2008 - AU) (JNTU - Jan/Feb - 2015 Set- 3)

Given:
3 stage; P 1  1 bar; t1  17C

P 4  35 bar; n  1.25; FAD  15 m 3/min

15 3
 m /sec
60

Solution:
P 2  ?; P 3  ?; perfect inter cooling
Minimum work for 3 stages
n1
3n
n   P4  
3  P1 V1    1
n1 P
 1 

To find Intermediate pressures,

 Air Compressors 4.85

for perfect  P2 P3 P4 P
  
intercooling  P 1 P 2 P3 PV
1 .2 5
=C
P4 4
P4 P3 P2 P4
    3
P3 P2 P1 P1 P3
3 2
 P2  P4 P2
  
 P1  P1
1 P1 1
P2  P4 3
 V

P1 P
 1
1
 P4  3
P2  P 1  
P
 1
1
 35  3
1   3.27 bar
 1 
P3 P4

P2 P3

P 23  P 4 P 2

P3  
 P4 P2 
 
35  3.27
P 3  10.7 bar

n1
Minimum power 
   P 4  3n 
 n
required  3  P 1 V1     1
for 3 stages 

n1   P1  

0.25
1.25 15   35  3  1.25 
3  1  10 2  1
0.25 60   1  
 100.3 kW
4.86 Thermal Engineering - I

Problem 4.34: A 3 stage compressor is used to compress air

from 1 bar and 27C to 20 bar. The compression index in all
the stages is n  1.5. Neglecting clearance and assuming perfect
intercooling, find out the I.P required to deliver 20 m3 of air
per min measured at inlet conditions and intermediate
pressures also. Take R  287 J/kg K

Solution:
Given: P 1  1 bar ; P 4  20 bar ; n  1.5 ; R  287 J/kg K
T1  27  273  300 K ; Z  3

For perfect intercooling

P2 P3 P4
  P
P1 P2 P3
1 .5
PV =C
P4 4
P4 P3 P2 P4
    3
P3 P2 P1 P1 P3
2
3 P2
 P2  P4
  
P P1
 1
P1 1
1/3 V
 P4 
or P2  P1  
P
 1

1
 20  3
1   2.714 bar
 1 

P 22  P 3  P1

P22
P3 
P1
 Air Compressors 4.87

2.7142
P3   7.36 bar
1

n1 1 1.5  1 1
 P4  n . z  20  1.5 
3
Also T 2  T 1    300    418.48 K

P1
  1 
n1
 P2  n
(or) T 2  T 1  
P
 1
0.5
 2.714  1.5
 300  
 1 
 418.48 K

Mass of air handled


 P 1V 1 1  10 5  20
m   23.23 kg/min
RT1 287  300

Total workdone in 3 stages

n1
n    P4  
nZ
WZ  P1V 1    1
n1 P
 1  
0.5
1.5 20   20  1.5  3 
3  1  10 2  1
0.5 60   1  
 118.486 kW

or Indicated power I.P  118.486 kW

Problem 4.35: A multi-stage air compressor is to be designed

to evaluate the pressure from 1 bar to 200 bar, such that stage
pressure will not exceed 5. Determine (i) Number of stages
(ii) Exact stage pressure ratio (iii) Intermediate pressure.
4.88 Thermal Engineering - I

Solution:

(i) Number of stages Z

Assuming perfect intercooling between stages and the
condition of minimum work of compression in multistage
compression is

1
PZ  1  PZ  1 Z
 
PZ P1
  ...(1)
Given:

PZ  1
4
PZ
...(2)
Substitute (2) in (1)

1
 PZ  1  Z
4 

P1 

1
 200  Z 1
4
1  or ln 4  Z ln 200
 
ln 200
Z  3.82 ~
 4
ln 4

No of stages Z  4

(ii) Exact stage pressure ratio

1 1
PZ  1  PZ  1  Z  200  4
     3.76
PZ

P1   1 

Exact pressure  P Z  1
  3.76
ratio  PZ
 Air Compressors 4.89

(iii) Intermediate Pressures

P 1  1 bar ; P 4  1  P 5  200 bar

P4  1 P5 200
  3.76 or P 4   53.19 ba r
P4 P4 3.76

P4 P4 53.19
Also  3.76 or P 3    14.147 bar
P3 3.76 3.76

P3 P3 14.147
Also  3.76 or P2    3.762 bar
P2 3.76 3.76

 The pressures are

P 1  1 bar ; P 2  3.76 ba r ; P 3  14.147 bar

P 4  53.19 bar ; P 5  200 bar

Problem 4.36: A 3 stage air compressor supplying air for an

engine has a capacity of 15 m3 of free air/min and is driven
by an engine at 200 rpm. The pressure at suction to L.P
cylinder is 1 bar and at delivery at H.P cylinder is 100 bar.
The clearance ratio is for L.P and H.P cylinders are 0.04 and
0.07. Assuming the temperature at the end of suction in all the
cylinders is 27C. Perfect intercooling, stage pressure in
geometric progression and the law of compression PV1.5  C,
calculate the swept volume of each cylinder. Free air conditions
are 1 bar and 15C

Solution:

The P  V diagram is shown in figure.

4.90 Thermal Engineering - I

We know that P 1 .5
PV =C
P4 4 1
P4 P3 P2
   Z pressure ratio
P3 P2 P1
P3 3
P4 P3 P2 P4
    Z3 P2 2
P3 P2 P1 P1

1 1
 P 4  3  100  3 P1 1
Z     4.6415 V
P  1 
 1 Fig

 P2  ZP 1  4.6415  1  4.6415 bar

P 3  ZP 2  4.6415  4.6415  21.54 bar

1
n
vol L.P  1  kLP  kLP Z

1
1.5
 1  0.04  0.04 4.6415   0.9287

1
n
vol H.P   1  kHP  kHP z

1
1.5
 1  0.07  0.07 4.6415   0.8752

Swept volume for Each cylinder

Volume of free air to suction condition of L.P cylinder

P 1V 1 P amb Vamb

T1 Tamb

1  10 5  15  300
V1  5
 15.625 m 3/min
288  1  10
 Air Compressors 4.91

Given:
[P amb  1 bar ; V amb  15 m3/min ;
T amb  15C ; T1  27C, P 1  1  10 5]

 V 1  15.625 m 3/min

Swept capacity of L.P cylinder

15.625 15.625
   0.084 m 3
vol L.P  N 0.9287  200

Volume of free air at the suction conditions of L.P

cylinder

1  10 5  15  300
  3.366 m3/min
288  4.6415  10 5

Swept capacity of L.P cylinder

3.366
  0.0192 m 3
0.8752  200

Volume of free air reduced to suction condition of H.P

cylinder

1  10 5  15  300
  0.7254 m 3/min
288  21.54  10 5

Swept capacity of H.P cylinder

0.7254
  0.00414 m 3
0.8752  200

Problem 4.37: A single acting 2 stage air compressor with

complete intercooling delivers 10.5 kg/min of air at 16 bar.
The suction occurs at 1 bar and 27C. The compression and
expansion follows for both stages PV1.3  C. Calculate (a) power
4.92 Thermal Engineering - I

required (b) isothermal efficiency (c) the free air delivered. (d)
heat transferred in the intercooler (e) if the clearance ratio for
LP and HP cylinders are 0.04 and 0.06 respectively, find swept
and clearance volume for each cylinder. Assume speed of
compressor as 440 r.p.m. (JNTU - January 2014 - Set 1)

Solution:
The optimum intermediate pressure P 2  
P 1P 3


   4 bar
1  16

To Find Power
n1
2n    P 3  2n 
Power  m RT1    1
n1 P
 1 
1.3  1
2  1.3  10.5    16  2  1.3 

0.3

60   0.287  300   1  1
    
 49.232 kW
P
(bar)
4 3
P 3 =16

H .P 1 -3
PV =C

1
6 2 2
P 2 =4
5
L.P

P 1 =1 1
7 v
V c (L.P) V s (L.P)
V c (H .P) V s (H .P)
 Air Compressors 4.93

To Find Isothermal Efficiency

P owerisotherm al
Isothermal Efficiency 
Powerpolytropic

  P3 
Powerisothermal  m RT1 ln  
P
 1

10.5  16 
  0.287  300 ln  
60  1 
 41.776 kW

41.776
 isothermal   0.84855  84.86 %
49.232

To Find FAD
Since the atmospheric conditions are not given, here

V a  FAD
 
P 1V a  m RT1

 10.5  287  300

Va 
1  10 5

 9.0405 m 3/min

FAD  9.0405 m 3/min

To Find Q in the intercooler


Q  m C p T2  T3

[T 3  T1 since we assume it is perfect intercooling]

10.5
Q  1.005 T2  300
60
4.94 Thermal Engineering - I

n1 n1
T2  P2  n  P2  n
  So , T 2  T 1 
T1 P
 1
P
 1
0.3
4
 300    1.3  413.103 K
1
10.5
Q  1.005 413.103  300
60

 19.892 kW

To Find Vs and V c
  P 2 1n 
vol LP  1  k    1
P
 1 
1
4 
 1  0.04    1.3  1   0.92381
1
  
 92.381 %

  P 3 1n 
 vol HP  1  k    1
P
 2 
1
  16  1.3 
 1  0.06     1   0.88571
 4  
 88.571 %

For LP Cylinder

Va
 vol LP  0.92381  
Vs

 9.0405 
 60 
  
Vs   0.1631 m 3/sec
0.92381
 Air Compressors 4.95

 N
V s  Vs 
60

Vs 0.1631
Vs  
 N   440 
 60   60 
   

 0.022241 m 3

Clearance volume  4% o f V s  0.04  0.022241

 8.8965  10  4m 3

HP Cylinder

Va
 vo l HP  0.88571  
Vs

 9.0405 
 60 
  
Vs   0.170118 m 3/sec
0.88571

Swept volume

Vs 0.170118
V sH P  
N  440 
Stage pressure ratio  4 
60  60 

 5.7995  10  3m 3

Clearance volume V cH P  0.06  V sHP

 3.48  10  4m 3
4.96 Thermal Engineering - I

Note
L LP  L HP

D 2LP
 Pressure ratio
D 2HP

V sLP
 Pressure ratio
VsHP

Problem 4.38: A two stage single acting air compressor

delivers air at 20 bar. The pressure and temperature of air
before compression in L.P. cylinder are 1 bar and 27C. The
discharge pressure of L.P. cylinder is 4.7 bar and the air is
cooled to 27C. The diameter and stroke of LP cylinder are 40
cm and 50 cm respectively. The clearance volume is 4% of stroke
in both cylinders. The speed of compressor is 200 r.p.m. Assuming
the index of compression and expansion in both cylinders are 1.3,
find the indicated power to run the compressor and the heat rejected
in intercooler per minute. (Oct.99, Madras University)

Given: y  1 for single acting; Z  2 for two stage; Delivery

pressure = 20 bar; Initial pressure P 1  1 b ar
T1  27  273  300 K; LP cylinder delivery pressure
P 2  4.7 bar; T3  27  273  300 K.

D  0.4 m; L  0.5 m; k  0.04; N  200 r.p.m. ; n  1.3.

Solution:
To Find vol
  P 2 1n 
 vo l  1  k LP    1
P
 1 
 Air Compressors 4.97

1
  4.7  1.3 
 1  0.04    1
 1  
 0.90846  90.85 %


Swept volume of LP cylinder  Vs  D 2L
4


  0.4 2  0.5
4

 0.062832 m3

Swept volume rate of air in LP cylinder

 N
V s  Vs  yZ
60

200
 0.062832  11
60

 0.20944 m 3/sec

. .
[ . y  1 for single acting; for single LP cylidner Z  1]

Actual volume rate of air in LP cylinder

 
V a   vol  V s

 0.90846  0.20944

 0.1903 m 3/sec

To Find Mass Rate of Flow of Air m
 
P 1V a  m RT1

 1  10 5  0.1903
m  0.220985 kg/sec
287  300
4.98 Thermal Engineering - I

To Find Indicated Power: [T 1  T 3 So Perfect

Intercooling]
n1
n    P 3  2n 
I.P  2  m RT 1    1
n1 P
 1 
0.3
1.3   20  2  1.3 
2  0.220985  0.287  300     1
0.3  1  

 68.0904 kW

To Find Power: Alternate method

 
Power  W LP  W HP

n1 n1
n   P2  n  n    P3  n 
 m RT1    1 mR T3    1
n1   P1   n1
P
 2 

0.3
1.3   4.7  1.3 
  0.220985  0.287  300    1
0.3  1  
0.3
1.3   20  1.3 
  0.220985  0.287  300    1
0.3   4.7  

 35.39  32.72  68.107 kW

To Find Heat Rejected in Intercooler ‘Q’

n1 0.3
T2  P2  n  4.7  1.3
  ; T2  300    428.76642 K
T1

P1
  1 

Q  m Cp T2  T3

 0.220985  1.005 428.77  300  28.598 kW

 1715.9 kJ/min
 Air Compressors 4.99

Problem 4.39: A two-cylinder single-acting air compressor is

to deliver 16 kg of air per minute at 7 bar from suction
conditions 1 bar and 15C. Clearance may be taken as 4% of
stroke volume and the index for both compression and
re-expansion as 1.3. Compressor is directly coupled to a
four-cylinder four-stroke petrol engine which runs at 2000
r.p.m. with a brake mean effective pressure of 5.5 bar.
Assuming a stroke-bore ratio of 1.2 for both engine and
compressor and a mechanical efficiency of 82% for compressor,
calculate the required cylinder dimensions.
(May/June 2012 - AU)

Solution
16
Amount of air delivered per cylinder   8 kg/min
12

Suction conditons: P 1  1 bar, T1  15  273  288 K

From the gas equation, P 1V 1  V 4  mRT 1


m RT 1 8  0.287  288 
3
or V1  V4    6.61 m /min  V a
P1 1  10 2
1
  P2  n 
vo l  1  k    1
P
 1 
1
 1  0.04  7 1.3  1 
 
 0.863  86.13%
4.100 Thermal Engineering - I

Va
Also, vol  
Vs

 6.61
Vs   7.6744 m3/min
0.8613 . .
[ . y  1]

Vs  Vs  N  1

7.6744
Vs   0.00384 m 3
2000

If L  Length of stroke of compressor, and

D  diameter of the cylinder of the compressor, then
L  1.2D ...(given)

 2
 D  L  Vs
4

 2 0.00384  4
or D  1.2 D  0.00384 or D 3 
4   1.2

i.e D  0.1596 m or 159.6 mm

L  159.6  1.2  191.5 mm

Now indicated power of the compressor

n1
n    P2  n 
  m RT 1    1
n1 P
 1 
1.3  1
1.3 16 7 
   0.287  288    1.3  1   54.14 kW
1.3  1 60 1 
54.14 54.14
Brake power of the engine    66 kW
mech 0.82

ne P mb L e AN
Now, 66 
60
 Air Compressors 4.101

If De  diameter of the engine cylinder

Le  length of the stroke of engine  1.2 D e,
ne  number of engine cylinders

 
4  5.5  10 2  1.2 D e    D 2e   2000
4 
Then, 66 
60

66  60
 D 3e  2
 0.0009549 m 3
5.5  10  1.2    2000

i.e., D e  0.0985 m or 98.5 mm

L e  1.2  98.5  118.2 mm

Problem 4.40: A six - cylinder double acting compressor is

required to compressor 40 m3/min of air at 1 bar and 30C to
a pressure of 20 bar. Determine of size of motor required and
cylinder dimension for the following data given: Speed of
compressor  400 rpm ; k  4%, L/D  1.2 ; mech  82%, n  1.5.
Assume no pressure change in suction values and the air gets
heated by 20C during suction stroke.

Solution:
The P  V diagram is given below

n1
n   P2  n 
Net workdone   P 1  V 1  V 4    1
n1 P
 1 
40 
V 1  V 4  40 m3/min   0.667 m 3/sec  V a
60

1.5  1
1.5   20  1.5 
W  1  10 5  0.667    1
1.5  1  1  
4.102 Thermal Engineering - I

W  343054 J/s P
P 2 =P 3 3 2
Theoretical Power n
P V =C
 W  343.05 kW

(i) Motor power

343.05 343.05
   418.36 kW
 mec h 0.82 P 1 =P 4
1
Vc 4
V s=V 1 -V 3
(ii) Cylinder dimensions V
V3 = Vc V4 V1
L and D
Veff=V 1 -V 4
F ig
We know
1
  P2  n  Pi Ta
vol 1kk  

P
 1  a i
P T

‘i’ for inside and ‘a’ for atmospheric conditions.

1
  20 1.5   1  273  30
 vol   1  0.04  0.04      0.7
  1   1  273  30  20
 vol  70%

V a  Vs  y  Z  N  vol

Va
 Vs 
y  Z  N  vo l
Swept volume per one cylinder . .
[ . y  2 ; Z  6]
40 1 1
    0.0119 m 3
6 2  400 0.7

 2 
Vs  D  L   D 2  1.2D  0.0119
4 4

 D 3  0.1262 or D  0.232 m

 Diameter D   232 mm and L  1.2  232  280 mm

 Air Compressors 4.103

Problem 4.41: A two stage air compressor with complete

intercooling delivers air to the mains at a pressure of 30 bar,
the suction conditions being 1 bar and 30C. If both cylinder
have the same stroke, find the ratio of cylinder diameters, for
the efficiency of compression to be a maximum. Assume the
index of compression be 1.5 (JNTU - Jan/Feb 2015 - Set - 4)

Given:
P 1  1 b ar ; T1  30  273  303 K ; P 3  30 bar

V 1  Volume of L.P cylinder; V 2  Volume of H.P cylinder

Solution:
 2
  D 1L
4


V1 D1 V1
Now  or 
V2  2 D2 V2
  D 2L
4

From the curve 1  2

PV 1.5  C

1/1.5
1.5 1.5
V1  P2 
P 1V 1  P2V2 or   P
V 2  P1 
P3 4 3
For maximum efficiency

P 2  
P 1P 3 P2 5 2’
2

P2  
   5.48 bar
1  30
P1 6 1
1 V
V1 1.5
V2 V1
  5.48   3.1082
V 2
4.104 Thermal Engineering - I

n1 1.5  1
 P2  n  5.48  1.5
T 2  T1    30  273     534.2 K
P
 1  1 

Constant pressure process 2  2

[T 2  T 1  303 K] [P 2  P 2]

V2 V 2 V 2 T2 534.2
  or    1.763
T2 T 2 V2 T2 303

V1 V1 V 2
Now    3.1082  1.763  5.4798
V2 V2  V2



D1 V1
  

5.4789  2.34
D2 V2

Problem 4.42: In a single acting two stage reciprocating air

compressor, 5 kg of air per min is compressed from 1 bar and
27C through a pressure 9. Both the stages have the same
pressure ratio, and the law of compression and expansion in
both stages is PV1.5  C. If perfect intercooling is present,
Calculate (i) The indicated power (ii) The cylinder swept
volume. Assume that the clearance volume of both stages are
3 % of their respective swept volumes and that the compressor
runs at 310 rpm.

Given: m  5 kg/min ; Ps  1 bar ;

Pd
Ts  27  273  300 K ; 9
Ps
 Air Compressors 4.105

P2 P3 P
3; 9
P1 P1 4 3
Pd

Pi Pd
Also  ; n  1.5 ; V c  0.03 V s ; 6 2
Ps Pi Pi
5

N  310 rpm
PS
Solution: 7 1
V
(i) Indicated power
n1
n    P3  2n

IP  2  m RT 1    1
n1 P
 1 
0.5
1.5 5
2   0.287  300  9 2  1.5  1   19.04 kW
0.5 60  
Indicated power  19.028 kW

(ii) The cylinder swept volume

For L.P cylinder

 m.R.T 1 5  287  300
V a  V1  V 4    4.305 m3/m in
P1 1  10 5

1
  P1 n 
 vol  1  k    1
P
 2  
1
 1  0.03  3 1.5  1 
 
 vol  0.967 or 96.7 %

Va 4.305
Vs    0.01436 m 3/cycle
 vol  N 0.967  310
4.106 Thermal Engineering - I

 The swept volume for L.P cylinder

V s L.P  0.01436 m 3/cycle

Swept volume for H.P cylinder

For high pressure stage

P 2  3 bar

 m  R  T3
Volume drawn in V HP 
T3

 5  287  300
V HP  5
 1.435 m 3/m in
3  10

1.435 1.435
 Swept volume for H.P stage  
vol  N 0.967  310

V s H.P  0.004787 m 3

Also we can obtain

V s L.P 0.01436
V s H.P    0.004787 m3
3 3

Problem 4.43: A two stage double acting air compressor,

operating at 300 rpm, takes in air at 1 bar and 27C. The size
of L.P cylinder is 200  300 mm. The stroke of H.P cylinder is
same as that of L.P cylinder. The clearance volume of both
cylinders is 5%. The L.P cylinder discharges the air at a
pressure of 5 bar. The air passes through the intercooler so
that it enters the H.P cylinder at 27C and 4.8 bar. Finally it
is discharged from the compressor at 20 bar. The value of n
in both the cylinders is 1.5; CP  1.005 kJ/kg K and
R  0.287 kJ/kg K Calculate. (i) The heat rejected in the
 Air Compressors 4.107

intercooler (ii) Diameter of H.P cylinder (iii) Power required

to drive H.P cylinder.

Given:
*1

Z2;y2

N  300 rpm : P 1  1 bar , T 1  300 K; D LP  200 mm ;

L LP  300  L HP ; V c  0.05 V s ; P 2  P 3  5 bar;
P 5  P 8  4.8 bar ; P 6  P 7  20 bar;
n  1.5 ; C P  1.005 kJ/kg K ; R  0.287 kJ/kg K

Solution:
Swept volume of L.P cylinder
 P
V s L.P   D 2LP  L L.P  300  2
4 7 6
20 bar

  0.2 2  0.3  300  2 3 2
4 5 bar
4.8 bar 5
8
 5.656 m 3/min

1 1 bar
 P2  n 4 1
vol  1  k  k  
P V
 1
1/1.5
5
 1  0.05  0.05  
1
 Vc 
 0.9038  k  V  0.05 
 s 

V1  Volume of air drawn at stages  0.9038  5.656

 5.112 m 3/min
4.108 Thermal Engineering - I

Mass of air/min

 P 1V 1 1  10 5  5.112
m   5.937 kg/min
RT 1 287  300

n1 1.5  1
 P2  n 5 1.5
T2  T1     300    513 K
 P1  1

(i) Heat rejected in the intercooler

Heat rejected in the intercooler

Q  m C P T2  T1

 5.937  1.005 513  300

Q  1271 kJ/m in

(ii) Diameter of the H.P cylinder

Volume of air in H.P cylinder per min

 m RT5 5.937  287  300
V 5H.P    1.065 m 3/min
P5 4.8  10 5

Swept volume of H.P cylinder Vs

1.065 1.065
   1.178 m 3/min
 vol 0.9038


Now  D 2HP  L HP  300  2  1.178
4 . .
[ . y  2]

 D2HP  0.3  300  2  1.178
4

D 2HP  8.333  10  3 o r D HP  0.091 m

 Diameter of H.P cylinder D HP  91 mm

 Air Compressors 4.109

(iii) Power required to drive H.P cylinder

n1
n    P6  n 
W m RT 5    1
n1 P
 5 
0.5
1.5 5.937   20  1.5 
   0.287  300    1
0.5 60  4.8  
 15.569 kW

Power required P   15.57 kW

Problem 4.44: A single acting two stage compressor with

perfect intercooling delivers 20 kg/min of air at 25 bar. The
suction occurs at 1 bar and 27C. The compression and
expansion are reversible, polytropic index n  1.5. Calculate (i)
Power to drive compressor (ii) isothermal (iii) F.A.D (iv) Heat
transferred in intercooler (v) Swept volume for L.P and H.P
cylinders if their clearance ratio are 0.04 and 0.06 and
compressor runs at 400 rpm.

Given:
y1;Z2

P 1  1 bar ; P3  25 bar ; T 1  27  273  300 K ;

n  1.5 ; m  20 kg/min ; k LP  0.04 ; kHP  0.06 ;

Solution:
Intermediate pressure P 2  P 1P 3  
    5 bar
1  25

(i) Power required to drive compressor

Workdone in two stages with perfect intercooling
n1
2n    P 3  2n 
W m.R.T 1    1
n1 P
 1 
4.110 Thermal Engineering - I

1.5  1
2  1.5 20   20  2  1.5 
   0.287  300    1
1.5  1 60  1  
W  111.508 kW

(ii) Isothermal Efficiency iso 

We know that

Isothermal workdone

  P3 
 m.R.T1 ln  
 P1 
20  20 
  0.287  300  ln    85.978 kW
60  1 
W iso  85.978 kW

85.978
Isothermal Efficiency iso   100  77.10 %
111.508

(iii) F.A.D
Free Air Delivered (F.A.D)

m .R.T 1 20  0.287  300
  2
 17.22 m3/m in
P1 1  10

(iv) Heat transferred to Intercooler Q 

Heat transferred to intercooler
 
Q   m  C P  T 2  T5  m .CP T2  T1 . .
[ . T 1  T5 ]
n1 1.5  1
 P2  n 5
T2  T1     300   1.5  513 K
P 1
 1
20
Q  1.005 513  300   71.355 kW
60
 Air Compressors 4.111

(v) Swept volume

Swept volume for L.P cylinder
F.A.D
 V1  V3 
speed   vol L.P

1
 P2  n
 vol L.P  1  k LP  k LP  
P
 1
1
5
 1  0.04  0.04   1.5  0.9230
1
Swept volume for LP cylinder
17.22
V s L.P   0.0466 m 3
400  0.9230

Swept volume for H.P cylinder

F.A.D
V S H.P 
Stage pr. ratio  s peed   vol H.P

1
 P3 n
vol H.P  1  kHP  kHP  
P
 2 
1
1.5
 1  0.06  0.06 5  0.8845

17.22
V S H.P   0.009734 m 3
5  400  0.8845
4.112 Thermal Engineering - I

4.17 VARIOUS TYPES OF COMPRESSORS

ROTARY POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS
Rotary compressors are used to compress large
quantity of air at a relatively low pressure. In rotary air
compressors, the air is trapped in between two sets of
engaging surfaces (lobes) and the pressure of air is
increased by squeezing action or back flow of air.

4.17.1 Different Types of Rotary Positive

Displacement Compressor
1. Roots blower compressor
2. Vane type blower compressor
3. Lysholm compressor.

4.17.2 Different Types of Rotary Non-positive

Displacement Compressors
1. Centrifugal compressors
2. Axial flow compressors.
Note: ‘Displacement Compressor’ means the air is
compressed by being trapped in the reduced space formed
by two sets of engaging surfaces.

4.18 ROOTS BLOWER

Roots blower compressor consists of two rotors with
lobes. These lobes are rotating in air tight casing. It has
inlet and outlet port. The shape of the lobes is epicycloid
or hypocycloid or involute. During the rotation, volume of
air at atmospheric pressure is trapped between left hand
lobe and casing. The further rotary motion of the lobes
delivers the entrapped air into the receiver. So more and
more flow of air into the receiver increases its pressure.
 Air Compressors 4.113

4.18.1 Back Flow of Air

When the rotating lobe uncovers the exit port, the
high pressure from receiver flows back into the casing. The
high pressure air and trapped air gets mixed. The back
flow process continues till the trapped air and receiver air
attains the equal pressure. Then the pressure of air trapped
in the pocket (in between lobe and casing) is increased at
constant volume entirely by back flow of air. Finally, the
high pressure air from receiver is delivered to the
requirement.
P 1  Inlet pressure; P 2  Delivery pressure
  1.4 for air; V  Volume of air compressed in a
space.
This process is carried out four times per revolution
of the driving shaft.

To R e ceiver
D is cha rg e
lobe
lobe
E xtern al
driv e g ea r
V

Inle t
Fig .4.13 R o ots B lo w er, tw o lo be rotors
4.114 Thermal Engineering - I

For this process the PV P

diagram is shown in Fig.
P2
Work done per cycle
Irreversib le pressure
 P 2  P 1 V rise of a ir due to
b ack flo w from re ceiver
 Work done per revolution
 4 P 2  P 1 V P1
 V S = 4V
If Vs is the volume per sec
V
at P 1 and T1, then

Power  P 2  P 1 V s

The ideal compression process is a reversible adiabatic

(i.e., isentropic) process.
Ideal power (or) Isentropic power

1
    P2  

 P1 Vs    1
1 P1
  
 Roots efficien cy 
  Isentropic power
i.e.,  or Ise ntropic efficiency  
  Actual pow er
 or Compresso r efficiency 

1
    P2  
P 1 Vs    1


1   P 1  
P2  P 1 V s
1
    
P 1 V s  rp  1
1  
 
P 1 V s rp  1
 P2 
 where rp   Pressure ra tio 
 P1 
 Air Compressors 4.115

1
 
 1 
  rp
 Roots efficiency   
  1  rp  1 
 
Roots blowers are useful for scavenging and
supercharging of I.C. engines.

The efficiency of roots blower decreases with the

 P2 
increase in pressure ratio  
P
 1

Problem 4.45: A roots blower compresses 0.08 m3 of air from

1 bar to 1.5 bar per revolution. Calculate compressor efficiency.
(JNTU January 2014 - Set 1)

Given data:
V s  0.08 m 3; P 1  1 bar; P 2  1.5 bar

Solution:
Isentropic w orkdon e
Roots compressor efficiency 
Actual work don e

1
   P2   
P1 Vs    1
1 P
 1 

V s P 2  P 1
0.4
1.4  
 100  1.5 1.4  1 
0.4  

150  100 
 0.8598  85.98%
4.116 Thermal Engineering - I

Problem 4.46: A roots blower compresses 0.06 m3 of air from

1 bar to 1.45 bar per revolution. Calculate compressor
efficiency. (January - 2014 - JNTU - Set 2)

Given Data:
V s  0.06 m 3; P 1  1 bar; P2  1.45 bar;

Isentropic w orkdone
Roots compressor efficiency 
Actual workdone

1
  
  r 1
  
1 r1 
 
0.4
 1.4 
1.4  1.45 1

0.4  1.45  1 

 0.8711  87.11%

Problem 4.47: A roots blower handles free air of 0.5 m3/s at

1 bar and 27C and delivers air at a pressure of 2 bar.
Determine the indicated power required to drive compressor
and isentropic efficiency. (JNTU April - May 2013 - Set 1)

Given Data:

V  0.5 m3/s; P 1  1 bar; T1 27  273  290 K

P 2  2 bar;

Indicated power  P 2  P 1 V

 2  1  100  0.5  50

Actual power = 50 kW
 Air Compressors 4.117

1

    P2   
Isentropic power  P1 V    1
1 P
 1 
0.4
1.4
1.4 2 
  100  0.5     1   38.33
0.4 1 
Isentropic power = 38.33 kW

Isentropic power 38.33

isentropic    0.7665
Actual power 50

 76.65%

4.19 VANE TYPE BLOWER OF COMPRESSOR

This compressor comprises of a disk rotating
eccentrically in an air tight casing. It has inlet and outlet
port. The disc has many number of vanes. When the rotor
rotates, the air is trapped in the pockets formed between
the vanes and casing.
The compression is occurred due to decreasing volume
and back flow of air.
First of all, the
rotary motion of the
vanes compresses the
air. Next, when the
Inle t
rotating vane uncovers
the exit port, the high D ischarge
pressure air from
Fig.4.15
receiver flows back into
the pocket. This process is called back flow process.
4.118 Thermal Engineering - I

2 (D e live ry P re ssu re)

P2
Irre versib le p ress ure
rise o f a ir d u e to
B
b ac k flo w from re ceive r

Pi i(interm e diate p re ssure)

1
P1
VS

V
Fig:4.16 P -V d iag ram fo r vane b low er

Fig. 4.16 shows the PV diagram. The work done per
revolution with N v vanes is given by the following
expression:
1
   Pi   
W  Nv P1 V s    1   N v P 2  P i Vi
1 P 
 1 
Problem 4.48: Compare the work inputs required for a Roots
blower and a Vane type compressor having the same induced
volume of 0.05 m3/rev., the inlet pressure being 1.01325 bar and
the pressure ratio 1.6. For the Vane type assume that internal
compression takes place through half the pressure range.

Solution:
Inlet pressure, P 1  1.01325 bar
P2
Pressure ratio,  1.6
P1
 Air Compressors 4.119

 P 2  1.6 P 1  1.6  1.01325 P

P2
 1.62 ba r

For the Roots blower,

refer Fig. (a)

Work done/rev. P1

 P 2  P 1 V s VS V
Fig:(a )

 1.62  1.01325   10 2  0.05

 3.03 kJ

1.62  1.01325
Intermediate pressure P i   1.32 bar
2
. .
[ . Internal compression takes place through half the
pressure range]

For the Vane type Refer Fig. (b)

Work required  Area A  Area B
  1
   Pi  

Now, Area A  P1 V s    1
1 P
 1 
1.4  1
1.4   1.32  1.4 
  1.01325  10 2  0.05     1  kJ/rev
1.4  1  1.01325  

 1.39 kJ/rev

Area B  P2  P i V B

Now,

 
P1 V S  Pi VB
4.120 Thermal Engineering - I

P (bar)

P 2 =1 .6 2

P c =1 .32 VB


A P V =C

P 1 =1 .0 13 25 VS
VB
V B =0.5 V S

VS V (m 3 )

Fig:(b)


 VB  P1
  
 VS  Pi

1 1
 P1    1.01325  1.4
VB  V S    0.05  
P
 i   1.32 

 0.041 m 3

Area B  1.62  1.32   100  0.041  1.23 kJ/rev

Compression work  Area A  B  1.39  1.23  2.62 kJ /rev

Problem 4.49: A vaned compressor handles free air of
0.6 m3/s at 1 bar and compresses to 2.3 bar. There occurs 30%
reduction in volume before the back flow occurs. Determine the
indicated power required and isentropic efficiency.
(JNTU - April/May 2013)
 Air Compressors 4.121

P
2
P2

Pi I


A P V =C

P1 VS

3 0% R e du ctio n 3
V m /3
V B = 0.7 V S
VS

Given Data:

V s  0.6 m 3/s; P 1  1 bar; P 2  2.3 bar

V B  0.7 V S

P 1 V S  Pi V B
 
P 1 V S  P i 0.7 Vs
 
 Vs 
Pi  P1    
0.7 Vs
 
1
1  1.65
0.7 

Pi  1.65 bar
4.122 Thermal Engineering - I

Power required in Area A

1
    Pi   
 P 1 Vs    1
1 P
 1 
0.4
1.4
1.4   1.65  
  100  0.6    1
0.4  1  
Power A  32.3 kW

Power required in Area B

 P 2  P i  V B
. .
[ . V B  0.7 V S]
 2.3  1.65   100  0.7  0.6  27.3

Power B  27.3 kW

Indicated power  A  B power  32.3  27.3  59.6 kW

To find isentropic
1

    P2   
Isentropic Power  P1 VS    1
1 P
 1 
0.4
1.4
1.4   2.3  
  100  0.6    1
0.4  1  
 56.42 kW

Isentropic po wer 56.42

 isentropic    0.9467
Actual power 59.6

 94.67%
 Air Compressors 4.123

Problem 4.50: A rotary compressor receives air at 1 bar and

17C and delivers it at a pressure of 6 bar. Determine per H
of air delivered, workdone by the compressor and heat
exchanged with the jacket water when the compression is
isothermal, isentropic and by the relation PV1.6  constant.
(JNTU - Apr/May 2013 (Set 3)) & (January - 2014 (Set 3))

Given Data:
P 1  1 bar; T1  17  273  290 K; P 2  6 bar

m  1 kg; W  ?; Q  ?

Isothermal compression:
 P2 
W  mRT1 ln  
 P1 
6
 1  0.287  290  ln  
1
W  149.13 kJ /kg

For isothermal process, U  0

Q  W  U

So, Q  W  149.13 kJ/kg

Isentropic compression:
1

   P2   
W  m RT 1    1
1 P
 1 
0.4
1.4
1.4 6 
  1  0.287  290    1
0.4 1 
W  194.74 kJ /kg
4.124 Thermal Engineering - I

and Q  0 for reversible adiabatic process (isentropic)

PV1.6  C : Polytropic compression

n1
n   P2  n 
W  mRT1    1
n1 P
 1 
0.6
1.6   6  1.6 
  1  0.287  290    1
0.6  1 
 212.62 kJ/kg

Q  m C n T 2  T 1

C n  Polytropic specific heat

 n   1.4  1.6 

 Cv    0.718  
 1  n   1  1.6 
C n  0.2393 kJ/Kg K

n1
T2  P2  n
 
T1 P
 1
0.6
T 2  290 6 1.6  567.81 K

Q  m C n T 2  T 1

 1  0.2393 567.81  290  66.48 kJ /kg

 Air Compressors 4.125

4.20. CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR

The figure shows the centrifugal compressor with
double sided impeller.
 It consists of curved radial vanes which are
attached to shaft and rotate.
 The impeller is a disc fitted with radial vanes.
 The casing is surrounding the rotating impeller.
 The diffuser is housed in a radial portion of the
housing.
 Air enters the eye of impeller. Due to the
centrifugal action of impeller, the air moves
radially outwards with the guidance of impeller
vanes.
 The impeller transfers energy to air by increasing
its pressure.
 Then the air enters diverging portion called
diffuser. Here, the kinetic energy is converted into
pressure rise further.
 Nearly half the pressure rise is achieved by
impeller and remaining by diffuser.
 A pressure ratio of 5:1 is obtained by single stage
centrifugal compressor and for higher pressure
ratio’s multi stage compressors are used.
Centrifugal compressor is a head or pressure
producing machine. It has larger frontal area than the axial
flow compressor. It is capable of producing pressure ratio
of about 4 : 1 per stage.
4.126 Thermal Engineering - I

C om pre sse d
a ir d elivery D ischa rge
S cro ll

A ir
flow Im p elle r

A ir
flow

C asing
R adial
C om pre sse d
van es
D iffu ser Passages a ir d elivery
Fig. 4.17 Cen trifu gal Com pressor.

Tip
Van es

Im p elle r
e ye

S haft

Fig. 4.18 mp eller (Single - Eyed) and Radial vanes o f

Centrifugal Compresso r.
 Air Compressors 4.127

4.20.1 Principle of Operation

Fig. 4.19 shows the components of a centrifugal
compressor. Fluid enters into the impeller through an
accelerating nozzle and a row of inlet guide vanes (IGV).
The accelerated flow in the nozzle enters the IGV and it
directs the flow in the desired direction at the entry of the
impeller.

3 Volu te

2 D iffu ser

C asing

S hroud

Im p elle r E ye
Indu cer Im p elle r

Dt

Dh
IG V
D riving Sh aft
N ozzle
Fig:4.19

The impeller is made by one piece consisting of both

the inducer section and a largely radial portion. The
inducer receives the flow between the hub and tip
4.128 Thermal Engineering - I

diameters of the impeller eye and passes it on to the radial

portion of the impeller blades. The tips of the blades can
be shrouded to prevent leakage. The impeller discharges
the flow to the diffuser through a vaneless space. Here the
static pressure of the fluid rises further on account of the
deceleration of the flow. The flow at the periphery of the
diffuser is collected by a spiral casing known as volute
which discharges it through the delivery pipe.

4.21 VELOCITY AND PRESSURE VARIATION

The changes of pressure and velocity of air passing
through the impeller and diffuser are shown in Fig. 4.20

P3

P re ssu re rise
in d iffu ser

P2
P re ssu re rise
in im pe ller
P re ssu re C urve
P1
C2

Velo city
Velo city d ecrea se
increase in d iffu ser
in im pe ller
C3
Velo city C u rve
C1
Fig:4.20 Variatio ns of pressure and velocity of air passing through
im peller and diffuser
 Air Compressors 4.129

4.22 STATIC TEMPERATURE AND TOTAL HEAD (OR)

STAGNATION TEMPERATURE
Since the velocities in centrifugal compressors are very
large, total head quantities should be considered. The total
head quantities include the kinetic energy of the air passing
through the compressor.
Consider a horizontal
1
passage of varying area Q =0

(Fig. 4.21). Applying steady 2

flow energy equation to the
system for 1 kg of air flow
assume Q  0; W  0

C 21 C 22
h1   h2  W =0
2 2 Fig:4 .21

C 21 C 22
Cp T1   Cp T2 
2 2

C2
Cp T   constant
2

Temperature ‘T’ is called the static temperature T is

measured by the thermometer when the thermometer is
moving at the air velocity. If the moving air is brought to
rest under reversible conditions, the total kinetic energy of
the air will be converted into heat energy, increasing the
temperature and pressure of the air. This increased
temperature and pressure of the air is known as
“stagnation” or “total head” temperature and pressure. The
total head temperature and pressure are denoted by a suffix
‘O’.
4.130 Thermal Engineering - I

C2
 Cp T   Cp T 0
2

where T 0 is known as total head or stagnation

temperature

C2 C2
In otherwords, T 0  T   h0  h 
2C p 2

To find the total head pressure


P0 T0  1
 
 
P  T 

T 02 02
2
C2
P2 2 cP
T2
2
2 T 0 2’ 0 2’
C2
2 cP
T 2’ 2’

P1

T01
2
C1 01
2 cP
T1 1
S

Fig. 4.22 Total head and static P and T on Ts diagram

 Air Compressors 4.131

where,
P  S tatic pressure; T  Static temperature,

P 0  To tal hea d pressure or Stagnation pressure, and

T 0  To tal hea d temperature or Stagnation temperature

4.22.1 Stagnation State and Stagnation Properties

The state of a fluid attained by isentropically
decelerating it to zero velocity at zero elevation is referred
to as the stagnation state. It is often used as a reference
state. The properties of the fluid at the stagnation state
are the stagnation properties of the gas.

4.22.2 Stagnation Enthalpy

Stagnation enthalpy of a gas or vapour is its enthalpy
when it is adiabatically decelerated to zero velocity at zero
elevation.

Therefore,

C2
h0  h 
2

For an adiabatic energy transformation process,

stagnation enthalpy remains constant.

In a power generating turbomachine, W is positive so

that  h0 is negative, i.e., the total enthalpy of the flowing
fluid decreases from the inlet to the exit. In a power
absorbing device (compressors), mechanical energy input
occurs, so that the stagnation enthalpy of the fluid
increases from the inlet to the exit. Hence W will be
negative.
4.132 Thermal Engineering - I

4.23 STEADY-FLOW ENERGY EQUATION

C 21 C 22
h 1  gZ 1   q  h2  gZ 2   W1  2
2 2
... (1) [per unit kg mass]
This is the steady flow energy equation for a control
volume or an open system. This will be rewritten for
processes in various turbomachines.
Most of the compressible flow turbo machines, such
as turbines, compressors and blowers are assumed to be an
adiabatic machines i.e., q  0. In these machines, the
change in potential energy  Z is negligible as compared
to changes in enthalpy  h and kinetic energy
1 2
[C  C 22].
2 1

Therefore Eq (1) yields

C 21 C 22
h1   h2  W
2 2 ...(2) [W = Work transfer]

 Energy equation for a turbine and

compressor.

 C21   C22 
W 1  2   h1     h2  
 2   2 

 h01  h02   h 0

For the turbine output work

W 1  2  C p T 01  T 02  ...(3)
For the compressor input work

W 1  2  C p T 02  T 01  ...(4)
 Air Compressors 4.133

4.24 EULER’S EQUATION - (ENERGY TRANSFER)

Energy transformation can occur in both stator and
rotors of turbomachines. Energy transfer can occur only in
its moving or rotating elements i.e rotors/impeller. An
expression for estimating the amount of energy transfer
taking place in a turbomachine is derived below. The Fig.
4.23 shows the velocity triangles at the entry and exit of
a general turbomachine. All the velocity vectors are shown
in same plane and are assumed to remain constant.

Cw
2
u2 O utlet VelocityTriang le
2 C
2

E x it
C f2
2 
C r 2 2

E ntry

C1 C f1 C r1
1 1
Cw1
r1
r2 u1

In tet Velocity Trian gle

Fig 4.23

The angular speed of rotor is  radians per second.

2 N
 [N: Speed of rotor / impeller in r.p.m]
60

The peripheral velocity of the blades at entry & exit are

4.134 Thermal Engineering - I

1 1

2 2

Fig. 4.24

D 1 N
u1  in m/s
60

D 2 N
u2  in m/s
60

4.24.1 Velocity components at the entry and exit of

the rotor
In order that the fluid enters and leaves the blade
passage without shock, the relative velocities C r1 and C r2 at
inlet and outlet are in the direction of the respective
tangents to the blade.

The relative velocities make angles 1 and 2

respectively with u1 and u 2.

The absolute velocities of the fluid at inlet and outlet

to the blades are obtained by a vectorial combination of
C r and u, make angles 1 and  2 with u1 and u 2
respectively.
 Air Compressors 4.135

The components of absolute velocities parallel to the

tangential directions are C w and C w and those to the
1 2

radial directions are C f and C f .

1 2

Clearly, C f and C f are associated with the flow rate

1 2

through the impeller / runner.

 
The three velocity vectors C , u and C r are related at
a section by a simple vector equation.
  
C  u  Cr

The absolute velocity C at both the entry and exit

has a tangential component C w and a radial component
C f.

The torque on the rotor/impeller (exerted by the

impeller on the fluid) is obtained by employing Newton’s
second law of motion for the change of moment of
momentum.

Torque  Rate of change in moment of momentum.

The tangential momentum at a given station is

   mass 
 m Cw  m  tim e 
 

and its moment is  m rV w

 Torque on the impeller is given by

 
T  m2 r 2 C w  m 1 r 1 C w
2 1

  
For a constant flow machine m 1  m 2  m

 Torque T  m [C w r2  C w r1]
2 1
4.136 Thermal Engineering - I

If the value of the torque given by this equation is

positive [r2 C w  r1 C w ], it applies to a head producing
2 1

tubomachines (pumps, fans, blower, compressors etc).


 T c  m [C w r 2  C w r 1 ]
2 1

The work done is given by

Work  Torque  Angular Velocity of the rotor

For compressors, pumps, etc.


Work  W c  T c    m [Cw r2   C w r1 ]
2 1


W c  m [Cw u2  Cw u1]
2 1 ...(1)
. .
[ . u 1  r1 
u 2  r2  ]
The above equation is known as Euler’s equation
for pump and compressor (or) Euler’s work.

The workdone per kg of air

W c  C w2 u 2  C w1‘ u1 ...(2)
 h02  h01  C p T02  T01 

u2
C r1 C w2
C 1 = C f1
C w1 = 0 2 2
1
1
Cf2
u1 Cr2
C2
In let Velocity
diag ram O utlet Velocity
(a) diag ram
Fig:Velo city D iag ram s
(b)
 Air Compressors 4.137

Using the inlet and outlet velocity triangles, we have

C 2r1  u 21  C 21  2u 1 C w1  u1 C w1  C 21  C 2r1  u21/2 ...(i)

C 2r2  u 22  C 22  2u 2 C w2  u2 C w2  C 22  C 2r2  u22/2 ...(ii)

Inserting the values of C w2  u 2 and C w1  u 1 from the

above expressions (i) and (ii) in eqn. (2), we get

C 22  C21 C2r1  C r22 u 22  u 21

W  
2 2 2
First term Second term Third term ...(3)
 The first term represents the increase in K.E. of
1 kg of working fluid in the impeller which will
be converted into the pressure energy in the
‘diffuser’.
 The second term represents the pressure rise in
the impeller due to ‘diffusion action’ (since the
relative velocity decreases from inlet to outlet).
 The third term represents the pressure rise in the
impeller due to ‘centrifugal action’ (since the
working fluid enters at a lower diameter and
comes out at a higher diameter).

4.25 IMPELLER BLADE SHAPE - BACKWARD, RADIAL

AND FORWARD BLADE IMPELLERS
The vanes of a radial outward flow machines e.g. a
centrifugal pump, fan or a compressor can be set at
different outlet angles to the direction of the local periphery
velocity. The impeller is then classified according to the
direction of the blade angle as shown in Fig. 4.26
(Backward, Radial and Forward)
4.138 Thermal Engineering - I

4.25.1 Impeller Blade shape

The exit vane shape of the centrifugal compressors
are generally any one of the three configurations.
(i) Backward curved
(ii) Radial and
(iii) Forward curved
If the angle between the rotor blade tip and the
tangent to the rotor at the exit is acute i.e., 2  90, the
vanes are backward curved vanes. If this angle is a right
angle 2  90 the blade is said to be radial. If it is greater
than 90 [2  90] the blade is forward curved as shown in
Fig. 4.26.

o
o 2 > 9 0
2 < 9 0

 u


o
2 = 90

(i) B A C K W A R D (ii) FO R W A R D

u


Fig:4.26 (iii) R A D IA L
 Air Compressors 4.139

The velocity triangles at the inlet and exit of

centrifugal machines are shown in Fig. 4.27. It is assumed
that there are no guide vanes, therefore C 1 will be radial
and 1  90 and Cw1  0. Since there is no whirl velocity
at inlet, the particular condition is “zero whirl and swirl”
at inlet. The Fig. 4.27(a) shows the entry and exit velocity
triangles for backward curves vanes with zero whirl at
inlet. Fig. 4.27(b) shows radial curved vanes in which exit
vane angle 2 is 90.

C r2 = C f2

2 2
2

C w 2 =u 2

C1 =
C
f1
1 
1
1
1

Fig: 4.27 (a) B ackw a rd C urve Van es

Fig: 4.27 (b) R a dial C urv e Vanes
w ith Z ero W h irl at Inle t

Fig (a) Fig (b)

1  90; C w1  0 2  90; C r2  C f2 and

u 1  u 2; 2  90 , C w2  u2

W act  C w2 u 2  C w1 u1

 C w2 u2
4.140 Thermal Engineering - I

Fig. 4.27 (c) shows

the velocity triangles for
2 2
forward curved vanes
[2  90] with zero whirl at
inlet.

 1  90 ; C w1  0

C f1  Cf2; u1  u2
1
W  Cw2 u2

4.26 VELOCITY TRIANGLE AND WORK DONE

BY THE CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
The work done by the impeller on the air is obtained
by drawing the inlet and outlet velocity triangles as shown
in Fig. 4.28.

Let,

C1  Absolute velocity of the entering air

 r1 
D1  Diameter of the impeller at inlet  
 2 
u1  Mean velocity of the impeller at inlet (or)
peripheral velocity at inlet
Cr  Relative velocity of air to the wheel at inlet
1

Cf  Velocity of flow at inlet and

1

C2, D 2, u 2, Cr , C f  Corresponding values at the outlet

2 2

N  Speed of the impeller in rpm

1  Blade angle at inlet
 Air Compressors 4.141

u2
Cw2

2 2

C f2 O utlet Velocity
C r2 diag ram
C2

o utlet

in le t f1
=C 0 r2
C 1 1= r1
Cw
1

C r1

1
1
u

Inlet Velocity
diag ram
(a)

Fig 4.28 Velocity Triangles at Inlet and Outlet

1  Angle at which air leaves the impeller

2  Blade angle at outlet

The power by the impeller on the air per sec per m
kg of air flow.

 m  C w u 2  C w1 u 1 
 2  ... (4)
As the air enters the impeller radially which means
that, the absolute velocity of air at inlet is in the radial
direction and hence fluid angle 1  90  and V w1  0.
Therefore, the equation (4) becomes.
4.142 Thermal Engineering - I


Power  m Vw u 2 [work/unit mass] ... (5)
2

 Power by the impeller on air per sec.


 m Vw u2 watts
2 ... (6)

4.27 IMPORTANT FORMULAE


1. Power required for m kg/s of air flow

m C w2 u2
P kW,
1000

 If the blade is
radial (ideal case), u2= C w2

then the velocity

diagram at the
C r2 =C f2
outlet of the C2

impeller is as Fig. 4.29

shown in Fig. 4.29

As C w2  u 2, the work done per m kg/s of air flow
is given by
W  u22

Since the air cannot leave the impeller at a velocity

greater than the impeller tip velocity, the maximum work
supplied per kg of air flow per second is given by the above
eqn.
 Now write the steady flow energy equation at the
inlet and outlet of the impeller, assuming the heat
transfer through the impeller is zero. [Q  0]
 Air Compressors 4.143

SFEE
C 21 C22
h1   Z1 g  W  h 2   Z2 g  Q
2 2

Z 1  Z 2; Q  0;

C 21 C 22
 h1   W  h2 
2 2

 C 22   C 21 
W   h2     h1  
 2   2 

 C 22   C 21 
 C p  T2    C p  T1  
 2C p   2C p 

. .
[ . h  C p T]

 Cp T 02  C p T01  C p T 02  T 01 

Multiply & Divide by T01

1
  
  P02  
 T2   
 T 02   P
 2  
 W  C p T 01   1   cp T01  1
T 
1

 01 
  
  P 01  
 T1   
P
 1 
1
1
  P 02     
 C p T 01    1   C p T 01  rp0  1

P  
  01  
where rp0 is the pressure ratio based on stagnation
pressures.
4.144 Thermal Engineering - I

2. Width of Blades of Impeller and Diffuser


Let, m  Mass of air flowing per second,

b 1  Width or height of im peller at inlet,

C f1  Velocity of flow a t inlet of the impeller,

1  density of air at inlet

r1  Radius of impeller at the inlet,


Then, m  1  (Volume of air flowing per second)

m  1  2r1 b1  C f1

But as the air is entering radially,

C f1  C 1

 m  1 2 r1 b 1  C 1 ...(1)

m
i.e., b1 
1 21 r1 C 1 ...(1a)
Similarly the width of impeller blade at the outlet can
be found by using suffix 2 in eqn.

m  2 2r2 b2  C f2 ...(2)
The width or height of the impeller blades at the
outlet and height of diffuser blade at the inlet should be
same theoretically.

The width of height of the diffuser blades at the

outlet, is given by

m  d 2 rd bd  C fd ...(3)
where suffix ‘d’ represents the quantities at the outlet of
the diffuser.
 Air Compressors 4.145

If, n  Number of blades on the impeller, and

t  Thickness of the blade,


m  1 2 r1  nt b1 C f1
...(4)

m  2 2 r2  nt b2 C f2
...(5)

m  d 2 rd  nt bd C fd
...(6)

3. Isentropic Efficiency of the Compressor

The following losses occur when air flows through the
impeller:

(i) Friction between the air layers moving with relative

velocities and friction between the air and flow
passages.
(ii) Shock at entry.
(iii) Turbulence caused in air.
The above losses cause an increase in enthalpy of the
air without increase of pressure therefore the actual
temperature of air coming out from the compressor is more
than the temperature of air if it is compressed
isentropically. The actual work required for the same
increase in pressure is more due to irreversibilities.

The isentropic efficiency

Isentropic work h02   h 01

isen  
Actual work h 02  h 01

T 02   T01

T02  T01
...(7)
4.146 Thermal Engineering - I

T 02 02
2
C2
P2 2 cP
T2
2
2 T 0 2’ 0 2’
C2
2 cP
T 2’ 2’

P1

T01
2
C1 01
2 cP
T1 1
S

T2  T1
If C 1  C 2, then isen 
T 2  T1 ...(8)
Isentropic efficiency “Isentropic efficiency” of rotary
compressor is defined as the ratio of isentropic temperature
rise to actual temperature rise.
Isentropic te mperature rise
Isentropic efficiency 
Actual temperature rise

T02   T 01
isen  ...based on stagnation temperature
T 02  T01

T 2   T1
 ...based on static temperature
T2  T 1
 Air Compressors 4.147

During compression process, work has to done on the

impeller. The energy balance equation will be as follows:

C 21 C 22
C p T1   C p T2  W
2 2

[ sign indicates work input to the system is negative]

or C p T 01  C p T02  W or W  Cp T02  T01 

T02   T01
Isentropic efficiency, isen 
T02  T01

cp T 02   T01 Isentropic work h02  h 01

or isen   
cp T02  T01  A ctual work h 02  h 01

Thus the isentropic efficiency of a rotary compressor

may be defined as the ratio of isentropic compression work
to actual compression work.

4. Slip factor
The difference between u2  C w2 is known as slip.

Slip factor s is defined as the ratio of actual whirl

component C w2 and the ideal whirl component u 2

Slip Factor
For an ideal impeller, the fluid is assumed to follow
the blade contour, so that the blade exit angle 2 is used
to find out the actual work transfer. But the fluid always
leaves the vanes at an average angle which is less than
the geometrical blade angle. This is because of the fact that,
due to its inertia, the air trapped between the impeller vane
is reluctant to move around with the impeller and this
4.148 Thermal Engineering - I

results in higher Cs Theo re tical

static pressure on A ctu al
the leading face than
on the trailing face.
C2 C
The air will C f2
r2

thus tend to flow

around the edges of 2 2 2 "
the vanes in the Cw2'
clearance space C w2
between the impeller u2
and the casing. This
Fig.4.30
is clearly a loss of
efficiency and
clearance must be kept as small as possible. This tendency
of air not to flow with the impeller with its speed is known
as slip and is denoted by  s. The greater the number of
vanes, the smaller is the ‘slip’. Therefore, it is necessary in
design to assume suitable value for slip factor s.

From the diagram,

when 2 decreases, C w2 and W act will also decrease.

We know that, W th  C w2 u2

W act  W th

 W act   s C w2 u2

where  s  slip factor and is always less than 1.

W act C p T02  T01 

s  
C w2 u 2 C w2 u 2
 Air Compressors 4.149

5. Work factor
Theoretical work done per kg of air is given by

C p T02  T01   u2  C w2

Therefore the actual work is obtained by multiplying

u2 C w2 by a factor  w known as work factor or power
input factor.

 C p T02  T01   w u2 C w2

The actual work input to the air is greater than the

theoretical value due to friction between the casing and the
air carried around by the vanes. In order to take this into
account “work factor”, w is introduced, so that the actual
work done on the air becomes

Actual work supplied

Work factor w 
Theoretical work supplied

 W act  w C w2 u 2  C p T02  T01 

6. Pressure Co-efficient p

It is defined as the ratio of isentropic work to Euler
work.

Isentropic w ork C p T02   T01

p  
Euler work Cw2 u2

7. Stage Work
u2
1. Specific Work C w2

W act  C w2 u2  C w1 u1 2 2

C f2
 h 0 C r2
C2

2. The flow co-efficient at Fig.4 .31 O u tlet Velo city d iag ram
the impeller exit
4.150 Thermal Engineering - I

C f2
f 
u2

W act
3. Pressure co-efficient  p or  
u2 Cw2

C f2
tan 2 
u2  C w2

u2  C w2
cot 2 
C f2

C w2  u2  C f2 c o t 2

W act  u2 C w2 [zero whirl at inlet   1  0; Cw1  0]

 W act  u2 [u 2  Cf2 c o t 2]

 u22 [1  f cot 2]

W act
  p or    1  f c o t  2
u22

The theoretical
Pressure co-efficient ( ) (o r) P

performance characteristics o
0 )
ard ( 2 > 9
of different types of F orw
o
impellers are shown in R a dial (2 =90 )

figure. The backward curved

B ack
and radial blade impellers w a rd
( 2 < 9
0 o)
gives stable characteristics
whereas forward curved
vanes gives unstable flow Flow co -efficien t ( f )
Fig:4.32
conditions.
 Air Compressors 4.151

8. Stage Pressure Rise

The static pressure rise in a centrifugal compressor
stage occurs in the impeller, diffuser and the volute. The
static pressure rise across the diffuser and volute occurs
due to the energy transformation processes accompanied by
a significant deceleration of the flow. The fluid is assumed
to be a perfect gas and isentropic process.

 W act  h 0  Cp T0   T 0 
2 1

 T0  
 C p T 0   1 
2
1
 T01 
 
We know that,

1
1
T0   P0   
 
2 2 
 [rp0  1]
T01  P 0 
1
 
P0
2
where rP0  Stagnation pressure rise 
P0
1

9. Enthalpy-Entropy Diagram
Fig. 4.33 shows an enthalpy-entropy diagram for a
centrifugal compressor stage. The flow processes are

i  1  Accelerating nozzle

1  2  Impeller

2  3  Diffuser

3  4  Volute
4.152 Thermal Engineering - I

h 0 2 =h 0 3 =h 0 4 O3 O4
O2
2
C4
2 2
C3
0 4’ 2
4 2
C2
4’ 2
h 3
3’ W a ct
W ideal

2
2’

O1
Oi
2
2 Ci 1
C1 i
2
2
1

s
Fig:4.33

Accelerating Nozzle i  1
Only energy transformation takes place, therefore, the
stagnation enthalpy remains constant.

C 21
h0  h0  h1 
i 1 2

But the stagnation pressure loss is due to the increase

in entropy and losses. [P 0  P 0 ].
i 1

Only energy transfer occurs in the impeller blade

passages. Therefore the stagnation enthalpy is not constant.
h 0  h 0 . The difference in enthalpy is used to drive
1 2

the impeller.
 Air Compressors 4.153

In the diffuser 2  3 and volute 3  4, static

pressure rises and the stagnation enthalpy remains
constant from station 2 to 4. The stagnation pressure
decreases progressively.

i.e., h 0  h 0  h 0
2 3 4

W act  h 0  h 0  u 22 1  2 cot 2

4 1

W ideal  h 0   h0
4 1

W ideal h0   h 0
4 1
Total-to-total efficiency t  t  
W actual h0  h0
4 1

T0   T 0
4 1

T0  T0
4 1

T4  T 1
Static-to-static efficiency s  s 
T0  T0
4 1

10. Degree of Reaction

The degree of reaction is defined as

Change in static enthalpy in the impeller

Rd 
Ch ange in stagnation enthalpy in the stage

1 1
   cot 2
2 2 2 ...(5.11)

11. Mass Flow Rate


m  1  Area of flow at inlet  C f
 2  Area of flow at exit  C f

m  1  D h1 C f
 2  D h2 C f
4.154 Thermal Engineering - I

Problem 4.51 A centrifugal compressor handles 150 kg/min.

of air. The suction pressure and temperature are 1 bar and
20C. The suction velocity is 80 m/s. After compression in the
impeller, the conditions, are 1.5 bar and 70C and 220 m/s.
Calculate: (i) Isentropic efficiency (ii) Power required to drive
the compressor (iii) The overall efficiency of the unit.
It may be assumed that K.E. of air gained in the impeller is
entirely converted into pressure in the diffuser.
[JNTU - Jan/Feb 2015 - Set 4]

Solution:
 150
m  2.5 kg/s; P 1  1 bar; T1  20  273  293 K;
60

C 1  80 m/s ; P 2  1.5 bar; T2  70  273  343 K; C 2  220 m/s

(i) Isentropic efficiency, isen.:

1 1.4  1
T 2 P2    1.5  1.4
     1.1228
T1 P  1 
 1

or T 2  293  1.228  328.98 K

 Isentropic work done

C 22  C 21
 C p T2  T 1 
2  1000

220 2  802
 1.005 328.98  293  
2  1000

 36.16  21  57.16 kJ/Kg

 Air Compressors 4.155

2202  802
Actual work done  C p T 2  T 1 
2  1000

2202  802
 1.005 343  293 
2  1000

 50.25  21  71.25 kJ/kg

Isentropic w ork 57.16

 isen    0.8022 or 80.22%
Actu al work 71.25

(ii) Power required to drive the compressor, P:


P  m  Actual work done kJ/kg

 2.5  71.25  178.125 kW

(iii) The overall efficiency of the unit, overall

As K.E. gained in the impeller is converted into
pressure, hence
C 22  C 21
C p T3  T2 
2  1000
2202  802
1.005 T3  343 
2  1000
or T3  363.89 K.
The pressure of air after leaving the diffuser, P 3:

1
T3  P3  
 
T2  P2 
 1.4
P3  T3    1  363.89  1.4  1
or      1.2298
P2 T
 2  343 
 P 3  1.5  1.2298  1.844 ba r
4.156 Thermal Engineering - I

After isentropic compression, the delivery temperature

from diffuser, T3:

1 1.4  1
T 3  P3    1.844  1.4
     1.191
T1 P  1 
 1

T 3  293  1.191  348.96 K

T3  T 1 348.96  293
or overall    0.7893 or 78.93%
T 3  T 1 363.89  293

Problem 4.52: A single inlet-type centrifugal compressor

handles 600 kg/min. of air. The ambient air conditions are 1
bar and 20C. The compressor runs at 21000 r.p.m. with
isentropic efficiency of 80 percent. The air is compressed in the
compressor from 1 bar static pressure to 4 bar total pressure.
The air enters the impeller eye with a velocity of 145 m/s with
no prewhirl. Assuming that the ratio of whirl speed to tip speed
is 0.9, calculate:
(i) Rise in total temperature during compression if the change
in K.E. is negligible.
(ii) The tip diameter of the impeller.
(iii) Power required.
(iv) Eye diameter if the hub diameter is 15 cm.

Solution:
 600
m  10 kg/s; P 1  1 bar, T 1  20  273  293 K;
60

N  21000 r.p.m.; isen  80% ; P 02  4 bar;

C w2
C 1  145 m/s;  0.9 ; d h  15 c m  0.15 m
U2
 Air Compressors 4.157

T
T 02 02
P2
T 02 ’ 0 2’
T2 2
d2
T 2’ 2’
d1 1 5 cm

P1
01
T 01

T1
1
S

(i) Rise in total temperature during compression if

the change in K.E. is negligible:
Refer Fig. The suffix ‘0’ indicates the stagnation
condition

The stagnation temperature at inlet to the machine,

C 21 1452
T 01  T 1   293   303.5 K
2C p 2  1.005  1000

1 
T 01  P 01    T01    1
Now,   or P 01  P 1   
T1 P T
 1   1 

1.4
 303.5  1.4  1
or P 01  1     1.131 bar
 293 
1 1.4  1
T02   P 02    4  1.4
     1.435
T 01 P  1.131 
 01 
 T02   303.5  1.435  435.5 K
4.158 Thermal Engineering - I

 Isentropic rise in total temperature

 T 02   T01  435.5  303.5  132C

Hence, Actual rise in total temperature

132 132
   165 C.
isen 0.8

(ii) The tip diameter of the impeller, d2

Work required by the compressor

 C p  Tactual

 1.005  165  165.83 kJ /kg

Work required by the compressor is also given by

Euler’s equation without prewhirl as:

C w2  U 2
W kJ/kg  165.83 kJ/kg
1000

C w2
But  0.9  C w2  0.9 U 2
U2

u22  0.9
 165.83 
1000



 165.83  1000 
or u2     429.25 m/s
 0.9 

d 2N d2  21000
But u2  429.25  
60 60

429.25  60
 d2 
  21000

 0.3904 m or 39.04 cm say 39 cm

 Air Compressors 4.159

(iii) Power required, P:


P  m  165.83  10  165.83  1658.3 kW

(iv) Eye diameter if hub diameter is 15 cm, d1:

From continuity equation, we have

 
m  d 21  d 2h  C 1  1
4

But density at entry is given by,

P1 1  10 2
1    1.189 kg/m 3
RT 1 0.287  293

 2
 10  d  0.15 2  145  1.189
4 1

10  4
or d 21   0.15 2  0.0964 m 2
  145  1.189

 d 1  0.3104 m or 31.04 cm

Problem 4.53: A centrifugal compressor running at 9000

r.p.m delivers 600 m3/min. of free air. The air is compressed
from 1 bar and 20C to a pressure ratio of with an isentropic
efficiency of 82%. Blades are radial at outlet of impeller and
flow velocity of 62 m/s may be assumed throughout constant.
The outer radius of impeller is twice the inner and the slip
factor may be assumed as 0.9. The blade area co-efficient may
be assumed 0.9 at inlet. Calculate:
(i) Final temperature of air (ii) Theoretical power
(iii) Impeller diameters at inlet and outlet (iv) Breadth of
impeller at inlet (v) Impeller blade angle at inlet (vi) Diffuser
blade angle at inlet (JNTU - Apr/May 2013 - Set 4)
4.160 Thermal Engineering - I

Given:
N  9000 r.p.m ; Volume of air delivered, V  600 m 3/min;

P 1  1 bar, T 1  20  273  293 K; rp  4,  isen  0.82 ;

C f2  62 m/s;  C f1

r2  2 r1;  s  0.9; Blade area co-efficient, k a  0.9.

Solution:

(i) Final temperature of air, T2:

1
1.4  1
T 2  P2   1.4
   4  1.486
T1 P
 1

 T2  293  1.486  435.4 K

T 2  T1
Now, isen 
T2  T1

T 2  T1 435.4  293
or T 2  T1   293   466.7 K
isen 0.82

(ii) Theoretical power:

 2
 PV 1  10  600 /60 
Mass flow rate, m    11.89 m3/s
RT 0.287  293

 Power  m C p T 2  T 1 

 11.89  1.005 466.7  293  2075.95 kW

(iii) Impeller diameters at inlet and outlet, d1, d2:

For radial blades, work input to the compressor is
given by,
 Air Compressors 4.161

s u 22
Work done   C p T 2  T 1 [ V w2  U 2]
1000

Here T2 is the final temperature of air from the exit

of compressor.
1/ 2
 1000  C p T2  T 1 
u2   
 s 
1/2
 1000  1.005 466.7  293  
   440.4 m/s
 0.9 
d 2N
Also, u2   440.4 m/s
60
60  440.4
or d2   0.9346 m or 93.46 cm
  9000
d2 93.46
d1    46.73 c m
2 2

(iv) Breadth of impeller at inlet, b1:

Volume flow rate  2r1 b 1 C f1 k a, where k a is the
blade area coefficient

Volume flow rate

 b1 
2r1  C f1  ka
600/60
  0.1221 m or 12.21 cm.
 0.4673 
2     62  0.9
 2 
(v) Impeller blade angle at inlet 1
C f1 62
tan 1    0.2816
u1 440.4 /2

 1  tan  1 0.2816   15.73 

4.162 Thermal Engineering - I

(vi) Diffuser blade angle at inlet, 2:

C f2 62
tan  2    0.1564
 s  U 2 0.9  440.4

 2  tan  1 0.1564   8.9.

Problem 4.54: A centrifugal compressor delivers 54 kg of air

per minute at pressure of 200 kPa, when compressing air from
100 kPa and 15C. If the temperature of air delivered is
97C and no heat is added to the air from external sources
during compression, determine the efficiency of the compressor
relative to ideal adiabatic compression and power absorbed.
(JNTU - April/May - 2013 - Set 1)

Given Data
 54
m  0.9 kg/s ; P 2  200 kPa; P 1  100 kPa ;
60

T1  15  273  288 K; T2  97  273  370 K ; Q  0

T
Solution:
T 02 02
P2
To find isentropic efficiency
T02’ 0 2’
1
T2
T 2 P2   2
  T 2’ 2’
T1 P
 1
1 P1
 P2   T01
01
T 2  T1  
P
 1 T1
1
S
0.4
 200  1.4
 288    351.08 K
 100 
T2  351.08 K
 Air Compressors 4.163

T 2  T1
Isentropic efficiency isen 
T2  T1

351.08  288
  0.7692
370  288

 76.92%

Power absorbed for compression work

Since C 1 and C 2 are not given, the power can be
calculated based on static head condition.

Power  m  w ork don e in the impeller

 0.9  C p T 2  T 1

 0.9  1.005 370  288

 74.169 kW

Problem 4.55: A single sided centrifugal compressor is to

deliver 18 kg/s of air when operating at a stagnation pressure
ratio of 4:1 and a speed of 220 rps. The inlet stagnation
conditions may be taken on 288 K and 1.0 bar. Assuming the
slip factor of 0.92 and as a power input factor of 1.04 and an
overall efficiency of 0.84, estimate the overall diameter of the
impeller and power input.
(JNTU - May - 2013 and Apr/May 2013 - Set 3)

Given Data:
 P 02
m  18 kg/s;  4; N  220 rps; T 01  288 K and P 01  1 bar
P 01

s  0.92;  w  1.04 ; isen  0.84

4.164 Thermal Engineering - I

Solution:

(i) To find overall diameter of impellar D2:

1
0.4
T 02 
 P 02   1.4
   4  1.486
T01 P
 01 

T 02   T01  1.486  288  1.486  427.97 K

T02   T 01
 isen 
T 02  T 01

427.97  288
0.84 
T 02  T 01 

T02  T01   166.63 K

Euler work

 w s u22
W  Cp T02  T01 
1000

1.04  0.92  u 22
 1.005 166.63 
1000

 J kJ 
  1000 is to convert kg in to kg 
 

u22  175020.6  u2  418.35 m/s

We know u2   D 2 N

418.35    D 2  220

 rev 
D 2  0.605 m  60.5 cm  N is in s 
 
 Air Compressors 4.165

(ii) Power input


Power  m C p T 02  T01 

 18  1.005 166.63 

 3014.34 kW

Problem 4.56: A centrifugal air compressor having a pressure

ratio of 5, compresses air at the rate of 10 kg/s. If the initial
pressure and temperature of air is 1 bar and 20C, calculate
final temperature and power required to drive the compressor.
(JNTU - January - 2014 - Set 2)

Given Data:
P2 
 5; m  10 kg/s; P 1  1 bar; T1  20  273  293 K ;
P1

To find T2,

1 1
T2  P2    P2  
   T2  T1  
T1 P
 1  P1 
0.4
T 2  293   5  1.4  464.06 K

Power to drive the compressor


 m C p T2  T1 [assuming C 1  C2]
 10  1.005 464.06  293

 1719.15 kW
4.166 Thermal Engineering - I

4.28 AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS

An axial compressor is a pressure producing machine.
As the name indicates, the flow of air or fluid is in the
direction of the rotor axis. It consists of a rotor with moving
blades and a stator fixed to casing which serve to recover
part of kinetic energy imparted to the working fluid.
T his kinetic energy imparted to the fluid by means of
the rotating blades is then converted into a pressure rise.

Inlet guide Stato r D e livery

vanes (C asing ) vanes

S R S R Air
S R D e livery
R
S

Air R o tatin g drum

in
D rive
shaft

Air
D e livery

S = S tator (Fixed) blad es

M oving
R = Ro tor (M oving ) blade s
bla de s Fixed
bla de s
Fig. 4.34 Axial Flow Com pressor.

 In this axial flow compressor, air is flowing

parallel to the axis of compressor.
 It consists of stators (fixed blades) and Rotors
(rotating blades) in an alternate rows.
 T he rotors are fixed with rotating drum and
stators are fixed to the casing.
 One stage of compressor means a row of stator
blades with a row of rotor blades.
 Air Compressors 4.167

 T he work energy of moving blades is

transferred to air to accelerate.
 T he blades are so arranged that the space
between the blades forms diffuser passage and
hence air pressure is increased at the expense of
velocity.
 T he air is then further flown through stator
blades and gets diffused and its pressure is
further increased.
 After air gets pressure rise in one stage, it will
be allowed to pass second stage and pressure is
continuously raised.
 T he annular area is normally reduced from
inlet to outlet of the compressor to keep the flow
velocity constant.
 T he stator blades serve to convert a part of
kinetic energy to pressure energy and to guide air
from one stage to next stage without shock.
4.28.1 Working Principles of a Compressor Stage
A compressor stage consists of a rotor followed by a
diffuser ring. T he first stage of a multistage or a single
stage compressor may consist of a ring of inlet guide vanes
(IGV) and rotor blades as shown in Fig. 4.35.

Air enters axially into the inlet guide vanes where it

is turned through a certain angle to impinge on the first
row of rotating blades with proper angle of attack. T he
first row of moving blades imparts the kinetic energy and
increase in total pressure. T he static pressure increase
is because of the flow area increases i.e., A2  A1 in the
Fig. 4.35. T he stator blades of the first stage decrease
4.168 Thermal Engineering - I

AX IA L FLO W

IG V
(In let G uid e Va nes)

1 A1

Stage R o tor B lad es

2 A2

Stato r B lade s
(D iffuser)

3
Fig:4.35

the absolute velocity to bring about a static pressure rise.

T he air at a proper angle enters the second stage of
rotating blades and it is repeated for the remaining stages.
T able shows the variation of properties occurs in
an axial flow compressor. [ increase; decrease ]

Abs. Relative Flow Static Total

Velocity Velocity width Pressure Pressure
C Cr  B P  P 0

Stator     about
constant
Rotor     
 Air Compressors 4.169

4.28.2 Stage Velocity Triangles

T he stage velocity triangles for an axial flow
compressor is shown in Fig. 4.36. Air enters with an
absolute velocity C 1 and angle 1 [from the axial direction]
into the rotor blades. T he inlet guide vanes, guide the
flow in a proper angle of attack.
4.170 Thermal Engineering - I

A general cycle includes, the entry to the rotor (1),

exit from the rotor (2) and the diffuser (stator) blade exit
(3) respectively. In axial compressors, the following
assumptions are

(a) Axial Velocity C f1  C f2  C f  constant

(b) Blade speed u1  u2  u  constant

(c) C 1  C 3 and 1  3
(d) In rotor, relative velocities are tangent and stator
absolute velocity is tangent.

C w1
tan  1   C w1  C f tan  1
Cf ...(1)
u  Cw 1
tan 1 
Cf

 Cw1  u  Cf tan 1 ...(2)

Cw2
tan  2 
Cf

C w2  Cf tan  2 ...(3)
u  C w2
tan 2 
Cf

 Cw2  u  Cf tan 2 ...(4)

1  4  2  3

C f tan  1  u  C f tan2  u  C f tan 1  Cf tan 2

[C f  constant]
C f [tan  1  tan 2]  C f [tan  2  tan 1]
 Air Compressors 4.171

tan  1  tan 2  tan  2  tan 1

(or)

tan  1  tan 1  tan  2  tan 2 ...(1)

4.28.3 Blade Loading, Flow Coefficients and Specific

Work
T his is a dimensionless quantity used for
comparing different stages of various sizes and speeds.

W actual
i.e., Blade Loading Co-efficient  
u2

Flow co-efficient is the ratio between the axial velocity

to its blade speed.

Cf
i.e.,  f 
u

Specific Work
W act  u [Cw 2  C w1]

C 22  C 21 C 2r1  C 2r2
 
2 2

4.28.4 Static Pressure Rise in a Stage

T his pressure rise in a stage depends upon the
blade geometry and the speed of the rotor. T he total
static pressure rise in the stage

= Pressure rise in rotor  Pressure rise in diffuser

T he various assumptions before deriving are

1. T he flow is assumed to be incompressible

[ = constant]
4.172 Thermal Engineering - I

2. Reversible adiabatic flow takes place in the stage

3. T he axial velocity is constant throughout the

stage

Applying Bernoulli equation across the rotor blade

rows, it gives

 C 2r1  C 2r2
P1   P2 
2 2


P 2  P 1  C 2r1  C2r2  Protor
2

C 2r1  u  C w12  C 2f

 C 2r2  u  C w22  C 2f

 C 2r1  C 2r2  C w2  C w1 [2u  C w1  C w2]

 C w2  C w1 [u  C w 1  u  cw2]

u  C w1 u  C w2
tan 1  and tan 2 
Cf Cf

 u  C w1  C f tan 1  u  C w2  C f tan 2

By substituting this in the above equation, we get


 Protor  C  Cw1 C f [tan 1  tan 2]
2 w2

Applying Bernoulli equation across the diffuser

 C 22  C 23
P2   P3 
2 2


P 3  P 2  [C 22  C 23]
2
 Air Compressors 4.173

From the velocity triangle

C 22  C 2w2  C2f

 C 21  C 2w1  C 2f

C 22  C 21  C 2w2  C 2w1

T herefore,


P 3  P 2  Pstator   C2  C2 
2  w2 w1 

Pstage  Protor  Pstator

 
 [Cw2  C w1] C f [tan 1  tan 2]  C 2w2  C 2w1
2 2

  Cw2  Cw1 
 Cf [C w2  C w1]  tan 1  tan 2  
2  Cf 
C w2  C f tan 2

C w1  C f tan 1

Substituting this in the above equation, we get

 2
 C [tan  2  tan  1] [tan 1  tan 2  tan 2  tan  1]
2 f

From equation (1)

tan  1  tan 1  tan  2  tan 2

 2
 Pstage  C tan  2  tan  1 2 tan  1  tan 1
2 f

C w1 u  C w1
tan 1  , tan 1 
Cf Cf
4.174 Thermal Engineering - I

C w1 u  C w1 1 u
tan 1  tan 1    [C  u  C w1] 
Cf Cf C f w1 Cf

 u 
 Pstage   C 2f [tan 2  tan  1] 
C 
 f

 Pstage   C f u [tan  2  tan  1]

...(b)
From the velocity triangles,

u
 tan  1  tan 1
Cf

u
and,  tan 2  tan  2
Cf

Work absorbed by the stage per kg of air,

W st  u C w2  C w1  Cp T02  T01 act

where C w1 and C w2 are the whirl components of

absolute velocities at inlet and exit of rotating blades.

Note:
Here whirl component at the entrance of the
compressor is not zero because air flows axially and not
radially.

So W st  u C f tan  2  tan  1

. .
 . C w1  C f tan  1, and 
W st  u C f tan 1  tan 2  
C w2  C f tan  2
 
 Air Compressors 4.175

4.29 DEGREE OF REACTION

Degree of reaction Rd is defined as the ratio of
pressure rise in the rotor blades to the compressor stage.

Pressure rise in the rotor blades

i.e., Rd 
Pressure rise in the stage

Pressure rise in the compressor stage equals work

input per stage

Wact  u C w2  C w1

Pressure rise in the rotor blades is at the expense of

K .E. and is

C 2r1  C 2r2

2

C 2r1  C 2r2
 Rd 
2u C w2  C w1

Refer inlet and outlet velocity triangles:

C w2  u  C f tan 2

 C w1  u  C f tan 1

 C w2  C w1  C f tan 1  tan 2

Similarly from velocity triangles,

C 2r  C f2  C f tan 12

1

 C 2r  C f2  C f tan 22

2

 C 2r  C 2r  C 2f tan 2 1  tan 2 2

1 2
4.176 Thermal Engineering - I

C 2f tan 2 1  tan 2 2 1 Cf

So Rd   tan 1  tan 2
2u  C f tan 1  tan 2 2 u
Degree of reaction is usually taken as 0.5,
1 Cf
 0.5   tan 1  tan 2
2 u
u
or  tan 1  tan 2
Cf
u
But  tan 1  tan 1  tan  2  tan 2
Cf
(from velocity triangles)
u
  tan 1  tan 2  tan  1  tan 1  tan  2  tan 2
Cf
From this  1  2;  2  1
So with 50% reaction blading, the compressors have
symmetrical blades and with this type of set-up, losses in
flow path are greatly reduced.
In symmetrical blades, the tip clearance and fluid
friction losses are minimum.

4.30 INFINITESIMAL STAGE EFFICIENCY (OR)

POLYTROPIC EFFICIENCY
Polytropic efficiency is the isentropic efficiency of
one stage of a multi-stage compressor. T his small stage
efficiency is constant for all stages of a compressor with
infinite number of stages.
T o see the true aerodynamic performance of a
stage, a finite stage is divided into an infinite number of
small stages of the same efficiencies. T his is an
imaginary stage with an infinitesimal pressure rise and the
effect of preheat is negligible.
 Air Compressors 4.177

Fig. 4.37 shows the

T2 2
actual (1-2) and isentropic
= P 2’
1  2 compression process T2’ 2’ P 2
of a finite stage. A small P
P +d
dT
dT’
stage is considered in P
between 1-2 whose h

pressures are P and

T1 P1
P  dP . T he pressure
1
and temperature at the
entry of the small stage are S

P and T respectively. T he Fig:4.37 Infinitesim al and

Com pressio n Processes
actual and isentropic
temperature rise are dT and dT respectively. T herefore,
the efficiency of a small stage is

isentropic tempe rature rise dT dh

P   
actual temperature rise dT dh

dP dP  RT
 
  C P dT 
P  R dT
1

  1 dP T
  
 P dT

dT 1   1 dP
  
T P  P
...(1)
T he value of the polytropic efficiency P is
constant and is determined by integrating the finite state
compression process between 1 and 2.

2 2
dT   1 1 dP
 T     P
P
1 1
4.178 Thermal Engineering - I

 T2  1   1  P2 
ln   ln  
 1  P
T  P
 1
 P2   T2 
ln   ln  
  1 P1  T1 
P   
  T2   T2 
ln   ln  

T1  T
 1 ...(2)
(or)
1 1

 T2   P2   P
  
 T1   P 1  ...(3)
T he irreversible actual compression process can be
considered as equivalent to a polytropic process with an
index ‘n’.

T hus equation (3) can be rewritten as

1 1 n1

T2  P2   P  P2  n
   
T1 P
 1
P
 1
Equating the powers,

  1 1 n  1 
 
 P n

  1 n
 P  
 n  1 ...(4)

4.31 FINITE STAGE EFFICIENCY

T he efficiency of a finite stage can be expressed
interms of the small stage efficiency. T ake static values
of temperature and pressure and assuming perfect gas,
 Air Compressors 4.179

 T2 
 1
T2  T 1 T1 
st   
T2  T 1  T 2 
 1
T ...(5)
 1
We know that
1
T 2 P2   1
   rp  a nd
T1 P
 1
 P 2 P 2 
 where rp   pressure ratio 
P1 P1
 
T2 1 1
 rp   P
T1
By substituting this in equation (5)
1
rp    1
st 
1 1
 rp     P  1 ...(6)
T his equation is also applicable to a multi stage
compressor. i.e.,
1

R P 1
0 
   1  1
     
R P  P 1

Polytropic or small stage efficiency, P :

1 n 
or p    
  n1 
Polytropic efficiency depend on exponent n and the
adiabatic exponent .
4.180 Thermal Engineering - I

 T02    1  P02 
Also, P ln    ln  
T  P
 01   01 
1
1  P 02   P 02  
ln   ln  
 P01 P 01
or P      
 T02   T 02 
ln   ln  
T T
 01   01 

4.38 IMPORTANT FORMULAE

1. Flow coefficient f

Cf
f 
u

Since u  C f tan 1  tan  1

Cf 1
f  
C f tan 1  tan  1 tan 1  tan  1

Since  1  2 and 1  2,

1
 f 
tan 2  tan  2

2. Head or work coefficient h 

It is defined as the ratio of actual work done to the
kinetic energy developed by the mean peripheral velocity.

C p T 2 C w2  C w1  tan  2  tan  1 

T hus,  h   2 
2
u  u
   tan 2 tan  2 
 2 
 Air Compressors 4.181

3. Deflection co-efficient def

It is defined as,
u C w2  C w1 Cw2  Cw1
 def   or  h  2 def
u2 u

4. Pressure co-efficient p

It is defined as the ratio of isentropic work done to
kinetic energy developed by the peripheral velocity.
C p Tisen
T hus,  p    isen  h
 u2 
 
 2 

5. Pressure ratio
/  1
P2  T2  T1 
  1   isen 
P1  T1 

6. Stagnation pressure ratio

/  1
P 02   T0 
  1  0 isen 
P 01  T 01 

7. Number of stages
If the work done per stage is assumed to be the same,
then the number of stages N 
T0
N
T0stage
...(24.112)
Since the pressure ratio per stage is the same,
P 02 P 03 P 0 N  1
rpstage   
P 01 P 02 P 0N
4.182 Thermal Engineering - I

T he overall pressure ratio

N
rp   rp stage 
 
ln rp
N
ln  rpstage 
 
and rpstage varies from 1.12 to 1.2.

4.32 LOSSES IN AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR STAGE

Various losses occur while the air (or) gas flows
through a compressor stage. T he total pressure loss
occurs in three ways:
1. Profile losses on the surface of the blades.
2. Skin friction on the annulus walls.
3. Secondary flow losses.

2 .29 %

1 00 S
A n n u lu k in F ric ti
4 4% s lo s s on
S e co n d
a ry lo s s
4 2%
90
P ro file lo ss
D es ig n
S u rge
S ta ge e fficie ncy, s tag e

80

70

60
0 .5 0 .7 0 .9 1 .1 1 .3 1 .5 1 .7
Flow C oe ffic ie nt f
Fig:4.38 L osse s in com pressor stage
 Air Compressors 4.183

T he various losses are represented on graph

between stage efficiency and flow coefficient as shown in
Fig. 4.38

1. Profile losses on the surface of the blades:

 Profile loss means that the total pressure loss of
two dimensional rectilinear cascade arising from
the friction on the surface and due to the mixing
of flow particles after the blades.
 T hese losses are normally determined
experimentally.
2. Skin friction loss on the annulus walls:
 T hese losses are arising from the skin friction
on the annulus walls.
 Empirical relations derived by Howell and Haller
are available for determining drag co-efficient and
skin friction losses.
3. Secondary flow losses:
 Secondary flows are produced by combined effects
of curvature and boundary layer.
 Secondary flow is developed when the components
of velocity are developed from the deflection of an
initially sheared flow. Such secondary flow occurs
when there is a bend, when a sheared flow passes
over an aerofoil shape with finite lift or when a
boundary level meets an obstacle.
 Secondary flow loss occurs when boundary layers
are growing on the casing and hub walls of the
machines are deflected by rows of blades - stator
and rotor.
4.184 Thermal Engineering - I
 Air Compressors 4.185

4.33 SURGING
It is the phenomena of excessive aerodynamic
pulsation which is transmitted throughout the machine by
virtue of sudden drop in delivery pressure or complete
breakdown of the steady through flow.
Fig. 4.39 shows the
relation between mass flow
S urge C ycle
and pressure ratio for some D B S urge lin e

Pressu re ratio
typical performance
characteristics curves at U nstable S ta b le
E
A
different speeds (N 1, N 2, N1

etc). T he surge N2
T1
N3
phenomenon is explained T2
T3 C
with the aid of one of the
M ass flow rate
curves in this figure. It is Fig:4.39
assumed that, a valve
placed in the delivery line of a compressor running at
constant speed, is slowly opened. When the valve is shut
and the mass flow is zero, the pressure ratio will have some
value A , corresponding to the pressure head produced by
the action of the rotor on the air trapped between the
blades. When the valve is opened, flow commences and the
pressure ratio increases. At some point B , where the
efficiency approaches its maximum value, the pressure ratio
will reach a maximum, and any further increase in mass
flow will result in a fall of pressure ratio. For mass flows
greatly in excess of that corresponding to the design mass
flow, the air angles will be widely different from the vane
angles, breakaway of the air will occur, and the efficiency
will fall off rapidly. In this hypothetical case, the pressure
ratio drops to unity at C, when the valve is fully opened
4.186 Thermal Engineering - I

and all the power is absorbed in overcoming internal

frictional resistance.
T he region between A and B (having positive slope)
is unstable. Let the compressor be operating at point D on
left of B. Now the mass flow is reduced and the pressure
ratio is also reduced according to the graph. If pressure of
air downstream of the compressor does not fall quickly
enough, the air will tend to reverse the direction and flow
back in the direction of resulting pressure gradient in to
the compressor. When this occurs, the pressure down
stream of the compressor has also fallen, so that the
compressor will now pick up again to repeat the cycle of
events, which occurs at high frequency. Such a situation
should be avoided by keeping the operating point to the
right of B. T his is because the decrease in mass flow in
this region is accompanied by increase in pressure ratio
and thus stability is obtained.
T he point to the left of B where surging begins is
a function of the ability of flow passage downstream of the
compressor to swallow the flow. Such points for various
N
values of would lead to a locus called the surge line
 T1

as shown in figure.
Surging leads to vibration of the entire machine which
can ultimately lead to mechanical failure. T herefore, the
operation of compressors on the left of surge line is
injurious to the machine and must be avoided and that
range is unstable range. T he stable range of operation
of the compressor is on the right-hand side of this line.
 Air Compressors 4.187

4.34 STALLING
Stalling is the separation of flow from the blade
surface. A partial blockage or uneven flow in the blade
passages due to the change of angle of incidence is called
stalling. At low flow rates, the axial velocities are lower
and the angle of incidence is increased as shown in Fig.
4.40 At large values of the incidence, the flow separation
occurs on the suction side of the blades which is referred
to as positive stalling and the pressure hide is negative
stalling.

e
i= - v
ve

e
+v
i= +

i=

i=0

A B C D

Pro pa gating Fig:4.40 U n stallin g

T his is a separate phenomenon, which may

contribute to surge but can exist in the nominally stable
operating range. T his is the rotating stall. When there
is any non-uniformity in the flow or geometry of the
channels between blades, breakdown in the flow occurs in
one channel, say B in figure. T his causes the air to be
4.188 Thermal Engineering - I

deflected in such a way that channel C receives fluid at a

reduced angle of incidence and channel A at an increased
incidence.
Channel A then stalls, resulting in a reduction of
incidence to channel B enabling the flow in that channel
to recover. T hus the stall passes from channel to channel
and the stall cells will rotate in a direction opposite to that
of the rotor blades. It may lead to aerodynamically induced
vibrations and high frequency noises resulting in fatigue
failures in other parts of the compressor. T he blades can
fail due to resonance. T his occurs when the frequency
of the passage of stall cells through a blade coincides with
its natural frequency. Both the efficiency and delivery
pressure drop considerably on account of rotating stall.

4.35 COMPARISON BETWEEN RECIPROCATING AND

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

Reciprocating Centrifugal
compressors compressors
Greater vibration problems Less vibrational problems
due to the presence of since it does not have
reciprocating parts which reciprocating parts.
are partially balanced.
Due to the presence of Due to the absence of many
several sliding or bearing sliding or bearing members,
members, it has lesser  mech is more.
 mech.
Higher initial cost. Lower initial cost.
Pressure ratio per stage is Pressure ratio per stage is
about 5 to 8. about 3 to 4.5.
 Air Compressors 4.189

Reciprocating Centrifugal
compressors compressors
High delivery pressure upto Medium delivery pressure
5000 atm. upto 400 atm.
Smaller Free Air Delivered Greater FAD.
(FAD).
Greater Flexibility in No flexibility in capacity and
capacity and pressure range. pressure range.
Higher maintenance cost. Lower maintenance cost.
Compression efficiency is  compressor is higher, at
higher, at compression ratio compression ratio less than
above 2. 2.
Adaptability to low speed Adaptability to high speed
drive. drive.
More operating attention Less operating attendance.
needed.
Always a chance of mixing No chance of mixing of
of air with lubricating oil. lubricating oil with air.
Suitable for low, medium Suitable for low and
and high pressures and low medium pressures and large
and medium gas volumes. gas volumes.

4.36 COMPARISON BETWEEN RECIPROCATING AND

ROTARY AIR COMPRESSORS

Reciprocating air Rotary air

compressors compressors

Suitable for low discharge of Suitable for handling large

air at high pressure. volumes of air at low
pressures.
4.190 Thermal Engineering - I

Reciprocating air Rotary air

compressors compressors

Low speed (RPM). High speed (RPM).

Pulsating air supply. Continuous air supply.
More cyclic vibrations occur. Less vibrations occur.
Complicated lubricating Simple lubrication system.
system.
Air delivered is generally Air delivered is relatively
contaminated with oil. more clean.
Large compressor size for Small size for same
the given discharge. discharge

250  300 m 3/min Free air 2000  3000 m 3/min FAD.

Delivery.
High delivery pressure. Low delivery pressure.

4.37 COMPARISON BETWEEN CENTRIFUGAL AND

AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS

Centrifugal compressors Axial flow compressors

Radial flow Axial flow (Parallel to the
direction of axis of the
machine)
Pressure ratio per stage is Low pressure ratio per stage
high, about 4.5:1. T his about 1.2:1. T his is due
unit is compact. to absence of centrifugal
action. Less compact and
less rugged.
Isothermal efficiency is With modern aerofoil blades,
about 80 to 82%  iso is about 86 to 88%.
 Air Compressors 4.191

Centrifugal compressors Axial flow compressors

Frontal area is larger Frontal area is smaller.
Hence the axial flow
compressor is more suitable
for jet engines due to less
drag.
More flexibility of operation Less flexibility of operation.
due to adjustable prewhirl
and diffuser vanes.
Low starting torque High starting torque
required. required.
Multistaging is slightly More suitable for
difficult. multi-staging.
Upto 400 bar delivery Delivery pressure is only
pressure is possible. upto 20 bar.
It is used in application of Mostly used in jet engines
blowing engines in steel due to higher efficiency and
mills, low pressure smaller frontal area. Also
refrigeration, big central air used in power plant gas
conditioning plants, fertiliser turbines and steel mills.
and industry, supercharging
I.C. engines, gas pumping in
long distance pipe lines etc.

Efficiency vs. speed curve of both compression

compared to here.
Efficiency (vs) speed curve of both compressor is
compared here in Fig. 4.41.
4.192 Thermal Engineering - I

E fficien cy

C entrifu ga l co m pressor

A xia l flo w
com pressor

S peed
Fig:4.41

Problem 4.57: The following data relate to an axial flow

compressor: u  250 m/s; Cf  180 m/s; 1  40; 2  15
  1 kg/m3; Calculate (i) the pressure rise (ii) the workdone
per kg of air

Given Data:
T he pressure rise in rotor.

 2
p  C [tan2 1  tan2  2]
2 f

1
 5
 180 2 [tan 2 40  tan 2 15]
2  10

 0.102 bar

Workdone per kg of air

u [C w1  C w2]
W
1000
 Air Compressors 4.193

u  C f [tan  1  tan  2]

1000

250  180 [tan 40  tan 15]


1000

 25.702 kJ/kg

Problem 4.58: An axial flow compressor with an overall

isentropic efficiency of 85% draws air at 20 C and compresses
it in the pressure ratio of 4 : 1. The mean blade speed and
flow velocity are constant throughout the compressor. Assuming
50% reaction blading and taking blade velocity as 180 m/s
and work input factor as 0.82, calculate:
(i) Flow velocity
(ii) Number of stages
Take 1  12, 1  42 and Cp  1.005 kJ/kgK
(JNTU - January - 2014 - Set 4 & Set 3)

Given:
C r1 1 1 C1
isen  85% ,
C f1

T1  20  273  293 K C w1
u1

Pressure ratio,
P2 C r2 2 2 C2
 4, u  180 m/s C f2
P1
C w2
Work input factor   0.82

Solution:
1
1.4  1
T2  P2  
   4 1.4  1.486
T1 P
 1
4.194 Thermal Engineering - I

 T2  293  1.486  435.4 K

T2  T 1
Now isen 
T2  T1

435.4  293
0.85 
T 2  293

 T2  460.5 K

T heoretical work required per kg

 C p T 2  T 1  1.005 460.5  293   168.33 kJ/kg

From velocity triangles (Refer Fig.)

u
 tan  1  tan 1  tan 12  tan 42  0.212  0.9  1.112
Cf

u 180
 Flow velocity C f    161.8 m/s.
1.112 1.112

Work done per stage

 u C w2  C w1  work input factor

. .
Now, C w2  C f tan  2  161.8 tan 42  145.7 m/s  .  2  1

and C w1  C f tan  1  161.8 tan 12  34.4 m/s

 Work done per stage

 180 145.7  34.4   0.82  10 3 kJ/kg  16.4 kJ/kg

[10  3 is to make J/kg to kJ/kg]

168.33
 Number of stages   10
16.43

i.e., Number of stages  10

 Air Compressors 4.195

Problem 4.59: In an eight stage axial flow compressor, the

overall stagnation pressure ratio achieved is 5 : 1 with an
overall isentropic efficiency of 90 per cent. The inlet stagnation
temperature and pressure are 293 K and 1 bar. The work is
divided equally between the stages. The mean blade speed is
175 m/s and 50% reaction design is used. The axial velocity
through the compressor is constant and is equal to 100 m/s.
Calculate:
(i) The blade angles (ii) The power required.
(JNTU August 2014 - Set 4)

Given:

N s  8 ; rp  5:1; isen  90%; T01  293 K; P 01  1 bar;

u  175 m/s; Degree of reaction = 50% ; C f  100 m/s.

Solution:

(i) The blade angles, 1, 1, 2, 2:

T P 08
08
P 07
P 06 C r1 1 1 C1
07 C f1
0 8’
06
C w1
u1
P 03
P 02
P 01 C r2 2 2 C2
C f2
03
02 C w2
01
S
4.196 Thermal Engineering - I

Refer to Fig. for velocity diagrams. Since the degree

of reaction is 50%, the blades are symmetrical and hence
the velocity diagrams are identical. T hus

1  2 and  2  1

Let suffix N denotes the number of stages.

With isentropic compression, the temperature of air

leaving the compressor stage is
  1/
 P 0N  1.4  1
T 0N  T 01    293  5 1.4  464.06 K
P
 01 
T 0N  T 01
But isen 
T0N  T01

464.06  293
0.9 
T 0N  293

464.06  293
 T0N   293
0.9

 483.07 K

T he work required by the compressor

 C p T0N  T 01   C w2  C w1 u  N s

or C p T0N  T 01   C f tan  2  tan  1 u  Ns

C p T 0N  T01 
 tan  2  tan  1 
Cf  u  N

1.005 483.07  293  10 3

  1.364
100  175  8

 tan  1  tan 2  1.364 ...(1)

 Air Compressors 4.197

. .
 .  2   1

From velocity triangles, we have

u 175
 tan  1  tan 1   1.75
Cf 100 ...(2)
Adding (1) and (2), we get

1.364  1.75
tan 1   1.56
2

or 1  tan  1 1.56   57.29 

 2  2  57.29 

Substituting the value of tan 1 in (2), we have

tan  1  1.56  1.75

tan  1  0.19 or  1  tan  1 0.19  10.76 

 1  2  10.76 

(ii) The power required by compressor P:


P  m C p T0N  T01 

 1  1.005 483.07  293   191.02 kW

Problem 4.60: In an axial flow compressor, the overall

stagnation pressure ratio achieved is 4 with overall stagnation
isentropic efficiency 86 percent. The inlet stagnation pressure
and temperature are 1 bar and 320 K. The mean blade speed
is 190 m/s. The degree of reaction is 0.5 at the mean radius
with relative air angles of 10 and 30 at the rotor inlet and
outlet respectively. The work done factor is 0.88. Calculate:
(i) Stagnation polytropic efficiency. (ii) Number of stages.
4.198 Thermal Engineering - I

(iii) Inlet temperature and pressure. (iv) Blade height in the

first stage if the hub-tip ratio is 0.45, mass flow rate 20 kg/s.
[JNTU Aug 2014 Set (2) & Apr/May 2013 - Set (2)]

P 0N
Given: rp   4;  isen  86%; P 01  1 bar; T01  320 K
P 01

u  190 m/s ; Degree of reaction, R d  0.5. Work done


factor = 0.88 ; Hub-tip ratio = 0.45; m  20 kg/s.

Solution:
Refer Fig. For 50% reaction, the inlet and outlet
velocity diagrams are identical. Hence 1  2  10 ;
2  1  30 .

(i) Stagnation polytropic efficiency, p:

T he temperature at the end of the compression
stage due to isentropic expansion is

T C r1 1 1 C1
P 0N
C f1
0N
C w1
u
0N’ 2 = 1 = 30
o

P 01
In le t ve locity trian gle

C r2 2 2 C2
C f2
01
C w2
S
o
1 = 2 = 10
O utle t velocity trian gle
 Air Compressors 4.199

1
1.4  1
 P 0N    1.4
T 0N  T 01    320 4  475.52 K
 P01 

T 0N  T01 475.52  320

 0 isen  0.86  
T0N  T 01 T 0N  3.20

475.52  320
 T0N   320  500.84 K
0.86

1
 P0N   0.4
ln   1.4
P 01 ln 4
Now p    
 T0N   500.84 
ln   ln  
T
 01   320 

0.396
  0.8839  88.39%
0.448

(ii) Number of stages, N s:

From the configuration of velocity triangles,

U
 tan  1  tan 1  tan 10   tan 30  0.7537
Cf

u 190
 Cf    252.1 m/s
0.7537 0.7537

Now

C w 1  C f tan  1  252.1  tan 10  44.5 m/s

C w 2  C f tan  2  252.1  tan 30  145.6 m/s

Work required per stage

 u C w2  C w1  work done factor

4.200 Thermal Engineering - I

190 145.6  44.5  0.88


1000

 16.9 kJ/kg

T otal work required by the compressor

 C p T 0N  T01   1.005 500.84  320  181.74 kJ/kg

 Number of stages,
181.74
NS   10.75 ~
 11 stages
16.9

(iii) Inlet temperature and pressure, T 1, P 1:

T he absolute velocity C 1 at exit from the guide
vanes and approaching to moving blades of first stage,
Cf 252.1
C1    255.99 m/s
cos  1 cos 10

C21 255.99 2
T emperature, T 1  T 01   320 
2C p 2  1.005  1000

 287.4 K

Assuming reversible flow through the guide vanes put

ahead of the first stage,
 1.4
P1  T1    1  287.4  0.4
  ; P1  1     0.687 bar
P01  T 01   320 

(iv) Blade height in the first stage, 1:

T he density of air approaching to first stage,
P1 68.7
1    0.833 kg/m 3
RT 1 0.287  287.4

From the continuity equation,

 Air Compressors 4.201


1 A1 C f  m  20 kg /s

0.833   r21 [1  0.452]  252.1  20

or


  
20
r1   0.195 m o r 19.5 cm
0.833    [1  0.452] 252.1

rh
But  0.45  rh  19.5  0.45  8.8 cm
r1

Hence height of the blade in the first stage,

L  r1  rh  19.5  8.8  10.7 cm

Problem 4.61: A multistage axial compressor is required for

compressing air at 293 K through a pressure ratio of 5 to 1. Each
stage is to be 50% reaction and the mean blade speed is 275
m/s, flow coefficient is 0.5 and stage loading factor is 0.3 are
taken, for simplicity, as constant for all stages. Find the flow
angles and number of stages required if the stage efficiency is
88.8%. (JNTU August 2014 - Set 1 and Apr/May 2013 - Set (3))

Given Data:
C f1 1
Flow coefficient f    0.5
u tan 1  tan 1

1

Stage efficiency   P 02  
ln  
or  1 n  P 01
   0.88
 p    
P olytropic    n  1  T 02 
  ln
efficiency  
 
T 01 
4.202 Thermal Engineering - I

ln rp P 02 P 03 P 0 N  1
Ns  ; rpstage   
ln rp stage P 01 P 02 P0N

Also C r1 1 1 C1
C f1
 T 0
Ns  C w1
T 0stage u
In le t velocity tria ngle
P 02
 5; u  275 m/s; P 01  1 bar; T 01  293 K
P 01

1
 P 02  
ln  
P 01
p   
 T 02 
ln  
T
 02 

 T02  0.4
ln    0.88  ln 5  0.4598
 293  1.4

 T02 
ln    0.523
 293 

T02
 e0.523  1.686
293

T02  494 K

Work required/kg of air

 C p T02  T01   1.005 494  293

 202 kJ /kg
 Air Compressors 4.203

Wstage
Stage loading factor   0.3 
u2

0.3  275 2
W stage   22.69 kJ/kg
1000

T otal workdo ne/kg of air

No. of stages N s 
W stage

202
  8.9 ~
 9 stages
22.69

1
tan  1  tan 1  2
0.5 ...(i)
Cf
 0.5  C f  0.5  275  137.5 m/s
u

Also;    f tan 1  tan 2

0.3  0.5 tan 1  tan 2

tan 1  tan 2  0.6 ...(ii)

Add (i) & (ii)

tan 1  tan  1  2

tan 1  tan  1  0.6 . .

[ .  1   2]
2tan 1  2.6

tan 1  1.3

1  52.43    2

Substitute 1  52.43 in eqn (i), we get

4.204 Thermal Engineering - I

2 2
tan  1    1.538
tan 1 tan 52.43

 1  56.98   2

Problem 4.62: A multistage axial flow compressor delivers 18

kg/s of air. The inlet stagnation condition is 1 bar and
20C. The power consumed by the compressor is 4260 kW.
Calculate (i) Delivery pressure (ii) Number of stages (iii)
Overall isentropic efficiency of the compressor. Assume
temperature rise in the first type is 18C, the polytropic
efficiency of compression is 0.9 and the stage stagnation
pressure ratio is constant. (JNTU - August 2014 - Set 3)

Given Data:

m  18 kg/s; P 01  1 bar; T 01  20  273  293 K

Power = 4260 kW; T02  18  293  311 K; p  0.9

(i) Delivery pressure: P 0N

1  P02 
ln  
 P 01
P   
 T02 
ln  
T
 01 

 P 02    T02 
ln    p  ln  
 01    1
P
 T01 

1.4  311 
  0.9  ln    0.1878
0.4  293 
P 02
 e0.1878  1.207
P 01
 Air Compressors 4.205

P 02  1  1.207  1.207 bar

Stagnation pressure at 2

P02  1.207 bar

Power required by the compressor


Power  m C p T ON  T01

4260  18  1.005 T0N  293

T0N  528.5 K

Also, the  p is given by

 1  n 
p    
   n1 

n 0.9  1.4
  3.15
n1 0.4

n  n  1 3.15  3.15n  3.15

2.15 n  3.15

n  1.465

During polytropic compression,

n
3.15
P 0N TON  n  1  528.5 
     6.411
P01  T01   293 

P 0N  1  6.411 bar

Delivery pressure P0N  6.411 bar

4.206 Thermal Engineering - I

(ii) To find no. of stages: Ns

Ns
 P 02  P 0N
P  
 01  P01

T aking ln on both sides,

 P02   P 0N 
Ns  ln    ln  
P
 01 
P
 01 

 P 0N 
ln   6.411 
 ln  
P
Ns   01    1 
 P 02   1.207 
ln   ln  
P
 01   1 

 9.87 ~
 10 stages

Ns  10 stages

(iii) Overall isentropic efficiency of the compressor:

overall isen
1 0.4
T 0N  P 0N    6.411  1.4
   T 0N  293     498.22 K
T 01 P
 01   1 

T 0N  T 01 498.22  293

 overall isen    0.8714
T0N  T 01 528.5  293

 87.14%

Problem 4.63:_An 8 stage axial flow compressor takes in air

at 20C at the rate of 180 kg/min. The pressure ratio is 6 and
isentropic efficiency is 0.9. Determine the power required.
(JNTU - January - 2014 - Set 2)
 Air Compressors 4.207

Given Data:
P2
T 1  20  273  293 K; r   6;
P1

 180
m  3 kg/s;  isen  0.9
60

Solution:
1 1
T 2  P2    P2  
   T 2  T1   
T1 P P
 1  1
0.4
T 2  293  6 1.4  488.9 K

T2  488.9 K

T2  T 1
isen 
T2  T1

488.9  293
0.9 
T 2  293

T2  510.64 K

Power required

Power  m C p T 2  T 1

 3  1.005 510.64  293

 656.18 kW

Problem 4.64: An axial flow compressor is to have constant

axial velocity of 250 m/s and 50% degree of reaction. The mean
diameter of blade ring is 45 cm and speed is 18000 rpm. The
exit angles of the blades are 25C. Calculate blade angle at
4.208 Thermal Engineering - I

inlet and workdone per kg of air with the help of velocity

triangles. (JNTU - Apr/May - 2013 Set 1)

C f  250 m/s; R d  0.5; Dm  0.45 m;

N  18000 rpm; 2  25;

1  2  25 for 50% reaction

 D m  N   0.45  18000
u 
60 60
C r1 1 1 C1
 424.12 m/s
C f1
From velocity triangle C w1
u
u 424.12
tan  1  tan 1  
o
1 = 2 = 12
Cf 250 In le t velocity tria ng le

 1.696
C r2 2 2 C2
tan 1  1.696  tan  1 C f2

C w2
 1.696  tan 25
o
2 = 1 = 4 2
 1.23 O utle t velocity tria ng le

1  50.88    2

Workdone/stage  u C w2  Cw1

C w2  C f tan  2  250  tan 50.88  307.42 m/s

C w1  C f tan  1  250  tan 25  116.6 m/s

424.12 307.42  116.6

Workdone   80.4 kJ/kg
1000

Problem 4.65: An axial flow compressor is to have constant

axial velocity of 150 m/s and 50% degree of reaction. The mean
 Air Compressors 4.209

diameter of blade ring is 35 cm and speed is 15000 rpm. The

exit angles of the blade are 27. Calculate blade angle at inlet
and workdone per kg of air with the help of velocity triangles.
(JNTU - April/May - 2013 - Set 4)

Given Data:

C f  150 m/s; Rd  0.5; Dm  0.35 m;

N  15000 rpm; 2  27;

C r1 1 1 C1
1  2  27 for 50% Rd. C f1

C w1
u
Solution: o
1 = 2 = 2 7
 D m N   0.35  15000 Inle t velocity tria ng le
u 
60 60
C r2 2 2 C2
 274.89 m/s C f2

By triangle, C w2
o
2 = 1 = 5 2.9 3
u 274.89
tan  1  tan 1   O utle t velocity tria ng le
Cf 150

 1.833

tan 1  1.833  tan  1  1.833  tan 27

 1.323

Blade angle at inlet 1  52.93    2

Work done/stage  u [C w2  Cw1]

C w2  C f tan  2  150  tan 52.93  198.52 m/s

C w1  C f tan  1  150  tan 27  76.43 m/s

4.210 Thermal Engineering - I

274.89 198.52  76.43

Work done   33.56 kJ/kg
1000

W  33.56 kJ /kg

Problem 4.66: An axial flow compressor with compression

ratio as 4, draws air at 20C and delivers it at 197C. The
mean blade speed and flow velocity are constant throughout
the compressor. Assuming 50% reaction blading and taking
blade velocity as 180 m/s, find flow velocity and the number
of stages. Take work factor = 0.82, 1  12 and 1  42 and
Cp  1.005 kJ/kg K. (JNTU - January 2014 - Set 3)

Given Data:
r  4; T 1  20  273  293 K C r1 1 1 C1
C f1
T2  197  273  470 K;
C w1
u
R d  0.5; u  180 m/s;   0.82 1 = 2 = 12
o

In le t velocity tria ng le
1  12  and 1  42;
C r2 2 2 C2
C p  1.005 kJ/kgK
C f2

T heoretical work required C w2

per kg o
2 = 1 = 4 2
O utle t velocity tria ng le
 C p T2  T1

 1.005 470  293  177.9 kJ /kg

From velocity triangles

u
 tan  1  tan 1  tan 12  tan 42
cf

 0.212  0.9  1.112

 Chapter - 5

Refrigeration

Mechanical Refrigeration and types - Units - Air

refrigeration system, Details, Principle of operations application -
Vapour compression refrigeration - Calculation of COP - Effect of
super heating and sub cooling - Desired properties of refrigerants
and Common refrigerants - Vapour absorption system - Mechanical
Details, Working and Principle - Use of p-h chart for calculation.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Refrigeration is defined as the science of providing
and maintaining temperature below surrounding
atmosphere.

Refrigeration is a method to achieve and maintain low

temperature by supplying work input continuously.

5.1.1 Fundamentals of Refrigeration:

Refrigeration may also be defined as the process by
which the temperature of a given space or a substance is
lowered below that of the atmosphere or surroundings. In
simple, refrigeration means the cooling of or removal of
heat from a system. The equipment employed to maintain
the system at a low temperature is termed as refrigerating
system and the system which is kept at lower temperature
is called refrigerated system. Refrigeration can be generally
produced in one of the following ways. (i) By melting of a
solid (ii) By sublimation of a solid (iii) By evaporation of
a liquid. Generally by evaporation of liquid called
refrigerant is used in commercial refrigeration.
5.2 Thermal Engineering - I

5.1.2 Applications of Refrigeration

Refrigeration has a wide applications in a person’s
daily life. Some of the important one’s are listed below.

(i) For comfort purpose: Air conditioning of

residential buildings, offices, cinema houses,
restaurants, departmental stores, hospitals, halls
etc.
(ii) For industrial purpose: cotton mills, textile
industries, liquefaction of gases, treatment of metals,
machine tool industries, marketing industries etc.
(iii) For medicine purpose: Preservation of drugs,
bloods, eyes, preservation of surgical equipments,
human tissues etc,.
(iv) For preservation of food products: Preservation
of foods, highly perishable foods, produce ice creams,
beverages, cold water, diary products etc.
(v) For research work: For research under low
temperature application, cryogenics study, rocket,
fuels, synthetic rubber and oil factory.
(vi) For computer functioning: Maintaining low
temperature in computer environments.
5.1.3 Important elements of a refrigeration system:
(i) A low temperature thermal sink
(ii) A means of extracting energy from the sink, raising
the temperature level of this energy and delivering
it to a heat receiver.
(iii) A receiver to which heat will be transferred from
the high temperature high pressure refrigerant
(iv) Means of reducing of pressure and temperature of the
refrigerant as it returns from the receiver to the sink.
 Refrigeration 5.3

5.1.4 Types of Mechanical Refrigeration system

The important refrigeration systems are

(i) Vapour compression refrigeration system

(ii) Vapour absorption refrigeration system
(iii) Ice refrigeration system
(iv) Air refrigeration system
(v) Special refrigeration systems.
(a) Thermoelectric refrigeration system

(b) Adsorption refrigeration system

(c) Cascade refrigeration system

(d) Vortex tube refrigeration system

5.1.5 Unit of Refrigeration: (Ton of Refrigeration)

The unit used in the field of refrigeration is Ton of
refrigeration.
One ton of refrigeration is defined as heat removed
from 1000 kg of water at 0C to make (1000 kg) 1 ton of
ice at 0C within 24 hours.
Heat removal rate is one ton of refrigeration.
h fg  Latent heat of the fusion = 301.5 kJ/kg. (It can
be taken from steam table)
1000 kg  301.5 kJ /kg
1 ton of refrigeration 1 TR 
24  3600 sec

kg  kJ kJ
1 TR    kW
sec  kg sec

1 TR  3.4892 kW

So, 1 TR  Heat removal rate of 3.49 kW or 210

kJ/min or 50 kcal/min.
5.4 Thermal Engineering - I

(1 to n of w ater)
w a ter
1 00 0 k g of b eco m e
(1 to n)
o ice
w a te r a t 0 C 1 00 0 k g of ic e
Q out Q out o
at 0 C

Q out
Fig 5 .1 Tim e duratio n : 24 ho urs

For problems, take C p w ater  C pw  4.187 kJ/kg K

C p ic e  2.09 kJ/kg K

1 TR  3.5 kW

Problem 5.1: 2000 kg of water at 30C is cooled into ice at

 20C and 6 hours. Determine heat removal rate in kW and
in TR. Take latent heat of ice as 334 kJ/kg.

Solution: (m w  mass in kg/sec)
Total Q remo ved  Q R water  Q R water to ice  Q R ice

1. Q removed from water at 30 C to make it 0C


Q R w ater  m w C pw T

 2000  4.187 30  0

}
6  3600

 11.631 k W

2. Q removed to make water at 0C to ice at 0C

hfg  Latent heat  334 kJ/kg

Q removed  m w  hfg
 Refrigeration 5.5

2000
  334
6  3600 W a ter a t
o
30 C
 30.9259 kW
Q out
3. Q removed to make ice from (1 ) Q re m o v e d = Q R w a te r
0C to  20 C: QR ice

Q R ice  m ice C p ice Tice W a ter a t
o
0 C
2000  2.09  0   20 Q out
 (2 )
6  3600 Q re m o v e d = L ate n t
he a t
 3.8704 kW
ice a t
ice o
0 C
Total heat removed
 Q R water  Q R water to ice  Q R ice Q out
(3 ) Q = Q
re m o v e d R ic e
 11.631  30.9259  3.8704
ice ice a t
Q R  46.4273 kW o
a t-2 0 C
o
-2 0 C

Tonne of Refrigeration
QR 46.4273
TR    13.265
3.5 3.5
. .
[ . 1 TR  3.5 kW]

TR  13.265 TR

Problem 5.2: 5000 kg of water at 20C is converted into ice

at  30C in 12 hrs. Determine heat removal rate in kW and
in TR. Latent heat of freezing of ice 335 kJ/kg.

Solution:
Q R  QR water  Q R water to ice  QR ice

 m w [ C p wTw  h fg  C p ice Tic e 
5.6 Thermal Engineering - I

5000

12  3600

[ 4.187 20  0  335  2.09 0   20]

 53.303 kW

QR . .
TR   15.229 [ . 1 TR  3.5 kW]
3.5

Tonnes of refrigeration TR  15.229 TR

5.2 AIR REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

An air refrigeration system is a simple refrigeration
cycle where in the working fluid is air. It has relatively
low coefficient of performance despite its high operating
costs. Hence, the usage of air refrigeration system has been
predominantly limited to aircraft refrigeration system
due to its low weight and the availability of cabin air as
per the necessity. The notable feature about this system is
that the refrigerant remains in gaseous state throughout
the cycle.
It can be primarily divided into:
 Closed system - It is also known as dense air
refrigeration system. In this system, the
refrigerating air is contained within the
components of the system at all times. It usually
operates in pressures exceeding the atmospheric
pressure.
 Open system - In this system, the air is not
circulated repeatedly within the system. Cooled air
from the turbine directly comes in contact with
 Refrigeration 5.7

the substances to be cooled, and is released into

the atmosphere. Hence, the operating pressure is
limited to the pressure inside the refrigerator.
Consequently, an open cycle air refrigerating
system offers low COP with high operating costs.

Closed cycle Open cycle

Can operate at high Limited to atmospheric
pressure. pressures.
Moisture is eliminated. Moisture may choke the
valves present in the
system.
The size of the compressor The size of compressor
and expander is reduced due directly depends upon the
to use of dense air. pressure inside the
refrigerator.
No fog is formed due to Fog formation due to
absence of moisture. moisture at the turbine.
Hence a drier is needed.

Based on the principle of operation, an air

refrigeration system can be classified into three types.

5.2.1 AIR REFRIGERATION CYCLES

Refrigeration system is working under the following
1. Reversed carnot cycle
2. Bell-Coleman cycle
3. Aircraft refrigeration cycle

5.3 REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE

Heat is removed from sink at low temperature to
source at high temperature by supplying work input.
5.8 Thermal Engineering - I

COP-Coefficient of Performance
C.O.P means the ratio of the desired effect
(Refrigeration effect) to the work input.
C.O.P for reversed carnot cycle
Heat removed from cold body

Work input per cycle

Refrigeration effect

W

Q2 Q2 T2
  
W Q1  Q2 T1  T2

Reversed carnot cycle will give more C.O.P. But this

cycle is not practically possible. So this cycle C.O.P is used
to rate the other cycles C.O.P.
Pv diagram and TS diagram of Reversed Carnot
Cycle

f e

(a) (b)
Fig . 5.3

Air is the working fluid in the reversed carnot cycle.

So it is called air refrigerator.
 Refrigeration 5.9

This cycle is used to find the maximum C.O.P. for

given temperatures.

From the T-S diagram

Heat abstracted from the cold body  A rea dcfe  T 2  cd

Workdone per cycle  Area bcda  T1  T2 cd

Coefficient of performance, C.O.P

Heat extracte d from the cold body


Workdone per cycle

T2  cd T2
 
T1  T2 cd T1  T2

A Carnot cycle can run either as a refrigerating

machine, or a heat pump or as a heat engine.

(i) As a refrigerating machine

C.O.P ref  H o t b od y
R o om T 1
S ource
Heat extracted from cold bo dy Q 1 = H ea t

Wo rkdone per cycle sup plie d
H e at W
T2 p um p

T1  T2 Fig . 5.4
Q2

C o ld bo dy T 2
(ii) As a Heat engine
S ink
a tm osph ere
W ork obtained/cycle
C.O.P heat engine 
Heat supplied/cycle

T 1  T 2  cd T1  T2
 
T1  ba T1
. .
 . cd  ba
5.10 Thermal Engineering - I

(iii) As a Heat Pump

If the desired effect is heat supplied to hot body,
then the device is called heat pump.

Desired effect
The C.O.P of heat pump 
Work input

Q 1 Heat supplied 

W

Q1

Q 1  Q2

Q1 T1 T2
C.O.P   1
Q1  Q 2 T1  T2 T1  T2

So COP of heat pump is always greater than COP of

refrigerator working on reversed carnot cycle between same
temperature limits T1 and T 2 by unity (1).

Problem 5.3: A/C room is to be maintained at 20C. The

atmospheric temperature is at 45C. The power given to the
compressor is 3 kW. Determine the ton of refrigeration.

Solution:
T2
C.O.P 
T1  T2

293

318  293

 11.72
 Refrigeration 5.11

Q2 T1
Also C.O.P 
W = 45+273 = 318 K

Heat remo ved

 Q1
Wo rk input

Q2 W = 3 KW
11.72  R ef
3

Q 2  3  11.72
Q2
 35.16 kW

35.16 T2
Q2   10.045 TR = 20+273 = 293 K
3.5

Heat removal rate  10.045 TR

Problem 5.4: A carnot refrigerator requires 2 kW per ton of

refrigeration to maintain a space at  40C. Determine 1. COP
of carnot refrigerator. 2. Temperature of the hot body. 3. The
heat delivered and COP when this device is used as heat pump.

Solution:
T2   40  273  233 K

Work input = Power required = 2 kW

Refrigeration effect = 1 Ton of
T 1 = 3 66 .14 3
refrigeration = 3.5 kW
Refrigeration effect Q1
C.O.P 
Work input H e at
pum p W
3.5 D e vice
  1.75
2
Q2
T2
But C.O.P for carnot cycle  T 2 = 2 33
T1  T2
5.12 Thermal Engineering - I

233
1.75 
T 1  233

233
T 1  233   133.14
1.75

T 1  366.143  K

Q1  Q2  W

Q 2  Refrigeration effect  3.5 kW

W  Power required  2 kW

Q 1  3.5  2  5.5 kW

Q1 5.5
C.O.P of heat pump    2.75
W 2
Note:
C.O.P of heat pump (2.75) = 1 + C.O.P of Refrigerator (1.75).
Problem 5.5: Find the least power to produce 400 kg of ice
per hour at  10C from feed water at 20C. Assume specific
heat of ice as 2.09 kJ/kg-K and latent heat 334 kJ/kg.

Solution:
T1
Least Power means more COP. 2 0 + 27 3 = 2 9 3 K
More COP means it is reversed Q1
carnot cycle.
W
h fg  334 kJ/kg Ref

Mass of ice produced per hour Q2

 
m w  m ice  400 kg/hr T2
-1 0 + 2 7 3 = 2 6 3 K
 Refrigeration 5.13

400
  0.1111 kg/sec
1  3600

T2 263
C.O.P    8.767
T1  T2 293  263

To Find Least Power

Net refrigeration effect Q 2

C.O.P  
W W

Q 2  Q removed from water at 20C to make it ice at

 10C

Q 2  m w [ Q R water  QR water to ice  Q R ice ]

400
 [ C pw Tw  hfg  C p ic e Tic e ]
1  3600

400
 [ 4.187  20  0  334  2.09 0   10 ] 48.74 kW
3600

Q2 48.74
Least power W    5.56 kW
C.O.P 8.767

Relative COP

Relative COP is the ratio of actual COP to the

Ac tual COP
carnot COP. Relative COP 
Carnot COP

Q2 QR Q rejected or Q remo ved

Actual COP   
W W Power input

T2
Carnot COP 
T1  T2
5.14 Thermal Engineering - I

Problem 5.6: An A/C room is to be maintained at 20C and

the atmospheric temperature is 40C. The power required to
run the compressor is 5 kW. Determine capacity of the
refrigerator when relative COP is 50%.

Solution:
Capacity of refrigerator is given by ton of
refrigeration.

T2 293
Carnot C OP  
T1  T2 313  293

 14.65

Actual COP  Carno t COP  Relative COP

 14.65  0.5 T1
= 40+27 3=313K
 7.325 Q1

Q2
Also Ac tual COP  W
R ef
W =5K W

Q 2  Actual COP  W Q2

T2
 7.325  5 = 20+27 3 = 293K

 36.625 kW

Capacity of refrigerator  Q 2 in TR

36.625 kW

3.5 kW

 10.46 TR

Problem 5.7: The capacity of the refrigerator working on

reversed Carnot cycle is 280 tonnes when operating between
 10C and 25C. Determine (i) quantity of ice produced within
 Refrigeration 5.15

24 hours when water is supplied at 20C (ii) Minimum power

required. Latent heat of ice is 335 kJ/kg

Solution:
(i) Heat removed from water at 25C to make it ice
at  10C per kg of water

Q 2  [Q R Water  Q R  QR ice]
Water to rice

 [C P T w  h fg  C P Tice ]
w ice

 [4.187 20  0  335  2.09 0   10]

Q 2  439 kJ/kg.
Heat extracting capacity of refrigerator  280 tonnes.
1 tonne  3.5 kW

 Heat extracting capacity  280  3.5  980 kW.

Quantity of ice produced in 24 hours
980  24  60  60
M ice   192874 kgs or 193 tonnes .
439

(ii) Minimum power required:

T1  25  273  298 K; T2   10  273  263 K

T2 263
C.O.P    7.51
T1  T2 298  263

Heat extracting capacity

C.O.P 
Power required

Heat extracting capacity

Power required 
C.O.P

980
  130.49 kW
7.51
5.16 Thermal Engineering - I

Problem 5.8: A cold storage plant is required to store 20

tonnes of food. The temperature of the food when supplied is
25C; storage temperature of food is  8C. Specific heat of food
above freezing point is 2.93 kJ/kgC. Specific heat of food
below freezing point  1.25 kJ/kgC; Freezing point of food is
 3C. Latent heat of food is 232 kJ/kg. If the cooling is
achieved with in 8 hrs; find (i) Capacity of the refrigeration
1
plant (ii) C.O.P of Carnot cycle (iii) If actual C.O.P is of
5th
the Carnot C.O.P, find out the power required to run the plant.

Solution:
(i) Heat removed from 1 kg of food

Q R  mf [Q R above  Q R Freeze  Q below ]

 1 [CP above T  H fg  C P below T]

 1 [2.93 25   3  232  1.25  3    8]

Q 4  320 kJ/kg

Heat removed by the plant

Q R  20  1000 320  20  1000

   222.22 kJ/sec
8  60  60 8  3600

 222.22 kW

Capacity of Refrigeration plant

Heat removed by plant 222.25

   63.49 to nnes or TR
3.5 3.5

(ii) COP of Carnot Cycle

T2  8  273 265
C.O.P     8.03 .
T 1  T2 25  273   8  273 298  265
 Refrigeration 5.17

(iii) Power required

1 1
Actual COP   COP   8.03  1.606
5 5

Refrigeration or Heat rem oved 222.22

Actual C.O.P  
Work done/min Power W

222.22
Power required W   138.49 kJ/sec or kW
1.606

5.4 BELL-COLEMAN CYCLE

If the isothermal processes in carnot cycle is replaced
by constant pressure processes, then the cycle is called
Bell-coleman cycle.

Process 1-2
Air is compressed isentropically during first part of
the stroke. During the remainder stroke, the compressed
air (at high temperature) is forced into cooler at constant
pressure.

Process 2-3
The cooler cools the air at constant pressure.

Process 3-4
The cold air is now drawn into expansion cylinder
and expanded isentropically. During isentropic expansion,
the air is further cooled below the refrigerator space
temperature.

Process 4-1
The cold air passes through the refrigerator and
absorbs the heat at constant pressure.
5.18 Thermal Engineering - I

w ate r Closed cycle air-refrigerator

ou t working on Bell - Coleman cycle.
C oo le r
3
2
w ate r
in
H ea t E xc ha ng er
(co oler)
4 Air
3

2
R efrige ra tor 1 C om pres so r
E xp an de r
C ou pling
A ir
A ir E le ctric
B ea rin g m o to r
Fig. 5.5 B ea rin g

Conclusion
The heat is absorbed from refrigerator and rejected
into the circulating water of cooler. So the refrigerator is
maintained at low temperature.
The bell-coleman cycle consists of

1-2 isentropic compression process [ Pv  C ]

2-3 constant pressure cooling

process [ P  C ]
T P2
2
3-4 isentropic expansion g =c
pv
r.
t .p

P1
process [ Pv  C ]
ns
Co

3 g =c
pv
4-1 constant pressure heat
r.
absorbing process [ P  C ] s t .p 1
on
C

4 S
Fig. 5.6
 Refrigeration 5.19

T4
C.O.P isentropic process 
T3  T4

But in actual practice, perfect isentropic process is not

possible. So the process will be polytropic process.
Pvn  C.

T4
C.O.P polytropic process 
 n 1
 n  1     [ T3  T4 ]
  
BELL-COLEMAN CYCLE

B ell C olem en C ycle

P C onsta nt pressure co olin g
3 2 Isentro pic
Isentro pic
expansion P V =c g Q out co m p res sion pv g= c
(or) (or)
P olytro pic P olytro pic
n
n
ex pansion (P V =c) co m p res sion (P V =c)

C ons ta nt 4 1
press ure Q ab so rbe d = C p(T 1 -T 4 )
hea t absorp tion V
Fig. 5.7

Polytropic Law
n1 n1 n1
T2  P2  n T3  P3  n  P2  n
  ;    
T1 P
 1
T4 P
 4
P
 1
Heat absorbed from refrigerator (cold chamber) per kg
of air  CpT1  T4
Heat rejected in the cooling tower per kg of air
 CpT 2  T 3
5.20 Thermal Engineering - I

n
Work done  [ P 2v2  P 1v1  P 3v3  P 4v4 ]
n1

n
 R [ T 2  T 1  T 3  T4 ]
n1

Hea t absorbe d
C.O.P 
W ork

Problem 5.9: A refrigerator working on Bell-coleman cycle

operates between pressure limits of 1.05 bar and 8.5 bar. Air
is drawn from the cold chamber (refrigerator) at 10C. Air
coming out of compressor is cooled to 30C before entering the
expansion cylinder. Expansion and compression follow the law
Pv1.35  constant. Determine theoretical C.O.P. of the system.
(JNTU - May/June 2009)

Solution:
P 1  1.05 bar; P 2  8.5 bar; T1  10  273  283 K

T 3  30  273  303 K ; Pv 1.3  C

Consider Polytropic Compression 1-2

n1
P
T1  P1  n 3 C oo ling 2
  ch am ber
T2 P
 2
pv
1.
35
ex

0.35
=c

co
pa

 1.05  1.35 m
ns

pr
  0.58147 es
io n


 8.5 
s io
C old n
4 ch am ber 1v
T1 283
T2  
0.58147 0.58147

 486.69 K
 Refrigeration 5.21

Consider Polytropic Expansion 3-4

n1
T4  P1  n
   0.58147
T3 P
 2
T 4  T 30.58147 

 3030.58147 

 176.185 K

Q a -Heat (absorbed) extracted from cold chamber

(refrigerator) per kg of air.

Q a  C p T 1  T 4 

 1.005 283  176.185   107.348 kJ/kg

Q r-Heat rejected in the cooling chamber per kg of air.

 C p T2  T3  1.005486.69  303  184.61 kJ/kg

Since the compression and expansion are not

isentropic, the difference between heat rejected and heat
absorbed is not equal to work done. So work done is found
as follows for polytropic process.

Work done
T1  283 K; T 2  486.69 K; T3  303 K; T 4  176.185 K

n
W R [ T 2  T1  T 3  T 4 ]
n1
1.35
  0.287 [ 486.69  283  303  176.185  ]
0.35
 85.1 kJ/kg
Heat absorbed 107.348
C.O.P    1.261
Work done 85.1
5.22 Thermal Engineering - I

Problem 5.10: A refrigerator of 6 ton capacity working on

Bell-coleman cycle has an upper limit of pressure of 5 bar. The
pressure and temperature at the start of the compression are 1
bar and 15C respectively. The compressed air is cooled at a
constant pressure to a temperature of 40C enters the expansion
cylinder. Assuming both expansion and compression processes to be
isentropic with   1.4, calculate (i) C.O.P. (ii) Quantity of air in
circulation per minute. (iii) Piston displacement of compressor and
expander. (iv) Bore of compressor and expansion cylinders. The
refrigerating unit runs at 240 r.p.m. and is double acting. Stroke
length = 250 mm. (v) Power required to drive the unit. For air
take   1.4 and Cp  1.005 kJ/kg K.

Solution:
Capacity  6T.R  6  3.5  21 kW
 Refrigerating effe ct produced by the refrigeration.

P 2  P 3  5 bar; P 1  P 4  1 bar
T 1  15  273  288 K; T3  40  273  313 K

Isentropic Compression Process 1-2

1 0.4 P (b ar)
T2  P2    5  1.4 3 P 2= P 3= 5b ar
   2

T1 P 1
C o oling cha m be r
 1 
P v =c

 1.58382

P v =c
Ex

Co
pa

mp
nsi

re s

T2  1.58382  T 1
on

so
r
cyl
in d

 1.58382  288
er

P 1= P 4= 1 bar
 456.14 K 4 C o ld ch am b er(refrige rator)1

v(m 3 )
T2  456.14 K volum e
 Refrigeration 5.23

Isentropic Expansion Process 3-4

1 1
T4  P4    P1  
   
T3 P P
 3  2
0.4
1  1.4
   0.6314
5
T 4  0.6314  T 3  0.6314  313

 197.624 K

To Find C.O.P
Since both compression and expansion are isentropic,

T4 197.624
C.O.P isentropic    1.7128
T3  T4 313  197.624 

(ii) To Find Mass of Air in Circulation: m a
R.E = Refrigerating Effect
R.E per kg of air  C pT 1  T 4
 1.005 288  197.624 

 90.828 kJ/kg

R.E. produced by the refrigerator

 C apacity of refrigerator
 6  3.5  21 kW

Capacity of the refrigerator  m a  R.E. per kg of air

where m a  Mass of air in circulation.

 Capacity of refrigerator 21 kJ
ma  
R.E. per kg of air 90.828 sec  kJ/kg

m a  0.2312 kg/sec
5.24 Thermal Engineering - I

(iii)
 To Find Piston Displacement of Compressor
V 

V  Volume of air in circulation in m 3/sec

 Volume corresponding to point 1 i.e. V 1.
 
P 1V 1  maRT1 [P 1 in kPa ; 1 bar  1  10 2 kPa]

 m RT 1
V1 
P1

0.2312  0.287  288


1  10 2

 0.1911 m 3/sec

(iv) To Find Dia. of Compressor Cylinder


V1
V s  Swept volume per stroke V s for double
N
2
60
acting compressor.

N  R.P.M.

V s  Swept volume per stroke

0.1911  60 m 3  sec
  0.023887 m 3
2  240 sec

V s  0.023887 m 3


Also, V s   d 2c  L
4

where L  Stroke length

d c  dia. of compressor cylinder

 Refrigeration 5.25

 2
V s  0.023887  d  0.25
4 c

d 2c  0.12165

d c  0.3488 m

To Find Diameter of Expander Cylinder


V 4  Volume of air in circulation in m 3/sec .

= Volume corresponding to point 4 is V4.
 
P 4V 4  maRT4

 m aR T4 0.2312  0.287  197.624
V4  
P4 1  10 2

 0.13113 m 3/sec

V4
V s  Swept volume per stroke  for double
2  N /60
acting expander.

0.13113  60

2  240

 0.01639 m 3/sec

Vs   d2e  L
4

0.01639   d2e  0.25
4
where de  dia. of expander cylinder.

d 2e  0.08347

d e  0.2889 m
5.26 Thermal Engineering - I

(v) To Find the Power Required to Run the Unit

R.E
C.O.P 
W

6  3.5
1.7128 
W

where W  Power required

6  3.5
W  12.26 kW
1.7128

Power required  12.26 k W

Problem 5.11: An air refrigerator working on Bell-coleman

cycle takes air into the compressor at 1 bar and  7C and it
is compressed isentropically to 5.5 bar and it is further cooled
to 18C at the same pressure. It is then expanded into the
refrigerating chamber. Find the C.O.P. of the system if (a) the
expansion is isentropic, (b) the expansion follows the law
Pv1.25  constant. Take   1.4 and Cp  1.005 kJ/kg K for air.

Solution:

T 1   7  273  266 K

T 3  18  273  291 K

(a) If both the Compression and Expansion are

Isentropic
P
Pv  Constant P 2 =P 3 3 C ooling 2
5.5bar cham be r
Pv

1
1.
4

0.4
Ex

=c

Co
T2  P2  
pa

 5.5  1.4 m
ns

  pr
  es
io n

T1 P  1  s io
 1 P 1 =P 4 1 bar C old n
4 cham be r 1
V
 1.6275
 Refrigeration 5.27

T 2  1.6275  266  432.93 K

T 2  432.93 K

1 1 0.4

T4  P4    P1    1  1.4
       0.6144
T3  P 3  P
 2  5.5 

T 4  0.6144  T 3  0.6144  291  178.797 K

T4 178.797
C.O.P    1.594
T3  T4 291  178.797 

T1 266
(or) C.O.P    1.594
T2  T1 432.93  266

So, C.O.P.  1.594

(b) If the Compression is Isentropic and Expansion

is Polytropic
P
n1 0.25 3 2
T4  P4  n  1  1.25

P v =c
     0.7111
T3 P  5.5 
 3

T4  0.7111  291  207 K P v 1.25=c

1
4 O 4 v
Work done

    n 
 RT2  T 1    RT 3  T 4 
   1   n  1 

 1.4 
  0.287  433  266 
 0.4 

 1.25 
   0.287 291  207 
 0.25 
5.28 Thermal Engineering - I

Qabsorbed from the Cold Chamber: Process 4-1

Q absorbed  C pT 1  T 4

 1.005266  207

 59.3 kJ/kg

Q absorbed 59.3
C.O.P    1.259
W 47.11

So, C.O.P  1.259

Problem 5.12: An air refrigerator working on Bell-coleman

cycle has a pressure limits of 1 bar and 4 bar. The temperature
of air entering the compressor is 15C and entering the
expansion cylinder is 30C. The compression follows the law
Pv1.35  C. The expansion follows the law Pv1.25  C. Take for air
Cp  1.005 kJ/kg K; Cv  0.718 kJ/kg K; R  0.287 kJ/kg K.
Find (i) C.O.P (ii) If mass flow rate of air is 0.417 kg/sec,
find the refrigeration capacity of the system.

Solution:
P 1  1 bar; P 2  4 bar ;

T 1  15  273  288 K ;

T 3  30  273  303 K ;

To Find T 2
n1  1
T2  P2  n1
 
T1 P
 1
0.35
 4  1.35
   1.4325
1
 Refrigeration 5.29

T2  1.4325  288  412.56 K

T2  412.56 K

To Find T 4
n2  1 n2  1
0.25
T4  P4  n2  P1  n2  1  1.25
     
T3  P 3  P
 2 4
 0.75785

T 4  0.75785  303  229.631 K

T 4  229.631 K

Heat Absorbed from the Refrigerator (Cold Chamber)

per kg of air (Refrigeration Effect/kg of air)
R.E./kg of air  C pT 1  T 4  1.005 288  229.631 

 58.661 kJ/kg

 n1   n2 
Work done   RT2  T1    RT 3  T 4 
n  n 
 1 1   2 1 
 1.35 
  0.287 412.56  288 
 0.35 
 1.25 
  0.287 303  229.631  
 0.25 
 137.89  105.285

 32.6055 kJ /kg

R.E/kg of air 58.661

C.O.P    1.799
W 32.6055

Refrigeration Capacity

R.E in kW = R.E/kg of air  m
5.30 Thermal Engineering - I


where m  Mass of air in circulation in kg/sec.

R.E in kW  58.661  0.417  24.46 kW

24.46
R.E in TR   6.989 ~
 7
3.5

Capacity  7 tons of Refrigeration

Problem 5.13: The capacity of refrigerator working on

Bell-coleman cycle is 50 tons of refrigeration. The temperature
of air entering the compressor is 8C. and the temperature
before entering into expander is 27C.
Find (a) Actual C.O.P of cycle, (b) Power required to run the
compressor.
The mass of the air circulated in the refrigerator is 1.67 kg/sec.
The law of compression and expansion is Pv1.3  C. Assume
  1.4; Cp  1.005 kJ/kg K for air.

Solution:
To Find T 4
Heat removed from the cold chamber per kg of air =
R.E/kg of air.

R.E in kW  50  3.5  175 kW


R.E in kW  m  R.E/kg of air

175  1.67  R.E/kg of air

R.E/kg of air  104.79 kJ/kg

But R.E/kg of air  C pT1  T 4 [T 1  8  273  281 K]

104.79  1.005 281  T 4 [T3  27  273  300 K]

T 4  176.731 K
 Refrigeration 5.31

To Find T 2
n1 n1
T3  P3  n  P2  n
   
T4 P P
 4  1
n 1.3
P2  T3  n  1  300  0.3
     9.905
P1 T
 4  176.731 
P
3 2
n1
T2  P2  n 1.3
 P v =c
T1 P

 1
0.3 C old 1
 9.905  1.3  1.6975 4 cham ber
v

T2  1.6975  281  476.996 K

To Find Power
n
W  Work done  R [ T2  T1  T3  T4 ]
n1

1.3
  0.287 [ 476.996  281
0.3
 300  176.731  ]

 90.45 kJ/kg of air


Power  m  W  1.67  90.45  151 kW

To Find C.O.P
R.E in kW 175
C.O.P    1.159 (or)
W in kW 151
R.E/kg o f air 104.79
C.O.P    1.159
W /kg of air 90.45
5.32 Thermal Engineering - I

Problem 5.14: An air refrigerator working on reversed joule

cycle works between pressure of 1 bar and 8 bar. The
temperature of the air entering the compressor is 7C and after
compression the air is cooled to 27C before entering the
expansion cylinder. Expansion and compression follow the law
PV1.25  constant. Determine theoritical COP of machine. Take
Cp  1 kJ/kgK, Cv  0.7 kJ/kgK (JNTU - Dec 2014)

Solution:
P 1  1 bar, T 1  7 C  280 K
P
P 2  8 bar, T 3  27 C  300 K 3 2

For polytropic compression

n1
T1  P1  n
 
T2 P 4
1
 2
V
0.25
280  1  1.25
   T2  424.40 K
T2 8
For polytropic expansion
n1 n1
T4  P4  n  P1  n
   
T3 P P
 3  2
0.25
T4  1  1.25
   T4  197.926 K
300  8 
 Heat Absorbe d 
 
 or , Q a  C p T 1  T 4
 
 R. E/kg of air 

1 424.40  197.926   226.474 kJ/kg

 Refrigeration 5.33

n
Work Done, w  R [T2  T1  T3  T4]
n1

1.25
  0.287 [924.40  280  300  197.926 ]
0.25
 60.73 kJ /kg
Qa 226.474
COP  
w 60.73
COP theo  3.7287

Problem 5.15: In a Bell - Coleman refrigerator, air is taken

in at 1 bar and a temperature of  8C. The compression ratio
is 4. The expansion and compression follow the law PV1.2 
constant. The air is cooled at the upper pressure to 25C. Find
the MEP of the cycle and the COP. (JNTU Dec 2014)

Given:
V1
Compression ratio  4; PV 1.2  C
V2

T 1   8 C  265 K; P 1  1 bar; T3  25 C  298 K

To find
The MEP of the cycle and COP

Solution:

P 1 V n1  P 2 V n2

n
P2  V1 
 
P1
 V2 

P 2  1  4 1.2  5.27 bar

For polytropic compression

5.34 Thermal Engineering - I

n1
T2  P2  n
 
T1 P
 1
0.2
T 2  265  5.27  1.2

T 2  349.58 K

For polytropic expansion

n1 P
3 2
T4  P1  n
 
T3 P
 2

co
ex

mp
pa

re
ns
0.2

ss
io n

T4

io n
 1  1.2

298  5.27  1
4
V
T 4  225.74 K V2 VS V1

Q a, Heat Absorbed  C p T 1  T 4

 1.005 265  225.74

 39.45 kJ/kg

n
WorkDone, W  R [T2  T1]  T3  T4]
n1

1.2
  0.287 [349.58  265  298  225.74 ]
0.12

 21.22 kJ /kg

He at Absorbed 39.45
COP    1.86
Work done 21.22

Work Done 21.22

Mean effective pressure  
Stroke volume V 1  V 2
 Refrigeration 5.35

For unit mass, m  1

P 1 V 1  m RT1

RT 1 0.287  265
V1    0.76 m 3/kg
P1 1  10 2

V1
 4 compression ratio
V2

V 2  0.76 /4  0.19 m 3/kg

21.22
Mean Effective pressure P m   37.23 kNm  2
0.76  0.19

 COP  1.86

MEP  37.23 kNm 2

Problem 5.16: A dense air refrigerator is used for absorbing

2000 kJ/min of heat. The pressure limits for compressor and
expander are 16 bar and 4 bar. Compressor sucks in air at
40C and the temperature of air entering expander cylinder is
20C. Mechanical efficiency of the system is 82%. If the
compressor and expander are double acting. Find
(i) Power required to run the system.
(ii) Bore of compressor and expander.
(iii) Ice tonnage at 0C/24 hours.
Speed of compressor is 250 rpm and stroke of compressor and
expander is 15 cm. Assume isentropic compression and
expansion. (JNTU-June/July 2014)

Solution:
T 1  40  C  313 K, T 3  20 C  293 K

P 1  4 ba r; P 2  16 bar
5.36 Thermal Engineering - I

mech  0.82 ; y  2 P
1 6 bar 3 2

L  0.15 m

co
ex

mp
pa

re
(1-2) Isentropic compression

ns

ss
io n

io n
1
4 bar 1
T2  P2   4
 
T1 P V
 1
0.4
 16  1.4
T2     313  465.11 K
 4 
(3-4) Isentropic expansion

1
T4  16  
 
T3  4 
0.4
 4  1.4
T4     293  197.17 K
 16 
Refrigerating effect/kg  C p T1  T4

 1.005 313  197.17

 116.40 kJ/kg

 R.E 2000
Mass of air/minute, m    17.18 kg/min
R.E/kg 116.40


Compressor work W com p  mR T2  T1
1

1.4
  17.18  0.287 465.11  313
0.4

 2625 kJ /m in
 Refrigeration 5.37


Expander work W exp  mR T3  T4
1

1.4
  17.18  0.287 293  197.17 
0.4

 1653.76 kJ /m in

Network done W  2625  1653.76  971.23 kJ/min

971.23
Power required P  16.18 kW
60

P 16.18
Actual power    19.73 kW
m ech 0.82

Bore of compressor

 m RT 1 17.18  0.287  313
V1  
P1 4  10 2

 3.85 m 3/min

3.85
V 1 per stroke   7.7  10  3 m3
2  250 . .
[ . 2 for double acting]
 2
V1  d l
4 c

 2 15
7.7  10  3  d 
4 c 100

dc  0.255 m  255 mm

Bore of expander

 m RT 4 17.18  0.287  197.17
V4  
P4 4  10 2

 2.43 m 3/min
5.38 Thermal Engineering - I

2.43
V 4 per stroke   4.86  10 3 m 3
2  250

 2
V4  d l
4 e

 2 15
4.86  10  3  d 
4 e 100
de  0.203 m  203 mm

To find Ice tonnage

Heat to be removed from water at 0 C to ice at 0 C

Refrigeration effect in kJ/24 hours  R.E kJ/min  60  24

 2880000 kJ/day

RE / day
Ice produced 
C p of ice

2880000

335

 8597.01 kg

 8.597 tonnes
 Refrigeration 5.39

5.5 VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION

A simple vapour compression refrigeration system is
shown in Fig. 5.8.

M aintained
Atm osphere
at
H igh SO U RC E
SO U RC E tem perature

3 2
C ON D EN SER Q1

2
1
3
C om pressor

R e frig erato r
W
Throttling
D evice W ork
1 input W = h 2 - h1
4
EVAP OR ATO R
Q 2 = R .E
4
= h1 - h4

Space to be M aintained
cooled at
low SIN K
SIN K
tem perature
Fig. 5.8

The vapour compression cycle consists of following

processes.
Process 1-2 Isentropic compression
The vapour at low temperature and pressure (state 1)
enters the compressor. Then it is compressed isentropically to
state 2.

Work input  W  h 2  h 1 in kJ/kg

5.40 Thermal Engineering - I

Process 2-3 Condensation

Compressed vapour (high pressure and temperature)
is passing through condenser where it is condensed into
liquid. While condensing into liquid, it rejects heat to the
atmosphere. But the temperature and pressure remains
same.
Q rejected in condenser  h2  h3 in kJ/kg.

Process 3-4 Throttling

The high temperature and high pressure liquid is
passing through throttling device (Expansion valve or
capillary tube) and throttled down to low pressure and low
temperature liquid.
Here h 3  h 4.

Process 4-1 Evaporation

The low pressure and low temperature liquid is now
passing through evaporator. In the evaporator, the liquid
absorbs heat (Extracts heat) from the room or space to be
cooled and the liquid becomes vapour. The low pressure
and low temperature vapour again goes to compressor and
the cycle repeats. This process gives the desired effect. i.e.,
Refrigerating effect is obtained by this process.
So, R.E  h 1  h 4 in kJ/kg T C o nsta nt pre ssure he at rejection
o r C ond ensa tion

R.E h 1  h 4 3 2
C.O.P  
W h2  h1
co m pressio n
Isen tro pic
( E x p o t t li n g
Th r


a n s io

Q rejected in kW  m h2  h3

n)

4 1
Q extracted in kW  R.E in kW
s
 Fig. 5.9
 m h1  h4
 Refrigeration 5.41


Power W in kW  m h 2  h 1

where m  Mass flow rate of refrigerant in kg/sec.

The Following Formulae can be used to Find the

Compressor Dimensions
V s  Swept Volume or Stroke Volume

 2 mv1
 d L for single acting
4 N
 vol  no . of cylinders
60

m v1
 for double acting
N
 vol  2  no. of cylinders
60

where v1  specific volume m 3/kg

N  r.p.m

  v1  
vol  Volumetric efficiency  1  K    1
v
 2 
vc
where K  Clearance ratio 
vs

vc  Clearance volume; vs  Swept volume

If K is not given, K  0, then vol  1.

d  dia. of cylinder o r bo re

L  stroke length
5.42 Thermal Engineering - I

5.5.1 Different Conditions of the Vapour

1. Beginning of compression is dry and end of compression
is super heated

F ig. 5.10

2. End of compression is dry and Beginning of compression

is wet

Fig. 5.11
 Refrigeration 5.43

3. End of compression is wet and Beginning of compression

is also wet.

P
T
3 P2= P3 2 3 P =C 2

h= c s= c
s= c

h 3 =h 4

P 1= P 4 P =C
f
4 1 4 1
g
f
g h S

F ig. 5.12

4. Beginning of compression is wet; End is superheated.

p
t 2
2O
3 3
2

4 1 f 4 1
g
f g
h s
Fig. 5.13
5.44 Thermal Engineering - I

5. Beginning of compression is superheated; [Also end of

compression is superheated]

2
p
t
2 O

P3 = P2 = P2 3
3 O
2 O
2

4 1 1
O 4 1 O

f g

h s
Fig. 5.14

Advantages of vapour compression Refrigeration

system
(i) It has smaller size for given capacity of
refrigeration.

(ii) It has less running cost.

(iii) It can be employed over a large range of

temperatures.

Disadvantages
(i) Leakage cannot be detected easily.

(ii) Mechanical efficiency is low.

Problem 5.17: A refrigerator using Ammonia works between

the temperatures  10C and 25C. The gas is dry at the end
of compression and there is no undercooling of liquid. Calculate
the theoretical C.O.P of the cycle.
 Refrigeration 5.45

The properties of ammonia are given below:

Temperature Liquid heat Latent heat Liquid entropy

C hf kJ/kg hfg kJ/kg sf kJ/kg K
25 (298 K) 100.5 1231 0.348
 10 (263 K)  33.58 1348.2  0.1382

h fg
Note: sfg 
T

Solution:

P T

3 3 2
2

T 1= 2 6 3
4 1 4 1 g

h S

R .E
Theoretical C.O.P 
W

where R.E  Refrigerating effect  h1  h4

W  h2  h1

To Find h2
h 2  h g at 298 K

h g  h f  hfg  100.5  1231  1331.5 kJ/kg

h 2  1331.5 kJ/kg
5.46 Thermal Engineering - I

To Find h1
h 1  h f  x1h fg at 263 K from table.

  33.58  x 11348.2 

After finding x1, we can calculate h 1

s2  sg at 298 K

hfg 1231
sg  sf   0.348   4.479
T 298

s2  4.479 kJ/kg K

s2  s1
. .
[ . Isentropic compression]
hfg
s1  4.479  sf  x1 at 263 K
T

1348.2
4.479   0.1382  x1 
263

x 1  0.9007

So, h 1   33.58  0.9007 1348.2   1180.71

h 1  1180.71 kJ/kg

To Find h4
h4  h3
. .
[ . Throttling process]
h 3  h f at 298 K

 100.5 kJ/kg  h4

h 4  100.5 kJ/kg
 Refrigeration 5.47

R.E h1  h4
C.O.P  
W h2  h1

1180.71  100.5

1331.5  1180.71

 7.164

C.O.P  7.164

Problem 5.18: The pressure in the evaporator of an ammonia

refrigerator is 1.902 bar and the pressure in the condenser is
12.37 bar. The refrigerant is in dry saturated condition at the
entry of the condenser. Calculate the refrigerating effect per unit
mass of refrigerant and the COP.
[Apr/May 2008 -AU] Similar type (JNTU May/June 2009)

Solution:

Fig.

P 1  P 4  1.902 bar, P2  P3  12.37 bar

Refrigerating Effect  h1  h4 kJ /kg

Work input W  h2  h1
5.48 Thermal Engineering - I

RE h1  h4
COP  
W h2  h1

To find h 1, h 2, h 4 from Refrigeration Table, we can

take following

temp C P in bar hf hg sf sg

 20C 1.902 89.78 1420.02 0.3684 5.6244

253 K P1  P4

32C 12.37 332.71 1469.94 1.2350 4.9624

305 K P2  P3

To find h 2
 h 2  h g at P 2  12.37 bar  1469.94 kJ/kg  h2

To find h 1
 s2  sg at P 2  12.37 bar  4.9624 kJ/kgK

s2  s1  4.9624 kJ/kg K

Also s1  sf  x1 sg  sf at P 1  1.902 bar

4.9624  0.3684  x1 5.6244  0.3684

x 1  0.874

h 1  h f  x1 h g  h f at P 1  1.902 bar

 89.78  0.874 20.02  89.78 

h1  1252.40 kJ/kg

To find h 3 and h 4
h 3  h f at high pressure P 3  P 2  12.37 bar

 332.71 kJ/kg
 Refrigeration 5.49

h3  332.71 kJ/kg

During throttling process, h3  h4

h4  332.71 kJ/kg

Refrigerating Effect RE  h 1  h 4  1252.4  332.71

RE  919.69 kJ/kg

RE h1  h4 919.69
COP     4.227
W h2  h1 1469.94  1252.4

COP  4.227

Problem 5.19: Find the theoretical C.O.P for CO2 refrigerator

working between the temperature limit range of
25C and 5 C. The dryness fraction of the CO2 gas during the
suction stroke is 0.6.

Temp. Liquid Vapour Latent heat

hfg kJ/kg
hf sf hg sg
kJ/kg kJ/kg K kJ/kg kJ/kg K

25C 298K 81.23 0.251 202.7 0.6297 121.423

 5C 268K  7.54  0.042 237 0.842 245.4

Solution:

Entropy at (1) = Entropy at (2) [... Isentropic compression]

s1  s2

h fg
s 1  s f  x1 at 268 K
T

245.4
s1   0.042  0.6 
268
5.50 Thermal Engineering - I

 0.5074  s2

hfg
s 2  s f  x2 at 298 K
T

121.423
0.5074  0.251  x2 
298
T
x 2  0.6293
3 2
298K
To Find h1
h 1  h f  x1h fg at 268 K h 3 =h 4
f
s 1 =s 2
  7.54  0.6  245.4 g
268K
4 1
 139.7 kJ/kg s

To Find h2
h 2  h f  x2h fg at 298 K

 81.23  0.6293  121.423

 157.64 kJ/kg

To Find h4
h 4  h3

h 3  h f at 298 K

 81.23  h4

h 4  81.23 kJ/kg

To Find C.O.P
R.E h1  h4
C.O.P  
W h2  h1
 Refrigeration 5.51

139.7  81.23

157.64  139.7

 3.26

C.O.P .  3.26

Problem 5.20: A vapour compression refrigerator works

between the pressure limits of 60 bar and 25 bar. The working
fluid is just dry at the end of compression and there is no
under cooling of the liquid before the expansion valve.
Determine (i) COP of the cycle and (ii) capacity of the
refrigerator if the fluid is at the rate of 5 kg/min.

Pressure Saturation Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Entropy (kJ/kg K)

temperature hf hg sf sg
(bar) (K) Liquid Vapour Liquid Vapour
60 295 151.96 293.29 0.554 1.0332
25 261 56.32 322.58 0.226 1.2464

(Nov/Dec 2011 - AU)

Solution:
P 2  P 3  60 bar P1  P4  25 bar

h1  hf1  x1 hfg

s1  s2

sf1  x1 sfg  sg
1 2

0.226  x1  1.2464  0.226   1.0332

x1  0.791

h 1  h f1  x1 h fg
1

 56.32  0.791  322.58  56.32

5.52 Thermal Engineering - I

h1  266.93 kJ/kg

h 2  293.29 kJ/kg,

h4  h3

h3  hf
S 3 S 4 (S 1 =S 2 )

h 3  151.96 kJ/kg

 h 4  151.96 kJ/kg

h1  h4
COP 
h2  h1
(h f3 =h 4 )
266.93  151.96
COP   4.66
293.29  266.93

Capacity of the refrigerator

Heat extracted (or) refrigerating effect.

 5
 m h1  hf2  266.93  151.96    9.58
60

9.58
COP   2.74 TR
3.49

Problem 5.21: A refrigerant plant using CO2 as a refrigerant

works between 298 K and 268 K. The dryness fraction of
CO2 is 0.8 at entry of compressor. Find out the ice formed per
month if the relative efficiency is 50%. Take that ice is formed
at 0C from water at 10C. The quantity of CO2 circulated is
6 kg/min. Assume Cp for water as 4.187 kJ/kg.K and latent
heat of fusion of ice as 335 kJ/kg.K

Properties of CO2 are given below

 Refrigeration 5.53

Temperature Liquid Heat Latent Heat Entropy of

K kJ/kg kJ/kg Liquid kJ/kg.K
298 81.25 135 0.2513
268  7.53 245.8  0.04187

T
Enthalpy of point 1
3 cond 2
h 1  h f1  x1 h fg
1

com p
  7.53  0.8  245.8 exp

h1  189.1 kJ/kg 1
4 evop
s1  s2 S
S 1 =S 2
sf1  x1 sfg  sf2  x2 sfg
1 2

x2  ?

0.8  245.8 135

 0.04187   0.25134  x2 
268 298

0.6918  0.2513  x 2 0.4533 

x2  0.97

Enthalpy at point 2
h 2  h f2  x2 h fg  81.25  0.97  135
2

h2  212.2 kJ/kg

Refrigerant effect hf  h f3 189.1  81.25

COP   
workdone h2  h1 212.2  189.1

107.85
Theoretical COP   4.668
23.1
5.54 Thermal Engineering - I

Actual COP  0.5  4.668  2.33

107.85
Q removed  RE   6  10.785
60

Actual cooling affect  5.3925 kW

Heat removed to form each kg of ice

 10  4.187  335  377 kJ

5.3925  3600
Ice formed/hr   51.49 kg
377

51.49  24
Ice formed/day   1.23 tonnes
1000

Ice formed per month  1.23  30  33.08 tonnes

Problem 5.22: A water cooler using F12 as refrigerant works

between temperature limit of 26C and 2C. The vapour leaves
the evaporator dry and saturated. Find the C.O.P of the
refrigerator. The properties of F12 are given below.

Temperature Liquid Vapour

C hf sf Cp hg sg Cp
26C 299 K 443.9 4.274 0.997 585 4.75 0.674
2C 275 K 420.6 4.2 0.942 574.5 4.754 0.62

Solution:
To Find h2
Entropy at 1 = Entropy at 2

s 1  s2

s1  sg at 275 K

 4.754 kJ/kg K
 Refrigeration 5.55

s2  4.754 kJ/kg K

T2
s2  s2  C p ln
T2

[where s2  sg at 299 K  4.75 kJ/kg K ]

T2
4.754  4.75  0.674 ln
299
T2
ln  5.93  10  3
299
T2 3
 e5.93  10
299
T2  300.78 K
h2  h2  CPT 2  T 2 [Here h   h at 299 K  585 ]
2 g
 585  0.674  299
h2  586.2 kJ/kg

To Find h1
h 1  h g at 275 K
h 1  574.5 kJ/kg

To find h 4
h4  h3
h 3  h f at 299 K
 443.9 kJ/kg  h4
So, h 4  443.9 kJ/kg

To Find C.O.P.
R.E h1  h4 574.5  443.9
C.O.P     11.163
W h2  h1 586.2  574.5
5.56 Thermal Engineering - I

5.6 PH CHART
A Pressure Enthalpy chart is a graphical
representation of a number of thermodynamics properties
of a given refrigerant. It typically contains of two major
axes namely Absolute pressure and specific Enthalpy. For
a given refrigerant, based on its enthalpy and pressure,
properties like temperature, entropy and specific volume
can be directly deduced from the chart. Thus, if any of the
two properties of a refrigerant is known, the remaining
properties can be directly obtained from the chart.

B C
F G
C onst te mp lin e

if ic
S p e c in e s
lu m eL
Vo
Su b C oo led liq uid regio n

C o nsta nt te m perature line

W et
C ons

R e gion
e
tio n lin

t te m
e

p li n e
lin e

u r lin
s s fr a c

C onst E nthalp y line

u id
Pressure

apo
te d liq

ne

te d V
n t D ry

S up er heated
S a tu ra

a tu r a

reg ion
es
C o n s ta

lin
D ry s

py
ro
nt
tE

C o nst P ressure line

ns
Co

H
E A En thalpy D

Fig:5.15
 Refrigeration 5.57

Entities of PH chart

AB – Saturated Liquid line

CD – Dry saturated vapour line
Area ABCD – Wet region (Two phase region)
Area EFBA – Liquid region
Area CDHG – Super heated region

The use of PH chart in solving problems will be

illustrated through an example given below.
Problem 5.23: An ideal refrigerating cycle operates between 1
bar and 7 bar. Dry saturated vapour enters the compressor and
F-12 at 7 bar and 15C enters the expansion valve.
Compression is isentropic. Determine the power input in kW
for 40 tons refrigerating capacity. (JNTU - Dec 2014)

Solution:
3.5 T 3.5T
Power required  
R.E h1  h4

To determine the refrigeration effect, it is imperative

to know h 1 and h4.

Finding h 1
 Since the vapour is dry and saturated at 1, locate
the 1 bar pressure point on the dry saturated
vapour line. Mark this point as 1.
 From 1, drop a perpendicular line to the enthalpy
axis. This point on the enthalpy axis gives
h1  175 kJ/kg.
5.58 Thermal Engineering - I

7 ba r

o
15 C

1 ba r

Finding h 4
 Since the compression is isentropic, s1  s2. Hence,
from 1, trace the constant entropy line until it
reaches the constant pressure 7 bar line. Mark
this point as 2.
 Drop a perpendicular line from 2 to the enthalpy
axis to get h 2.
 Process 2-3 is of constant pressure. Hence, draw
a horizontal along the 7 bar pressure from 2 until
it reaches T 3  15 C. Mark this point as 3. Since
process 2-3 is the condensing process, point 3
should be either on the saturated liquid curve or
in the sub-cooled region.
 Drop perpendicular line from 3 to the enthalpy
axis to get h 3.
 Since the process 3-4 is expansion with constant
enthalpy, draw vertically downward line to cut
horizontal line produced from 1 at 4, h 3  h 4.

 h3  h4  50 kJ/kg
 Refrigeration 5.59

3.5  T
Power required P 
h1  h4

3.5  40
  1.12 kW
175  50

Problem 5.24: A refrigerating unit is working between 40C

and  10C. The load on the unit is 5 tons. Assume the
refrigerant is NH3 which is dry and saturated vapour leaving
the evaporator and the compression is isentropic. Find
– COP of the system
– Power required to run the system
If the temperature of the refrigerant required in the evaporator
is  20C, find the change in COP of the system and power
required. (JNTU - Dec 2014)

Solution:

Refrigeration Effect h 1  h 4
COP  
Work Done h2  h 1

Case - 1 T 1   10 C, T 2  40  C

Locating h 1 on PH chart
Since, the fluid is dry saturated vapour, locate.
 10C on the saturated vapour curve. Drop a perpendicular
to the specific enthalpy axis and this point corresponds to
h1  1435 kJ/kg

Locating h 2 on PH chart
Since h the compression is isentropic, s1  s2. trace a
constant entropy curve in the vapour region from T1 till it
meets up with the 40C constant temperature line.
5.60 Thermal Engineering - I

o
15 C

o
-1 0 C

Mark it as 2. From this point 2, drop a perpendicular

to the specific enthalpy axis meeting at the point
h2  1525 kJ/kg

Locating h 3 and h 4
Since process 2-3 is constant pressure, draw a
horizontal from 2 along constant pressure line, till it
reaches the saturated liquid curve at 3. From this point,
drop perpendicular to X axis which gives the h3 value.
h3  225 kJ/kg
. .
. h3  h 4 as per the graph, h4  225 kJ/kg
h1  h4 1435  225
COP    13.44
h2  h1 1525  1435
 
Power required  m h2  h1; Also R.F in kW  m h1  h4

 3.5T 3.5  5
m   0.0144 kg/s
h1  h4 1435  225

Power required  0.0144 1525  1435 

 1.296 kW
 Refrigeration 5.61

Case 2 - T 1   20C, T 2  40 C

Locate h 1, h2, h 3, h4 for the corresponding
temperatures and pressure conditions on the PH using the
same method.

h 1  1420 kJ/kg, h 2  1535 kJ/kg , h 3  h 4  210 kJ/kg

h 1  h 4 1420  210
COP   10.52
h 2  h 1 1535  1420

 3.5T 3.5  5
m   0.0144 kg/s
h 1  h 4 1420  210

Power required  m h 2  h 1  0.0144 1535  1420 

 1.66 kW

Problem 5.25: The temperature range in a Freon-12 plant is

 6C to 27C. The compression is isentropic and there is no
under cooling of the liquid. Find the COP assuming that the
refrigerant (i) after compression is dry and saturated (ii)
leaving the evaporator is dry and saturated. The properties of
F-12 and given in the table.

tC hf hg sf sg Cp

27 (300 K) 445 585 4.28 4.75 0.714

– 6 (267 K) 413 571 4.17 4.76 0.641

(i) After compression is dry and saturated

T1   6 C

  6  273  267 K
5.62 Thermal Engineering - I

T2  27 C
T
 27  273  300 K
3 2
3 00 K
h 1  hf3
COP 
h2  h1

h1  hf1  x1 hfg 1 f g
2 67 K
4 1
 hf1  x1 hg1  hf1
S
h 2  h g at 300 K S f3 (S 1 = S 2)

s1  sf1  x1 sfg1  4.17  x1 4.76  4.17  s1  s2

h 3  h 4  h f3
s2  sg2 Dry saturated at 300 K

s2  sg  4.75 kJ/kg K

s1  s2  4.17  x1 0.59  4.75

x 1  0.98

h 1  h f1  x1 h fg1

 413  0.98 571  413

h1  568.3 kJ/kg

h 2  h g at 300 K; h2  585 kJ/kg

h 3  h f at 300 K  445 kJ/kg

and h3  h4  445 kJ/kg

h1  h4 568.3  445
COP    7.38
h2  h1 585  568.3

COP  7.38
 Refrigeration 5.63

(ii) Leaving the Evaporator is dry and saturated

T 2

3 00 K 3 C o nd
2’ Comp
E xp

2 67 K 1
f 4 E vap
g
S
(S 1 = S 2 )

h 1  hg at 267 K  571 kJ/kg

h2  hg a t 300 K  585 kJ /kg
h 3  h f  at 300 K  445 kJ/kg  h4
h 2  h 2  C p  degree of su per heat
h 2  585  0.714   T 2  T 2 
  ...(1)

s1  sg at 267 k  4.76  s2
s2  sg at 300 K  4.75 kJ/kgK
 T2 
Using s2  s2  C p ln  
 T2 
T2
4.76  4.75  0.714  ln
300
T2  304.2 K (sub in (1))
h 2  h2  C p  T2  T2  585  0.714  304.2  300 
h 2  587.99 kJ/kg
h1  h4 571  445
COP    7.41
h 2  h 1 587.99  571

COP  7.41
5.64 Thermal Engineering - I

Problem 5.26: The Freon 12 compressor of 15 cm dia., 15 cm

stroke has 4 single acting cylinders running at 970 r.p.m. It
is working between  10C and 30C find
(i) Cooling capacity.
(ii) Power required by electrical motor during the compression.
Volumetric efficiency 75%; Mechanical efficiency 95%. Also draw
the T.S. diagram. The vapour enters the compressor as dry
saturated. (FAQ)

T
P T2 T2 o
38 C 2
o
3 2 30 C 3 2O
2O
T2

o
T 2 oO -10 C
4 1 4 1
30 C

h s

Solution:

Freon 12 (R12)
d  Dia.  15 c m  0.15 m
L  stroke length  0.15 m

Single Acting
No. of cylinders = 4;
 vol  0.75 ; mech  0.95 ; N  970 r.p.m.

From P-h chart, we can find the following enthalpy values.

h1  185 k J/kg; h 2  210 kJ/kg ;

 Refrigeration 5.65

h 3  68 kJ/kg; T 2  38 C  311 K; h 4  h 3  68 kJ/kg

R.E h1  h4 185  68
C.O.P     4.68
W h2  h1 210  185

To Find Cooling Capacity (R.E in kW)

v1  vg for  10C  0.0766464 m 3/kg

Swept volume

 2 
Vs  d L   0.152  0.15  2.65072  10  3m 3
4 4

But

m v1 . .
Vs  [ . 1 for single acting ].
N
vol    1  no. of cylinders
 60 

3 m 0.0766464 
2.65072  10 
 970 
0.75   14
 60 

m  1.67731 kg/sec

Cooling capacity  R.E in kW  m h1  h4
Q 4  1 

 1.67731185  68

 196.24 kW

R.E  196.24 kW

To Find Power
 
Power  m  W  m h 2  h 1

 1.67731 210  185  41.93 kW

5.66 Thermal Engineering - I

R.E in kW
(or) C.O.P 
W in kW

R.E in kW
So Power  W in kW 
C.O.P

196.24
  41.93 kW
4.68

But mech  95%

Actual power required to run the compressor

P 41.93
   44.136 kW
mech 0.95

Actual power required to run the compressor

 44.136 kW

5.7 SUBCOOLING OR UNDERCOOLING

In the condenser, the refrigerant is cooled (condensed)
at constant pressure. If the refrigerant is cooled below its
saturation temperature, then it is called sub cooling or
under cooling.

D egree of subcooling = (T 3 -T 3 ) O D egree of subcooling = (T 3 -T 3 ) O

T 2
P
3 3 p= c 2 2
3 p= c
O O
T3
2 O

T3 O
3 O
s=c
s=c

h 3=
O
h 3= h 4

1
h4

p= c p= c
O

4 1 4
h s
F ig. 5.16
 Refrigeration 5.67

In the problem, ‘subcooled by 10C ’ means the degree

of subcooling i.e., T 3  T3  10C

“Subcooled to 10C ” means the final temperature of

subcooling. i.e., T3  10C .

5.7.1 Effect of Subcooling

(i) Refrigeration effect increases.
(ii) Work input remains same.
(iii) C.O.P increases [C.O.P  R.E/W ; when R.E increases
C.O.P will increase
(iv) Condenser heat rejection capacity increases.
Subcooling is also defined as the process of cooling
the liquid refrigerant below the condensing temperature for
a given pressure.

Problem 5.27: A refrigerating plant operates in vapour

compression cycle. The refrigerant is R12 and the saturation
temperature in the condenser and evaporator are
40C and  5C respectively. The vapour enters the compressor
as saturated vapour and it is subcooled to 20C in the
condenser. Calculate 1. C.O.P., 2. compressor displacement.
Assume vol  100%, Power  1 kW. (FAQ)

Solution: P
From the P-h chart for R12,
3 3 P= C 2 2
we can find enthalpy values.
O O

h 1  185 kJ/kg
s=C
h 3= h 4

h 2  208 kJ/kg
O

P= C 1
4
h
h 4  h 3  58 kJ/kg
5.68 Thermal Engineering - I

To Find C.O.P D e gre e of

subcoolin g = (T 3 -T 3 )= 20 o C
R.E h 1  h 4

T
C.O.P   2
W h2  h1
T 3 =4 0 C
O
3 P=C
2 O

185  58 T 3 
O

% 3 O

  5.521

s=c
208  185

h3=
O
1

h4
T 1 =T 4 =-5 C
O P=C
C.O.P  5.521 4
s

To Find Compressor
Displacement: m 3/sec
Q 2  1  Power in kW  1 k W


Power in kW  m  Work input/kg of refrigerant

 1 1
m 
h2  h1 208  185

 0.0434 kg/sec

v1  vg at  5C  0.0649629 m 3/kg

Assume No. of cylinder = 1, and single acting

 
mv1 m v1
Swept volume Vs  
 N   N 
vol   11 1 11
 60   60 

 N  
Compressor displacement in m 3/sec   Vs   mv1
 60 

 0.0434  0.0649629

 2.819  10  3m 3/sec
 Refrigeration 5.69

5.8 SUPER HEATING

When the liquid refrigerant is passing through

evaporator, it absorbs heat from the space to be cooled.
Thus this liquid refrigerant becomes vapour. If this liquid
refrigerant absorbs more heat, then it becomes super heated
vapour i.e. it is heated above the saturation temperature.
So the process of heating the vapour above the saturation
temperature in the evaporator is called as super heating.

In the problem,

‘Super heated by 20C, means the degree of super

heating i.e., T 1  T 1  20C

‘Super heated to 20C means T 1 i.e. temperature

of vapour leaving the evaporator (or) temperature of vapour
entering the compressor is 20C .

5.8.1 Effect of Super heating

The effect of super heating is to increase the
refrigerating effect, but this increase in refrigerating effect
is at the cost of increased in work input between the upper
pressure limits. So,

(i) R.E is increased.

(ii) Work input is increased.
[But the increase in work input is more as compared
to increase in refrigerating effect; so the overall effect of
super heating will reduce the C.O.P.]

(iii) The C.O.P. is reduced.

(iv) Specific volume is increased.
5.70 Thermal Engineering - I

Su per heating
2
P T
2O
3
3 P 3 = P 2 = P2 2O
O
2

T1 - T1 1
= D egree of
O

Super h eat
1O 4 1O
4 1
f
g D egree of
Super h eat
h s
Fig. 5.17

(v) Since the compressor is totally free from liquid

refrigerant, corrosion and erosion is minimum. So
the life of the compressor is increased.
Problem 5.28: The evaporator and condenser temperature of
20 ton capacity refrigerator are  28C and 23C respectively.
The R22 is subcooled by 3C before it enters the expansion
valve and is super heated by 8C before leaving the evaporator.
A six cylinder single acting compressor with stroke equal to
bore running at 1000 r.p.m. is used. Determine 1. Refrigerating
effect/kg, 2. Mass flow rate of refrigerant in kg/sec, 3. Bore
and stroke of the compressor, 4. Power, 5. C.O.P. 6. Heat
removed through condensor. (FAQ)

Solution:
Locate the points 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3 and 4 in the P  h
chart for R22 by the following procedure.
 Refrigeration 5.71

D egre e o f S ubc ooling

P T 3 - T 3 = 3 OC

20 C

23 C
O

O
O
23 C 2 O
3 O 2
3 C ond en sation

23
O
T hrottling

C
C
S=
h3 = h4

D egre e
of
O

S upe rheat
E vap o ratio n 1 O
1
O
T 1 -T 1 = 8 C
O

O
-2 8 C

-2
4

O
0
-2

C
f

O
8
C
g
h
446k J/kg 615k J/kg 664k J/kg

1. Locate 1 at the intersection of  28C and ‘g’ line.

(saturated vapour line).
2. Locate 1 by extending 1 horizontally upto  20C
. .
 . Degree of super heating
 8C So ,T1   28  8   20C
3. Mark 2 at 23C in g line.
4. From 1, trace a line through constant entropy line
and from 2 draw horizontal line. Both lines
intersect at 2.
5. From 2 draw horizontal lines in left direction, cut
the ‘f’ line and mark as 3. Extend this line upto
. .
temperature 20C [ . Degree of subcooling
 3C, So , T3  T3  23  T3  3 . So,
T3  23  3  20C ] and mark as 3
5.72 Thermal Engineering - I

6. From 3 draw vertical line to cut upto temperature

 28C. This point is 4.
Now we can take enthalpy values from all the points.
These are given below.
h 1  240 kJ/kg; h2  290 k J/kg;

h 4  h 3  70 kJ/kg; v1  0.14 m 3/kg.

(i) Refrigerating effect: R.E

R.E  h 1  h 4  240  70

 170 kJ/kg

(ii) Mass flow rate of refrigerant.

R.E in kW = Cooling capacity of refrigerator
 20  3.5  70 kW

R.E in kW  m  R.E in kJ/kg
 70
m  0.4117 kg /sec
170

(iii) Compressor Dimensions

 2
Vs  d L
4

m v1
Also V s 
 vo l  N/ 60  1  6 . .
[ . 1 for Single acting and 6
for 6 cylinders]
 0.4117  0.14 . .
 d2  d  [ . d  L;  vol  1 ]
4 1  1000/60  1  6
 5.7988  10 4
d 3  7.3424  10  4
d  0.0902 m

L  d  0.0902 m
 Refrigeration 5.73

(iv) Power

Power  m  W

 0.4117  h 2  h 1

 0.4117  290  615  20.56 kW

(v) C.O.P
R.E h1  h4 240  70
C.O.P   
W h2  h1 290  240

 3.4

(vi) Heat removed in the Condenser


 m h2  h 3

 0.4112 290  70

 90.46 kW

Problem 5.29: In a theoretical single stage ammonia vapour

compression refrigeration system, the liquid leaves the
condenser at 12 bar, 20C. Evaporator pressure is 1.2 bar. The
vapour leaves the evaporator at  20C. Speed is 200 r.p.m.
Single acting with L/D  1.5  vol is 80%. Determine
(i) C.O.P
(ii) Power required per ton of refrigeration.
(iii) Compression cylinder dimensions.
(Apr-99 - Madras University)

Solution
1. ~ 1.2 bar mark 1.
At  20 C and 1 bar 
2. From 1 draw line through constant entropy line and
it cuts the constant pressure line 12 bar line at 2.
5.74 Thermal Engineering - I

lea ving
P
the
condenser D e gree of Su bcooling
O
T 3 - T 3 =9 C

29 C
O

20 C

O
O O
2
29 C (12 bar) O
2
3

T2
O
3 C o ndensation
Throttling

=1
31
O

50
O
C

C
C
s=
h3 = h 4
O

lea ving the

Evap oration 1 evaporator
1 O

1 bar (=1.2 b ar)

-2
4

O
0
-2
f

C
O
8
g

C
h
270kJ/kg 1425kJ/kg 1760kJ/kg

3. Draw horizontal line from 2 and cut 20C line at

3.
4. From 3 draw vertical line to cut 1 bar line at 4.
5. Take the enthalpy value from all the points.
h1  1425 kJ/kg

h2  1760 kJ/kg and T2  150C

h 3  h4  270 kJ/kg

Degree of super heat  T1  T1   20   28  8C

Degree of subcooling  T3  T3  29  20  9C

C.O.P
R.E h1  h4
C.O.P  
W h2  h1

1425  270
  3.4477
1760  1425
 Refrigeration 5.75

Power Required/Ton of Refrigeration

1 T R  3.5 kW  R.E in kW

R.E in kW R.E in kW
C.O.P  
W in kW Power

3.5
3.4477 
po w er

Power  1.0151 kW

Mass Flow Rate of Refrigerant: m

R.E in kW  R.E in kJ/kg  m

 3.5
m  3.0303  10  3kg/sec
1425  270

Compressor Cylinder Dimensions

vo l  0.8 ; Single ac ting; No. o f cylinder  1;
N  200 r.p.m. ; L/D  1.5

 m v1
Swept volume V s   D2  L 
4 N
 vol   11
60

First of all find v1

v1 T1

v1 T 1

v1  vg at  28 C  0.7397

T 1   20  273  253 K

T1   28  273  245 K

253
v1  0.7397   0.7638 m 3/kg
245
5.76 Thermal Engineering - I


 mv1
Now Vs   D2  1.5D 
4 N
vol   11
60

3.0303  10  3  0.7638

200
0.8   11
60


 1.5D 3  8.679  10  4
4

D 3  7.3711  10  4

D  0.09033 m

L  1.5D  0.13549 m

Problem 5.30: In an vapour compression refrigeration system

R22 has condensing and evaporating temperature as
40C and  20C respectively. The refrigerant is super heated to
0C in the evaporator and subcooled by 10C in the condenser.
The bore and stroke is 100 mm each, clearance ratio 5%, speed
600 r.p.m. Double acting, 2 cylinder. Determine
(i) Refrigeration effect in ton of refrigeration.
(ii) Power required.

Solution
T sat 1  Evaporator temperature   20C  253 K
T sat 2  Condenser temperature  40C  313 K
Refrigerant is super heated to 0C i.e.T1  273 K
Refrigerant is subcooled by 10C i.e. t3  t3  10
t3  tsat   40C
3

t3  40  10  30C
 Refrigeration 5.77

P D e gree of S u bc oo lin g
O
T3 - T3 =10 C

40 C
O

30 C

O
O
O
40 C P =C 2O 2
3O
3 C o nd en sa tio n

40
T hrottlin g

O
C
C
s=
h4
=
-2 0 C

h3
O

E v ap ora tio n -20 O C 1O 1

4 p=C

0
-2

O
f

O
0

C
g

C
h
88 k J/kg 2 5 2 k J /k g 3 1 0 k J /k g

From p-h chart,

h 1  252 kJ/kg; h2  310 kJ/kg , t2  104C

h 4  h 3  88 kJ/kg.

To Find Mass Flow Rate of Refrigerant

 
Swept volume V s   D 2  L   0.1 2  0.1
4 4

V s  7.853982  10  4m 3

m v1 . .
Also Vs  [ . Double acting and
vol  N/60  2  2
two cylinder]

So, first of all, we have to find v1 and  vol

To Find v1
v1 T1

v1 T 1
5.78 Thermal Engineering - I

T 1  273 K ; v1  vg at  20C  0.0930 m 3/kg

T1   20  273  253 K

273
v1  0.093   0.1003
253

v1  0.1003 m 3/kg

To Find v2
v2 T2

v2 T 2

v2  vg at 40C  0.0148

T 2  104  273  377 K

T 2  40  273  313 K

T2
v2  v2 
T2

377
v2  0.0148   0.0178 m 3/kg
313

v2  0.0178 m 3/kg

To Find vol
vo l  Volumetric efficiency

 v1 
1K 1
v
 2 
 0.1003 
 1  0.05  1
 0.0178 
 vo l  0.7682 or 76.82%
 Refrigeration 5.79

Swept volume Vs  7.853982  10  4


m v1

vol  N/60  2  2

 7.853982  10  4  0.7682  600  2  2

m
0.1003  60

 0.2406 kg/sec

To Find R.E in TR

R.E in kW  m h1  h4

 0.2406 252  88

 39.46 kW

39.46
R.E in TR   11.28 TR
3.5

R.E  11.28 TR

Power Required

Power  m  W

 0.2406  h 2  h 1

 0.24063  310  252  13.95

Power  13.95 kW

Problem 5.31: A vapour compression refrigeration uses

methyl chloride and operates between  10C and 45C. At entry
to the compressor, the refrigerant is dry saturated and after
compression it acquires a temperature of 60C. Find the C.O.P.
5.80 Thermal Engineering - I

Saturation Enthalpy in kJ/kg Entropy in kJ/kg K

Temperature Liquid Vapour hg Liquid Vapour sg
hf sf
 10C 45.4 460.7 0.183 1.7619
45C 133.0 483.6 0.485 1.587
(FAQ)

Solution
h 1  h g at  10C  460.7 kJ/kg

To Find h2
h 2  h 2  C pt2  t2

where h2  h g at 45C  483.6 kJ/kg

t2  45C ; t2  60 C

To find h2, we have to find C p.

P T
o 2
45 C
ts a t 2=
45 C
O
3
3 2 O 2 2 O
C
o
45
t2 =
ts a

O
-1 0 C
4 1
4 1
g
0 Co

f f
-1

g
t1 =

s
ts a

h
 Refrigeration 5.81

To Find C p
s2  s1 [Isentropic compression] Here s2  sg at 45 C

s1  sg at  10C  1.7619 kJ/kg K  s2  1.587

So, s2  1.7619 kJ/kg K T2  45  273  318 K
T2
But s2  s2  C p ln T2  60  273  333 K
T2
333
1.7619  1.587  Cp ln
318
1.7619  1.587 
Cp   3.7946 kJ/kg K
 333 
 ln 318 
 
h 2  h 2  CpT 2  T 2
 483.6  3.7946 60  45
 540.519 kJ/kg
To Find h4
h 4  h3 and h3  hf at 45C  133
So, h4  133 kJ/kg
h1  h4 460.7  133
C.O.P  
h2  h1 540.519  460.7
 4.1055
Problem 5.32: A vapour compression refrigeration plant
works between pressure limits of 5.3 bar and 2.1 bar. The
vapour is super heated at the end of compression with
temperature being 37C. The vapour is super heated by 5C
before entering the compressor. If the specific heat of super
heated vapour is 0.63 kJ/kg K, find the coefficient of
performance (C.O.P). (FAQ)
5.82 Thermal Engineering - I

Pressure Saturation Liquid heat Latent heat hg kJ/kg

(bar) Temperature kJ/kg hf kJ/kg hfg
5.3 15.5 56.15 144.9 201.05
2.1  14.0 25.12 158.7 183.82

T O
37 C 2
P
3 7OC O
1 5.5 C
3 P 2 =C 2O 2 3 2O

o
C
.5
15

O
-9 C
O
5 C 1
O
P 1 =C -14 C
1O 4
4 1 f 1O
f g
4 Co

g s
-1

Solution:
Super heated by 5C i.e. Degree of super heat
 t1  t1  5C.
So, t1   14  5   9C
Find h 1, h2, h4 to find C.O.P.

To Find h1
h 1  h 1  C pt1  t1
. .
where h1  h g at  14 C  183.82 kJ/kg [ . hg  hf  h fg ]

C p  0.63 kJ/kg K
h 1  183.82  0.63 5  186.97 kJ/kg
h1  186.97 kJ/kg
 Refrigeration 5.83

To Find h2
h 2  h 2  C pt2  t2

where h2  h g at 15.5C  201.05 kJ/kg

t2  37 C; t2  15.5C

h 2  201.05  0.63 37  15.5  214.595 k J/kg

h2  214.595 kJ/kg

To Find h4
h 4  h 3 (Throttling process)

h 3  h f at 15.5C  56.15 k J/kg

h 4  56.15 kJ/kg

h1  h4 Refrigeration effect
C.O.P  
h2  h1 Work input

186.97  56.15
  4.73585656
214.595  186.97

C.O.P  4.736

Problem 5.33: A CO2 refrigeration system works between 5.25

bar and 21.2 bar. The refrigerant leaves the compressor at
32C with total heat 246.2 kJ/kg. Determine the theoretical
C.O.P of the plant. The properties of CO2 are

Pressure Sat. Enthalpy kJ /kg Entropy kJ /kg K

bar Temp. Liquid hf Vapour hg Liquid sf Vapour sg
C
56.25 18.5 52.75 214.37 0.165 0.7244
21.2  18  37.68 234.69  0.1507 0.9170
(FAQ)
5.84 Thermal Engineering - I

Solution:
Total heat of vapour leaving the compressor = 246.2
kJ/kg i.e., h2  246.2 kJ/kg

Inlet to the compressor - it may be dry saturated or

super heated or wet.

We have to find the condition of vapour entering the

compressor. Then only we can draw P-h diagram and T-S
diagram.

h 2  h 2  C pt2  t2

where h2  h g at 18.5 C  214.37 kJ/kg

t2  32C; t2  18.5C

246.2  214.37  Cp32  18.5

246.2  214.37
Cp   2.357777
13.5

C p  2.35778 kJ/kg K

T2
s2  s2  C p ln
T 2

where s2  sg at 18.5  C  0.7244 kJ/kg K

T 2  32  273  305 K ; T 2  291.5 K

305
s2  0.7244  2.35778 ln
291.5

 0.83114 kJ/kg K

s2  0.83114 kJ/kg K

s1  s2  0.83114
 Chapter - 6

Actual Cycles and Their Analysis

Introduction, Comparision of air standard and actual cycles,

Time loss factor, Heat loss factor, Exhaust Blowdown - Loss due
to Gas exchange processes, Volumetric efficiency. Loss due to
Rubbing friction, Actual and fuel - air cycles of CI engine.

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Air standard cycle is a cycle which uses air as the
working medium and assumes that the working medium
behaves as a perfect working substance. Air standard cycle
also prevents all the heat losses that could occur in an
engine and pictures it as an imaginary perfect engine. The
steps involved in air standard cycles are simple and
idealistic, which is why They are also called as Ideal cycles.

The following assumptions are made to consider a

process as an air standard cycle.

1. The working substance should be a perfect gas with

standard specific heats.
2. The heat transfer should be simple and no chemical
reactions should occur.
3. It must be a reversible process.
4. The heat losses are assumed to be zero.
The otto cycle and diesel cycle of an IC engine are
said to be air standard cycles but their real working
processes greatly vary with respect to their physical
properties. A normal engine operation is subjected to
various heat losses, change in heat input, change in
working medium, etc.
6.2 Thermal Engineering - I

The cycle which accounts to the every possible losses

in real time environments may be referred to as an actual
cycle.

The actual cycle efficiency is much lesser than the

air-standard efficiency because of the various losses
occurring in an actual engine. If the losses due to variable
specific heats due to varying temperatures are neglected
from an air standard cycle, then it is called as Fuel-air
cycle. In fuel air cycle, the working medium is the mixture
of air and fuel vapour or atomized liquid fuel. Each cycle
varies with each other in many aspects.

6.2 COMPARISON OF AIR-STANDARD AND ACTUAL

CYCLES
As discussed earlier, the actual cycle is different from
air standard cycle due to various losses that occur in an
engine. So, the losses must be taken into account while
studying the difference between both the cycles. The major
losses occurring in an heat engine are:-

(i) Dissociation losses.

(ii) Loss due to incomplete combustion.
(iii) Time loss.
(iv) Heat loss.
(v) Loss due to variation of specific heats with
temperature.
(vi) Loss due to exhaust blowdown.
(vii) Loss due to rubbing friction.
(viii) Loss due to blowby gases.
The above losses are used to differentiate actual
cycles from air-standard cycles and also fuel-air cycles.
 Actual Cycles and Their Analysis 6.3

Each of the losses results in the decrease of thermal

efficiency and power output of the actual engine. So,
understanding them clearly would help us to improve the
performance of an actual engine. Along with these losses,
there are some factors that also amount to the difference
between these cycles. They are,
(a) The working medium
In case of a fuel-air cycle, the working medium would
be air-fuel mixture, whereas for air standard cycle, it is
pure air.
(b) The nature of working substance
In case of air-standard cycle, the working substance
remains unchanged from the start to end whereas in other
cycles the chemical composition of the working substance
may change.
(c) The variation of temperature, pressure and composition
of fresh charge indicates the difference between the cycles.
(d) Heat transfer is a property which differentiates actual
cycles and air-standard cycles because, in air-standard
cycles there is no heat transfer between the components.
In an actual engine, there is a significant amount of heat
transfer to and from the working substance as well as the
cylinder walls and various other components. Hence the
efficiency of the working cycle changes accordingly.
(e) Gas leakage, fluid friction, engine design, rpm, etc. are
all responsible for defining the losses in an actual engine
cycle.
6.4 Thermal Engineering - I

All the above factors could be used to compare actual

cycles, air standard cycles and fuel-air cycles. Efficiencies
of each cycles also vary with one another.

For example, the efficiency of actual cycle will always

be lower than air-standard cycle because of the mentioned
losses that occur in an actual engine. All the major losses
are discussed briefly in the coming sections.

6.3 TIME LOSS

Under actual cycle, it is almost impossible to obtain
a homogeneous mixture of air and fuel as there are
contaminants like carbon deposits, fuel charge from
previous cycles etc. Thus, a part of the fuel in the
combustion chamber reacts better than its counterpart
when heat is applied. Hence, the time taken for the charge
to burn completely varies for every cycle. Moreover, the
time taken to completely burn a charge also varies due to
the following factors:

 Homogeneity of the air-fuel mixture.

 Flame speed.
 Configuration of the combustion chamber.
 Turbulence in the air-fuel mixture.
 Distance needed to travel by the flame.
 Air-fuel ratio.
A homogeneous mixture burns steadily and
uniformly within a preset time. However, it depends upon
the mixing before the inlet. As little time is available at
the inlet for proper mixing of air and fuel, there is always
a compromise of the homogeneity of the mixture.
 Actual Cycles and Their Analysis 6.5

Flame speed depends upon the air-fuel mixture, type

of fuel used and the available volume. It is easier for a
flame to burn through a dense charge of air and fuel rather
than a small amount of charge. Flame speed is also higher
at richer air-fuel ratios.
Configuration of the combustion chamber deals
with the geometry and the space available for the
propagation of flame. A cylinder with smaller stroke and
larger bore burns the fuel more quickly than its alternate.

Turbulence of the mixture depends upon the inlet

valve and its position. A turbulent mixture burns more
rapidly than a less agitated mixture. By positioning the
inlet valve suitably, several motions of air-fuel mixture
within the cylinder can be obtained. A turbulent mixture
burns faster than a non-turbulent mixture.

The air-fuel ratio is also responsible for the time

required to complete the burning process. So, the correct
proportion of air-fuel ratio must be provided in order to
achieve proper burning within a given interval of time. The
fuel’s chemical structure and also its ignition temperature
must be taken into account to determine the time required
for it to burn completely during combustion. Any variation
in air-fuel ratio could result in a time loss due to the time
consumed by the burning process.

Maximum power depends on the peak pressure of the

cycle. If the spark is too early in the cycle, work is done
against the expansion of gases. Thus the energy is lost. If
the spark occurs after TDC, the peak pressure may not be
achieved easily, consequently leading to reduced power and
efficiency.
6.6 Thermal Engineering - I

These above factors are the reasons for power loss

due to time factor in an internal combustion engine.
However, in an ideal cycle, the heat addition is assumed
to be instantaneous.
Thus, with the actual losses, the total work done by
a cycle is depicted by a graph of Volume vs Pressure as
shown in the Fig. 6.1.




,
   

  



  

   


,
 3
 

      
'F\O  'F Fig:6.1

6.4 HEAT LOSS FACTORS

The losses due to heat transfer play a major role in
the efficiency of an IC engine. To determine the total heat
loss of an engine, it is necessary to understand the
distribution of heat among various components of an
engine. During the combustion process, an enormous
amount of heat is generated. This heat is used to drive the
piston. However, a fraction of this heat is dissipated into
 Actual Cycles and Their Analysis 6.7

various components such as cylinder walls, piston rings etc.

through conduction or convection process. The engine as a
whole radiates a negligible amount of heat per cycle.
Moreover, a part of the generated heat is quenched
instantaneously by the coolants flowing through the jackets.
A fraction of the heat is also transferred to the lubricating
oil.
Thus, the heat generated through the combustion
process is transferred to several processes as shown below.

Workdone to drive the

piston
Convection and conduction
heat transfer to internal
components
Heat Generated
Heat transfer through
cooling systems
Heat lost at the exhaust
stroke
Heat lost due to unburnt
fuel

It may be noted that a sizeable fraction of the heat

produced is repelled out of the engine during the exhaust
stroke even before it gets converted into work. This is due
to the constraints in the time required to convert all the
heat into work.
6.8 Thermal Engineering - I

Thus, even if the losses due to heat are minimized,

only one-fifth of the total heat energy produced is converted
into quantifiable work.

On a larger picture, heat losses however contribute to

only 12% - 15% of the total losses of an IC engine.

6.5 EXHAUST BLOWDOWN

Exhaust blowdown is the process in which some of
the combustion gases escape through the exhaust port if
the exhaust valve is opened before Bottom dead center. This
is due to the self pressure created by the piston at the end
of the combustion stroke and also it depends upon the
compression ratio of the engine.

The basic operation of the exhaust stroke is to pump

out all the exhaust gases through the exhaust valve. Since
the piston has to work against the self pressure created,
extra power is consumed to pump all the gases. This results
in loss of power and this phenomenon is called as exhaust
blowdown loss. It can be avoided, if the exhaust valve opens
at or after the BDC, (or) the best way is to open the
exhaust valve between 40  70 before BDC which inturn

E xpa n sion stro ke Id ea l diag ram

P ressu re (b ar)

E a rly e xh a ust v a lv e o p en in g
7 .0
O ptim um exha us t va lve op en in g

3 .5
E xha u st Valve O pe n in g a t
b ottom d ea d ce ntre

Vo lu m e Fig:6.2
 Actual Cycles and Their Analysis 6.9

reduces the exhaust pressure of the cylinder into half (from

7 bar to 3.5 bar). The Fig.6.2 explains the exhaust
blowdown process.

6.6 LOSS DUE TO GAS EXCHANGE PROCESS

The phenomenon of gas exchange process is the
admission of fresh charge during the inlet stroke and the
removal of exhaust gases at the end of the combustion
stroke. In other words, the difference between the workdone
in removing the exhaust gases, and the workdone in
admitting fresh charge is called as Pumping work. Also,
the loss occurring due to this pumping work is called as
pumping loss. This loss is due to the difference of pressure
between lower inlet pressure (Pi) and the highest exhaust
pressure (Pe).

Ex
pa
ns
io n

Co
mp
re s
sio
n
E xha u st
Pe
P a tm
Pi
P u m ping w o rk
V
Fig:6.3 G as Exch an ge pro cesses

The Fig.6.3 shows the gas exchange process in SI

engine. The shaded area indicates the pumping work of
pressure from lower value to higher value; from suction to
exhaust. The pumping loss increases with throttling,
6.10 Thermal Engineering - I

because throttling reduces the suction pressure and also it

increases with speed. The volumetric efficiency of the
engine is greatly affected by the losses occurring due to gas
exchange processes which will be explained briefly in the
next article.

6.7 VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY

The volumetric efficiency is one of the important
parameters in deciding the performance of an IC engine. It
is defined as the ratio of volume of air intake during the
suction stroke to the swept volume of the piston. It is also
defined as the ratio of mass of charge sucked into the
cylinder during suction stroke to the mass of air
corresponding to the swept volume of engine at atmospheric
pressure and temperature. A number of factors affect the
volumetric efficiency of an engine.

Some of them are given here:

[Note - For further explanation on volumetric

efficiency refer Chapter 4].

6.7.1 The amount of air-fuel ratio

When a fresh charge is sucked inside the cylinder,
the temperature of the charge is increased by transfer of
heat from the cylinder walls and the hot exhaust gases. It
is known that for a constant pressure and volume, the
temperature is inversely proportional to the mass. As a
result, the mass of the fresh charge decreases which inturn
reduces the volumetric efficiency. But the volumetric
efficiency could be increased by the high pressure from the
incoming fresh charge because high pressure results in
increased mass of charge.
 Actual Cycles and Their Analysis 6.11

6.7.2 The design of intake and exhaust manifold and

port design
The intake and exhaust manifold should be designed
in such a way that the intake manifold must allow the
maximum fresh charge to come in and the exhaust manifold
must remove all the burnt gases to escape. So, there is no
limitation in designing the intake and exhaust manifold if
they carryout the above process correctly. But, if the intake
and exhaust process does not take place properly, it will
affect the volumetric efficiency and so, the design should
be modified accordingly.

6.7.3 Compression ratio

Compression ratio is defined as the degree to which
the fuel mixture is compressed before ignition takes place.
The compression ratio does not have much effect on the
volumetric efficiency because it does not change the
displacement volume. But, there may be a little effect, due
to the amount of residual gas in the cylinder.

6.7.4 The intake and exhaust valve timings

Valve timings in IC engines is the time at which the
inlet and exhaust valves are set to operate. A finite period
of time is needed for the valves to operate at a smooth rate
which is provided by a cam operation. A cam and follower
mechanism is used to achieve a proper opening and closing
of the valves, and also to determine the timing of the valve.

The inlet valve timing and exhaust valve timing affect

the volumetric efficiency. Usually, the inlet port is opened
at some degrees before the TDC in order to allow maximum
possible charge to come in. Many S.I engines are designed
to open at 10 before the TDC and the charge is sucked in
6.12 Thermal Engineering - I

until the piston reaches the BDC. Now, the intake valve
should be closed when the piston reaches BDC, but modern
SI engines tend to close at a few degrees (say 10) after
the BDC for low speed engine and after say 60 for high
speed engine. After reaching BDC, the piston starts the
compression stroke by moving up. So if the intake valve is
still open beyond BDC, the incoming charges are pushed
out by the piston which tend to move up and reach BDC.
Hence, the charge is pushed out by the piston and some
workdone in doing so results in the reduction of
Volumetric efficiency.

TD C TD C
Inta ke o pe ns E xhau st close s
Valve o verlap Inta ke o pe ns E xhau st
o
closes
10
C om pression

o
5 o
10
C om pressio n
Pow er
E VO

o
20
IV O

EVO

o Po w er
25
IV O

o
10 o
60 o
55

Inta ke
Inta ke closes E xhau st op en s closes
BDC E xhau st op en s

BDC
Fig:6.4 (a)
Fig:6.4 (b)

However, it is different for the high speed engines

because the high speed engines bring high pressurized
charges inside the combustion chamber, which acting
against the moving piston and produce a ram effect. This
ram effect could be used as an advantage in order to suck
more of the high pressured fresh charges in. So, the valve
 Actual Cycles and Their Analysis 6.13

time for the high speed engines could be delayed until after
BDC in order to make use of the ram effect.
Now, coming to the exhaust valve timings, the
exhaust valves tend to open slightly before the piston
reaches BDC. For a low speed engine, the valve opens at
25 before the BDC and at 55 before BDC for high speed
engines. Actually, this process of opening the valve before
BDC helps in removing the burnt gases easily without
consumption of much work from the expansion stroke. And
like inlet valves the exhaust valves of modern engines tend
to close at some degrees after the TDC. In a way it is
advantageous because it helps to carry out all the exhaust
gases from the cylinder, but there may be a chance for
valve overlap. Valve overlap occurs when both the inlet and
exhaust valves are opened at the same time. Due to this
effect, scavenging takes place (ie) removing out the fresh
inlet charge through the exhaust. Also, it may result in
loss due to blowdown effect which may affect the volumetric
efficiency.

[NOTE - The valve taming diagrams for both 4 - stroke

and 2 - stroke engines are explained in detail in the earlier
sections, refer Pg No. 1.27 to 1.34.]

Other miscellaneous factors that also affect the

volumetric efficiency are:

(i) Stroke to Bore ratio.

(ii) Fuel type, fraction of fuel vapourised in the intake
system and fuel enthalpy of vapourisation.
(iii) Engine speed.
(iv) Ratio of inlet and exhaust manifold.
6.14 Thermal Engineering - I

(v) The temperature inside the cylinder.

6.8 LOSS DUE TO RUBBING FRICTION

The internal components of an IC engine experience
an enormous amount of thermal and compressive stresses.
The components are usually designed to withstand these
stresses, simultaneously providing a better efficiency.
However, as discussed in the earlier sections, several losses
deteriorate the efficiency. Friction is one of the primary
losses in an engine. Some common factors which influence
the frictional forces in an engine are:

 Surface finish of piston and cylinder

 Lubricant properties
 Engine power
 Heat dissipation
 Other auxillary engine components
6.8.1 Surface finish
The prime components like piston, piston rings,
cylinder walls etc. are expected to maintain a highly
accurate surface finish, with tolerances in the order of few
microns. Also, the materials used should have low frictional
coefficient inorder to reduce the opposing frictional force.
An unsatisfactory surface finish may lead to increased wear
and opposing frictional force, thereby loading the engine.
This load, which may seem to be negligible, could cause
significant losses in the overall efficiency of the engine.

6.8.2 Lubricant properties

The lubricant used should possess high viscosity and
should have the capability to remain stable under varying
thermal conditions. Usually, the viscosity of a substance
 Actual Cycles and Their Analysis 6.15

varies inversely with the applied temperature. As the

temperature increases, the viscosity decreases thus the
lubricating effect also decreases. Due to this reduced
lubricating effect, the frictional coefficient increases. This
leads to significant frictional losses in the system.

6.8.3 Engine power

The engine power is a function of engine speed and
mean effective pressure. As the engine speed increases, the
frictional resistance between the piston rings and the
cylinder wall multiplies. An increase in mean effective
pressure also contributes to a small increase in frictional
resistance. Moreover, as the speed and pressure increase,
the heat developed could affect the proper functioning of
the lubricants. Thus, engine power plays a major role in
the frictional components of an engine.

6.8.4 Heat Dissipation

A proper cooling system ensures proper heat
dissipation from the engine. This reduces the temperature
of the lubricant present in the engine. Thus the lubricant
functions properly and accounts to reduced frictional forces.

6.8.5 Other miscellaneous components

Auxiliary components like super-chargers, cooling
pumps, radiators, etc. could offer a small frictional
resistance in the system.

Bearings are the most commonly present components

of any mechanical system. Though a bearing offers
frictional coefficient only of the order of micron
  mm  10  3, the collective resistances of a number of
bearings could cause a small amount of rise of frictional
forces in the system.
6.16 Thermal Engineering - I

Thus the collective frictional resistances of a number

of auxiliary components could directly affect the efficiency
of the engine.

6.9 BLOWBY LOSSES

Blowby may be defined as the phenomenon by which
the air-fuel mixture reaches the crank case below the
piston. At high pressures, the air-fuel mixture is susceptible
to enter the crank-case through the cracks and crevices in
the piston or the cylinder head.

Moreover, blowby could also occur if there is improper

sealing between the cylinder wall and the piston ring.
Losses due to blowby are more likely to increase when the
engine has operated for a long time. The various thermal
and compressive stresses on the engine could easily cause
the piston and cylinder to develop cracks. Mentioned below
are some of the factors which could cause a blowby loss in
an IC engine.

 Improper sealing by the piston rings.

 Cracks developed on the cylinder walls.
 Oversized bore of the piston.
 Dents and other physical modifications of the
pistons.
 Improper assembly of piston rings.
 More end gaps in the piston rings.
 Late opening of exhaust valves.

6.9.1 Effects of blowby loss on efficiency

 Since a part of the air-fuel mixture escapes to the
crankcase, the gas pressure on the piston reduces.
 Actual Cycles and Their Analysis 6.17

Thus the mean effective pressure also reduces and

this leads to decreased efficiency.
 A high blowby could cause a considerable pressure
rise within the crankcase. This rise in pressure
could create resistive force on the rotation of the
crank, leading to reduced efficiency.

6.9.2 Crankcase ventilation

Crankcase ventilation may be defined as the process
by which the pressure developed inside the crankcase is
reduced by external means. As discussed in the previous
sections, the essential cause of the increased pressure in
the crankcase is due to blowby gases from the combustion
chamber.

Crankcase ventilation is achieved by employing of a

PCV valve. The valve is typically a pressure controlled flow
valve with a spring loaded mechanism.
$LU
$LU &OHDQHU

&DUEXUHWRU &RPEXVWLRQ
&KDPEHU

3&9

&UDQNFDVH

Fig:6.5
6.18 Thermal Engineering - I

The working and the arrangement of a PCV is shown

in Fig.6.6.
During idling process, a rich mixture of fuel is needed
at the inlet of the combustion chamber. However, the
blowby mixture at the crankcase predominantly consists of
air and less amount of fuel. Due to high manifold pressure
at the carburetor, the PCV adjusts accordingly and a small
amount of blowby gases enter the inlet port.

1 Idle Sp eed - H igh M anifold Vacu um - Low F lo w

2 H ig h S p ee d - Low M a nifold Va cuu m - M a x F low

3 B acklin e - Pre ssure F rom M anifold - N o Flow

Fig:6.6 PCV W orking

 Actual Cycles and Their Analysis 6.19

At normal or cruising speeds, the movable end of the

spring shifts to the left due to reduced pressure. As it shifts
to the right, a sizeable amount of blowby gases pass
through the PCV and enter the inlet of the combustion
chamber.
At high speeds, the throttling valve is completely open
and the suction pressure is increased. At this instant, the
entire mixture of air and fuel from the crankcase is forced
inside the combustion chamber through the PCV. However,
when the quantity of the blowby gases exceed a preset
limiting value, the remaining gases are directed towards
the air cleaner and then to the carburetor respectively.
When a backfire occurs, due to reverse pressure, the
PCV completely seals the crankcase from the inlet, thereby
preventing the backflow of gases into the crankcase. Thus,
the crankcase ventilation process is achieved.

6.10 ACTUAL AND FUEL-AIR CYCLES OF CI ENGINES

In reality, a diesel cycle is more efficient than an otto
cycle. Incomplete combustion is the main difference between
an actual cycle and a
fuel-air cycle. As the
80 Fu el-air c ycle
combustions are assumed to
be instantaneous, the 60
P re ssure (ba r)

fuel-air cycle are assumed

40 A ctu al cy cle
to have complete
combustion. 20

In an fuel air process,

0
the allowances are made for 0 4 8 12 16
the amount and type of V cy l / V c

fuel. These are bound to Fig:6.7

6.20 Thermal Engineering - I

reduce the cycle’s efficiency. In an actual cycle, the

allowances are also made for heat transfer, combustion time
and other miscellaneous losses as explained previously.
Thus the efficiency of the cycle further reduces. To
completely understand the exact working of a CI engine,
several computer aided models are being developed. It is to
be noted that in diesel engines, the ratio between actual
efficiency and air-fuel efficiency is around 0.85.
 Refrigeration 5.85

But sg at  18 C  0.9170

Since s10.83114   sg0.9170 , the vapour entering the

compressor is wet.

P T
2

O
18.5 C
3 P 2 =C 2 O 2 3 2 O

O
-18 C sg
P 1=C 1
4 f 4
1 g

s g = 0.9170
f
g
s
h

Note
If s1  sg, then vapour entering compressor is dry
saturated.

If s1  sg, then vapour entering compressor is super

heated.

If s1  sg, then vapour entering compressor is wet.

Since the vapour at entry of compressor is wet, we

have to find the dryness fraction ‘x’, to find h 1.

. .
. h1  hf  x 1hfg at  18C

s1  sf  x 1sfg at  18C
5.86 Thermal Engineering - I

0.83114   0.1507  x10.9170   0.1507

. .
[ . sfg  sg  sf ]

x1  0.919584

h 1   37.68  0.919584 234.69  37.68 

 212.78714 kJ/kg
h 4  h3
where h3  hf at 18.5C  52.75 kJ/kg

So , h 4  52.75 kJ/kg

h1  h4
Now C.O.P 
h2  h1
212.78714  52.75
  4.78969
246.2  212.78714

Problem 5.34: In a 15 TR NH3 refrigerant plant, the

condenser temperature is 25C and evaporating temperature
 10C. The refrigerant NH3 is subcooled by 5 C. The vapour
leaving the evaporator is 0.97 dry. Find (i) the C.O.P (ii) power
required. (FAQ)

Solution:
From NH 3 refrigeration table, take the following
properties

Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Entropy (kJ/kgK)

Temp. Pressure hf hg hfg sf sg
25C 10.027 bar 298.90 1465.84 1166.94 1.1242 5.0391
 10C 2.908 135.37 1433.05 1297.68 0.5443 5.4770
 Refrigeration 5.87

To Find C.O.P
h1  h4
C.O.P 
h2  h1

Inlet to compressor is wet vapour, Outlet of

compressor may be dry saturated or super heated, which
should be found out.

If s2  sg at 25C, then vapour leaving compressor is

super heated.

If s2  sg at 25C, then vapour leaving compressor is

dry saturated.

If s2  sg at 25C, then vapour leaving compressor is

wet.

s2  s1 [Isentropic compression]

s1  sf  x1sfg at  10C

 0.5443  0.97 5.4770  0.5443 

s1  5.3290 kJ /kg K  s2

sg at 25C  5.0391 kJ/kg K

Sinces25.3290   sg at 25C 5.0391 , it is super

heated vapour at the end of compression.

Find h1, h2 and h4

To Find h1
h1  hf  x 1hfg at  10C

 135.37  0.971297.68 

h1  1394.119 kJ/kg
5.88 Thermal Engineering - I

To Find h2 T D e gre e
of
Before that, we have to sub co o lin g 2
find T2 o 3 2 O
25 C

5C
o
T2 o
20 C 3 O

s2  s2  C p ln
vap T 2
h3= h4
where
O

s2  sg at 25 C  5.0391
o
-1 0 C
4 1
s
C p  4.84 kJ/kg K

[It can be taken from HMT table]

T 2  25  273  298 K

s2  s1  5.3290 kJ /kgK

 T2 
5.3290  5.0391  4.84  ln 
 298 

T2
ln  0.059
298

T2
 0.059
298

T2  316.394 K; t2  43.39C

h2  h2  C p t2  t2

vap

where h2  h g at 25 C  1465.84 kJ/kg

h 2  1465.84  4.84 43.39  25

h2  1554.847 kJ/kg
 Refrigeration 5.89

To Find h4
h 4  h 3

h3  h f at 20C  275.16 kJ/kg  h4

[From Refrigeration Table]

h1  h4 1394.119  275.16
C.O.P    6.9618
h2  h1 1554.847  1394.119

Refrigeration effect in kW R.E

Also, C.O.P 
Power W

R.E  15 T R  15  3.5  52.5 kW

52.5
Power   7.5411 kW
6.9618

Po wer  7.5411 kW

Problem 5.35: An NH3 refrigeration produces 30 tons of ice

from and at 0C in a day of 24 hrs. The temperature range
in the compressor is from 25C to  15C. The vapour is dry
saturated at the end of compression. Assume actual C.O.P is
60% of theoretical C.O.P. Calculate the power required to drive
the compressor. Assume latent heat of ice as 335 kJ/kg. For
properties, refer table or charts. (FAQ)

Solution:
Steps: 1. Find theoretical C.O.P and actual C.O.P.

2. Find R.E in kW

3. Find power using actual C.O.P.

From Refrigeration table

5.90 Thermal Engineering - I

Temp hf hg h fg sf sg

25C 298.9 1465.84 1160.94 1.1242 5.0391

 15C 112.39 1426.58 1314.19 0.4572 5.5497

p T

3 2
3 2
T 2 =2 98
(2 5 OC )
O
25 C
f
4 1
T 1 =2 58
(-1 5 OC ) 4 1 g
O
-1 5 C
h S

Find h1, h2 and h4

h 2  h g at 25C  1465.84 kJ/kg

h 4  h 3 and h3  hf at 25C  298.90 kJ/kg

So, h 4  298.90 kJ/kg

To Find h1
s1  s2  sg at 25C  5.0391 kJ/kg K
s1  sf  x1sfg at  15C
5.0391  0.4572  x1 5.5497  0.4572 
x 1  0.8997
h 1  h f  x1h fg at  15C
h 1  112.39  0.8997 1314.19 
 1294.766 kJ/kg
 Refrigeration 5.91

h1  h4 1294.766  298.9
C.O.P    5.8212
h2  h1 1465.84  1294.766

Theoretical C.O.P  5.8212

Actual C.O.P  0.6  5.8212

 3.4927

R.E in kW
Actual C.O.P 
Power in kW

To Find R.E in kW
Heat removed from water at 0C to produce 30 tons
of ice at 0C in 24 hours = R.E. in kW = Q total

30  1000   335

  116.32 k W
24  3600 

kJ
 kg   kW
kg  sec

Power
Power required to drive the compressor

R.E in kW 116.32
 
Actual C.O.P 4927

 33.30 kW

Power  33.30 kW

Problem 5.36: An ice plant using NH3 as refrigerant works

between  15C and 35C and produces 10 tons of ice per day
from water supplied at 0C. The ice temperature is  5C.
Assuming simple saturated cycle and using the following
properties of NH3, determine
(i) The capacity of the refrigeration system required.
5.92 Thermal Engineering - I

(ii) The discharge temperature.

(iii) The diameter and stroke of the compressor cylinder if its
speed is limited to 1250 r.p.m. Take L/D as 1.2 and volumetric
efficiency of the compressor as 0.75.
(iv) The power of the motor required to run the compressor if
the isentropic efficiency is 85% and mechanical efficiency of
95%.
(v) The theoretical and actual C.O.P. (Dec 2014 JNTU)

Saturation Pressure Specific Specific Specific

Temp. enthalpy entropy volume

hf hg sf sg vg

C bar kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg-K kJ/kg-K m3/kg

 15 2.36 112.3 1426 0.457 5.549 0.509

35 13.5 347.5 1471 1.282 4.930 0.096

Given:

T 2  T3  35 C  308 K h 3  h f at 35  C

T 1   15C  258 K  347.5 kJ/kg  h 4

 Refrigeration 5.93

Solution:
From table
h1  hg a t  15  C  1426 kJ/kg [Saturated dry vapour]

s1  sg at  15 C  5.549 kJ/kgK

s1  s2 [Isentropic compression]

h 2  hg at 35 C  1471 kJ/kg

s2  sg at 35 C  4.93 kJ/kg

 T2 
s2  s2  cp ln  
T 
 2 
 T2 
5.549  4.930  4.8 ln  
 308 
 T 2  350 K

[C p  4.8 kJ/kgK, from table]

Discharge temperature, T2  350 K

h 2  h 2  C p T 2  T 2

 1471  4.8 350  308 

h 2  1672 kJ /kg

 3.5T
Mass flowrate m 
h1  h4

 3.5  10
m  0.032 kg/s
1426  347.5

L/ D  1.2

L  1.2D
5.94 Thermal Engineering - I

 2 N 
D L v   m vg1
4 60

From refrigeration table page 26

0.5303  0.4896
vg 
2
 0.509 m3/kg
 3 1250
D  1.2  0.75   0.032  0.509
4 60
 D  0.103 m  10.3 cm

L  12.4 cm

Power of motor P  m h2  h1

 0.032 1672  1426

 7.87 kW

P
Actual power 
mech   isen

7.87
 9.74 kW
0.85  0.95

 Total Actual Power Required = 9.74 kW

h 1  h4
COP theo 
h2  h1

1426  347.5
  4.38
1672  1426

COP act  4.38  0.95  4.161

 Refrigeration 5.95

Problem 5.37: A vapour compression system of 5 ton capacity

operates at 40C condenser and  16C evaporator
temperatures. Vapour is superheated at the entry to the
compressor by 5C. Determine the COP and power requirement.
Use the following properties of the refrigerant.
(JNTU - Dec 2014)

At tsat  40 C P sat  1.0166 MPa  ; h f  256.41 kJ/kg

hg  419.43 kJ/kg; sg  1.711 kJ/kgK, C p  1.145 kJ/kgK

At tsat   16 C P sat  0.1572 MPa ; hg  389.02 kJ/kg

sg  1.7379 kJ/kgK ; C p  0.831 kJ/kgK

T1   16 C  257 K

T 2  40 C  313 K o
40 C

Degree of superheat
t1  t1  5 C o
-11 C
o
-1 6 C
h1   h 4
COP 
h 2  h 1

h1  h 1  Cp [Degree of superheat]

h 1  h g at  16 C

h1  389.02  0.831  5  393.17 kJ/kg

h 2  h2  Cp T 2  T2

To find T2 [s1  sg at  16 C  1.7379 kJ/kgK]

s1  s2 [Isentropic compression]
5.96 Thermal Engineering - I

T 1
s1  s1  C p ln
T1

 262 
 1.7379  0.831  ln    1.754 kJ/kgK
 257 
 T2 
s2  s2  Cp ln  
 T 2 
 T2 
1.754  1.711  1.145  ln  
 313 
 T2 
ln    0.0376
 313 
 T2  324.98 K

h2  h2  C p T2  T2

h 2  hg at 40C

h2  419.43  1.145 324.98  313  433.14 kJ/kg

h3  hf at 40 C  256.41 kJ/kg  h 4

h 1  h4 393.17  256.41
 COP    3.42
h 2  h 1 433.14  393.17

Also, R.E in kW  m h 1  h4

 3.5T 3.5  5
m   0.127 kg/s
h 1  h4 393.17  256.141

Power Required  m h2  h1 kW

Power  0.127 433.14  393.17

 5.11 kW
 Refrigeration 5.97

Problem 5.38: In an Ammonia Vapour compression

refrigerator, the temperature of refrigerator is  10C. Vapour
is condensed in a condenser at 30C. Find the theoretical cop
of the cycle when the vapour at the end of the compression is
0.9 dry. (JNTU - Dec 2013)

T 1   10 C  263 K ; T2  30 C  303 K

x 2  0.9
From Refrigeration table - Khurmi - Pg 26

For  10 C For 30C

h f1  135.37 kJ/kg hf2  323.08 kJ/kg;

h fg1  1297.68 kJ/kg hfg2  1145.79 kJ/kg

sf1  0.5443 kJ/kgK sf2  1.2037 kJ/kgK;

sg1  5.477 kJ/kgK sg2  4.9842 kJ/kgK

RE h1  h4
COP  
W h2  h1
h2  hf2  x2 hfg2  323.08  0.9  1145.79
 1354.291 kJ/kg
5.98 Thermal Engineering - I

s2  sf2  x2 sfg2

 sf2  x2 sg2  sf2

 1.2037  0.9 4.9842  1.2037 

 4.6061 kJ/kgK

s2  s1 [Isentropic compression]

s1  sf1  x1 sfg1

4.6061  0.544  x1 5.4770  0.544

4.6061  0.544  4.93x 1

x 1  0.8239

h 1  h f1  x1 h fg1

 135.37  0.8239  1297.68

 1204.528 kJ/kg

h3  hf
2 [After condensing at 30 C ]
 323.08 kJ/kg

Also h 3  h 4

 h 4  323.08 kJ/kg

h1  h4
 COP 
h2  h1

1204.528  323.08

1354.291  1204.528

COP  5.8856
 Refrigeration 5.99

5.9 PERFORMANCE CALCULATION - FACTORS

AFFECTING PERFORMANCE OF A VAPOUR
COMPRESSION SYSTEM
The factors which affect the performance of a vapour
compression system are
(i) Effect of suction pressure (Fig. 5.18)
The effect of reduction
in suction pressure is shown
P (Pressu re )
in the P-H diagram Fig. 5.18.
2 2O
3
C.O.P of original cycle P2

h1  h4

h2  h1
4 1
P1
C.O.P of cycle with 4O 1O

reduction in suction pressure H (E ntha lp y)

Fig. 5.18
h 1  h4
C.O.P 
h 2  h 1

h1  h4  h1  h1


h 2  h1  h 1  h 1  h2  h 2

This shows that the refrigeration effect is reduced and

work required is increased. The net effect reduces the
refrigerating capacity of the system and the C.O.P.
(ii) Effect of delivery pressure (Fig. 5.19)
The effect of increase in delivery pressure is shown
in the Fig. 5.19.

h1  h4
Original C.O.P 
h2  h1
5.100 Thermal Engineering - I

The C.O.P of increas ed  h1  h4


delivery Pressure  h2  h1 P ( P re ssu re )

3 O  O

This shows clearly that 3

P2 2
the refrigeration effect is
reduced and work required is
increased as in previous case. P1 4 4 O 1
The net effect reduces the
refrigerating capacity of the Fig. 5.19
H (E nthalp y)

system and hence C.O.P.

Note:
(i) As the discharge temperature required in the
summer is more as compared with winter, the same
machine will give less refrigerating effect (load
capacity decrease) at a higher cost.
(ii) The increase in discharge pressure is necessary for
high condensing temperatures and decrease in
suction pressure is necessary to maintain low
temperature in the evaporator.
(iii) Effect of superheating and subcooling
The effect of superheating and subcooling have been
already discussed in the previous section.

(iv) Effect of suction or vapourising temperature and

condenser temperature
The performance of a vapour compression system
varies considerably with both vapourising and condensing
temperatures. Of these, vapourising temperature has a
greater effect. It is seen that the capacity and performance
of the refrigerating system improve as the vapourising
temperature increases and the condensing temperature
decreases.
 Refrigeration 5.101

5.9.1 Calculations in a vapour compression

refrigeration system.
(i) Refrigeration effect: It is the amount of heat
absorbed by the refrigerant in its travel through the
evaporator.

R.E  h 1  h 4 kJ/kg.

(ii) Mass of refrigerant circulated:

Mass of refrigerant circulated

 One tonne of refrigeration

m
Refrigeration Effect

 3.5
m in kg/sec  tonnes .
h1  h4
(iii) Theoretical piston displacement:

Theoretical piston displacement

 m  vg1
Sp. volume of refrigerant gas at
 Ma ss of refrigerant 
its e ntrance of compres sor

(iv) Power (Theoretical) required):

(a) For isentropic compression

Work of compression  h 2  h 1

Power required  m h2  h1 kW

(b) For polytropic process P vn  C

n
Work of compression  P v  P 1v1 in Nm/kg
n1 2 2
5.102 Thermal Engineering - I

n
Power required m P v  P 1v1 in Watts
n1 2 2
where m : m ass of
refrigera nt circulated in kg/s
(v) Heat rejected to compressor cooling water:

Heat rejected to compressor cooling water

 n 
 P 2v2  P1v1  h 2  h 1 
n1 
(vi) Heat removed through condenser

Heat removed through condenser  m h2  h3 in kJ/s

or kW.

m : mass of refrigerant circulated in kg/s.

5.10 VAPOUR ABSORPTION SYSTEM

The vapour absorption system differs from the
compression system in a way that it uses heat energy
instead of mechanical energy to make a change in the
condition necessary to complete the refrigeration cycle. The
heat energy for this purpose may be obtained from a gas
burner, kerosene lamp or electric heater. The system uses
a minimum number of moving parts. The only moving parts
used by smaller units are valves and controls but larger
units are circulating pumps and fans also. Due to the
absence of moving parts such units are quiet in operation
and may be used for both commercial and domestic
installations. The working of an absorption machine
depends upon the use of two substances which have a great
affinity for each other and which can be easily separated
by the application of heat. The principal combinations are
sulphuric acid and water or ammonia and water etc.
 Refrigeration 5.103

5.10.1 Working principle of vapour absorption

A simple vapour absorption system is shown in the
Fig. 5.20. If a compressor in a vapour compression system
were replaced with a generator absorber assembly, the
result would be a simple vapour absorption system.

CO NDEN SOR
A M M O N IA VA P O U R

C O O L IN G
G E N E R ATO R W AT E R
STRONG
S O LU T IO N
W E A K S O L U T IO N
PU MP
R E C E IV E R

C O O L IN G A B S O R B E R
W AT E R EVA POR ATOR
E X PA N S IO N
VA LV E
Fig . 5.20 A S IM P L E VA P O U R A B S O R P TIO N S Y S TE M

A low pressure refrigerant vapour (Ammonia) coming

from the evaporator is absorbed in the absorber by the
weak solution of refrigerant in water. Absorption of
ammonia lowers the pressure in the absorber, which in turn
draws more ammonia vapour from the evaporator. Cooling
arrangement evolved in absorber. This increases ammonia
absorption capacity of water. The pump draws strong
solution from the absorber, builds up a pressure upto 10
bar and forces the strong solution in the generator. In the
generator, strong solution of ammonia is heated by some
external source such as a gas or steam. In the heating
process, the ammonia vapour is driven out of the solution
leaving behind the generator a weak solution. The weak
5.104 Thermal Engineering - I

solution flows back to the absorber through a control valve

which maintains the pressure differential between the high
and low sides of the system. From the generator the
refrigerant vapour goes to the condenser where it is
condensed. Then the high pressure liquid ammonia is
passed through a throttle valve to the evaporator where it
absorbs its latent heat thus producing cooling effect.
5.10.2 Practical vapour absorption system
The simple vapour absorption system can provide
refrigeration but its operating efficiency is very low. In
order to make it more practical it is fitted with accessories
like heat exchanger, an analyser and a rectifier. The
practical vapour absorption system is shown in the Fig.
5.21.

AM M O N IA VA PO U R

C ooling w ater R EC TIFIE R

S trong solution

Analyser

R eceiver

W eak solution

H eat exchanger

Pum p

Expansion valve
Fig. 5.21
 Refrigeration 5.105

(i) Heat Exchanger

Heat exchanger is located between the generator and
absorber. The strong solution pumped from the absorber to
the generator is heated. The weak solution from generator
to absorber is cooled. This is done in the heat exchanger.
The heat exchanger therefore reduces both the cost of
heating the generator and the cost of cooling the absorber.
(ii) Analyser
Analyser is a direct contact heat exchanger consisting
of a series of trays mounted above the generator. Its
function is to remove partly some of the unwanted water
particles associated with ammonia vapour going to the
condenser. The water vapour if allowed to enter the
condenser may enter the expansion valve, get freezed and
hence chock the pipeline.
(iii) Rectifier
The final reduction (elimination) of the percentage of
water vapour occurs in the rectifier. It is a water cooled
heat exchanger which condenses water vapour (and some
ammonia) and returns it to the generator.
The net refrigerating effect of the machine is the heat
extracted in the evaporator. The total energy supplied for
operating the machine is the sum of the workdone by the
liquid pump and the heat supplied in the generator.
C.O.P of machine
Heat extracted from the evaporator

W ork done b y pu mp  Heat supplied in generator
5.106 Thermal Engineering - I

5.11 REFRIGERANT
A refrigerant is defined as the substance which
absorbs heat through expansion or vapourization and loses
heat through condensation in the refrigeration system.
Usually refrigenants consist of those working mediums
which pass through the cycle of evaporation, recovery,
compression, condensation and recovery. These substances
absorb heat from a body at low temperatures and reject
them at a place of higher temperature at the cost of some
mechanical work.

Refrigerants are classified into

 Primary refrigerants - These are heat carriers

which directly take part in the refrigeration
process and absorb the latent heat of the
substances, thereby cooling them Eg -
NH 3, CO2, SO2, CH3Cl, Freon groups etc.

 Secondary refrigerants - These substances are

initially cooled down by primary refrigerants and
then used for refrigeration purposes. Eg - Ice, solid
CO 2 etc.

5.11.1 Characteristics of good refrigerants

1. The refrigerant should not be poisonous.
2. It should not be corrosive.
3. It should not be explosive.
4. It should not be inflammable.
5. It should operate under low pressure (i.e. Its boiling
point should be low).
6. It should not be toxic.
 Refrigeration 5.107

7. The difference between vapourising pressure and

condensing pressure of refrigerant should be
minimum.
8. The standard evaporator temperature  15 C and
condenser temperature  30 C is being preferred for
refrigerant.
9. It should be cheap and abundantly available.
10. It should be eco-friendly.
11. The refrigerant should have higher latent heat to
increase the refrigeration effect.
12. It should have lesser specific heat to decrease the
work input.
13. It should have higher critical point.
5.11.2 Refrigerants Number
ASHRAE - American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
and Air-conditioning Engineers have given numbers as
follows.

Refrigerant Name Chemical

No. Formula
R-11 Trichloromono fluoro meth ane CCl3F

R-12 Dichloro di fluoro me thane CCl2F2

R-22 Mon ochlorodifluoro methane CHC lF2

R-500 Aze otropic mixture of 73.8% R12

and 26.2% R-152(a)
R-502 Azeotropic mixture of 48.8% R22
and 51.2% R-115
R-717 Ammonia NH 3
5.108 Thermal Engineering - I

5.12 AMMONIA - WATER ABSORPTION SYSTEM

5.12.1 Absorption Refrigeration: (Electrolux

Refrigerator)
Steps
1. Ammonia enters the condenser as vapour.
2. It is condensed into liquid in the condenser.
3. The liquid ammonia enters the expansion valve as
a liquid.
4. It partially flashes into vapour in the expansion
valve.
5. Remaining liquid ammonia is further vaporized as
it absorbs heat in the evaporator.
 Refrigeration 5.109

Note: Upto this point, (i.e. the part of the flow diagram
to the left of line AA in Fig. 5.22) is same as that of vapour
compression cycle.
6. Ammonia vapour from the evaporator is dissolved in
the water in the absorber. Now the heat is removed
from the absorber to keep its temperature constant.
[This process is called exothermic process which
is a condensation process of a pure substance. The
absorber temperature is maintained as low as
possible.]
7. The strong ammonia-water solution is then pumped
to the generator which is at the condenser pressure.
8. Heat is added to the solution in the generator to
drive much of the ammonia out of solution. [This
process is called endothermic process which is an
evaporation process of pure substance.]
9. Ammonia vapour (only ammonia-not water) goes to
condenser and the weak ammonia-water solution left
in the generator passes through (return line) a valve
back to the absorber.
10. Then the cycle is repeated and the evaporator
removes heat from the space to be cooled.
5.12.2 Lithium Bromide Absorption System
Lithium Bromide absorption system is a type of
refrigeration system which uses water as refrigerant.
Lithium Bromide is used to transfer the heat inside the
system by acting as an absorbent. Fig.5.23 shows the
working principle of this system.
5.110 Thermal Engineering - I

Process cycle
 The water to be chilled is sent through tubes
inside the system.
 The refrigerant water cools the tube and receives
enough heat from it to produce vapour particles.
 These vapour particles are mixed with a strong
solution of a spray of Lithium Bromide, thereby
diluting it. This process is called Absorption and
it takes place inside the absorption chamber.
 The diluted Li-Br solution is then pumped to
generator through a heat exchanger.

C onden ser C oolin g

Wa ter O ut
S trong LiB r

H eating C o il
C oolin g
Wa ter

G en erator

E xpan ding Valve Wa ter

Tube
S trong D iluted
L iB r L iB r
E vapo rato r
H eat
E xchanger
~

A bsorb er
D iluted L i B r
C oolin g W ate r
Fig. 5.23 L ithiu m Bro mide Vapo ur A bsorption S yste m - w o rkin g
 Refrigeration 5.111

 The generator is either heated with a heating coil

or a superheated steam. Thus the water vapour
in the diluted solution evaporates, and condenses
inside the condenser, leaving behind a strong
Li-Br solution.
 This strong solution is taken back to the absorber
to be sprayed in to the water vapour. This process
is cyclic.
 The condensed water in the condenser, reaches the
evaporator through an expansion valve and makes
up for the water vapour produced.
 An external supply of cooling water is given to the
condenser through the absorber, to aid the heat
transfer.

5.13 GAS LIQUEFACTION SYSTEM

5.13.1 Hampson-Linde Gas Liquefaction System

After multistage compression, the gas is cooled from
state 2 to state 3 at constant pressure in an after-cooler.

The gas is further cooled to state 4 by a regenerative

heat exchanger.

After expansion through a throttle valve, the fluid is

in the liquid-vapour mixtures state 5 and is mechanically
separated into liquid (state a) and vapour (state 6).

The liquid is drawn off as the desired product and

the vapour flows through the regenerative heat exchanger
to cool the gas flowing toward the throttle valve.

The area under line 6-7 on the T-S diagram equals

that under 3-4.
5.112 Thermal Engineering - I

2 C on stan t-p ress ure

co olin g in a fte rco oler
W in
Q ou t A fterco oler G a s from o utside
Q o ut sys te m is m ix ed w ith
M ultista ge g as in sta te 7 to fo rm
com p ressor 1 g as in sta te 1 th at
A d ditio na l co o lin g e nte rs th e m ultista ge
3 Q 7 in re pre se nta tive co m p res so r.
H e at T h ea t e xch a ng er=
E xcha ng er 0 h ea t a d de d to ta ke
M u ltistag e
G as
Expa nsio n

4 the flu id fro m 2

co m p res sio n
sta te 6 to 7
0
va lve

6
3 1
5 7
S e pe ra tor
a L iqu id Irre versib le exp a nsion
throu gh valve
4

Gas liquefaction: 6

H am pson - Linde system a 5

F lu id is m ech a nically se p ara ted in to
va po r in state 6 an d liq uid in sta te a
Fig. 5.24 S

The gas at state 7 is mixed with an amount of gas

from outside equal to the amount of liquid removed and
this mixture in state 1 enters the compressor.

5.13.2 Claude System for Liquefying Gases

From state 1 to state 4, both Claude and
Hamson-Linde system are same.

After the gas is cooled to state 4 by the compressor

after cooler followed by a regenerative heat exchanger, most
of it is expanded through an engine and then it is mixed
with vapour from the separator and flows back toward the
compressor through a heat exchanger which precooles
appreciably the small fraction of the flow that is directed
toward the throttle valve instead of the engine.

In the separator, the liquid is separated from the

vapour-liquid mixture.

Simplified flow and T-S diagrams are shown in Fig. 5.25.

 Refrigeration 5.113

Q out

C om pressor
3 2
M ultistage W in
10
Q com pre-
ssor
1
9 Q out
heat exchanger

4 0
regenerative

G as
Q W E ngine is used
to obtain w ork
5 8 T from the system 2
0
e
6 7 1
3 10
S eparator
a 4
Liquid 9
W ork is
obtained
G as liquefaction : 5 8 e from
C laude system a 6 7 expansion
Fig. 5.25 process
s

5.13.3 Advantages and Limitations of vapour

absorption system:
Advantages
(i) Compression of liquid requires lesser power.
(ii) Low grade energy (fire wood heat) is sufficient to
run the system.
(iii) Friction loss is minimum due to the absence of
compressor. Therefore mechanical efficiency is high.
(iv) Noise and vibration is minimum.
Limitations
(i) It occupies more space and more volume.
(ii) Initial investment is more.
(iii) It is not suitable for smaller capacity.
(iv) It is more complicated for fabricating the plant.
5.114 Thermal Engineering - I

5.14 COMPARISION BETWEEN VAPOUR

COMPRESSION AND VAPOUR ABSORPTION SYSTEM

Vapour Compression Vapour Absorption

(i) Compressor is used. No compressor is used;
Absorber pump, generator
and throttling valves are
used.
(ii) It is suitable for low It is suitable for higher
capacity. capacity.
(iii) Only high grade energy Low grade heat energy is
mechanical energy and sufficient.
electrical energy are
needed.
(iv) C.O.P is less. C.O.P is more.
(v) Initial investment is less. Initial investment is
more.
(vi) It occupies less volume It occupies more volume
and space. and space.
(vii) Leakage cannot be Leakage can be easily
detected easily. detected due to presence
of water.
(viii) Mechanical efficiency is Mechanical efficiency is
low. more.

5.15 APPLICATION OF CRYOGENIC

Cryogenic is the study of materials at very low
temperature upto  200C

(i) Application of Liquid Oxygen

(a) Liquid oxygen is used in fire extinguisher.
 Refrigeration 5.115

(b) It is used for artificial respiration in medical field.

(c) It is used for deep sea diving and swimming.
(d) It is used for climbing mountains and treckking.
(e) It is used for oxy-acetylene welding.
(ii) Application of Liquid Nitrogen
(a) It is used in hydrogenation. (for manufacturing
vegetable oil and vanaspathi)
(b) It is used for manufacturing fertilizers. (like NH 3,
ammonia acid)
(c) It is used for storage in low temperature.
(iii) Application of Carbon-di-oxide
(a) It is used for fire extinguisher.
(b) It is used for storage purpose.
(c) It is used for special type of welding.
(iv) Application of Inert Gases
(a) Inert gases are filled up in space exploration
balloons.
(b) Advertisement boards are filled up with inert gases.
(c) TIG - Tungsten Inert Gas welding.
MIG - Metal Inert Gas Welding - These are used
for welding.
 Chapter - 6

Actual Cycles and Their Analysis

Introduction, Comparision of air standard and actual cycles,

Time loss factor, Heat loss factor, Exhaust Blowdown - Loss due
to Gas exchange processes, Volumetric efficiency. Loss due to
Rubbing friction, Actual and fuel - air cycles of CI engine.

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Air standard cycle is a cycle which uses air as the
working medium and assumes that the working medium
behaves as a perfect working substance. Air standard cycle
also prevents all the heat losses that could occur in an
engine and pictures it as an imaginary perfect engine. The
steps involved in air standard cycles are simple and
idealistic, which is why They are also called as Ideal cycles.

The following assumptions are made to consider a

process as an air standard cycle.

1. The working substance should be a perfect gas with

standard specific heats.
2. The heat transfer should be simple and no chemical
reactions should occur.
3. It must be a reversible process.
4. The heat losses are assumed to be zero.
The otto cycle and diesel cycle of an IC engine are
said to be air standard cycles but their real working
processes greatly vary with respect to their physical
properties. A normal engine operation is subjected to
various heat losses, change in heat input, change in
working medium, etc.
6.2 Thermal Engineering - I

The cycle which accounts to the every possible losses

in real time environments may be referred to as an actual
cycle.

The actual cycle efficiency is much lesser than the

air-standard efficiency because of the various losses
occurring in an actual engine. If the losses due to variable
specific heats due to varying temperatures are neglected
from an air standard cycle, then it is called as Fuel-air
cycle. In fuel air cycle, the working medium is the mixture
of air and fuel vapour or atomized liquid fuel. Each cycle
varies with each other in many aspects.

6.2 COMPARISON OF AIR-STANDARD AND ACTUAL

CYCLES
As discussed earlier, the actual cycle is different from
air standard cycle due to various losses that occur in an
engine. So, the losses must be taken into account while
studying the difference between both the cycles. The major
losses occurring in an heat engine are:-

(i) Dissociation losses.

(ii) Loss due to incomplete combustion.
(iii) Time loss.
(iv) Heat loss.
(v) Loss due to variation of specific heats with
temperature.
(vi) Loss due to exhaust blowdown.
(vii) Loss due to rubbing friction.
(viii) Loss due to blowby gases.
The above losses are used to differentiate actual
cycles from air-standard cycles and also fuel-air cycles.
 Actual Cycles and Their Analysis 6.3

Each of the losses results in the decrease of thermal

efficiency and power output of the actual engine. So,
understanding them clearly would help us to improve the
performance of an actual engine. Along with these losses,
there are some factors that also amount to the difference
between these cycles. They are,
(a) The working medium
In case of a fuel-air cycle, the working medium would
be air-fuel mixture, whereas for air standard cycle, it is
pure air.
(b) The nature of working substance
In case of air-standard cycle, the working substance
remains unchanged from the start to end whereas in other
cycles the chemical composition of the working substance
may change.
(c) The variation of temperature, pressure and composition
of fresh charge indicates the difference between the cycles.
(d) Heat transfer is a property which differentiates actual
cycles and air-standard cycles because, in air-standard
cycles there is no heat transfer between the components.
In an actual engine, there is a significant amount of heat
transfer to and from the working substance as well as the
cylinder walls and various other components. Hence the
efficiency of the working cycle changes accordingly.
(e) Gas leakage, fluid friction, engine design, rpm, etc. are
all responsible for defining the losses in an actual engine
cycle.
6.4 Thermal Engineering - I

All the above factors could be used to compare actual

cycles, air standard cycles and fuel-air cycles. Efficiencies
of each cycles also vary with one another.

For example, the efficiency of actual cycle will always

be lower than air-standard cycle because of the mentioned
losses that occur in an actual engine. All the major losses
are discussed briefly in the coming sections.

6.3 TIME LOSS

Under actual cycle, it is almost impossible to obtain
a homogeneous mixture of air and fuel as there are
contaminants like carbon deposits, fuel charge from
previous cycles etc. Thus, a part of the fuel in the
combustion chamber reacts better than its counterpart
when heat is applied. Hence, the time taken for the charge
to burn completely varies for every cycle. Moreover, the
time taken to completely burn a charge also varies due to
the following factors:

 Homogeneity of the air-fuel mixture.

 Flame speed.
 Configuration of the combustion chamber.
 Turbulence in the air-fuel mixture.
 Distance needed to travel by the flame.
 Air-fuel ratio.
A homogeneous mixture burns steadily and
uniformly within a preset time. However, it depends upon
the mixing before the inlet. As little time is available at
the inlet for proper mixing of air and fuel, there is always
a compromise of the homogeneity of the mixture.
 Actual Cycles and Their Analysis 6.5

Flame speed depends upon the air-fuel mixture, type

of fuel used and the available volume. It is easier for a
flame to burn through a dense charge of air and fuel rather
than a small amount of charge. Flame speed is also higher
at richer air-fuel ratios.
Configuration of the combustion chamber deals
with the geometry and the space available for the
propagation of flame. A cylinder with smaller stroke and
larger bore burns the fuel more quickly than its alternate.

Turbulence of the mixture depends upon the inlet

valve and its position. A turbulent mixture burns more
rapidly than a less agitated mixture. By positioning the
inlet valve suitably, several motions of air-fuel mixture
within the cylinder can be obtained. A turbulent mixture
burns faster than a non-turbulent mixture.

The air-fuel ratio is also responsible for the time

required to complete the burning process. So, the correct
proportion of air-fuel ratio must be provided in order to
achieve proper burning within a given interval of time. The
fuel’s chemical structure and also its ignition temperature
must be taken into account to determine the time required
for it to burn completely during combustion. Any variation
in air-fuel ratio could result in a time loss due to the time
consumed by the burning process.

Maximum power depends on the peak pressure of the

cycle. If the spark is too early in the cycle, work is done
against the expansion of gases. Thus the energy is lost. If
the spark occurs after TDC, the peak pressure may not be
achieved easily, consequently leading to reduced power and
efficiency.
6.6 Thermal Engineering - I

These above factors are the reasons for power loss

due to time factor in an internal combustion engine.
However, in an ideal cycle, the heat addition is assumed
to be instantaneous.
Thus, with the actual losses, the total work done by
a cycle is depicted by a graph of Volume vs Pressure as
shown in the Fig. 6.1.




,
   

  



  

   


,
 3
 

      
'F\O  'F Fig:6.1

6.4 HEAT LOSS FACTORS

The losses due to heat transfer play a major role in
the efficiency of an IC engine. To determine the total heat
loss of an engine, it is necessary to understand the
distribution of heat among various components of an
engine. During the combustion process, an enormous
amount of heat is generated. This heat is used to drive the
piston. However, a fraction of this heat is dissipated into
 Actual Cycles and Their Analysis 6.7

various components such as cylinder walls, piston rings etc.

through conduction or convection process. The engine as a
whole radiates a negligible amount of heat per cycle.
Moreover, a part of the generated heat is quenched
instantaneously by the coolants flowing through the jackets.
A fraction of the heat is also transferred to the lubricating
oil.
Thus, the heat generated through the combustion
process is transferred to several processes as shown below.

Workdone to drive the

piston
Convection and conduction
heat transfer to internal
components
Heat Generated
Heat transfer through
cooling systems
Heat lost at the exhaust
stroke
Heat lost due to unburnt
fuel

It may be noted that a sizeable fraction of the heat

produced is repelled out of the engine during the exhaust
stroke even before it gets converted into work. This is due
to the constraints in the time required to convert all the
heat into work.
6.8 Thermal Engineering - I

Thus, even if the losses due to heat are minimized,

only one-fifth of the total heat energy produced is converted
into quantifiable work.

On a larger picture, heat losses however contribute to

only 12% - 15% of the total losses of an IC engine.

6.5 EXHAUST BLOWDOWN

Exhaust blowdown is the process in which some of
the combustion gases escape through the exhaust port if
the exhaust valve is opened before Bottom dead center. This
is due to the self pressure created by the piston at the end
of the combustion stroke and also it depends upon the
compression ratio of the engine.

The basic operation of the exhaust stroke is to pump

out all the exhaust gases through the exhaust valve. Since
the piston has to work against the self pressure created,
extra power is consumed to pump all the gases. This results
in loss of power and this phenomenon is called as exhaust
blowdown loss. It can be avoided, if the exhaust valve opens
at or after the BDC, (or) the best way is to open the
exhaust valve between 40  70 before BDC which inturn

E xpa n sion stro ke Id ea l diag ram

P ressu re (b ar)

E a rly e xh a ust v a lv e o p en in g
7 .0
O ptim um exha us t va lve op en in g

3 .5
E xha u st Valve O pe n in g a t
b ottom d ea d ce ntre

Vo lu m e Fig:6.2
 Actual Cycles and Their Analysis 6.9

reduces the exhaust pressure of the cylinder into half (from

7 bar to 3.5 bar). The Fig.6.2 explains the exhaust
blowdown process.

6.6 LOSS DUE TO GAS EXCHANGE PROCESS

The phenomenon of gas exchange process is the
admission of fresh charge during the inlet stroke and the
removal of exhaust gases at the end of the combustion
stroke. In other words, the difference between the workdone
in removing the exhaust gases, and the workdone in
admitting fresh charge is called as Pumping work. Also,
the loss occurring due to this pumping work is called as
pumping loss. This loss is due to the difference of pressure
between lower inlet pressure (Pi) and the highest exhaust
pressure (Pe).

Ex
pa
ns
io n

Co
mp
re s
sio
n
E xha u st
Pe
P a tm
Pi
P u m ping w o rk
V
Fig:6.3 G as Exch an ge pro cesses

The Fig.6.3 shows the gas exchange process in SI

engine. The shaded area indicates the pumping work of
pressure from lower value to higher value; from suction to
exhaust. The pumping loss increases with throttling,
6.10 Thermal Engineering - I

because throttling reduces the suction pressure and also it

increases with speed. The volumetric efficiency of the
engine is greatly affected by the losses occurring due to gas
exchange processes which will be explained briefly in the
next article.

6.7 VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY

The volumetric efficiency is one of the important
parameters in deciding the performance of an IC engine. It
is defined as the ratio of volume of air intake during the
suction stroke to the swept volume of the piston. It is also
defined as the ratio of mass of charge sucked into the
cylinder during suction stroke to the mass of air
corresponding to the swept volume of engine at atmospheric
pressure and temperature. A number of factors affect the
volumetric efficiency of an engine.

Some of them are given here:

[Note - For further explanation on volumetric

efficiency refer Chapter 4].

6.7.1 The amount of air-fuel ratio

When a fresh charge is sucked inside the cylinder,
the temperature of the charge is increased by transfer of
heat from the cylinder walls and the hot exhaust gases. It
is known that for a constant pressure and volume, the
temperature is inversely proportional to the mass. As a
result, the mass of the fresh charge decreases which inturn
reduces the volumetric efficiency. But the volumetric
efficiency could be increased by the high pressure from the
incoming fresh charge because high pressure results in
increased mass of charge.
 Actual Cycles and Their Analysis 6.11

6.7.2 The design of intake and exhaust manifold and

port design
The intake and exhaust manifold should be designed
in such a way that the intake manifold must allow the
maximum fresh charge to come in and the exhaust manifold
must remove all the burnt gases to escape. So, there is no
limitation in designing the intake and exhaust manifold if
they carryout the above process correctly. But, if the intake
and exhaust process does not take place properly, it will
affect the volumetric efficiency and so, the design should
be modified accordingly.

6.7.3 Compression ratio

Compression ratio is defined as the degree to which
the fuel mixture is compressed before ignition takes place.
The compression ratio does not have much effect on the
volumetric efficiency because it does not change the
displacement volume. But, there may be a little effect, due
to the amount of residual gas in the cylinder.

6.7.4 The intake and exhaust valve timings

Valve timings in IC engines is the time at which the
inlet and exhaust valves are set to operate. A finite period
of time is needed for the valves to operate at a smooth rate
which is provided by a cam operation. A cam and follower
mechanism is used to achieve a proper opening and closing
of the valves, and also to determine the timing of the valve.

The inlet valve timing and exhaust valve timing affect

the volumetric efficiency. Usually, the inlet port is opened
at some degrees before the TDC in order to allow maximum
possible charge to come in. Many S.I engines are designed
to open at 10 before the TDC and the charge is sucked in
6.12 Thermal Engineering - I

until the piston reaches the BDC. Now, the intake valve
should be closed when the piston reaches BDC, but modern
SI engines tend to close at a few degrees (say 10) after
the BDC for low speed engine and after say 60 for high
speed engine. After reaching BDC, the piston starts the
compression stroke by moving up. So if the intake valve is
still open beyond BDC, the incoming charges are pushed
out by the piston which tend to move up and reach BDC.
Hence, the charge is pushed out by the piston and some
workdone in doing so results in the reduction of
Volumetric efficiency.

TD C TD C
Inta ke o pe ns E xhau st close s
Valve o verlap Inta ke o pe ns E xhau st
o
closes
10
C om pression

o
5 o
10
C om pressio n
Pow er
E VO

o
20
IV O

EVO

o Po w er
25
IV O

o
10 o
60 o
55

Inta ke
Inta ke closes E xhau st op en s closes
BDC E xhau st op en s

BDC
Fig:6.4 (a)
Fig:6.4 (b)

However, it is different for the high speed engines

because the high speed engines bring high pressurized
charges inside the combustion chamber, which acting
against the moving piston and produce a ram effect. This
ram effect could be used as an advantage in order to suck
more of the high pressured fresh charges in. So, the valve
 Actual Cycles and Their Analysis 6.13

time for the high speed engines could be delayed until after
BDC in order to make use of the ram effect.
Now, coming to the exhaust valve timings, the
exhaust valves tend to open slightly before the piston
reaches BDC. For a low speed engine, the valve opens at
25 before the BDC and at 55 before BDC for high speed
engines. Actually, this process of opening the valve before
BDC helps in removing the burnt gases easily without
consumption of much work from the expansion stroke. And
like inlet valves the exhaust valves of modern engines tend
to close at some degrees after the TDC. In a way it is
advantageous because it helps to carry out all the exhaust
gases from the cylinder, but there may be a chance for
valve overlap. Valve overlap occurs when both the inlet and
exhaust valves are opened at the same time. Due to this
effect, scavenging takes place (ie) removing out the fresh
inlet charge through the exhaust. Also, it may result in
loss due to blowdown effect which may affect the volumetric
efficiency.

[NOTE - The valve taming diagrams for both 4 - stroke

and 2 - stroke engines are explained in detail in the earlier
sections, refer Pg No. 1.27 to 1.34.]

Other miscellaneous factors that also affect the

volumetric efficiency are:

(i) Stroke to Bore ratio.

(ii) Fuel type, fraction of fuel vapourised in the intake
system and fuel enthalpy of vapourisation.
(iii) Engine speed.
(iv) Ratio of inlet and exhaust manifold.
6.14 Thermal Engineering - I

(v) The temperature inside the cylinder.

6.8 LOSS DUE TO RUBBING FRICTION

The internal components of an IC engine experience
an enormous amount of thermal and compressive stresses.
The components are usually designed to withstand these
stresses, simultaneously providing a better efficiency.
However, as discussed in the earlier sections, several losses
deteriorate the efficiency. Friction is one of the primary
losses in an engine. Some common factors which influence
the frictional forces in an engine are:

 Surface finish of piston and cylinder

 Lubricant properties
 Engine power
 Heat dissipation
 Other auxillary engine components
6.8.1 Surface finish
The prime components like piston, piston rings,
cylinder walls etc. are expected to maintain a highly
accurate surface finish, with tolerances in the order of few
microns. Also, the materials used should have low frictional
coefficient inorder to reduce the opposing frictional force.
An unsatisfactory surface finish may lead to increased wear
and opposing frictional force, thereby loading the engine.
This load, which may seem to be negligible, could cause
significant losses in the overall efficiency of the engine.

6.8.2 Lubricant properties

The lubricant used should possess high viscosity and
should have the capability to remain stable under varying
thermal conditions. Usually, the viscosity of a substance
 Actual Cycles and Their Analysis 6.15

varies inversely with the applied temperature. As the

temperature increases, the viscosity decreases thus the
lubricating effect also decreases. Due to this reduced
lubricating effect, the frictional coefficient increases. This
leads to significant frictional losses in the system.

6.8.3 Engine power

The engine power is a function of engine speed and
mean effective pressure. As the engine speed increases, the
frictional resistance between the piston rings and the
cylinder wall multiplies. An increase in mean effective
pressure also contributes to a small increase in frictional
resistance. Moreover, as the speed and pressure increase,
the heat developed could affect the proper functioning of
the lubricants. Thus, engine power plays a major role in
the frictional components of an engine.

6.8.4 Heat Dissipation

A proper cooling system ensures proper heat
dissipation from the engine. This reduces the temperature
of the lubricant present in the engine. Thus the lubricant
functions properly and accounts to reduced frictional forces.

6.8.5 Other miscellaneous components

Auxiliary components like super-chargers, cooling
pumps, radiators, etc. could offer a small frictional
resistance in the system.

Bearings are the most commonly present components

of any mechanical system. Though a bearing offers
frictional coefficient only of the order of micron
  mm  10  3, the collective resistances of a number of
bearings could cause a small amount of rise of frictional
forces in the system.
6.16 Thermal Engineering - I

Thus the collective frictional resistances of a number

of auxiliary components could directly affect the efficiency
of the engine.

6.9 BLOWBY LOSSES

Blowby may be defined as the phenomenon by which
the air-fuel mixture reaches the crank case below the
piston. At high pressures, the air-fuel mixture is susceptible
to enter the crank-case through the cracks and crevices in
the piston or the cylinder head.

Moreover, blowby could also occur if there is improper

sealing between the cylinder wall and the piston ring.
Losses due to blowby are more likely to increase when the
engine has operated for a long time. The various thermal
and compressive stresses on the engine could easily cause
the piston and cylinder to develop cracks. Mentioned below
are some of the factors which could cause a blowby loss in
an IC engine.

 Improper sealing by the piston rings.

 Cracks developed on the cylinder walls.
 Oversized bore of the piston.
 Dents and other physical modifications of the
pistons.
 Improper assembly of piston rings.
 More end gaps in the piston rings.
 Late opening of exhaust valves.

6.9.1 Effects of blowby loss on efficiency

 Since a part of the air-fuel mixture escapes to the
crankcase, the gas pressure on the piston reduces.
 Actual Cycles and Their Analysis 6.17

Thus the mean effective pressure also reduces and

this leads to decreased efficiency.
 A high blowby could cause a considerable pressure
rise within the crankcase. This rise in pressure
could create resistive force on the rotation of the
crank, leading to reduced efficiency.

6.9.2 Crankcase ventilation

Crankcase ventilation may be defined as the process
by which the pressure developed inside the crankcase is
reduced by external means. As discussed in the previous
sections, the essential cause of the increased pressure in
the crankcase is due to blowby gases from the combustion
chamber.

Crankcase ventilation is achieved by employing of a

PCV valve. The valve is typically a pressure controlled flow
valve with a spring loaded mechanism.
$LU
$LU &OHDQHU

&DUEXUHWRU &RPEXVWLRQ
&KDPEHU

3&9

&UDQNFDVH

Fig:6.5
6.18 Thermal Engineering - I

The working and the arrangement of a PCV is shown

in Fig.6.6.
During idling process, a rich mixture of fuel is needed
at the inlet of the combustion chamber. However, the
blowby mixture at the crankcase predominantly consists of
air and less amount of fuel. Due to high manifold pressure
at the carburetor, the PCV adjusts accordingly and a small
amount of blowby gases enter the inlet port.

1 Idle Sp eed - H igh M anifold Vacu um - Low F lo w

2 H ig h S p ee d - Low M a nifold Va cuu m - M a x F low

3 B acklin e - Pre ssure F rom M anifold - N o Flow

Fig:6.6 PCV W orking

 Actual Cycles and Their Analysis 6.19

At normal or cruising speeds, the movable end of the

spring shifts to the left due to reduced pressure. As it shifts
to the right, a sizeable amount of blowby gases pass
through the PCV and enter the inlet of the combustion
chamber.
At high speeds, the throttling valve is completely open
and the suction pressure is increased. At this instant, the
entire mixture of air and fuel from the crankcase is forced
inside the combustion chamber through the PCV. However,
when the quantity of the blowby gases exceed a preset
limiting value, the remaining gases are directed towards
the air cleaner and then to the carburetor respectively.
When a backfire occurs, due to reverse pressure, the
PCV completely seals the crankcase from the inlet, thereby
preventing the backflow of gases into the crankcase. Thus,
the crankcase ventilation process is achieved.

6.10 ACTUAL AND FUEL-AIR CYCLES OF CI ENGINES

In reality, a diesel cycle is more efficient than an otto
cycle. Incomplete combustion is the main difference between
an actual cycle and a
fuel-air cycle. As the
80 Fu el-air c ycle
combustions are assumed to
be instantaneous, the 60
P re ssure (ba r)

fuel-air cycle are assumed

40 A ctu al cy cle
to have complete
combustion. 20

In an fuel air process,

0
the allowances are made for 0 4 8 12 16
the amount and type of V cy l / V c

fuel. These are bound to Fig:6.7

6.20 Thermal Engineering - I

reduce the cycle’s efficiency. In an actual cycle, the

allowances are also made for heat transfer, combustion time
and other miscellaneous losses as explained previously.
Thus the efficiency of the cycle further reduces. To
completely understand the exact working of a CI engine,
several computer aided models are being developed. It is to
be noted that in diesel engines, the ratio between actual
efficiency and air-fuel efficiency is around 0.85.
 Supplementary 7.1

Supplementary

7.1 AXIAL FANS AND PROPELLERS

A fan usually consists of a single rotor with or
without a stator element, and causes only a small pressure
rise of the flowing fluid. The total pressure developed by
fans is of the order of a few mm of water gauge. The
example of axial fans are ceiling, table and ventilation fans.

7.1.1 Axial Fan Stage

An axial fan stage consists of a rotor made up of a
number of blades fitted to the hub, when it is rotated by
an electric motor. A flow is estabilshed through the rotor
and it causes an increase in the stagnation pressure of air
or gas across it. A cylindrical casing which encloses the
rotor receives the flow through a converging passage
(nozzle) and discharges it through a diverging passage
(diffuser) as shown in Fig. 7.1 (a).

(i) W stage  u C w3  C w2  h0stage

(ii) Mass flow rate


m   A Cf


 D 2  d 2 C f
4

Where D  tip diameter and

d  h ub dia meter

(iii) Power required to drive the fan

 
P  m C P  T0st  m u [C w3  C w2]
7.2 Thermal Engineering - I

(iv) Stage pressure rise

P 0
P 0stage   h 0stage   Wact   0
 W act

P 0   u2 [1   tan 3]

Pst
(v) Stage pressure co-efficient  
u2
2

 Protor
(vi) Stage reaction Rd 
P 0stage

Static pressure rise in the rotor


Stagnation pressure rise in the stage

Isentropic work
(vii) Fan efficiency 
Actual work input

P 0stage

 [u C w3  C w2]

P 0stage
where  Isentropic work


u C w3  C w2  Actual work

 
m P 0st v P0stage
 Power developed P  
  0 0

  m3 
Where v  volume rate of flow  
 sec 
 Supplementary 7.3

7.1.2 Types of Axial Fan Stages

(a) Stage without guide vanes [Fig. 7.1 (a) & (b)]
(b) Stage with upstream guide vanes [UGV] [Fig. 7.1 (c)
& (d)]
(c) Stage with downstream guide vanes [DGV]
(d) Stage with upstream and downstream guide vanes

N o zzle
w2 2
R o tor D iffuser C f2 = C w 2

Hub u

Inle t
3 
W3 C3
O utlet C f3

Cw3
C a sing u

Fig. 7.1 (a) Fig. 7.1 (b)

U .G .V R o tor C 1 =C f1

IG V

2 2
W2
C f2
C2

u Cw2
Inle t O utle t

W3 3
C 3 =C f3

Fig. 7.1 (c) Fig. 7.1 (d)

7.4 Thermal Engineering - I

Problem 7.1: An axial fan takes in 2.5 m3/sec at 102 kPa and
315 K and delivers it at 75 cm of water head and 325 K.
Determine the mass flow rate through the fan and power
required to drive the fan and static fan efficiency. [FAQ]

Given data
2

v  2.5 m 3/sec

P 1  102 kPa T

T1  315 K

P  750 mm W.H
1
T2  325 K
S
Solution:
10336 mm of W.H  101.325 kPa

101.325  750
 750 mm of W.H 
10336

 7.3523 kPa

 P 2  P 1  P  109.3523 kPa

1
T 2 P2  
 
T1 P
 1

 109.3523 
 T2  
102   315
 
 321.3268 K

DN
 u  21.9911 m /sec
60
 Supplementary 7.5

P1
  1.14645 kg/m 3
RT1

 Cf
m   A C f  1.16478 kg/sec   0.2501
u

u
tan 2   3.99838  2  75.958
Cf

P 0st   u 2 [1   tan 3]

 1.14645 [21.9911] 2 [1  0.2501  tan 10]

 529.9827 N/m 2

101.325  10 3 N/m 2  10336 mm of W.H

10336  529.9827
P 0 
101.325  10 3

P 0  54.0626 mm of W.H

The ideal power required to drive the fan


m P 0
  538.4576 Watts


ideal power
0 
actual power

538.4576
0   44.871%
1200

Static pressure rise in the stage

1
Pst   u2 [1   2 tan 2 3]
2
7.6 Thermal Engineering - I

Protor  276.6773 N/m 2

Protor
 Rd   0.522
Pstage

Result
(a) Flow co-efficient   0.2501

(b) Rotor blade angle at inlet 2  75.958 

(c) Static pressure rise P 0stage  54.0626 mm of W.G

(d) 0  44.871 %

(e) Degree of reaction R d  52.2%

Problem 7.2: In an axial flow fan the rotor and IGV blades
are symmetrical and arranged for 50% reaction with blade
angles at inlet and exit are 65 and 12 respectively. The mean
diameter of the blade is 620 mm and height of the blade is
15 cm. The static properties of air at inlet are 101 kPa and
310 K. The speed of rotor is 1000 rpm. Determine stage pressure
co-efficient, power required for a fan efficiency of 82% and drive
efficiency 85%.

Given data

R d  0.5 2  65  3  12 

D m  0.62 h  0.15 cm P 1  101 kPa

T 1  310 K N  1000 rpm

f  0.82 d  0.85

 Dm N
Um   32.4631 m/sec
60
 Supplementary 7.7

A   Dm  h

 0.2921681 m 2

P 101  10 3
   1.135214 kg/m 3
RT 287  310

In a 50% reaction stage

 2  3 ; 2   3,

 2  12  ; 2  65,
C w2 Cw2
tan  2  ;  Cf  ...(1)
Cf tan  2

u  Cw2 u  Cw2
tan 2  ;  Cf  ...(2)
Cf tan 2

Equating (1) and (2)

C w2 u  C w2

tan 2 tan 2

C w2 tan  2
   0.0991167
u  C w 2 tan 2

C w2  3.2117637  0.0991167 C w 2

 C w2  2.927475 m /sec

 C f  13.7726 m/sec

C w3
tan  3  ;
Cf

 Cw3  29.5354 m /sec

7.8 Thermal Engineering - I

 Wact  u C w3  C w 2

 863.7768 J/kg

m W act
P  m   A Cf
mech

 4.642 kW  4.568 kg/sec

P stage
For efficiency f  =W
2
2 2

C3
 W act

=W
C3
Cf

3
 Pstage  804.0686 N/m 2 Cw2
u
P 2P
 2

U U 2
2
3 
3
=W

C2

 1.3442
=W
2
C

Cf
2

Cw3
u
Result
1. Stage pressure co-efficient   1.3442

2. Power required to drive the fan P  4.642 kW

 Supplementary 7.9

7.2 CENTRIFUGAL FANS AND BLOWERS

A blowers consists of one or more stages of
compression, with its rotor mounted on a common shaft.
The air is compressed in a series of successive stages and
is often led through a diffuses located near the exit. The
overall pressure rise may range from 1 to 2.5 atm with
shaft speeds up to 30000 rpm. Blowers are used in
ventilation, power stations, workshops, etc.

7.2.1 Centrifugal Blower

The centrifugal blower consists of s rotor or impeller
which rotates causing air-flow by centrifugal action. The air

Volu te C a sing

Im p elle r

A ir in
S haft

G uide Vane s
(D iffuser)

Fig. 7.2 Centrifugal Blower

7.10 Thermal Engineering - I

usually enters the impeller at the axis and leaves at the

tip in a direction determined by the angle of the impeller
blades as shown in Fig. 7.2 Upon leaving the tip, the air
flows through a volute chamber, some times provided with
a vaned diffuser casing.
The diffuses casing utilizes part of the K.E. of the
outflowing fluid and raises its static pressure. The volute
chamber collects all the fluid at constant velocity and leads
it to a diverging discharge pipe which may again provide
more of diffusive action.
7.2.2 Types of Centrifugal Fans
There are three types of impellers used in centrifugal
fans.
1. Backward Swept Blades
For low pressure and lower flow rates 2  90, refer
Fig.(a) [same as compressor]
C w2 1
1  Rd 
u2 2

2. Radial Blades
The swirl at the entry is zero,  C w1  0 used for
medium pressure and medium flow rates.
C w2
2  90 and 1
u2

1
 Rd 
2 [refer Fig]
 Supplementary 7.11

3. Forward Swept Blades

1
2  90 and C w2  u2 Rd 
2

It is used for high pressure and high flow rates. Refer

Fig. (c)

7.2.3 Centrifugal Fan Stage Parameters

  
1. Mass flow rate m  1v1  2v2

2. Area of cross section A1  d 1b1 and A 2  d2b 2

[ 1- impeller inlet and 2 - Exit]
d 1N d 2N
3. u1  and u2 
60 60
4. Stage work W st  u 2 C w2  u 1 C w1. For zero whirl at
inlet C w1  0,  Wst  u2 C w2 since the velocity
triangles are same as centrifugal compressors.
Therefore,

W st  u 22 [1  2c o t 2]  h0 ...(5.3)

5. Power required to drive the fan
 
P  m h0st  mu2C w2

6. Stage pressure rise P 0st  h0st


P 0st  P 0  P 0   P 2  P 1  C 22  C 21
2 1 2

 2
P 0st  Protor  [C  C 21]
2 2 ...(5.15)

P 0st
7. Stage pressure co-efficient  st 
u 22
2 ...(5.16)
7.12 Thermal Engineering - I

Protor
8. Degree of reaction Rd 
P 0stage

C w2
1
2 u2
...(5.17)
1
  1   2 c o t 2 
2 ...(5.11)

P 0 P 0st

9. Stage efficiency  
 W act  C w2 u 2 ...(5.18)
10. 0  mech  st ...(5.19)

Problem 7.3 A centrifugal blower takes in 180 m3/min of air

at pressure 101.3 kPa and temperature 315 K and delivers it
at 750 mm of water head. Taking the efficiency of blower as
80% and mechanical efficiency 82%, determine the power
required to drive the blower and exit condition of air. [FAQ]

Given data

 180 P 1  101.3 kPa ;

v  3 m 3/sec ;
60
T 1  315 K st  0.8 ;
mech  0.82 ; P  750 mm of water head

Solution:
P1 101.3  10 3
1    1.12051 kg/m 3
RT 1 287  315

10336 mm of W.H  101.325 kPa

101.325  750
 750 mm of W.H 
10336
 Supplementary 7.13

P  7.352336 kPa

 P 2  P 1  P  108.652 kPa

Ideal power  v  P

P i  22057.008 Watts

Pi 22057
 Actual power required  
st   mech 0.8  0.82

 33.62348 kW

P 7.35
Ideal work supplied W i    6.56159 kJ/kg
 1.12

Wi 6.56
 Actual work supplied    8.201997 kJ/kg
st 0.8

W act  C P T 2  T 1

8.2  1.005 T2  315

 T2  323.1611 K

Result
1. The condition of air at exit P 2  108.652 kPa and
T2  323.1611 K

2. Power required to drive the blower P  33.62348 kW

Problem 7.4 A centrifugal fan has the following data:

Inner diameter of the impeller : 18 cm

Outer diameter of the impeller : 20 cm
Speed : 1450 rpm

The relative and absolute velocities respectively are:

7.14 Thermal Engineering - I

Air entry 20 m/sec and 21 m/sec

At exit 17 m/sec and 25 m/sec
Flow rate is 0.5 kg/sec. Motor efficiency is 78%
Determine:
(a) The Stage pressure rise
(b) Degree of reaction and
(c) The power required to drive the fan. Take density of air
as 1.25 kg/m3 (FAQ)

Given data

D 1  0.18 m ; D 2  0.2 m ; N  1450 rpm

C r  20 m /sec C 1  21 m /sec C r  17 m /sec

C 2  25 m /sec m  0.5 kg/sec   0.78
  1.25 kg/m 3

Solution:
D 1N
u1   13.6659 m/sec
60

D 2N
u2   15.184369 m/sec
60

1 2
u  u21  21.9 J/kg
2 2

1 2
C  C 2r2  55.5 J/kg
2 r1

1 2
C  C 21  92 J/kg
2 2

From Euler’s equation for a stage work

 Supplementary 7.15

1 2 1 1
W st  u2  u21  C 2r1  C 2r2  C 22  C 21
2 2 2

 169.4 J/kg

Total pressure rise across the stage is

P 0st    W st

 211.75 N/m 2

101325 N/m 2  10336 mm of water head

10336  211.75
 211.75 N/m 2 
101325

 21.6 mm of water head

Static pressure rise in the rotor

 2
Protor  [u  u21  cr21  C 2r2]
2 2

 1.25 [21.9  55.5]

 96.75 N /m 2

Degree of reaction

Protor

P 0stage

96.75
  0.4569
211.75

m W st
Power required to drive the fan P 


 108.5897 Watts
7.16 Thermal Engineering - I

Results
1. Stage pressure rise P 0  21.6 mm of W.H

2. Degree of reaction R d  0.4569

3. Power required to drive the fan P  108.5897 Watts

Problem 7.5 A centrifugal fan has  of 80%. Its impeller

diameter is 1 m runs at 720 rpm. The impeller tip angle is
backward curved to 51 tangent to the wheel. The density of
the air is 1.25 kg/m3 and mass flow rate is 3 kg/sec. The
impeller width at the exit is 10 cm. Determine the power
required, pressure co-efficient, stage reaction, pressure head
developed and flow co-efficient at exit. Assume zero whirl at
inlet and mech is 82%.

Given data

f  0.8 ; D2  1 m ; 2  51

  1.25 kg/m 3 ; m  3 kg/sec b 2  0.1 m

mech  0.82 ,

Solution:
 D2 N
u2   37.69911 m/sec
60

A 2   D 2 b2    1  0.1  0.314159 m 2

m   A C f2

m
 C f2   7.6394 m/sec
  A2

Assuming constant radial velocity,

 Supplementary 7.17

 C f1  C f2  7.6394 m/sec

Refer velocity diagram,

C f2
tan 2 
u  C w2 C2 C r2
C f2

C f2 2
u  C w2   6.18626 2
tan 2
Cw2

 Cw2  31.51284 m /sec u2

W act  C w2 u 2  1188.0062 J/kg

P
f 
 W act

 P   W act   f

 1188.0062 N/m2

m Wact
Power required   4346.3643 Watts
m ech

 4.34636 kW

P
Pressure co-efficient  st   1.33744
u22
2

Cw2
Degree of reaction R d  1   0.582
2 u2

C f2
Flow co-efficient 2   0.20264
u2
7.18 Thermal Engineering - I

Result

1. Power required P  4.34636 kW

2. Pressure co-efficient   1.33744
3. Stage reaction R d  0.582

4. Pressure head developed P  1188.0062 N/m 2

5. Flow co-efficient at exit  2  0.20264
 Supplementary 7.19

7.3 WANKEL ENGINE

A Wankel engine is a type of internal combustion
engine wherein the applied gas pressure creates a
rotational moment on the rotor. Unlike a reciprocating
engine, a Wankel engine does not have any parts
undergoing linear motion. Instead, the applied pressure is
used to create an eccentric rotary motion of the crank
present in it. For these reasons, a Wankel engine is often
known as a rotary engine.
Note: A 6 - cylinder radially placed engine is also known
as a rotary engine and it is often employed in aircraft.

Fuel

Fuel injector

In jecte d F u e l
S ide
sea l
A pex seal

Inle t A ir C o olan t
jackets

E xhau st gas

C o rne r seal S park p lu ge

Fig. 7.3 Wankel Engine

7.20 Thermal Engineering - I

WORKING PRINCIPLE
A schematic diagram of the Wankel engine is shown
in the figure. It consists of a crank which is eccentrically
mounted onto the centre shaft which is often referred to as
the E-Shaft or the Eccentric shaft. The crank is triangular
in shape and the inner periphery of the outlet casing is in
the form of an epi-trochoid shape as shown in the figure.
This geometric orientation ensures the contact between the
vertices of the crank and the inner periphery of the casing
at all times.

S u c tio n A C o m pre sse d

Fu el Fu el
In le t

E x h a u st B
C
C
1 2

( i ) Intake ( ii ) Com pression

C B

B
C o m bu stio n A
3 of Fuel 4
B u r nt
Fu el
( iii ) Pow er ( iv )Exhaust
Fig. 7.4 Working of Wankel engine
 Supplementary 7.21

The suction stroke starts when the intake port opens

up and the air-fuel mixture occupies the upper portion
between AB and the periphery as shown in the Fig 7.4 (i).
As the rotor rotates, the sucked air is compressed against
the inner periphery of the casings. This rotation
corresponds to the compression stroke of a reciprocating
engine. After another partial rotation, the fuel is
compressed against the spark plugs as shown in the Fig
7.4 (iii). At this time, the spark plug produces a spark and
the fuel ignites. This causes the fuel to expand and the gas
pressure further rotates the rotor in the same direction. To
prevent rotation in the opposite direction, the spark is
initiated only after a major part of the rotor passes the
plugs. At this time, the exhaust valves are opened and the
burnt gases are expelled out of the system at shown in
Fig. 7.4 (iv).
The above mentioned cycle applies to one of the 3
sides of the rotor. However, all the 3 sides of the rotor
perform the same function for a given position. Thus, in a
rotary engine, the suction, compression, power and exhaust
strokes are always happening at all times.
Advantages of Wankel Engines
 There are two power strokes for every three
strokes in a Wankel engine when compared to one
power stroke for every four strokes in a
reciprocating engine.
 The number of components in a Wankel engine is
lesser than the number of components in a
reciprocating engine.
7.22 Thermal Engineering - I

 The power to weight ratio is lesser than that of

a reciprocating engine.
 The engine is immune to knock and other
phenomenon which could lead to its seizure.

Disadvantages of Wankel Engine

 The amount of unburnt hydrocarbons emitting out
of a rotary engine is quite high.
 The fuel economy is less than that of a
reciprocating engine.
 Upon failure, the components are difficult to
replace.
 The edges of the rotor time more susceptible to
failure and wear which lead to reduce the
efficiency.
 The design of the inner periphery and the rotor
is quite difficult.
 Since the power produced is quite high a top-notch
cooling system is required.

Zenith Carburetor
Zenith carburetor, often called as ‘British carburetor’
is employed in many famous cars, largely in cars
manufactured in England.

Construction
It consists of a float chamber where the fuel from the
fuel tank is supplied through a pipe. When the fuel drains
in the float chamber, the needle valve moves up allowing
the fuel to flow into the chamber. The flow of fuel into the
float chamber is faster than the consumption of fuel by the
engine. When the fuel chamber receives its needed quality
 Supplementary 7.23

Id le A d justing K n ob
T h ro ttle
Va lv e A
A ir f or Id lin g & S lo w
B R u n n in g
Ven tu r i Id lin g To g gle
jet B le v e r
M a in J e t

C o m pe n sa tin g
jet Tub e F loa t F loa t
C h am b er

A ir C h ok e

C o m pe n sa tin g jet Fuel

of fuel, the float rises up, there by the needle moves down
stopping the fuel flow into the chamber.
Three jets namely auxiliary jet main jet and idle jet
are provided. The main jet is directly connected with the
float chamber while the auxiliary jet or compensating jet
fetches fuel from the reservoir / auxiliary chamber. An idle
jet is where the fuel flows during idle and slow speed
conditions. An orifice connects the float chamber and
auxiliary chamber, while both auxiliary jet and main jet
are opened up in the venturi.
The air is supplied through a passage to the
carburetor. The throtle valve is located at the end of the
carburetor and connected to the engine suction pipe. The
opening and closing of this valve controls the quantity of
air-fuel mixture supplied to the engine suction manifold.
7.24 Thermal Engineering - I

Working
Initially the choke is used for starting. During idling
the throttle valve is closed. When engine suction is applied
to the idling jet, the fuel is supplied. The required quantity
of air for idling enters through the holes A and B and the
mixture then passes out as shown in Fig. 7.5. For the idle
adjustment a separate knob is provided. It is connected
with the threaded extension tube that controls the opening
B, to control the quality of mixture.
When the throttle is opened a little, a small quantity
of air flows via venturi. Both main jet and slow running
jet supplies the mixture at this condition.
With further more throttling the suction is applied to
the main jet and compensating jet and the compensating
jet ensures the correct air-fuel ratio being supplied at
various speed.
 Short Questions and Answers QA.1

SHORT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Chapter 1

I.C. Engines

1.1. Name the types of injection system in CI engines.

1. Air injection system
2. Airless (or) solid (or) mechanical injection system
(a) Individual pump system
(b) Common rail system
(c) Distributor system.
1.2. Why compression ratio of petrol engines is low
while diesel engines have high compression
ratio?
In petrol engine, the compressed air-fuel mixture gets
ignited by sparks produced by spark plug.

But in case of diesel engine, the compressed air

should attain very high temperature in order to ignite
injected diesel. Hence the air should be compressed to very
high pressure. So the compression ratio is more in diesel
engine than that of petrol engine.

1.3. What are heat engines? Classify.

A type of engine or machine which derives heat
energy from combustion of fuel or any other source and
converts this energy into mechanical work is termed as
Heat engines. They are classified as (i) External
combustion engines (ii) Internal combustion engines (IC.
Engines).
QA.2 Thermal Engineering - I

1.4. Classify I.C engines according to the cycle of

combustion.
(i) Otto cycle engine

(ii) Diesel cycle engine

(iii) Dual combustion Engine.

1.5. Classify I.C engines according to the

arrangement of cylinders.
(i) Horizontal engines (ii) Vertical engines

(iii) Radial engines (iv) V-type engines

1.6. Classify I.C engine according to the method of

Ignition.
(i) Spark Ignition engines (S.I engines)

(ii) Compression Ignition engines (C.I engines)

1.7. What do you mean by scavenging in I.C

Engines? (Anna Univ. Apr’ 2003)

The process of removing burnt exhaust gases from the

combustion chamber of engine cylinder is known as
scavenging. Scavenging helps in reducing the dilution of
fresh charge of mixture in the I.C. engines. Basically there
are 3 ways of Scavenging (i) Cross flow scavenging (ii)
Backflow or loop scavenging (iii) Uniflow scavenging.

1.8. What is the purpose of Thermostat in an engine

cooling system?
Whenever engine is started from cold, large amount
of heat is required to attain its correct temperature
(working). A thermostat prevents the flow of water below
a certain temperature, from the engine to the radiator. It
 Short Questions and Answers QA.3

is a bellow type thermostat which maintains water at

desired temperature.
1.9. Explain exhaust blow down in case of IC
engines. (Anna Univ. Dec 2003)

When the exhaust port is opened, the gases existing

in the cylinder at the end of expansion stroke discharge
spontaneously into the exhaust manifold and the pressure
of the main cylinder drops to a value lower than that
existing in the scavenge air manifold. This process is called
blow down
1.10. List out advantages of electronics ignitions
system over the conventional systems.
(Anna Univ. - Dec 2003)

1. In conventional type contact breaker interrupts high

inductive current during its operation which causes
excessive wear and requires frequent services which
is not present in electronic system.
2. Misfiring takes places in conventional system which
does not occur in electronic system.
3. The electronic systems are more efficient than
conventional system even at low speeds.
4. Slow opening of breaker points and cranking speed
results in poor starting ability in conventional
systems.
1.11. What is the function of push rod and rocker
arm? (Anna Univ. - Apr’ 2004)

The push rod and rocker arm are required to push

the valve against the spring pressure. The roller arm
rotates about the rocker arm shaft under the force exerted
QA.4 Thermal Engineering - I

by the push rod. A clearance is kept between the rocker

arm and the valve stem and can be adjusted by screw
adjuster.
1.12. What are the basic requirements of a fuel
injection system of a diesel engine?
(Anna Univ. - Apr’ 2004)

1. Fuel should be introduced into the combustion

chamber within a precisely defined period of cycle.
2. Metered amount of fuel must be injected per cycle
very accurately.
3. The rate of injection should be such that it results
in desired heat release pattern.
4. Quantity of fuel metered should vary with the
changing speed and load requirements.
5. The spray pattern must be in the form of fine
droplets.
6. Height and size of injection system must be minimum.
1.13. What are the types of Ignition systems?
(i) Battery coil Ignition system
(ii) Magneto Ignition system
(iii) Electronic Ignition system
1.14. List the types of cooling systems in I.C. Engines.
(i) Thermo-syphon cooling
(ii) Forced or pump cooling
(iii) Thermostatic cooling
(iv) Pressurised cooling
(v) Evaporative cooling.
 Short Questions and Answers QA.5

1.15. List types of Lubrication System.

(i) Wet sump lubrication system
(ii) Dry sump lubrication system
(iii) Mist lubrication system.
1.16. What is the use of fuel system?
The fuel system is used for the following reasons.

 To store fuel in the fuel tank

 To supply fuel to the required amount and proper
condition
 To indicate to the driver the fuel level in the fuel
tank.
1.17. What is Gravity fuel system?
In gravity system, the fuel tank is placed above the
carburetor. The fuel flows from the tank to the carburetor
due to the gravitational force. Thus the system does not
have fuel pump. This system is cheap and simple one. The
fuel tank is directly connected to the carburetor. Motor
cycles and scooters use this system.

1.18. Explain about Carburetor.

Carburetor is a device which is used for atomizing
and vapourizing the fuel (petrol) and mixing it with the air
in varying proportions, to suit the changing operating
conditions of the engine.

Atomization is the breaking up the liquid fuel (petrol)

into very small particles so that it is properly mixed with
the air. But vaporization is the change of state of the fuel
from liquid to vapour. Carburetor performs both the process
i.e., atomization of the fuel and vaporization of the fuel.
QA.6 Thermal Engineering - I

1.19. What is stoichiometric air fuel ratio?

Oxygen is very much necessary to burn the fuel. This
oxygen is taken from atmospheric air. The proper
proportion of air and fuel mixture should be obtained for
complete combustion of fuel.
For complete combustion, the Air-Fuel ratio should be
approximately 15:1 by weight. This is known as
chemically correct or stoichiometric air fuel ratio.
1.20. What are various compensation in carburetors?
A simple carburetor can not supply different air-fuel
ratio according to the speeds and loads of the engine.
To supply correct airfuel ratio to meet the existing
condition is known as the compensation in carburetor. The
various compensations in carburetor are given below.
1. Auxiliary (or) extra air valve compensation
2. Restricted air bleed compensation
3. Compensating jet compensation
4. Economiser needle in metering jet.
1.21. What are the types of carburetors?
There are three important types of carburetor
1. Zenith carburetor
2. Solex Carburetor
3. Amal Carburetor
 Short Questions and Answers QA.7

1.22. What are the fuel injection systems in C.I

engines?
There are two methods of fuel injection in
compression ignition engines. 1. air injection, 2. airless or
solid or mechanical injection.
1.23. What is the use of spark plug?
Spark plug is used in SI
Term ina l
engines (Petrol engines) to
C en tral
produce electric spark to ignite e le ctrod e
the compressed air fuel mixture
P orce la in
inside the engine cylinder. in su la to r

M e ta l
S crew

S pa rk g a p or
G ro u nd e le ctro de A ir g a p
Fig 1.22 Spark plug

1.24. What are requirements of a Good fuel?

Requirements of a Good fuel:
1. Good fuel should have high calorific value.
2. It should have low ignition temperature.
3. It should burn freely with high efficiency.
4. It should not produce any harmful gases.
5. It should produce very less smoke.
6. It should be economical.
7. It should be easily stored and transported.
QA.8 Thermal Engineering - I

Chapter 2

Combustion in SI and CI Engine

2.1. What are the harmful effects of detonation?

 A loud pulsating noise occurs resulting in
vibration of the engine.
 An increase in the heat lost to the surface of the
combustion chamber.
 An increase in carbon deposits.
2.2. What is the importance of delay period in CI
engine combustion phenomenon?
If the delay period is more, more fuel (diesel) will be
injected inside the cylinder and more will be the pressure
rise. This causes Diesel knock.
Some delay period is needed to disperse and atomize
the fuel in the air for complete combustion.

So we have to keep (maintain) the delay period as

short as possible.

2.3. How CI engine combustion chambers are

classified?
1. Non-turbulent type - Open combustion chamber.
2. Turbulent type - (i) Turbulent chamber
(ii) Precombustion chamber.
3. Energy cell.
2.4. What is pre-ignition? How can it be detected?
A very high temperature carbon deposits formed
inside the combustion chambers ignites the air fuel mixture
much before normal ignition occurred by spark plug. The
 Short Questions and Answers QA.9

ignition occurred by hot carbon deposits is called

pre-ignition.
The standard test for pre-ignition is to shut-off
ignition. If the engine still fires, it is assumed that
pre-ignition was taking place when ignition was on.

Sudden loss of power with no evidence of mechanical

malfunctioning is fairly good evidence of pre-ignition.
2.5. What is knocking in diesel fuels? How can it be
prevented?
If the delay period is prolonged, a large amount of
diesel will be injected in the chamber. Combustion of large
amount of fuel may cause high pressure rise and this high
pressure rise cause knocking.
Knocking can be prevented

 by reducing the delay period.

 by raising the compression ratio.
 by increasing the turbulence of compressed air.
 by adjusting the fuel injector.
 by supercharging.
2.6. Why for the same power CI engines are larger
and heavier than SI engine.
In CI engine, the air is compressed to a very high
pressure i.e the compression ratio in CI engine (diesel cycle)
is more. To withstand the high pressure, the CI engines
are larger and heavier.
2.7. How are the CI fuels rated? Explain the same
(or) Define Cetane Number. (Anna Univ. - Apr’ 2003)

CI fuels are rated by its cetane number.

QA.10 Thermal Engineering - I

Cetane number is a number to rate its ability to auto

ignite quickly when it is injected into the high pressure,
high temperature air in the cylinder.
Cetane number of a fuel is the percentage by volume
of cetane in a mixture of cetane and   methyl
naphthalene C 10 H7CH 3 that has the same performance in
the standard test engine as that of fuel.
2.8. List the factors that affect the ignition lag.
1. Temperature and pressure in the combustion
chamber at the time of injection.
2. Air fuel ratio.
3. Turbulence of air.
4. Pressure of residual gases.
5. Rate of fuel injection.
6. The extent of atomization, vaporization and fineness
of fuel spray.
2.9. What are desirable qualities of SI engine fuels
to inhibit detonation?
1. Too lean or too rich air-fuel mixture will inhibit
detonation, (preferably too rich mixture).
2. Use of high octane number fuel can eliminate
detonation.
2.10. How are the SI fuels rated?
The SI engine fuels are rated by its octane number.

Octane number is the number to rate the SI engine

fuels according to its detonating tendency. If the fuel has
the tendency to denotate less, then it has high octane
number and vice versa.
 Short Questions and Answers QA.11

2.11. What are the requirements of CI combustion

chamber for diesel engines?
The requirement of CI combustion chamber is to
provide proper mixing of fuel and air in a short duration.
For this purpose, an organised air movement called as
‘swirl’ is provided to produce high relative velocity between
the fuel droplets and air. The combustion chamber should
withstand high temperature and pressure.

2.12. What are the requirements of a good combustion

chamber for SI engines?
1. The high power output with minimum octane
requirement.
2. High thermal efficiency.
3. Smooth engine operation.
2.13. What do you understand by octane number 100?
Highest fuel octane number is 100. This type of fuels
will not have tendency to detonate.

2.14. Explain about the octane number.

Iso-octane is a high rating fuel (i.e. detonation is less).
Normal heptane is a low rating fuel (i.e detonation is more).
Iso-octane and normal heptane are mixed together
and this sample mixture is used for running a test engine.
The sample mixture called as Primary Reference Fuel
(PRF).
The octane number of the fuel is the percentage of
Iso-octane in this sample mixture (Primary Reference Fuel
(PRF)) which detonates or knocks as similar way as the
fuel under the same condition.
QA.12 Thermal Engineering - I

2.15. What is auto-ignition and why it occurs in SI

engines? (What is detonating zone?)
When sparking occurs, the combustion of fuel nearby
spark plug commences. The flame travels through
combustion chamber with high speed. The high pressure
and high temperature gases produced by this ignition
compress the fresh charge in front of the moving flames.
Hence the temperature and pressure of the fresh charge is
increased beyond the limit and a spontaneous ignition (i.e.
auto-ignition) takes place in far away from spark plug. This
zone far away from spark plug where auto-ignition takes
place is the zone called ‘detonating zone’.
2.16. Knocking in SI engine increases with
____________
Compression ratio.
2.17. Name the index to measure the ignition quality
of petrol and diesel engine fuel.
1. Octane number for petrol.
2. Cetane number for diesel.
2.18. Name two methods to find the indicated power
of IC engines.
1. By indicator diagram - with the help of PV diagram
drawn by an indicator.
2. By measuring B.P and losses. (losses = Friction
power)
I.P  B.P  losses

2.19. What are the desirable characteristics of

combustion chamber?
(i) Short combustion time
 Short Questions and Answers QA.13

(ii) Short ratio of path to bore

(iii) Absence of hot surfaces
(iv) High velocity at inlet valve
(v) Adequate cooling.
2.20. What are the phases of C.I engine combustion?
(i) Ignition lag or delay
(ii) Period of uncontrolled combustion
(iii) Period of uncontrolled combustion.
2.21. What are stratified engines?
Engines having different A/F ratio at different
locations within combustion chamber are called stratified
engines.
2.22. Write the Dulong’s formula for calculating
H.C.V.
 O2 
H.C.V  33800 C  144000  H 2    9270 S KJ/kg
 8 

where C , H2, O 2 and S are the fractions of carbon, hydrogen,

oxygen and sulphur contained in 1 kg of fuel.
2.23. What are the factors affecting flame speed?
1. Turbulence
2. Engine speed
3. Engine size
4. Compression ratio
5. Inlet temperature and pressure
6. Fuel-Air ratio
7. Engine output
QA.14 Thermal Engineering - I

2.24. What is meant by abnormal combustion?

The abnormal combustion deviates from the normal
behavior resulting in loss of performance and physical
damage to the engine.

There are two types of Abnormal combustion.

1. Pre-ignition

2. Knocking (or) Detonation (or) Pinking

2.25. What are the effects of knocking in SI Engine?

1. Noise and Roughness
2. Mechanical Damage
3. Carbon deposits
4. Increase in heat transfer
5. Decrease in power output and efficiency
6. Pre-Ignition

2.26. Name the anti-knock additives.

The widely used antiknock agents are:

 Tetraethyl lead [TEL] CH3CH 24 Pb

 Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl

(MMT) CH3C 5H 4MnCO3

 Ferrocene Fe C5H52

 Iron pentacarbonyl
 Toluene
 Iso octane
 Short Questions and Answers QA.15

2.27. What are the factors affecting delay period

1. Temperature and pressure in the combustion
chamber at the time of injection.
2. Air-fuel ratio.
3. Turbulence of air.
4. Presence of residual gases.
5. Rate of fuel injection.
6. The extent of atomization and vaporization and
fineness of fuel spray.
2.28. What are the factors that affect delay period in
diesel engine?
(i) Compression ratio
(ii) Intake temperature
(iii) Intake pressure
(iv) Engine size
(v) Fuel temperature
(vi) Injection time
(vii) Output
QA.16 Thermal Engineering - I

Chapter 3

Testing and Performance of Engines

3.1. Exhaust gas composition of IC engine is

analysed by ____________.
1. Flame ionisation detector (FID).
Extra: Other instruments are as follows.
2. Spectroscopic analyzers
(a) Dispersive analysers
(b) Non-dispersive infra-red analysers (NDIR)
3. Gas chromatography.
3.2. Name two methods to find the indicated power
of IC engines.
1. By indicator diagram - with the help of P V diagram
drawn by an indicator.
2. By measuring B.P and losses. (losses = Friction
power) I.P  B.P  losses
3.3. Differentiate between brake power and
indicated power of I.C Engines.
(Anna Univ. - May 2003)

Brake power Indicated power

(i) Power available at the (i) Power developed at the

crankshaft is called engine is called
Brake power (B.P) indicated power (IP)
(ii) B.P = I.P – Friction (ii) I.P = B.P + Friction
power power
(iii) B.P is obtained by (iii) I.P is obtained by
Brake Dynamometer Indicator diagram.
 Short Questions and Answers QA.17

3.4. Differentiate between SFC and TFC in engine

performance. (Anna Univ. - Dec. 2003)

Specific Fuel Total Fuel

Consumption (S.F.C) Consumption (T.F.C)
(i) S.F.C is the ratio of T.F.C is the ratio of fuel
amount of fuel consumed consumed in kg/hr to the
in kg/hr to the brake indicated power developed
power developed in kW in kW of the engine
of the engine. Fue l co nsumed in kg/hr
T.F.C 
F ue l used in kg/hr I.P in kW
S.F.C 
B.P in kW

3.5. What is Morse test? (Anna Univ. - Apr 2004)

Morse Test is a test for multicylinder engine to

measure the indicated power without employing any
elaborate equipments - consider a three cylinder engine 1,
2, 3. With I1, I2, I3 be indicated power and F 1 F 2 F 3 be
friction power.
Total I.P  I1  I2  I3;

Total friction power FP  F 1  F 2  F 3.

Total Brake power when all are running

B  I1  I2  I3  F 1  F 2  F 3.

When cylinder 1 is cut, Brake power is

B 1  0  I2  I3  F 1  F 2  F 3

 I.P of cylinder 1  B  B 1

Similarly I.P of cylinder 2  B  B 2

QA.18 Thermal Engineering - I

IP of cylinder 3  B  B 3.

3.6. Define firing order.

The order in which the spark plugs of a multicylinder
engine are ignited or order in which the cylinder are fired
is called firing order. For (Eg) for 3 cylinder engine 1, 3,
2.
4 cylinder engine 1, 4, 3, 2 or 1, 3, 4, 2.
3.7. What is the apparatus to carry out flue gas
analysis.
Orsat’s apparatus.

3.8. Write the composition of air by mass.

Nitrogen N 2  77%; Oxygen O 2  23%

3.9. Write the composition of air by volume.

Nitrogen N 2  79% ; Oxygen O 2  21%

3.10. Define L.C.V.

The Lower Calorific Value is the heat liberated by 1
kg of fuel after subtracting heat used to vapourize the
steam formed from hydrogen.

L.C.V  HCV  9 H 2  2466  KJ/kg

3.11. Name the apparatus used for finding calorific

values for fuels.
Bomb Calorimeter is used for determining calorific
value for solid and liquid fuel.
Junker’s gas calorimeter is used for determining
calorific value for gaseous fuel.
 Short Questions and Answers QA.19

3.12. Mass of carbon in 1 kg of flue gas is given by

________.

 3 3 
  11 CO2  7 CO 
 
3.13. What is an element?
The smallest quantity of a substance, which can exist
by itself in a chemically recognizable form.
3.14. What is molecular weight of Oxygen?

Atomic weight of oxygen  16

Molecular weight of oxygen O 2  32

3.15. Name the molecule which has the minimum

molecular weight.

Hydrogen  for hydrogen H 2  1  1  2

4
3.16. 1 kg of CO requires kg of oxygen and produces
7
________ .
11
Ans: kg of CO 2
7

4
3.17. 1 kg of C requires kg of oxygen and produces
3
________.

7 
Ans:  kg of carbon monoxide 
 3 
QA.20 Thermal Engineering - I

3.18. What is Indicator diagram?

An indicator diagram is
a d= A rea re pre se n tin g
P
a P-V diagram traced by the w o rkd on e in on e cy cle
E q uiva le nt
indicator which is attached to 1
re ctan gle
the piston. The P-V diagram o f a rea = a d

represents the work done by

the engine in one cycle.
The power developed
2
inside the engine cylinder is V
known as indicated power. Fig. 3.1

This is measured by indicator

diagram.
3.19. How the measurement of cylinder pressure in
done?
Cylinder pressures can be easily obtained using
several analytical equations relating to the temperature and
the volume of the working fluid. Indicator diagrams are one
of the most common tools needed to compute the pressure
of a cycle. However, several electronic and mechanical
components are being used to verify the pressure at each
stage manually.
3.20. What is meant by pressure transducer?
A transducer is a device capable of converting one
form of energy into another. A pressure transducer typically
converts the pressure exerted on an object into noticeable
output like displacement, electrical signals etc. Since the
cylinder of an engine is subjected to various thermal and
shear stresses, the pressure transducer must be capable of
withstanding all the stresses.
 Short Questions and Answers QA.21

3.21. What is meant by Friction Power (FP)?

The Power available in the engine flywheel
(crankshaft end) is less than the power developed inside
the engine. i.e. The BP is less than the IP. Because, there
is a loss of power due to friction between the moving parts.
The Power lost in this way is known as friction power.

So, F.P  I.P  B.P

The difference between the indicated power and brake

power is known as friction power.

3.22. What is Relative Efficiency or Efficiency Ratio?

The ratio of the indicated thermal efficiency or the
brake thermal efficiency to the air standard efficiency is
known as relative efficiency or efficiency ratio.

Relative efficiency,

Indicated o r Brake thermal efficiency

 relative 
Air standard efficiency

3.23. How Dynamometer is classified?

Dynamometer can be classified into two types

(i) Absorption dynamometers

(ii) transmission dynamometer

(i) Absorption dynamometer

These types of dynamometers are used to measure

and absorb the power output of the engine to which they
are coupled. The power absorbed is usually released as heat
(or) by other forms of energy. Eg., Hydraulic, Eddy current
dynamometer etc.
QA.22 Thermal Engineering - I

(ii) Transmission Dynamometer

Transmission dynamometer is also called as Torque
meter. The purpose of these meters is to simply sense the
torque. It doesnt supply (or) receive any energy. Torque
meters employ normal measuring units like a strain gauge
to directly determine the torque acting on a shaft.
3.24. What is the method for measurement of air
consumption?

M easu re me nt of A ir C onsum p tio n

th rou gh the orifice cham b er m eth od

Orifice chamber method is used in laboratory for

measuring the consumption of air. The arrangement of this
system is shown in Fig. 3.12.
3.25. Explain about exhaust gas emission.
Emissions can be defined as the unburnt fuel and
other by-products exiting the combustion chamber. Based
on the visibility, emissions can be broadly classified into
 Visible emissions
 Invisible emissions
 Short Questions and Answers QA.23

Some common emissions found are:

(i) Carbon dioxide
(ii) Water vapour
(iii) Unburnt hydrocarbons
(iv) Oxides of nitrogen
(v) Aldehydes
(vi) Carbon monoxide
(vii) Smoke
(viii) Particulate matter
Based on the type of emission, it’s effect on the
environment can vary.
QA.24 Thermal Engineering - I

Chapter 4

Air Compressors

4.1. How are air compressors classified?

1. Reciprocating compressors and rotary compressors.

2. Single stage and multistage compressors.
3. Single acting and double acting compressors.
4.2. Define isothermal efficiency of air compressors.

It is defined as the ratio of isothermal work to

polytropic work.

W iso thermal I.Pisothermal

 isothermal  
W polytropic I.Ppolytropic

4.3. Define mean effective pressure. How it is related

to indicated power of an IC engine?

Mean effective pressure is defined as hypothetical

pressure which is considered to be acting on the piston
throughout the power stroke. If it is based on I.P, it is
called Indicated mean effective pressure.

pm ALN or N/2  n
I.P  in kW
60

where I.P  Indicated power in kW

pm  mean effective pressure in KPa; A  Area of piston

in m 2; L  Length of stroke in m; N  (for 2 stroke) in

r.p.m; N/2  (for 4 stroke) in r.p.m; n  No. of cylinders.
 Short Questions and Answers QA.25

4.4. What is the meaning of free air delivered (FAD)?

Free air delivered is defined as the actual volume rate
of air reduced to atmospheric condition and usually
expressed in m 3/min.

4.5. Explain how flow of air is controlled in a

reciprocating compressor cylinder?
The flow of air is controlled.

 By centrifugal governor.
 By maintaining the speed of motor constant.
 By providing air pocket adjacent to the cylinder.
 By making the suction valve open for part of the
compression stroke.
4.6. Mention the important applications of
compressed air.
 Compressed air is used to operate pneumatic
circuits such as pneumatic drills, hammers, hoist,
air brakes, pile drivers and blast furnaces.
 It is used for supercharging the IC engines.
 It is used for cleaning, inflating and injecting
purposes.
4.7. What factors limit the delivery pressure in a
reciprocating compressor?
1. The size of the cylinder will be too large for too high
pressure.
2. Due to compression, there is a rise in temperature
of air. So the delivery pressure is limited so that
rise in temperature of air is not going beyond the
limit and size of cylinder is not too large.
QA.26 Thermal Engineering - I

4.8. Mention two main advantages of multistage

compression over a single stage compression for
the same pressure ratio.
1. The work done per kg of air is reduced in multistage
compression with intercooler as compared to single
stage compression for the same delivery pressure.
2. It improves the volumetric efficiency for the given
pressure ratio.
4.9. Name the methods adopted for increasing
isothermal efficiency of reciprocating air
compressors.
By perfect intercooling, isothermal is increased.

The following methods are employed to achieve nearly

isothermal compression.

1. Spray injection
2. Water jacketing
3. Intercooling
4. External fins
5. By suitable choice of cylinder dimensions.
4.10. What is meant by perfect intercooling?
In two stage compressors,

If the temperature of air leaving the intercooler T3

is equal to the original inlet temperature T1, then the
intercooling is known as perfect intercooling. By having
perfect intercooling, we can approach the isothermal
process. So the isothermal efficiency will be increased by
perfect intercooling.
 Short Questions and Answers QA.27

4.11. Why clearance is necessary and what is its effect

on the performance of reciprocating compressors?
 Clearance volume is necessary so that the piston
will not hit the cylinder end at the end of the stroke.
 It is necessary to provide some space for valve
movements.
 Clearance makes the volume of air taken in per
stroke less than the swept volume. So the size of
compressor is increased. So the power to drive the
compressor is increased.
 The maximum compression pressure is also
controlled by the clearance volume.
4.12. What is the part played by the intercooler in
multistage air compressor? Explain perfect
intercooling.
The intercooler is placed in between L.P cylinder and
H.P cylinder. The temperature of air leaving L.P cylinder
is high T2 and is cooled in the intercooler to T3 i.e the
original temperature of inlet air T 1[ i.e T 3  T 1 ].

By cooling the air to its original temperature the

process is approaching isothermal process, so that the
power required to drive the compressor will be minimum.
If T3  T1, then it is perfect intercooling.

If T3  T1, then it is imperfect intercooling.

4.13. Why multistage compression is required in

reciprocating air compressors?
If we use single stage compression for getting high
pressure air, the following problems will arise.
QA.28 Thermal Engineering - I

1. The size of the cylinder will be too large.

2. Due to compression, there is a very high rise in
temperature of air.
3. It is not possible to reject the heat from the air in
the available duration.
4. The high temperature of air at the end of
compression will heat up the cylinder head and burn
the lubricating oil.
4.14. Which type of compression is the best in
reciprocating compressors?
Isothermal compression. Because isothermal
compression requires less power to drive the compressor.
4.15. Show the work saved by shading area in P V
diagram of 2 stage with intercooling compared
to single stage compressor.

D elivery P 4 5 W ork saved

pressure H P
Perfect
Isotherm al intercooling
process
P2 2
3
LP
P1 1
1-2-5 = Single stage com pression
1-2-3-4 = Tw o stage com pression
w ith perfect intercooling V
 Short Questions and Answers QA.29

4.16. What is the effect on compressor capacity and

power consumption at high altitude compared to
sea level?
At high altitude, the atmospheric pressure is less. So
the high power is required to attain the required pressure
ratio.
The compressor capacity to deliver free air/min is
reduced.
4.17. How do you classify the compressor?
I. Positive displacement Compressors
(ii) Reciprocating
(ii) Rotary
(a) Roots blover
(b) Screw type
(c) Vane type
II. Dynamic Compressor
(i) Centrifugal
(ii) Axial
4.18. Write the expression for workdone without
clearance for air compressor.
n1
n    P2  n 
Work done W   m.R. T1    1
n1 P
 1 
QA.30 Thermal Engineering - I

4.19. Write the expression for workdone with

clearance for air compressor.
n1
n   P2  n 
Workdone W   P1 V1  V4    1
n1 P
 1 
4.20. Define volumetric efficiency of an air
compressor?
Volumetric efficiency of an air compressor is the ratio
of free air delivered to the displacement of the compressor
(or) Ratio of effective swept volume to the swept volume.
Volumetric efficiency
Effective s wept volu me F.A.D
 vol  or
swept volu me Displacement volume
4.21. Define clearance ratio of an air compressor?
The ratio between clearance volume to swept volume
is called clearance ratio.

Clearance volume V C 
Ratio K 
Swept volume VS

4.22. Give the expression for volumetric efficiency in

terms of clearance Ratio.
 V1 
Vol  1  k  k  
V
 2
P 1  Tamb   V2  
Also, Vol amb   1kk 
T1  Tamb  V
 1
 Short Questions and Answers QA.31

4.23. Draw the actual PV diagram for compressor

P2 D elivery pressure

A tm osphe ric
pressure
P2
Intake
V depre ssio n

4.24. Write an expression for workdone for a two

stage compressor with and without intercooling.
Workdone without Intercooling

n1 n1
n   P4  n  n   P5  n 
W P1 V 1    1 P4 V 4    1
n1 P P
 1  n1  4 

Workdone with perfect intercooling

n1 n1
n   P2  n  P3  n 
W P1 V 1      2.
n1 P P
 1  2 

4.25. Write the condition for minimum work in an air

compressor?
The condition of minimum workdone is

P2  

P 1 P3

P 1 : Inlet pressure

P 3 : Exit pressure (delivery)

QA.32 Thermal Engineering - I

P 2 : Intermediate pressure.

4.26. Give the expression for minimum work in two

stage air compressor?
n1
2n   P 3  2n 
Workdone W min  P 1 V1    1.
n1 P
 1 
4.27. Give the expression for workdone for multistage
compressor?
n1
Zn   P z  1  Zn 
Workdone W  P1 V1    1
n1 P1
  
Z  No. of stages.

4.28. Give the expression for heat rejected and

isentropic change with perfect intercooling.
  n 
Heat rejected W   C p  C v    T 2  T 1 per kg
 n1
of air.
 Cp  Cv   P3 
Isentropy change S 2  S1    ln  .
 2  P
 1
4.29. Give the methods to increase isothermal
efficiency of air compressor?
(i) Spray injection
(ii) Water jacketing
(iii) Intercooling
(iv) External fins.
 Short Questions and Answers QA.33

4.30. Define F.A.D?

Free air delivered (F.A.D) is defined as the actual
volume delivered at the stated pressure reduced to intake
temperature and pressure.
4.31. Explain the working principle of rotary
compressor.
In rotary compressor the air is entrapped between two
sets of engaging surfaces and the pressure rise is either by
back flow of air (roots blower) or by both squeezing action
and backflow of air (vane type).
4.32. What are the merits of rotary compressor over
reciprocating compressor?
1. Rotary compressors are suitable for large discharge
at low discharge pressure. The maximum free air
discharge may be as high as 3000 m 3/min and
maximum delivery pressure is 10 kgf/cm 2 (10 bar)
2. Air supply is continuous in rotary compressors and
therefore no receiver is required. But receiver is an
essential requirement of a reciprocating compressor.
3. The rotary compressors are small in size for the
same discharge compared with reciprocating
compressors.
4. There is no balancing problem in rotary compressor
whereas it is one of the major problems with
reciprocating compressors.
4.33. What are stagnation properties.
The state of a fluid attained by isentropically
decelerating it to zero velocity at zero elevation is referred
to as the stagnation state. The properties of the fluid at
QA.34 Thermal Engineering - I

the stagnation state are the stagnation properties of the

gas.
4.34. What is meant by stagnation enthalpy?
Stagnation enthalpy of a gas or vapour is its enthalpy
when it is adiabatically decelerated to zero velocity at zero
elevation.
Therefore,

C2
Stagnation enthalpy h 0  h 
2

4.35 Explain the classification of impellers based on

blade shape.

o
o 2 > 9 0
2 < 9 0

 u


o
2 = 90

(i) B A C K W A R D (ii) FO R W A R D

u


Fig:4.26 (iii) R A D IA L
 Short Questions and Answers QA.35

The exit vane shape of the centrifugal compressors

are generally any one of the three configurations.

(i) Backward curved

(ii) Radial and
(iii) Forward curved

If the angle between the rotor blade tip and the

tangent to the rotor at the exit is acute i.e., 2  90, the
vanes are backward curved vanes. If this angle is a right
angle 2  90 the blade is said to be radial. If it is greater
than 90 [2  90] the blade is forward curved.

4.36. State the loses which occur at the impeller of a

centrifugal compressor.
The following losses occur when air flows through the
impeller:

(i) Friction between the air layers moving with relative

velocities and friction between the air and flow
passages.
(ii) Shock at entry.
(iii) Turbulence caused in air.
4.37. Define isentropic efficiency for a rotary
compressor.
Isentropic efficiency “Isentropic efficiency” of rotary
compressor is defined as the ratio of isentropic temperature
rise to actual temperature rise.

Isentropic temperature rise

Isentropic efficiency 
Actual tem perature rise

It is also defined as the ratio of isentropic compression

work to actual compression work.
QA.36 Thermal Engineering - I

4.38. What is meant by slip factor.

The tendency of air to flow around the edges of the
vanes in the clearance space between the impeller and the
casing is known as slip.

Slip factor s is defined as the ratio of actual whirl

component C w2 and the ideal whirl component u 2

4.39. Explain the term work factor.

The actual work input to the air is greater than the
theoretical value due to friction between the casing and the
air carried around by the vanes. In order to take this into
account “work factor”, w is introduced, so that the actual
work done on the air becomes

Actual work supplied

Work factor w 
Theoretical work supplied

 W act  w C w2 u 2  C p T02  T01 

4.40. Define the term pressure coefficient.

It is defined as the ratio of isentropic work to Euler
work.

Isentropic w ork C p T02   T01

p  
Euler work Cw2 u 2

4.41. Write about axial flow compressors.

An axial compressor is a pressure producing machine
where the flow of air or fluid is in the direction of the rotor
axis. It consists of a rotor with moving blades and a stator
fixed to casing which serve to recover part of kinetic energy
imparted to the working fluid. This kinetic energy imparted
 Short Questions and Answers QA.37

to the fluid by means of the rotating blades is then

converted into a pressure rise.
4.42. What is heat coefficient of an axial flow
compressor.

Head or work coefficient h 

It is defined as the ratio of actual work done to the
kinetic energy developed by the mean peripheral velocity.

Cp  T 2 C w2  C w1  tan  2  tan  1 

Thus,  h   2 
 u2  u
 tan 2 tan  2 
 
 2 

4.43. What are the basic losses in an axial flow

compressor.
1. Profile losses on the surface of the blades.
2. Skin friction on the annulus walls.
3. Secondary flow losses.
2 .29 %

1 00 S
A n n u lu k in F ric ti
4 4% s lo s s on
S e co n d
a ry lo s s
4 2%
90
P ro file lo ss
D es ig n
S u rge
S ta ge e fficie ncy, s tag e

80

70

60
0 .5 0 .7 0 .9 1 .1 1 .3 1 .5 1 .7
Flow C oe ffic ie nt f
Fig:4.38 L osse s in com pressor stage
QA.38 Thermal Engineering - I

4.44. Explain secondary flow losses in an axial flow

compressor.
 Secondary flows are produced by combined effects
of curvature and boundary layer.
 Secondary flow is developed when the components
of velocity are developed from the deflection of an
initially sheared flow. Such secondary flow occurs
when there is a bend, when a sheared flow passes
over an aerofoil shape with finite lift or when a
boundary level meets an obstacle.
 Secondary flow loss occurs when boundary layers
are growing on the casing and hub walls of the
machines are deflected by rows of blades - stator
and rotor.
4.45. Explain the term surging.
It is the phenomena of
excessive aerodynamic
S urge C ycle
pulsation which is D B S urge lin e
Pressu re ratio

transmitted throughout the

machine by virtue of sudden U nstable S ta b le
E
A
drop in delivery pressure or N1
complete breakdown of the N2
T1
steady through flow. N3
T2
T3 C

M ass flow rate

Fig:4.39

4.46. Explain the term stalling.

Stalling is the separation of flow from the blade
surface. A partial blockage or uneven flow in the blade
passages due to the change of angle of incidence is called
 Short Questions and Answers QA.39

stalling. At low flow rates, the axial velocities are lower

and the angle of incidence called stalling. At low flow rates,
the axial velocities are lower and the angle of incidence is
increased.
4.47. State the differences between reciprocating and
centrifugal compressors.

Reciprocating Centrifugal
compressors compressors
Greater vibration problems Less vibrational problems
due to the presence of since it does not have
reciprocating parts which reciprocating parts.
are partially balanced.
Due to the presence of Due to the absence of many
several sliding or bearing sliding or bearing members,
members, it has lesser  mech is more.
 mech.
Higher initial cost. Lower initial cost.
Pressure ratio per stage is Pressure ratio per stage is
about 5 to 8. about 3 to 4.5.
High delivery pressure upto Medium delivery pressure
5000 atm. upto 400 atm.
Smaller Free Air Delivered Greater FAD.
(FAD).
Greater Flexibility in No flexibility in capacity and
capacity and pressure range. pressure range.
Higher maintenance cost. Lower maintenance cost.
Compression efficiency is  compressor is higher, at
higher, at compression ratio compression ratio less than
above 2. 2.
QA.40 Thermal Engineering - I

Reciprocating Centrifugal
compressors compressors
Adaptability to low speed Adaptability to high speed
drive. drive.
More operating attention Less operating attendance.
needed.
Always a chance of mixing No chance of mixing of
of air with lubricating oil. lubricating oil with air.
Suitable for low, medium Suitable for low and
and high pressures and low medium pressures and large
and medium gas volumes. gas volumes.

4.48. State the differences between reciprocating and

rotary compressors.

Reciprocating air Rotary air

compressors compressors

Suitable for low discharge of Suitable for handling large

air at high pressure. volumes of air at low
pressures.
Low speed (RPM). High speed (RPM).
Pulsating air supply. Continuous air supply.
More cyclic vibrations occur. Less vibrations occur.
Complicated lubricating Simple lubrication system.
system.
Air delivered is generally Air delivered is relatively
contaminated with oil. more clean.
Large compressor size for Small size for same
the given discharge. discharge
 Short Questions and Answers QA.41

Reciprocating air Rotary air

compressors compressors

250  300 m 3/min Free air 2000  3000 m 3/min FAD.

Delivery.
High delivery pressure. Low delivery pressure.

4.49 What are the differences between centrifugal and

axial flow compressors.

Centrifugal compressors Axial flow compressors

Radial flow Axial flow (Parallel to the
direction of axis of the
machine)
Pressure ratio per stage is Low pressure ratio per stage
high, about 4.5:1. This unit about 1.2:1. This is due to
is compact. absence of centrifugal
action. Less compact and
less rugged.
Isothermal efficiency is With modern aerofoil blades,
about 80 to 82%  iso is about 86 to 88%.
Frontal area is larger Frontal area is smaller.
Hence the axial flow
compressor is more suitable
for jet engines due to less
drag.
More flexibility of operation Less flexibility of operation.
due to adjustable prewhirl
and diffuser vanes.
Low starting torque High starting torque
required. required.
QA.42 Thermal Engineering - I

Centrifugal compressors Axial flow compressors

Multistaging is slightly More suitable for
difficult. multi-staging.
Upto 400 bar delivery Delivery pressure is only
pressure is possible. upto 20 bar.
It is used in application of Mostly used in jet engines
blowing engines in steel due to higher efficiency and
mills, low pressure smaller frontal area. Also
refrigeration, big central air used in power plant gas
conditioning plants, fertiliser turbines and steel mills.
and industry, supercharging
I.C. engines, gas pumping in
long distance pipe lines etc.
 Short Questions and Answers QA.43

Chapter 5

Refrigeration

5.1. What is commonly used unit of refrigeration?

The ‘Ton of Refrigeration’ is commonly used unit of
refrigeration.

One ton of refrigeration is defined as the heat

removed from 1000 kg of water at 0C to make 1000 kg of
ice at 0C within 24 hours.

Simply 1 ton of refrigeration  3.4892 kW~

 3.5 kW

5.2. What are the desirable properties of an ideal

refrigerant?
The refrigerant should not be poisonous, corrosive,
explosive, inflammable and toxic. It should operate under low
pressure.

5.3. Why air cycle refrigeration is more popular in

air craft air conditioning?
The air cycle refrigeration is more popular in air craft
air conditioning because of its lower equipment weight. This
cycle utilizes the portion of the cabin air according to the
supercharger’s capacity.

5.4. What are the merits and demerits of an

electrolux refrigerator?
Merits

1. No compressor or any reciprocating components are

used.
2. No leakage of the refrigerants.
QA.44 Thermal Engineering - I

3. No mechanical troubles.
4. No noise-smooth operation because of the absence of
moving parts.
Demerits
1. Once the system is down, we can not repair it. The
complete system should be replaced.
2. Charging of refrigerant is difficult.
5.5. How the second law of thermodynamics is
satisfied in refrigerator and heat pump?

A tm o sph ere S pace to be heated

T 1 H ot T1
H ot b ody

Q1 Q1
H eat H eat
flow ing flow ing
d ire ction W =Q 1-Q 2 d ire ction W =Q 1-Q 2
H eat
R ef p um p
Refrigerator Heat pu mp
Q2 Q2

T2 T2
C old bod y S pa ce L ow C old atm o sph ere
to be coo le d Tem p era tu re

According to second law, heat cannot flow of itself

from low temperature body to high temperature body. Some
external work W net  must be expended to achieve this. The
refrigerator and heat pump satisfy the second law.
5.6. Why throttle valve is used in place of expansion
cylinder for vapour compression refrigeration
machine?
We want the refrigerants pressure to be lowered. At
the same time, its enthalpy should be constant. To achieve
 Short Questions and Answers QA.45

this, we use throttle valve. During throttling process, the

pressure is reduced and the enthalpy remains constant.
5.7. What is undercooling? Sketch the process in
TS diagram of refrigerator?

S up er he ated
co ndition
S aturated
liq uid

S aturated va pour

In the condenser, the refrigerant is cooled (condensed)

at constant pressure. If the refrigerant is cooled below its
saturation temperature, then it is called subcooling or
undercooling. The objective of subcooling is to increase the
refrigerating effect. So subcooling increases the C.O.P without
supplying extra work.
5.8. Why should the refrigerant temperature inside
the evaporator be at a lower temperature than
the refrigerator cabinet temperature?
Because, the heat from the cabinet (at high
temperature) will flow to evaporate the refrigerant (at low
temperature). Hence the cabinet gets cooled.
QA.46 Thermal Engineering - I

5.9. In a refrigeration system, where do we have

saturated and superheated conditions of
refrigerant?

D egree of sub cooling = (T 3 -T 3 ) O

T 2

T3 3 P =C
2 O

T3
O
3 O

s= C
h 3=
O
h4

1
P =C
4 s

According to given diagram,

 At the end of condensation (3), we have saturated

liquid refrigerant.
 At the end of compression (2), we have
superheated vapour refrigerant.
 Also, at the beginning of compression, we have
saturated vapour refrigerant.
5.10. What is net refrigerating effect of refrigerant?
Net refrigerating effect is the total heat removed from
the refrigerant in the evaporator.

Net refrigerating effect  C.O.P  work done

where C.O.P = Coefficient of performance.

5.11. Name the refrigerant normally used in vapour

absorption refrigeration system.
Ammonia.
 Short Questions and Answers QA.47

5.12. Name the various components used in simple

vapour absorption system?
1. Absorber, 2. Generator, 3. Condenser,
4. Expansion valve, 5. Evaporator.

5.13. State the condition of the refrigerant at the end

of compression in vapour compression system.
 Usually superheated vapour (or)
 Dry saturated vapour.
5.14. Name the different components used in vapour
compression system.
1. Compressor, 2. Condenser, 3. Throttling device,
4. Evaporator.

5.15. Mention important applications of cryogenics.

 It is used for storage in low temperature.
upto  200C
 It is used for fire extinguisher.
 It is used for oxy-acetelene welding, TIG and MIG
welding.
 It is used for manufacturing fertilizers.
5.16. Define Refrigerant?
Refrigerant is defined as the substance which absorbs
heat through expansion or vapourization and loses it
through condensation in the refrigeration system.

5.17. What type of condensers are in common use for

vapour compression refrigeration system?
Water cooled condensers. This type of condensers
(heat exchanger) are used to provide heat transfer surface
QA.48 Thermal Engineering - I

through which heat passes from the hot refrigerant vapour

to the condensing medium i.e. cooling water.
5.18. What part of absorption refrigerator is heated
and what function does the heating perform?
 The ‘generator’ is heated by burner.
 The heat is added to drive NH 3 from the strong
solution to condenser. The weak solution will be
sent to (return back) absorber.
5.19. What is open air and dense air refrigeration
system? Which is better?
In an open air refrigeration system, the air is directly
taken to the space to be cooled. Since atmospheric air is
handled, volume of air handled is large. So size of the
compressor and expander will be large. Also the moisture
in the air form a frost of air and clog the passage.
In a closed or dense air refrigeration, the air is not
having direct contact with the space to be cooled. The air
is taken through pipe line.
Dense air refrigeration is better.
5.20. What is the effect of superheating of refrigerant
in vapour compression refrigeration on the
performance?
Superheating increases the refrigerating effect. But
superheating requires more work input. The increase in
refrigerating effect is less than the increase in work input.
Hence the overall effect of superheating is to reduce the
C.O.P.
Due to superheating, no moisture content is present
in the refrigerant. So no corrosion in the machine parts.
 Short Questions and Answers QA.49

Chapter - 6

Actual Cycles and Their Analysis

6.1. Write a note on air standard cycles.

Air standard cycle is a cycle which uses air as the
working medium and assumes that the working medium
behaves as a perfect working substance. Air standard cycle
also prevents all the heat losses that could occur in an
engine and pictures it as an imaginary perfect engine.

6.2. What are the assumptions made in the working

of an air standard cycle.
1. The working substance should be a perfect gas with
standard specific heats.
2. The heat transfer should be simple and no chemical
reactions should occur.
3. It must be a reversible process.
4. The heat losses are assumed to be zero.
5. The working medium at the end of the cycle must
be the same as it was at the beginning of the cycle.
6.3. What is meant by an actual cycle?
The cycle which accounts to the every possible losses
in real time environments may be referred to as an actual
cycle.

6.4. What is the difference between fuel-air cycle and

air standard cycle.
If the losses due to variable specific heats due to
varying temperatures are neglected from an air standard
cycle, then it is called as Fuel-air cycle. In fuel air cycle,
QA.50 Thermal Engineering - I

the working medium is the mixture of air and fuel vapour

or atomized liquid fuel.
6.5. What are the major losses occuring in a heat
engine?
(i) Dissociation losses.
(ii) Loss due to incomplete combustion.
(iii) Time loss.
(iv) Heat loss.
(v) Loss due to variation of specific heats with
temperature.
(vi) Loss due to exhaust blowdown.
(vii) Loss due to rubbing friction.
(viii) Loss due to blowby gases.
6.6. What are the factors which affect the efficiency
due to time loss in a heat engine.
 Homogeneity of the air-fuel mixture.
 Flame speed.
 Configuration of the combustion chamber.
 Turbulence in the air-fuel mixture.
 Distance needed to travel by the flame.
 Air-fuel ratio.
 Short Questions and Answers QA.51

6.7. How is the heat produced in an engine,

transferred to various components?

Workdone to drive the

piston
Convection and conduction
heat transfer to internal
components
Heat Generated
Heat transfer through
cooling systems
Heat lost at the exhaust
stroke
Heat lost due to unburnt
fuel

6.8. What is meant by exhaust blowdown.

Exhaust blowdown is the process in which some of
the combustion gases escape through the exhaust port if
the exhaust valve is opened before Bottom dead center. This
is due to the self pressure created by the piston at the end
of the combustion stroke and also it depends upon the
compression ratio of the engine.

6.9. Explain the terms pumping work and pumping

loss.
The difference between the workdone in removing the
exhaust gases, and the workdone in admitting fresh charge
is called as Pumping work. Also, the loss occurring due
to this pumping work is called as pumping loss. This loss
is due to the difference of pressure between lowest inlet
pressure and the highest exhaust pressure.
QA.52 Thermal Engineering - I

6.10. Define volumetric efficiency.

It is defined as the ratio of volume of air intake
during the suction stroke to the swept volume of the piston.
It is also defined as the ratio of mass of charge sucked into
the cylinder during suction stroke to the mass of air
corresponding to the swept volume of engine at atmospheric
pressure and temperature.

6.11. What are the factors which influence the

frictional forces acting on an engine?
 Surface finish of piston and cylinder
 Lubricant properties
 Engine power
 Heat dissipation
 Other auxillary engine components
6.12. What is meant by blowby?.
Blowby may be defined as the phenomenon by which
the air-fuel mixture reaches the crank case below the
piston. At high pressures, the air-fuel mixture is susceptible
to enter the crank-case through the cracks and crevices in
the piston or the cylinder head.

6.13. What are the factors which could cause blowby

losses in an engine?
 Improper sealing by the piston rings.
 Cracks developed in the cylinder walls.
 Oversized bore of the piston.
 Dents and other physical modifications of the
pistons.
 Improper assembly of piston rings.
 Short Questions and Answers QA.53

 More end gaps in the piston rings.

 Late opening of exhaust valves.
6.14. What are the effects of blowby losses on the
efficiency of an engine.
 Since a part of the air-fuel mixture escapes to the
crankcase, the gas pressure on the piston reduces.
Thus the mean effective pressure also reduces and
this leads to decreased efficiency.
 A high blowby could cause a considerable pressure
rise within the crankcase. This rise in pressure
could create resistive force on the rotation of the
crank, leading to reduced efficiency.
6.15. Define crankcase ventilation.
Crankcase ventilation may be defined as the process
by which the pressure developed inside the crankcase is
reduced by external means.
 Solved Question Papers SQP.1

Code No:R22033
R10 SET -1
II B.Tech II Semester Supplementary Examination
Jan/Feb-2015

THERMAL ENGINEERING -I

(Com. to ME, AME)

Time: 3 hours Maximum Marks: 75

Answer any Five Questions

All Questions carry Equal Marks

1. (a) Briefly explain major losses and differences in

actual engine cycle and air-standard cycle.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.6.2
(b) Explain following: (i) Exhaust blow down loss
factor (ii) Loss due to gas exchange process.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.6.8

2. (a) With a neat sketch explain the working of four
stroke diesel engine.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.1.6
(b) Explain briefly about important qualities of SI
engine fuel.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.1.81

3. (a) Explain about the mixture requirements at different
loads and speeds for a IC engine.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.1.40
(b) Explain the phenomenon of knock in SI engines.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.2.10

SQP.2 Thermal Engineering - I

4. (a) Explain about the stages of combustion in CI

engine.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.2.29
(b) Explain different types of combustion for SI
engine.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.2.26

5. (a) Explain the procedure to estimate the friction power
of a multi cylinder engine by using Morse test.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.3.21
(b) Explain Retardation method to evaluate the
friction power of an engine.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.3.6 - Brake power

methods
6. A three stage compressor is used to compress hydrogen
from 1.04 bar to 35 bar. The compression in all stages
follows the law PV 1.3  C . The temperature of
hydrogen at inlet is 288 K . Neglecting clearance and
assuming perfect inter cooling, find (i) indicated
power required to deliver 14 m 3 of hydrogen per
minute measured at the inlet conditions. (ii)
Intermediate pressure. Take R  4125 J/Kg K .
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No. 4.84 - Problem 4.33
7. (a) Explain the construction, working of Vane type
compressor.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.117
(b) Explain about effect of impeller blade shape on
performance of centrifugal compressor.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.138

 Solved Question Papers SQP.3

8. What is degree of reaction? Draw and explain the

velocity of an axial flow Compressor when the degree
of reaction is 0.5.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.175 and Fig. 4.36
...........................................................................

Code No:R22033
R10 SET -2
II B.Tech II Semester Supplementary Examination
Jan/Feb-2015
THERMAL ENGINEERING -I
(Com. to ME, AME)

Time: 3 hours Maximum Marks: 75

Answer any Five Questions
All Questions carry Equal Marks

1. (a) Compare the actual and fuel-air cycles of a gasoline

engine.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.6.19
(b) Explain with a neat diagram the typical fuel feed
system of a CI engine.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.1.53

2. (a) With a neat sketch explain the working of Wankel

engine.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Supplementary
(b) With a neat sketch explain the working of four
stroke petrol engine.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.1.4
SQP.4 Thermal Engineering - I

3. (a) Explain the factors influencing the flame speed in

an SI engine.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.2.5

(b) Explain the stages of combustion in SI engines.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.2.1

4. (a) Explain about the factors that affect the delay

period in CI engine.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.2.7

(b) With a neat diagram explain about different

direct ignition chambers.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.2.42

5. (a) Explain the heat balance diagram of a typical CI

engine.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.3.52

(b) In a test of four cylinders, four stroke petrol

engine of 75 mm bore and 100 mm stroke, the following
results were obtained at full throttle at a constant-speed
and with a fixed setting of the fuel supply of
0.082 kg /min .

BP with all cylinder working  15.24 kW

BP with Cylinder number 1 cut off  10.45 kW

BP with Cylinder number 2 cut off  10.38 kW

BP with Cylinder number 3 cut off  10.23 kW

BP with Cylinder number 4 cut off  10.45 kW

Estimate the indicated power of the engine under this

condition. If the Calorific Value of the fuel is 44000 kJ/kg ,
 Solved Question Papers SQP.5

find the indicated thermal efficiency of the engine. Compare

this with the air standard efficiency. The clearance volume
of one cylinder being 155 CC .
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.3.28
6. (a) Derive the equation for shaft work for single stage
air compressor with clearance
(i) When law of compression followed is isothermal.
(ii) When law of compression followed is PV n  C
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.16
(b) A single acting compressor has zero clearance,
stroke of 200 mm and piston diameter 150 mm . When the
compressor is operating at 250 rpm and compressing air
from 10 N/cm 2 , 25 C to 40 N /cm 2, Find:(i) The volume of
air handled (ii) The ideal power required
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.26
7. (a) In two stage compressor, prove that the work done
on 1 kg of air is minimum with perfect inter cooling
when the intermediate pressure is the geometric mean
of the suction and delivery pressure or P i  
 s
P dP

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.70, Section: 4.16.3

(b) Explain the construction, working of Roots blower
and derive the expression for roots efficiency.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.112
8. (a) Show that for axial flow compressors if the degree
of reaction is 50% the compressors have symmetrical
blades.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.175
SQP.6 Thermal Engineering - I

(b) Explain about surging, chocking and stalling in a

axial flow compressor.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.184

...........................................................................

Code No:R22033
R10 SET -3
II B.Tech II Semester Supplementary Examination
Jan/Feb-2015

THERMAL ENGINEERING -I

(Com. to ME, AME)

Time: 3 hours Maximum Marks: 75

Answer any Five Questions

All Questions carry Equal Marks

1. (a) What are the merits and demerits of two stroke IC

engines over the four stroke IC Engines.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.1.20

(b) Explain the following: (i) time loss factor (ii)

heat loss factor

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.6.4

2. (a) Explain briefly about valve timing diagram of four

stroke petrol engine.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.1.26

(b) Explain briefly about important qualities of CI

engine fuel.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.2.50

 Solved Question Papers SQP.7

3. (a) With a neat sketch explain the working of a simple

carburetor.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.1.38

(b) Explain about flame front propagation in a SI

engine

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.2.4

4. (a) Explain how Rating of CI engine fuels is done.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.2.52

(b) Compare the Knock in SI engine with CI engine.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.2.38

5. (a) Explain the analytical method to evaluate the

engine performance.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.3.1

(b) A four stroke four cylinder gasoline engine has a

bore of 60 mm and a stroke of 100 mm . On test it develops
a torque of 66.5 Nm, when running at 3000 rpm . If the
clearance volume in each cylinder is 60 cc the relative
efficiency with respect to brake thermal efficiency is 0.5
and the calorific value of the fuel is 42 MJ/kg , determine
the fuel consumption in kg/ hr and the brake mean effective
pressure.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.3.19

6. (a) Explain the factor that affect the volumetric

efficiency of a reciprocating compressor.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.20
SQP.8 Thermal Engineering - I

(b) A three stage reciprocating air compressor

compresses the air from 1 bar 17 to 35 bar. The law of
compression is PV 1.25  C and is same for all the stages of
compression. Assuming perfect intercooling and neglecting
the clearance and valve resistance, find the minimum
power required to compress 15 m 3/min of free air. Also find
the intermediate pressure.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.84
7. (a) With a neat diagram explain the working of a
centrifugal compressor.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.125
(b) With help of velocity diagram derive expression
for work done for a centrifugal compressor.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.140
8. (a) With a neat diagram explain the construction and
working of an axial flow compressor.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.166
(b) Make comparison between reciprocating and
centrifugal compressors.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.187
...........................................................................
 Solved Question Papers SQP.9

Code No:R22033
R10 SET -4
II B.Tech II Semester Supplementary Examination
Jan/Feb-2015

THERMAL ENGINEERING -I

(Com. to ME, AME)

Time: 3 hours Maximum Marks: 75

Answer any Five Questions

All Questions carry Equal Marks

1. (a) What are the merits and demerits of four stroke

petrol engine over the four stroke Diesel Engines.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.1.21

(b) Define volumetric efficiency and discuss about

various factors affecting the volumetric efficiency.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.6.10

2. (a) Explain briefly about port timing diagram of two
stroke petrol engine.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.1.29
(b) Explain the working of a simple carburetor with
a neat sketch.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.1.38

3. (a) Explain how Rating of SI engine fuels is done.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.2.21
(b) Explain about the effect of engine variables on
knock.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.2.14

SQP.10 Thermal Engineering - I

4. Explain about the factor that affect the delay period in

CI engine.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.2.32

5. With a neat diagram explain the working of forced

circulation cooling system.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.1.76

6. (a) Derive the equation for shaft work for single stage
air compressor with clearance.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.16

(b) A two stage air compressor with complete

intercooling delivers air to the mains at a pressure of 30
bar, the suction condition being 1 bar and 27 C . If both
cylinders have same stroke, find the ratio of cylinder
diameters, for the efficiency of compressor to be maximum.
Assume the index of compression to be 1.3.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.103

7. (a) A centrifugal compressor handles 150 kg/min of air.

The suction pressure and temperature are 1 bar and
20 C . The suction velocity is 80 m/s. After
compression in impeller the conditions are 1.5 bar and
70 C and 220 m/s . Determine (i) Isentropic efficiency.
(ii) Power required to drive the compressor.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.154

(b) With a neat sketch explain the working of axial

flow compressor.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.166

 Solved Question Papers SQP.11

8. (a) With the help of velocity diagram derive the

expression for work done in a stage of a axial flow
compressor.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.169

(b) Make comparison between axial flow and

centrifugal compressors.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.189

...........................................................................

Code No:R22033
R10 SET -1
II B.Tech II Semester Supplementary Examination
August-2014

THERMAL ENGINEERING -I

(Com. to ME, AME)

Time: 3 hours Maximum Marks: 75

Answer any Five Questions

All Questions carry Equal Marks

1. (a) Explain the reasons for the difference between the

air-standard cycles and the actual cycles of Internal
Combustion Engines.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.6.2

(b) What is the main loss in a Diesel engine? By

means of a P-V diagram indicate the actual and fuel air
cycle for a two stroke Diesel engine.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.6.19

SQP.12 Thermal Engineering - I

2. (a) Explain the operations of “High tension Magneto

ignition system” with a sketch.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.1.63

(b) Explain the property “Volatility”.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.2.51

3. (a) Explain the phenomenon of knock in S.I. engine

with sketches
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.2.10

(b) Describe the following combustion chambers of

S.I. engine with line diagrams:

(i) T-head type

(ii) F-head type

(ii) L-head type

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.2.26

4. (a) What is the ignition delay period in C.I. Engine

combustion? Explain the physical and chemical delay
periods.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.2.28

(b) Table the important characteristics that tend to

reduce knock in C.I. engines.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.2.35

5. During the trail of a single cylinder 4-stroke oil engine,

the following results were obtained: cylinder diameter
20 cm , stroke 40 cm , mep 6 bar, torque 407 Nm , speed
250 rpm , oil consumption 4 kg/h , calorific value
43 MJ/kg , cooling water flow rate 4.5 kg/min, air used
 Solved Question Papers SQP.13

per kg of fuel 30 kg , rise in cooling water temperature

45 C , temperature of exhaust gases 420 C , room
temperature 20 C , mean specific heat of exhaust gas
1 kJ/kg K. Find the indicated power, brake power and
draw the heat balance sheet for the test in kJ/h .
Refer Dr.S,R.Book Page No.3.59
6. A two stage air compressor with perfect intercooling
takes in air at 1 bar pressure and 27 C . The law of
compression in both the stages is PV 1.3  constant.
The compressed air is delivered at 9 bar from the
H.P. cylinder to an air receiver. Calculate per kg of
air (i) the minimum work done, and (ii) The heat
rejected to intercooler.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.82
7. Explain the principle of working of centrifugal
compressor with the help of h-s diagram.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.127
8. A multistage axial compressor is required for
compressing air at 293 K through a pressor ratio of
5 to 1. Each stage is to be 50% reaction and the mean
blade speed is 275 m/s, flow coefficient is 0.5 and
stage loading factor is 0.3 are taken for simplicity as
constant for all stages. Find the flow angles and the
number of stages required if the stage efficiency is
88.8%.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.200
...........................................................................
SQP.14 Thermal Engineering - I

Code No:R22033
R10 SET -2
II B.Tech II Semester Supplementary Examination
August-2014

THERMAL ENGINEERING -I

(Com. to ME, AME)

Time: 3 hours Maximum Marks: 75

Answer any Five Questions

All Questions carry Equal Marks

1. Discuss the effect of “the timing of the intake and

exhaust valves” on the volumetric efficiency.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.6.12

2. Explain the working of a single cylinder Jerk pump type

fuel injection system with a sketch.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.1.53

3. (a) Describe how the following parameters influence the

flame speed in an S.I engine:
(i) Turbulence
(ii) Compression ratio
(iii) Fuel-air ratio
(iv) Engine output
(v) Engine size.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.2.5

(b) Define Octane number and explain how the S.I

Engine fuels are rated.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.2.21

 Solved Question Papers SQP.15

4. Compare the phenomenon of knock in S.I and C.I

Engines, by means of P diagrams.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.2.38

5. A two stage single acting reciprocating air compressor
draws in air at a pressure of 1 bar and 17  C and
compresses it to a pressure of 60 bar. After
compression in the L.P. cylinder, the air is cooled at
constant pressure of 8 bar to a temperature of
37  C . The low pressure cylinder has a diameter
150 mm and both the cylinders have 200 mm stroke.
If the law of compression is pv 1.35  C, find the power
of the compressor, when it runs at 200 rpm . Take
R  287 J/kg K .

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.80

6. Draw the velocity diagrams for a centrifugal
compressor at impeller inlet, impeller outlet, diffuser
inlet and outlet and explain the various terms.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.140

7. In an axial flow compressor, the overall stagnation
pressure ratio is 4 with an overall stagnation
isentropic efficiency of 86%. The inlet stagnation
temperature and pressure are 320 K and 1 bar. The
mean blade speed is 190 m/s. The degree of reaction
is 0.5 at the mean radius with relative air angles of
30 and 10 at rotor inlet and outlet respectively. The
work done factor is 0.88. Calculate the stagnation
polytropic efficiency, number of stages, inlet pressure
and temperature.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.196
...........................................................................
SQP.16 Thermal Engineering - I

Code No:R22033
R10 SET -3
II B.Tech II Semester Supplementary Examination
August-2014

THERMAL ENGINEERING -I

(Com. to ME, AME)

Time: 3 hours Maximum Marks: 75

Answer any Five Questions

All Questions carry Equal Marks

1. (a) Explain the loss due to rubbing friction of an

I.C.Engine. How will it vary with the engine load.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.6.14
(b) With the help of a P-V diagram for an S.I.Engine,
explain the consequences of the finite time of combustion.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.6.4

2. (a) Sketch and explain the working principle of
“pressure cooling system”.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.1.76
(b) Explain the principle of working of Wankel
engine.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Supplementary

3. (a) By means of P diagram, explain the stages of
combustion in an S.I engine.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.2.1
(b) Describe few anti-knock additives for S.I Engine.

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.2.23

 Solved Question Papers SQP.17

4. Define Cetane number and explain how the C.I Engine

fuels are rated.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.2.52

5. In a test of oil engine, under full load, the following

results were obtained: ip 33 kW , brake power 27 kW ,
oil consumption 8 kg/h , calorific value 43 MJ/kg ,
cooling water flow rate 7 kg/min , rate of flow of water
through gas calorimeter 12 kg/h, rise in cooling water
temperature 60 C , final temperature of exhaust gases
80 C , room temperature 17 C , air-fuel ratio on mass
basis 20, rise in water temperature through exhaust
gas calorimeter 40 C , mean specific heat of exhaust
gas 1 kJ/kg K . Draw the heat balance sheet and find
thermal and mechanical efficiencies.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.3.61

6. A two-stage single acting reciprocating compressor

takes in air at the rate of 0.2 m 3/s. The intake
pressure and temperature of air are 0.1 MPa and
16 C . The air is compressed to a final pressure of
0.7 MPa . The intermediate pressure is ideal and
intercooling is perfect. The compression index in both
the stages is 1.25 and the compressor runs at
600 r.p.m . Neglecting clearance, determine (i) The
intermediate pressure, (ii) The total volume of each
cylinder, (iii) the power required to drive the
compressor, and (iv) the rate of heat rejection in the
intercooler. Take C p  1.005 kJ/kg K and
R  287 J/kg K .

Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.78

SQP.18 Thermal Engineering - I

7. (a) Explain the significance of the following

dimensionless parameters of centrifugal compressor:
(i) Flow coefficient (ii) Head coefficient (iii) Pressure
coefficient.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.149
(b) What are rotary compressors? Where do vane type
compressors find application?
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.112
8. A multi stage axial flow compressor delivers 18 kg/s of
air. The inlet stagnation condition is 1 bar and
20 C . The power consumed by the compressor is
4260 kW . Calculate: (i) delivery pressure (ii) number
of stages and (iii) overall isentropic efficiency of the
compressor. Assume temperature rise in the first
stage is 18  C , the polytropic efficiency of compression
is 0.9 and the stage stagnation pressure ratio is
constant.
Refer Dr.S.R. Book Page No.4.203
...........................................................................
 Solved Question Papers SQP.19

Code No: R22033

II B.Tech II Semester Regular Examinations,
August - 2014 (Set - 4)

THERMAL ENGINEERING - I

(Com. to ME, AME)

Time: 3 hours Max.Marks:75

Answer any FIVE Questions

All Questions carry Equal Marks

1. Define volumetric efficiency and name the variables that

affect the volumetric efficiency.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.6.10

2. (a) Explain the main metering and idling system of a

carburetor for cruising and full throttle operations.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.1.40
(b) Sketch and explain the working of a gear type
lubricating pump.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.1.70

3. (a) Describe the following two general objectives of
combustion chamber design for S.I.Engine:
(i) Smooth Engine operation, (ii) High power output
& thermal efficiency.
(b) Explain the factors influencing flame speed in
combustion of S.I.engines.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.5

4. (a) By means of P- diagram, explain the stages of
combustion in a C.I.Engine.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.29
SQP.20 Thermal Engineering - I

(b) Differentiate between compression and

combustion induced swirl.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.40

5. A four stroke cycle gas engine has a bore of 20 cm and

a stroke of 40 cm. The compression ratio is 6. In a
test on the engine the imep is 5 bar, the air to gas
ratio is 6:1 and the calorific value of the gas is
12 MJ /m 3 at NTP. At the beginning of the
compression stroke, the temperature is 77 C and
pressure 0.98 bar. Neglecting residual gases, find the
indicated power and thermal efficiency of the engine
at 250 rpm.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.3.76

6. An air compressor takes in air at 0.98 bar and 20 C

and compresses it according to the law pv 1.2  C . It is
then delivered to a receiver at constant pressure of
9.8 bar. Determine: (i) the temperature at the end of
compression;(ii) the work done per kg of air(iii) the
heat transferred during the compression; and (iv) the
work during delivery. Take R  287 J/kgK and   1.4
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.36

7. (a) What is slip factor of centrifugal compressor? With

the help of a velocity triangle diagram, show the slip
on the tip of radial bladed centrifugal impeller.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.147

(b) Derive an expression for the work supplied in a

stage of a centrifugal compressor

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.143

 Solved Question Papers SQP.21

8. In an 8 stage axial flow compressor, the overall

stagnation pressure ratio is 5:1 with an overall
isentropic efficiency of 90%. The stagnation
temperature and pressure at inlet are 20 C and 1
bar. The work is divided equally between the stages.
The mean blade shape is 175 m/s and 50% reaction
design is used. The axial velocity through the
compressor is constant and equal to 100 m/s.
Calculate the power required and blade angles.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.194
...........................................................................

Code No: R22033

II B.Tech II Semester Regular Examinations,

January - 2014 (Set - 1)

THERMAL ENGINEERING - I

(Com. to ME, AME)

Time: 3 hours Max.Marks:75

Answer any FIVE Questions

All Questions carry Equal Marks

1. (a) Compare the actual and fuel air cycles of a gasoline

engine.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.6.19
(b) Explain the ideal and actual port timing diagrams
of a 2-stroke S.I.engine

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.1.29

2. (a) With neat sketches explain the working principle of
simple carburetor.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.1.38
SQP.22 Thermal Engineering - I

(b) Discuss the important qualities of an S.I and C.I

engine fuel.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.18

3. (a) Describe the phenomenon of pre-ignition in S.I.

engines and discuss its effect on the performance.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.8

(b) What are the various types of combustion

chambers used in S.I. engines? Explain them briefly.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.26

4. (a) Explain the various factors that influence the delay

period in a C.I.engine.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.29

(b) Explain the stages of combustion in C.I.engine.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.28

5. The following data were recorded during a test on a

4-stroke cycle gas engine.

Area of indicator diagram  90 cm 2

Length of indicator diagram = 7 cm

Spring scale = 0.3 bar/mm

Diameter of piston = 20 cm

Length of stroke = 25 cm

Speed = 300 rpm

Determine (i) Indicated mean effective pressure(ii)

Indicated power

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.3.75

 Solved Question Papers SQP.23

6. Explain the following as referred to air compressors.

(i) Isothermal efficiency(ii) Volumetric efficiency
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.18

Prove the following relationship

   P1  
 vol  1  k   P   1  
  2 
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No. 4.19
7. (a) What do you mean by multistage compression? State
its advantages and disadvantages.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.5

(b) A single acting two stage compressor with

complete intercooling delivers 10.5 Kg/min of air at 16 bar.
The suction occurs at 1 bar and 25C . The compression and
expansion process are reversible, polytrophic index = 1.3.
Calculate (i) Power required to drive the compressor(ii)
Isothermal efficiency (iii) Volumetric efficiency of both the
compressors; If the clearance ratios for LP and HP cylinder
are 0.04 and 0.06 respectively.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.91

8. (a) Describe with a neat sketch the working of roots

blower.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.112

(b) A Roots blower compresses 0.08 m 3 of air from

1.0 bar to 1.5 bar per revolution, calculate compressor
efficiency.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.115

...........................................................................
SQP.24 Thermal Engineering - I

Code No: R22033

II B.Tech II Semester Regular Examinations,
January - 2014 (Set - 2)

THERMAL ENGINEERING - I

(Com. to ME, AME)

Time: 3 hours Max.Marks:75

Answer any FIVE Questions

All Questions carry Equal Marks

1. (a) Draw the neat sketch of fuel pump for C.I.engine

and explain.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.1.53
(b) Explain ideal and actual port timing diagrams of
2-stroke S.I.engine.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.1.29

2. (a) What is the difference between air standard cycle
and fuel air cycle analysis? Explain significance of
fuel air cycle.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.6.2
(b) What is meant by crank case ventilation? Explain
the details.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.6.17

3. (a) Briefly explain the stages of combustion in
S.I.engines elaborating the flame front propagation.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.1
(b) Explain with a neat sketch the battery ignition
system

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.1.60

 Solved Question Papers SQP.25

4. (a) Explain the phenomenon of knock in C.I.engines.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.36
(b) Explain the working of Ricardo swirl chamber.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.41

5. The following data was recorded during testing of a
4-stroke cycle gas engine.
Diameter = 10 cm ; Stroke = 15 cm; Speed = 1600
rpm
Area of the positive loop of the indicator diagram
 5.75 cm2 ; Area of the negative loop of the indicator
diagram  0.25 cm2 ; Length of the indicator diagram =
55mm; Spring constant = 3.5 bar/cm; Find the indicated
power of the engine.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.3.75
6. (a) Compare centrifugal and axial flow compressors.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.189
(b) A roots blower compresses 0.06 m 3 of air from 1.0
bar to 1.45 bar per revolution. Calculate compressor
efficiency.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.116

7. (a) Explain the working of an axial flow compressor
with a neat sketch.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.166
(b) An 8 stage axial flow compressor takes in air at
20 C at the rate of 180 kg/min. The pressure ratio is 6 and
isentropic efficiency is 0.9. Determine the power required.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.205

SQP.26 Thermal Engineering - I

8. (a) Explain with a neat sketch the working of a

centrifugal compressor.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.125

(b) A centrifugal air compressor having a pressure

ratio of 5, compresses air at the rate of 10 kg/s. If the
initial pressure and temperature of air is 1 bar and 20 C ,
calculate final temperature and power required to drive the
compressor.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.165

...........................................................................

Code No: R22033

II B.Tech II Semester Regular Examinations,
January - 2014 (Set - 3)

THERMAL ENGINEERING - I

(Com. to ME, AME)

Time: 3 hours Max.Marks:75

Answer any FIVE Questions

All Questions carry Equal Marks

1. Define volumetric efficiency and discuss the effect of

various factors effecting the volumetric efficiency.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.6.10

2. (a) Explain pressure cooling system with a sketch.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.1.76

(b) With neat sketch, explain the working of simple

carburetor.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.1.38

 Solved Question Papers SQP.27

3.(a) Explain the various factors that influence the flame

speed of an S.I.engine.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.5

(b) What is delay period and what are the factors

affecting the delay period?

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.29

4. (a) What are the different methods used in C.I.engines

to create turbulence in the mixture.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.42

(b) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the

two types of combustion chambers of C.I.engines.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.49

5. (a) What is the purpose of engine testing? Name the

various measurements which are to be taken in a test
of I.C.engine.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.3.6

(b) Find the engine dimensions of a 2-cylinder,

2-stroke, I.C.engine from the following data:

Engine speed = 4000 rpm, Volume efficiency = 0.77,

Mechanical efficiency = 0.75, Fuel consumption 10

Lit/hr (g = 0.73), Air fuel ratio = 18:1, Piston speed = 600
rpm,

Indicated mean effective pressure = 5bar.

Find also brake power, Take R of gas mixture as 281

J/kg K at S.T.P.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.3.90 Problem 3.23

SQP.28 Thermal Engineering - I

6. (a) Enumerate the applications of compressed air. State

how reciprocating air compressors classified.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.1
(b) Prove that the volumetric efficiency of a single
stage compressor is given by
1/n
   P1  
 vol  1  k   P  1
  2 
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.18
7. (a) Derive an expression for efficiency of Roots blower
in terms of pressure ratio and ratio of specific heats.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.113
(b) A rotary compressor receives air at 1 bar and
17  C and delivers it at a pressure of 6 bar. Determine per
kg of air delivered, work done by the compressor and heat
exchanges with the jacket water when the compression is
isothermal, isentropic by the relation PV constant.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.123
8. (a) Differentiate between centrifugal compressor and
axial flow compressor.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.189
(b) An axial flow compressor, with compression ratio
as 4, draws air at 20  C and delivers it at 197  C . The
mean blade speed and flow velocity are constant throughout
the compressor. Assuming 50% reaction blading and taking
blade velocity as 180 m/s, find flow velocity and the number
of stages. Take work factor = 0.82,   12,   42 and
C p  1.005 kJ/kgK.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.209

...........................................................................
 Solved Question Papers SQP.29

Code No: R22033

II B.Tech II Semester Regular Examinations,
January - 2014 (Set - 4)

THERMAL ENGINEERING - I

(Com. to ME, AME)

Time: 3 hours Max.Marks:75

Answer any FIVE Questions

All Questions carry Equal Marks

1. Explain exhaust blow down factor

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.6.8

2. (a) Mention the various parameters which affect the

engine heat transfer and explain their effect.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.6.6

(b) Clearly explain wet sump lubrication system with

a sketch.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.1.70

3. (a) What is meant by abnormal combustion? Explain

the phenomenon of knock in S.I.engine.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.10

(b) What is ignition lag in S.I.engine and how does

it affect performance.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.2

4. (a) Explain with figure various types of combustion

chambers used in C.I.engine.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.42
SQP.30 Thermal Engineering - I

(b) Bring out clearly the process of combustion

C.I.engine and also explain various stages of combustion.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.28
5. The following data refer to an oil engine working on
Otto 4-stroke cycle
Brake pressure = 14.7 kW,
Suction pressure = 0.9 bar,
Mechanical efficiency = 80%,
Index of compression curve = 1.35,
Index of expansion curve = 1.3,
Maximum explosion pressure = 24 bar,
Engine speed = 1000 rpm,
Compression ratio = 5

Ratio of stroke bore = 1.5. Find the diameter and

stroke of the piston.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.3.78
6. (a) Explain the effect of intercooling in a multi stage
reciprocating compressor.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.67
(b) Determine the size of the cylinder for a double
acting air compressor of 40 kW indicated power, in which
air is drawn at 1 bar and 15 C and compressed according
to the law PV 1.2  constant to 6 bar. The compressor runs
at 100 rpm with average piston speed of 152.5 m/min.
Neglect clearance.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.42

7. (a) What is a slip factor and pressure coefficient?
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.147
 Solved Question Papers SQP.31

(b) The following data relate to a performance test of

single acting 14 cm  10 cm reciprocating compressor.

Suction pressure = 1 bar,

Suction temperature  20 C ,
Discharge pressure = 6 bar,
Discharge temperature  180 C ,
Speed of compressor = 1200 rpm,
Shaft power = 6.25 kW,
Mass of air delivered = 1.7 kg/min

Calculate the following

(i) the actual volumetric efficiency

(ii) Indicated power
(iii) Isentropic efficiency
(iv) Mechanical efficiency
(v) Overall isothermal efficiency
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.38

8. (a) What do you mean by surging & choking?

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.184

(b) An axial flow compressor with an overall

isentropic efficiency of 85% draws air at 20 C and
compresses it in the pressure ratio of 4:1. The mean blade
speed and flow velocity are constant throughout the
compressor. Assuming 50% reaction blading and taking
blade velocity as 180 m/s, and work input factor as 0.82.
Calculate: (i) Flow velocity and (ii) The number of stages.
Take 1  12, 1  42  and Cp  1.005 kJ/kgK .

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.192

...........................................................................
SQP.32 Thermal Engineering - I

Code No: R22033 - JNTU-K

II B.Tech II Semester Regular Examinations,
April/May - 2013 (Set - 1)

THERMAL ENGINEERING - I

(Com. to ME, AME)

Time: 3 hours Max.Marks:75

Answer any FIVE Questions

All Questions carry Equal Marks

1. (a) Illustrate the constructional details of an

I.C.engines? Explain briefly about the important
components and its materials?
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.1.13

(b) Discuss briefly the loss due to gas exchange

process?

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.6.9

2. (a) How are S.I. and C.I. engine fuels rated ?

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.18

(b) With a neat sketch explain the magneto ignition

system?

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.1.63

3. What is the difference between physical delay and

chemical delay? Explain its importance.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.31

4. (a) Explain abnormal combustion and what is delay

period?
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.8
 Solved Question Papers SQP.33

(b) Explain open type and divide type combustion

chamber with neat sketch.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.42

5. In a test of four-cylinder, four-stroke petrol engine 75

mm bore and 100 mm stroke, the following results
were obtained at full throttle at a constant speed and
with a fixed setting of the fuel supply of 0.082 kg/min.
bp with all cylinders working = 15.24 kW
bp with cylinder number 1 cut-off = 10.45 kW
bp with cylinder number 2 cut-off = 10.38 kW
bp with cylinder number 3 cut-off = 10.23 kW
bp with cylinder number 4 cut-off = 10.45 kW
Estimate the indicated power of the engine under
these conditions. If the calorific value of the fuel is 44
MJ/kg, find the indicated thermal efficiency of the engine.
Compare this with the air-standard efficiency, the clearance
volume of one cylinder being 115 cc.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.3.28

6. (a) Derive the equation for work required for a single

stage reciprocating air compressor.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.7

(b) A single stage reciprocating air compressor is

required to compress 60 m 3 of air from 1 bar to 8 bar at
22C . Find the workdone by the compressor if the
compressor is (i) Isothermal (ii) adiabatic (iii) Polytropic
with an index of 1.25.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.12

SQP.34 Thermal Engineering - I

7. (a) Explain the working principle of Roots blower with

suitable diagrams.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.112
(b) A centrifugal compressor delivers 54 kg of air per
minute at pressure of 200 kPa, when compressing air from
100 kPa and 15 C . If the temperature of air delivered is
97 C , and no heat is added to the air from the external
sources during compression, determine the efficiency of the
compressor relative to ideal adiabatic compression and
power absorbed.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.162
8. (a) Define the degree of reaction and derive its equation for
the symmetrical blades of an axial flow air compressor.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.175
(b) Show that the degree of reaction is 50% for the
symmetrical blade axial flow air compressor.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.175
...........................................................................

Code No: R22033

II B.Tech II Semester Regular Examinations,
April/May - 2013 (Set - 2)
THERMAL ENGINEERING - I
(Com. to ME, AME)

Time: 3 hours Max.Marks:75

Answer any FIVE Questions
All Questions carry Equal Marks

1. (a) What are the major differences between S.I.engine

and C.I.engine? Explain them with suitable examples.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.1.21
 Solved Question Papers SQP.35

(b) Briefly discuss pumping and rubbing friction

losses.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.6.9, 6.14
2. (a) What is meant by crankcase ventilation? Explain
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No. 6.17
(b) Describe the essential parts of a modern
carburetor.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.1.38
3. (a) What is ignition delay in combustion of S.I.Engine?
What are different parameters influencing the ignition
delay?
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.1
(b) Explain the working of fuel injector with a neat
sketch
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.1.56
4. (a) Explain detail what is diesel knock
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.35
(b) Explain combustion process in C.I.Engine?
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.28
5. In a test on two stroke oil engine, the following results
were obtained: speed = 350 rev/min;Net brake load =
600 N; Mean effective pressure = 2.66 bar; Fuel
consumption = 3.2 kg/h; cooling water used = 495
kg/h; Temperatures of jacket water at inlet and outlet
 30C and 50C ; Exhaust gases per kg of fuel = 32
kg; Temperature of exhaust gases  432 C ; specific
heat of exhaust gases = 1.005 kJ/kg K; Inlet air
temperature  32 C . Draw up a heat balance for the
engine if its cylinder diameter = 205 mm and stroke
SQP.36 Thermal Engineering - I

= 275 mm; brake drum diameter = 1.0 m; calorific

value of fuel = 40870 kJ/kg.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.3.61
6. (a) Define the volumetric efficiency and derive its
expression for the single stage reciprocating air
compressor with clearance volume
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.16

(b) A single stage single acting reciprocating air

compressor with 0.3 m bore and 0.4 m stroke runs at 400
rpm. The suction pressure is 1 bar at 300 K and the
delivery pressure is 5 bar. Find the power required to run
it, if the compression is isothermal, adiabatic, and
compression pv 1.3  C . Also find the isothermal efficiency.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.14
7. (a) Draw the velocity triangles for the centrifugal
compressor and derive the equation for the estimation
of power required to compress the air.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.140
(b) Define the term slip factor and power input factor
with respect to the centrifugal compressor. Explain them.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.147
8. (a) With a suitable sketch and velocity diagrams,
explain the working principle of simple axial flow air
compressor.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.166
(b) What is meant by a stage of axial flow air
compressor? and explain in detail about the stage velocity
triangles.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.169
...........................................................................
 Solved Question Papers SQP.37

Code No: R22033

II B.Tech II Semester Regular Examinations,
April/May - 2013 (Set - 3)

THERMAL ENGINEERING - I

(Com. to ME, AME)

Time: 3 hours Max.Marks:75

Answer any FIVE Questions

All Questions carry Equal Marks

1. (a) Explain the working principle of four stroke

I.C.Engine along with the valve timing diagram.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.1.6, 1.26

(b) Briefly explain (i) Time loss factor (ii) Heat loss
factor

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.6.4, 6.6

2. Explain the principle of Wankle Engine

Refer Dr. S.R Book Supplementary

3. Describe the phenomenon of knocking in C.I.Engine and

how it is different from S.I.engine detonation.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.35, 2.38

4. (a) Explain detail what is detonation?

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.10

(b) Explain flame front propagation with suitable

sketch.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.4

5. A four stroke petrol engine with a compression ratio of

6.5 to 1 and total piston displacement of
SQP.38 Thermal Engineering - I

5.2  10  3 m 3 develops 100 kW brake power and

consumes 33 kg of petrol per hour of calorific value
44300 kJ/kg at 3000 rpm. Find:
(i) Brake mean effective pressure
(ii) Brake thermal efficiency
(iii) Air standard efficiency   1.4; and
(iv) Air-fuel ratio by mass.

Assume a volumetric efficiency of 80%. One kg of

petrol vapour occupies 0.26 m 3 at 1.013 bar and 15 C . Take
R for air 287 J/kg K.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.3.86

6. (a) Derive an expression for the optimum intercooler

pressure for two stage reciprocating air compressors
with perfect intercooling
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.69

(b) A single stage single acting reciprocating air

compressor with 0.3 m bore and 0.4 m stroke runs at 400
rpm. The suction pressure is 1 bar at 300 K and the
delivery pressure is 5 bar. Find the power required to run
it, if the compression is isothermal, adiabatic and
compression follow pv 1.3  c. Also find the isothermal
efficiency.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.14

7. (a) Derive an expression for the efficiency of roots

blower in terms of pressure ratio and ratio of specific
heats based on p-v and T-s diagrams.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.113
 Solved Question Papers SQP.39

(b) A rotary air compressor receives air at a pressure

of 1 bar and 17 C and delivers at a pressure of 6 bar.
Determine work done by the compressor per kg of air
delivered, if the process is (i) isothermal, (ii) adiabatic and
(iii) polytrophic with the index as 1.3.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.123

8. (a) Draw the schematic diagram of axial flow air

compressor and explain its working along with
velocity triangles.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.166

(b) Derive the work input requirement for an axial

flow air compressor and explain the salient points.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.171

...........................................................................

Code No: R22033

II B.Tech II Semester Regular Examinations,
April/May - 2013 (Set - 4)

THERMAL ENGINEERING - I
(Com. to ME, AME)

Time: 3 hours Max.Marks:75

Answer any FIVE Questions

All Questions carry Equal Marks

1. (a) Differentiate between Magneto ignition system with

battery coil ignition system.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.1.65
SQP.40 Thermal Engineering - I

(b) Why lubrication is necessary in I.C.Engine

components? Explain different methods of lubrication
system.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.1.69

2. (a) Explain the fuel supply system in S.I.Engine

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.1.34

(b) Explain the working of Zenith carburetor with

neat sketch.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Supplementary

3. (a) What are different stages of combustion in

S.I.Engine? Explain with p   diagram.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.1

(b) Explain the influence of different operating

parameters on ignition delay during combustion process in
S.I.Engine.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.3

4. (a) Explain need of air movement combustion induced

turbulence in a C.I.engine with a neat sketch.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.42

(b) Explain, what are the reasons for abnormal

combustion of C.I engine.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.8

5. A nine-cylinder petrol engine of bore 150 mm and stroke

200 mm has a compression ratio 6:1 and develops 360
kW at 2000 rpm when running on a mixture of 20%
rich. The fuel used has a calorific value of 43 MJ/kg
and contains 85.3% carbon and 14.7% hydrogen.
 Solved Question Papers SQP.41

Assuming volumetric efficiency of 70% at 17C and

mechanical efficiency of 90%, find the indicated
thermal efficiency of the engine.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.3.70
6. (a) Derive the expressions for the reversible work of
compression if the compression processes are (i)
adiabatic, (ii) polytrophic and (iii) isothermal.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.5
(b) Differentiate between positive displacement
compressors and dynamic compressors.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.187
7. (a) Explain the working principle of Vane sealed
compressor.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.117
(b) What are different parameters that influence the
performance of the centrifugal compressors? Explain.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.128
8. Define the degree of reaction and derive its equation for
the symmetrical blades of an axial flow air
compressor.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.175
...........................................................................
SQP.42 Thermal Engineering - I

Code No: R09220303

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL
UNIVERSITY, HYDERABAD

II B.Tech II Semester Regular Examinations,

May - 2013

Applied Thermodynamics - I
(Common to ME, AME)

Time: 3 hours Max.Marks:75

Answer any FIVE Questions
All Questions carry Equal Marks

1. Discuss the optimum opening position of exhaust valve

to minimize the heat loss from the combustion
chamber. Explain the conditions involved in it. ...(15)
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.6.6

2. What are different antiknock additives to be added to

reduce detonation in S.I.Engine? and Explain ill
effects on engine performance.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.23

3. Differentiate between overhead valve and under head

valve combustion chambers used S.I.Engine. Explain
with the help of line diagrams. ... ([15])
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.26

4. (a) What is ignition delay in combustion of C.I.Engine?

How to differentiate between physical and chemical
delay? Explain their influence on combustion
performance.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.29
 Solved Question Papers SQP.43

(b) How to create turbulence in C.I.Engine

combustion chamber in order to get better mixing air fuel?
Explain. ... ([15])
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.40
5. (a) Derive an expression for the calculation of indicated
mean effective pressure.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.3.2
(b) A four-stroke cycle automobile engine is tested
while running at 3600 rpm. Inlet air temperature is 15C
and the pressure is 101.36 kN/m 2. The engine has eight
in-line cylinders with a total piston displacement of 4000
cc. The air fuel ratio is 15 and the bsfc is 0.3 kg/kWh .
Dynamometer readings show a power output of 89 kW.
Find the volumetric efficiency. ... ([15])
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.3.84
6. (a) Derive the equation for maximum discharge in case
of multi stage compression of reciprocating air
compressor with perfect inter cooler.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.67
(b) A single acting two stage reciprocating air
compressor with complete inter cooling delivers 8 kg/min at
16 bar pressure. Assume an intake condition of 1 bar and
15C and that the compression and expansion processes are
polytropic with 1.35. Calculate (i) power required, (ii) the
iso thermal efficiency. ... ([15])
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.77
7. (a) What are the required components for Vane type
compressor? Explain them.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.117
SQP.44 Thermal Engineering - I

(b) A single sided centrifugal compressor is to deliver

18 kg/s of air when operating at a stagnation pressure ratio
4:1 and a speed of 220 rps. The inlet stagnation conditions
may be taken as 288 K and 1.0 bar. Assuming the slip
factor of 0.92 and as a power input factor of 1.04 and an
overall isentropic efficiency of 0.84. Estimate the overall
diameter of the impeller. ... ([15])
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.163

8. (a) Derive the work input requirement for an axial flow

air compressor and explain the salient points.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.166

(b) What is meant by workdone factor? Derive its

equation for the axial flow compressor. ... ([15])
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.180
...........................................................................

Code No: 9A03402

B.Tech II Year II Semester (R09) Regular &
Supplementary Examinations, April/May - 2013 (Set
-1)

THERMAL ENGINEERING - I

(Mechanical Engineering)

Time: 3 hours Max.Marks:75

Answer any FIVE Questions

All Questions carry Equal Marks

1. (a) Explain in detail the effect of exhaust valve opening

time on blow down in case of gasoline engine.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.6.8
 Solved Question Papers SQP.45

(b) Discuss briefly the loss due to gas exchange

process in gasoline engine.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.6.9

2. (a) Briefly explain any two methods of fuel injection

systems generally employed in C.I.engines.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.1.53

(b) Compare Otto and diesel engines.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.1.21

3. Briefly explain the effect of different factors on knock

in S.I. engines.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.10

4. What are the factors affecting the delay period? Explain

in detail.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.31

5. (a) Define indicated mean effective pressure related to

I.C.engine and how it can be measured?
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.3.2

(b) A two cylinder four stroke engine runs at 240 rpm

developing a torque of 5 kN-m. The bore and stroke of
cylinder are 30 cm and 60 cm respectively. Engine runs
with gaseous fuel having calorific value of 16.8 MJ/m 3. The
gas and air mixture is supplied in proportion of 1:7 by
volume. The volumetric efficiency is 0.85. Determine (i)
The brake power. (ii) The mean piston speed in m/s. (iii)
The brake mean effective pressure. (iv) The brake thermal
efficiency.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.3.81

SQP.46 Thermal Engineering - I

6. (a) A single stage double acting air compressor running

at 300 rpm, delivers 15 m3 of free air per minute at
700 kPa and 200C . If the clearance volume is 8% of
swept volume and if the index of compression and
expansion are same, find the clearance swept volume
of piston and volumetric efficiency. Initial air
conditions are 10kP and 15C .
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.34

(b) Draw the T-S diagram for the multi stage

compression and show the work saving during the
compression in comparison with single stage reciprocating
air compression.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.67

7. (a) With the help of neat sketch, explain the working

of vane type blower. Also show the compression
process in P-V diagram.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.119

(b) A Vaned compressor handles free air of 0.6 m 3/s

at 1 bar and compresses to 2.3 bar. There occurs 30%
reduction in volume before the back flow occurs. Determine
the indicated power required and isentropic efficiency.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.120

8. (a) Derive expression for polytropic efficiency in terms

of entry and delivery pressures, temperature and ratio
of specific heats.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.176
 Solved Question Papers SQP.47

(b) An axial flow compressor is to have constant axial

velocity of 250 m/s and 50% degree of reaction. The mean
diameter of blade ring is 45 cm and speed is 18000 r.p.m.
The exit angles of the blade are 25. Calculate blade angle
at inlet and work done per kg of air with the help of
velocity triangles.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.206

...........................................................................

Code No: 9A03402

B.Tech II Year II Semester (R09) Regular &
Supplementary Examinations, April/May - 2013 (Set
- 2)

THERMAL ENGINEERING - I

(Mechanical Engineering)

Time: 3 hours Max.Marks:75

Answer any FIVE Questions

All Questions carry Equal Marks

1. (a) Define volumetric efficiency of engine and discuss

the effect of various factors that affect the volumetric
efficiency.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.6.10

(b) Compare the actual and fuel-air cycles of IC

engine

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.6.19

2. (a) Sketch the battery ignition system and explain its

working.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.1.60
SQP.48 Thermal Engineering - I

(b) Explain the various types of cooling systems

employed in IC engines.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.1.74

3. Explain the phenomenon of knocking in S.I.engine.

What are the effects of knocking?
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.10

4. (a) Explain with neat sketch the working principle of

combustion chamber used in C.I. engine.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.42

5. (a) A four stroke cylinder diesel engine running at 300

rpm produces 250 kW of brake power. The cylinder
dimensions are 30 cm bore and 0.6 cm stroke. Fuel
consumption rate is 1 kg/min while air fuel ratio is
10. The average indicated mean effective pressure is
0.8 MPa. Determine indicated power, mechanical
efficiency, brake thermal efficiency and volumetric
efficiency of engine. The calorific value of fuel is 43
MJ/kg. The ambient conditions are 1.013 bar, 27C.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.3.83

(b) How do you measure air consumption rate of I.C

engine in the laboratory?

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.3.31

6. A two stage air compressor compresses air from 1 bar

20C to 42 bar. If the law of compression is
pV 1.35  constant and intercooling is perfect. Find per
kg of air (i) the work done in compression. (ii) the
mass of cooling water necessary for abstracting the
 Solved Question Papers SQP.49

heat in the intercooler, if the temperature rise of the

cooling water is 25C .
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No. 4.76

7. (a) A roots blower handles free air of 0.5 m 3/s at 1 bar

and 27C and delivers air at pressure of 2 bar.
Determine the indicated power required to drive
compressor and isentropic efficiency.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.116
(b) With the help of neat sketch, explain the working
of roots blower. Also show the compression process in p-V
diagram.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.112
8. In an axial flow compressor, the overall stagnation
pressure ratio achieved is 4 with overall stagnation
isentropic efficiency 86%. The inlet stagnation
pressure and temperature are 1 bar and 320 K. The
mean blade speed is 190 m/s. The degree of reaction
is 0.5 at the mean radius with relative air angles of
10and30  respectively. The work done factor is 0.9.
Calculate: (i) Stagnation polytropic efficiency. (ii)
Number of stages. (iii) Inlet temperature and
pressure. (iv) Blade height in the first stage if the
hub-tip ratio is 0.4, mass flow rate is 20 kg/sec.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.196
...........................................................................
SQP.50 Thermal Engineering - I

Code No: 9A03402

B.Tech II Year II Semester (R09) Regular &
Supplementary Examinations, April/May - 2013
(Set - 3)

THERMAL ENGINEERING - I

(Mechanical Engineering)

Time: 3 hours Max.Marks:75

Answer any FIVE Questions

All Questions carry Equal Marks

1. (a) What is the use of air-standard cycle? List some air

standard cycles.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.6.1

(b) Discuss the effect of exhaust valve opening time

on blow down.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.6.8

2. What is IC engine? Classify I.C. engines.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.1.12

3. What are the factors which affect the ignition lag, flame
propagation in S.I. engines?
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.4

4. Explain any three important phases of combustion in

C.I.engine.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.28

5. (a) Define the terms: brake power, piston speed, brake

mean effective pressure and brake thermal efficiency.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.3.6
 Solved Question Papers SQP.51

(b) A two cylinder four stroke engine runs at 240

r.p.m developing a torque of 5.16 kN-m. The bore and
stroke of cylinder are 30 cm and 58.5 cm respectively.
Engine runs with gaseous fuel having calorific value of
16.8 MJ/m 3. The gas and air mixture is supplied in
proportion of 1:7 by volume. The volumetric efficiency is
0.85. Determine (i) The brake power (ii) The mean piston
speed in m/s. (iii) The brake mean effective pressure (iv)
The brake thermal efficiency.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.3.81
6. (a) With the help of neat sketch explain the working
principle of single stage single acing reciprocating air
compressor.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.5
(b) A single stage, double acting compressor has a
free air delivery of 14 m 3/min, measured at 1.013 bar and
15C . The pressure and temperature in the cylinder during
induction are 0.95 bar 15C . The delivery pressure is 7 bar
and index of compression and expansion is 1.3. The
clearance volume is 5% of the swept volume. Calculate: (i)
indicated power required. (ii) Volumetric efficiency.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.41
7. (a) Define and explain the terms: pressure coefficient
and adiabatic coefficient of a centrifugal compressor.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.149
(b) A single sided centrifugal compressor is to deliver
14 kg/s of air when operating at a pressure ratio of 4:1
and a speed of 200 rev/s. The inlet stagnation conditions
are 288 K and 1.0 bar. The slip factor and power input
factor may be taken as 0.9 and 1.04 respectively. The
SQP.52 Thermal Engineering - I

overall isentropic efficiency is 0.80. Determine the overall

diameter of the impeller.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.163
8. (a) Define polytropic efficiency of an axial flow
compressor and write the expression.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.176
(b) A multi stage axial compressor is required for
compressing air at 300 K, through a pressure ratio of 4.5
to 1. Each stage is to be a 50% reaction and mean blade
speed of 300 m/s, flow coefficient 0.5, and the stage loading
factor 0.3 are taken, for simplicity, as constant for all
stages. Determine the flow angles and the total number of
stages required if the polytropic efficiency is 85%. Take
C p  1.005 kJ/kgK and   1.4 for air.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No. 4.200
...........................................................................

Code No: 9A03402

B.Tech II Year II Semester (R09) Regular &
Supplementary Examinations, April/May - 2013
(Set - 4)

THERMAL ENGINEERING - I
(Mechanical Engineering)

Time: 3 hours Max.Marks:75

Answer any FIVE Questions

All Questions carry Equal Marks

1. (a) Discuss the effect of exhaust valve opening time on

blow down.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.6.8
 Solved Question Papers SQP.53

(b) What are the factors that affect the volumetric

efficiency of an engine?

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.6.10

2. (a) What are the various components to be lubricated

in an engine and explain how it is accomplished?
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.1.69

(b) What are the various characteristics of an

efficient cooling system in an engine?

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.1.73

3. (a) What do you understand from abnormal combustion

in S.I.engines?
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.8

(b) Explain different stages of combustion in

S.I.engine

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.1

4. (a) What are the factors that affect the combustion

process in C.I.engines?
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.28

(b) What is knocking in diesel engine? Explain in

detail.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.2.35

5. (a) A gas engine having a cylinder 250 mm bore and

450 mm stroke has a volumetric efficiency of 80%.
Air-gas ratio equals 9:1, calorific value of fuel
21000 kJ/m3 at NTP. Calculate the heat supplied to
the engine per working cycle. If the compression ratio
SQP.54 Thermal Engineering - I

is 5:1. What is the heat value of the mixture per

working stroke per m 3 of total cylinder volume?
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.3.64

(b) Explain the performance test of an IC engine.

Why is it carried out?

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.3.21

6. (a) Derive an expression for minimum work required

for two stage reciprocating air compressor with perfect
inter-cooling and neglect clearance volume.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.66

(b) A single stage single acting air compressor

delivers 14 m 3 of free air from 1 bar to 7 bar. The speed
of the compressor is 300 r.p.m. Assuming the compression
and expansion is pv 1.35  constant and clearance is 5% of
the swept volume, find the diameter and stroke of the
compressor. Take stroke length is 1.5 times the bore
diameter.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.29

7. (a) What is power input factor and slip factor?

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.147

(b) A centrifugal compressor running at 9000 r.p.m

delivers 600 m 3/min of free air. The air is compressed from
1 bar and 20C to a pressure ratio of 4 with an isentropic
efficiency of 0.82. Blades are radial at outlet of impeller
and the flow velocity of 62 m/s may be assumes throughout
constant. The outer radius of the impeller is twice the inner
and the slip factor may be assumed as 0.9. The blade area
 Solved Question Papers SQP.55

coefficient may be assumed as 0.9 at the inlet. Calculate

(i) Final temperature of air. (ii) Theoretical power. (iii)
impeller diameters at inlet and outlet. (iv) Breadth of the
impeller at inlet. (v) impeller blade angle at inlet. (vi
Diffuse blade angle at inlet.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.159

8. (a) Define degree of reaction and write the expression

for degree of reaction.
Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.175

(b) An axial flow compressor is to have constant axial

velocity of 150 m/s and 50% degree of reaction. The mean
diameter of blade ring is 35 cm and speed is 15000 rpm.
The exit angles of the blade are 27. Calculate blade angle
at inlet and work done per kg of air with the help of
velocity triangles.

Refer Dr. S.R Book Pg.No.4.207

...........................................................................

1. What are the methods employed to achieve near

isothermal compression for high speed compressors.
2. In detail explain about the performance curves of axial
flow compressors.
3. (a) Explain procedure to estimate the friction power of
an engine by using Willan’s line method.
(b) By means of sankey diagram explain the energy
flow through an engine.

4. Draw the typical distillation curve for Diesel fuel

SQP.56 Thermal Engineering - I

5. Describe the working cycle of the screw compressor,

with a sketch.
6. What is optimum spark advance? Show the effect of
spark advance on the power output by means of the
P-V diagram of an S.I engine.
7. Explain the principle of direct injection of gasoline into
the cylinder of an S.I. Engine with a sketch.
8. Discuss the effect of compression ratio on maximum
air temperature for C.I Engine combustion by means
of a graph.
9. Explain the principle of operation of “Lanova air cell
combustion chamber” with a sketch and state its
advantages.
10. With the help of a P-V diagram for S.I.Engine, discuss
the effect of 0 and 35 spark advances.

11. What is the purpose of engine testing?

12. Why do designer go for multi cylinder engine for heavy
loads and name some multi cylinder engine types.
13. Derive an expression for the efficiency of Otto cycle
and comment on the effect of compression ratio on
the efficiency with respect of ratio of specific heats by
means of suitable graphs.
14. What is the need for air movement in S.I.Engine
combustion chamber? Explain.
15. Explain the working principle of pre-combustion
chamber with the suitable diagram.
16. Describe the multi-point fuel injection system with neat
sketch.
 Solved Question Papers SQP.57

17. Differentiate between uncontrolled combustion and

controlled combustion in S.I.Engine.
18. What is meant by low degree of reaction and high
degree of reaction? How you differentiate these two?
19. How do the specific heats vary with temperature?
Explain the reasons for variation of specific heat and
also discuss the influence of this on thermal efficiency
of the cycle.
20. Find the percentage change in thermal efficiency of
Otto cycle having a compression ratio of 12 and
specific heat at constant pressure increases by 1%
[15]
21. How to achieve rich fuel air mixture in S.I.Engine?
Under what operating conditions rich mixture is
required?
22. What are power producing and power absorbing
machines? List a few of them.
23. Compare external combustion and internal combustion
engines.
SQP.58 Thermal Engineering - I

II Year - II SEMESTER

T P C
31 0 3

(Kakinada)
THERMAL ENGINEERING - I

UNIT - I
Objectives: To make the student learn and understand the
reasons and effects of various losses that occur in the actual
engine operation.

Actual Cycles and their Analysis:Introduction,

Comparison of Air Standard and Actual Cycles. Time Loss
Factor, Heat Loss Factor, Exhaust Blowdown-Loss due to
Gas exchange process, Volumetric Efficiency. Loss due to
Rubbing Friction, Actual and Fuel-Air Cycles of CI Engines.

UNIT - II
Objectives: To familiarize the student with the various
engine systems along with their function and necessity.

I.C. ENGINES: Classification - Working principles, Valve

and Port Timing Diagrams, - Engine systems - Fuel,
Carburetor, Fuel Injection System, Ignition, Cooling and
Lubrication, principle of wankle engine, principles of
supercharging and turbocharging.

UNIT - III
Objectives: To learn about normal combustion
phenomenon and knocking in S.I and C.I Engines and to
find the several engine operating parameters that affect the
smooth engine operation.
 Solved Question Papers SQP.59

Combustion in S.I. Engines: Normal combustion and

abnormal combustion - Importance of flame speed and effect
of engine variables - Type of Abnormal combustion,
pre-ignition and knocking (explanation of ) - Fuel
requirements and fuel rating, anti knock additives -
combustion chamber - requirements, types.
Combustion in C.I.Engines: Four stages of combustion -
Delay period and its importance - Effect of engine variables
- Diesel Knock - Need for air movement, suction,
compression and combustion induced turbulence - open and
divided combustion chambers and nozzles used - fuel
requirements and fuel rating.

UNIT - IV
Objectives: To make the student learn to perform testing
on S.I and C.I Engines for the calculations of performance
and emission parameters.

Measurement, Testing and Performance:Parameters of

performance - measurement of cylinder pressure, fuel
consumption, air intake, exhaust gas composition, Brake
power - Determination of frictional losses and indicated
power - Performance test - Heat balance sheet and chart.

UNIT - V
Objectives: To make students learn about different types
of compressors and to calculate power and efficiency of
reciprocating compressors.

COMPRESSORS - Classification - positive displacement

and roto dynamic machinery - Power producing and power
absorbing machines, fan, blower and compressor - positive
displacement and dynamic types - reciprocating and rotary
types.
SQP.60 Thermal Engineering - I

Reciprocating: Principle of operation, work required,

Isothermal efficiency volumetric efficiency and effect of
clearance, stage compression, undercooling, saving of work,
minimum work condition for stage compression.
UNIT - VI
Objectives: To make students learn mechanical details,
and to calculate power and efficiency of rotary compressors

Rotary (Positive displacement type): Roots Blower,

vane sealed compressor, Lysholm compressor - mechanical
details and principle of working - efficiency considerations.
Dynamic Compressors: Centrifugal compressors:
Mechanical details and principle of operation - velocity and
pressure variation. Energy transfer - impeller blade
shape-losses, slip factor, power input factor, pressure
coefficient and adiabatic coefficient - velocity diagrams -
power.
Axial Flow Compressors:
Mechanical details and principle of operation - velocity
triangles and energy transfer per stage degree of reaction,
workdone factor - isentropic efficiency -pressure rise
calculations - Polytropic efficiency.
 Solved Question Papers SQP.61

JNTUA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(AUTONOMOUS): ANANTAPUR

II Year B.Tech.M.E.II-Sem

T P C
3 0 3

THERMAL ENGINEERING - I

UNIT - I
I.C. ENGINES: Definition of Engine and Heat Engine, I.C.
Engine Classification - Parts of I.C. Engines, Working of
I.C. Engines, Two Stroke & Four Stroke I.C. Engines SI &
CI Engines, Valve and Port Timing Diagrams.

UNIT - II
Fuel System: S.I. Engine: Fuel Supply Systems, carburetor
types Air Filters, Mechanical and Electrical Fuel Pump -
Filters - Gasoline Injection Systems.

Cooling & Lubrication Systems: Cooling Requirements,

Air Cooling, Liquid Cooling, Thermo Siphon, Water And
Forced Circulation System, Lubrication Systems - Flash,
Pressurized and Mist Lubrication.

Ignition System:Function Of An Ignition System, Battery

coil Ignition System, Magneto Coil Ignition System,
Electronic Ignition System using Contact Breaker,
Electronic Ignition using Contact Triggers - Spark Advance
And Retard Mechanism.

UNIT - III
Fuels and Combustion:
S.I. Engine: Normal Combustion and Abnormal
Combustion - Importance of Flame Speed and Effect of
SQP.62 Thermal Engineering - I

Engine Variables - Type of Abnormal Combustion,

Pre-Ignition and Knocking (Explanation) - Fuel
Requirements and Fuel Rating, Anti Knock Additives,
Combustion Chambers.
C.I. Engines: Stages of Combustion - Delay Period And Its
Importance - Effect Of Engine Variables - Diesel Knock -
Combustion Chambers (DI And IDI), Fuel Requirements
And Fuel Rating.
UNIT - IV
Testing and Performance: Parameters of Performance -
Measurement of Cylinder Pressure, Fuel Consumption, Air
Intake, Exhaust Gas Composition, Brake Power -
Determination of Frictional Losses And Indicated Power -
Performance Test - Heat Balance Sheet and Chart.
UNIT - V
Air Compressors: Reciprocating Compressors, Effect of
Clearance volume in Compressors, Volumetric Efficiency,
Single Stage and Multi Stage Compressors, Effect of
Intercooling and Pressure Drop in Multi-Stage
Compressors, Problems Related to Reciprocating
Compressors, Working principles of Roots blower, Vane type
Blower, Centrifugal Compressor - Axial Flow Compressors.
 Index In.1

INDEX

A Capacitance Discharge Ignition

System, 1.65
Abnormal Combustion, 2.8
Carbon monoxide (CO), 3.43
Absorption Dynamometer, 3.13
Carburetor, 1.37
Actual Cycles, 6.2
Centrifugal Compressor, 4.125
Air Fuel Ratio, 1.40
Cetane Number (CN), 2.52
Air Consumption, 3.31
Characteristics of good
Air Refrigeration System, 5.6
refrigerants, 5.106
Air Refrigeration Cycles, 5.7
Chemical delay, 2.31
Air standard Cycles, 6.2
Choke Valve, 1.39
Aldehydes, 3.47
CI Engine, 1.6
Ammonia - Water Absorption
Claude System for Liquefying
System, 5.108
Gases, 5.112
Anti-knock Agents, 2.23
Clearance Ratio ‘k’, 4.21
Anti-Knock Additives, 2.23
Combustion Stoichiometry, 1.88
Application of Cryogenic, 5.114
Combustion chamber, 2.4
Application of Liquid Oxygen,
Comparison method, 3.47
5.114
Complete, 4.65
Application of Liquid Nitrogen,
Composition factor, 2.17
5.115
Compression ratio, 2.4, 2.6,
Application of Carbon-di-oxide,
2.33, 611
5.115
Connecting Rod, 1.17
Application of Inert Gases, 5.115
Construction, 3.39
Automatic volumetric flow
Crank, 1.17
meter, 3.37
Crankcase ventilation, 6.17
B Crankshaft, 1.18
Cylinder, 1.15
Back Flow of Air, 4.113
Cylindrical chamber, 2.43
Bath-tub form, 2.26
Bell-Coleman Cycle, 5.17 D
Blade Loading, 4.171 Deflection co-efficient def, 4.181
Blowby Losses, 6.16 Degree of Reaction, 4.153
Bomb Calorimeter:, 1.83 Degree of Reaction, 4.175
Brake Power (BP), 3.6, 4.22 Density factors, 2.14
Brake Thermal Efficiency Detonation, 2.9
Brake, 3.11 Diesel Knock, 2.35
Burette method, 3.35 Divided combustion chamber
type, 2.45
C
Calorific Value of Fuels:, 1.82
In.2 Thermal Engineering - I
Double Acting Air Compressor,
4.4
Dry Sump System, 1.72
Dulong’s formula, 1.83
Dynamometer, 3.12
E Gas Exchange Process, 6.9
Eddy Current Dynamometer,
3.15
Effect of Super heating, 5.69
Effect of Subcooling, 5.67
Efficiency Ratio, 3.11
Electrolux Refrigerator, 5.108
Energy-cell chamber, 2.47
Energy Transfer, 4.133
Engine size, 2.6, 2.33
Engine power, 6.15
Engine speed, 2.3, 2.5
Euler’s Equation, 4.133
Exhaust Blowdown, 6.8
Exhaust Gas Composition, 3.41
F Hemispherical chamber, 2.43
F-head combustion chamber, 2.28
Finite Stage Efficiency, 4.178
Flame Front Propagation, 2.4
Flash Point and Fire Point, 1.81
Float and Float chamber, 1.38
Flow Coefficients, 4.171
Flow coefficient f, 4.180
Fly wheel, 1.19
Free Air Delivered (FAD), 4.22
Friction Power (FP), 3.9
Fuel choice, 2.4
Fuel Pump, 1.36
Fuel Consumption, 3.34
Fuel Rating for CI Engine, 2.52 Indicated Thermal Efficiency
Fuel-Air ratio, 2.6
Fuel Properties, 1.81
Fuel Pump (C.I. Engine), 1.53
Fuel Injection System, 1.55
Fuel Supply System, 1.34
Fuel Injector, 1.56
Fuel temperature, 2.33
Fundamentals of Refrigeration:,
5.1
G
Gas Liquefaction System, 5.111
Gaseous fuel, 1.78, 1.80
Governor, 1.19
Gravimetric fuel flow
measurement, 3.38
Gudgeon pin , 1.17
H
Hampson-Linde Gas
Liquefaction System, 5.111
Heat Dissipation, 6.15
Heat Loss Factors, 6.6
Head or work coefficient h,
4.180
Heat Balance Sheet, 3.52
Higher Calorific value:, 1.82,
2.20
Hydraulic Dynamometer, 3.13
I
I-Head combustion chamber, 2.26
I.C. Engines, 1.1
Ignition Systems, 1.57
Ignition Delay period, 2.29
Ignition timing, 2.4
Impeller Blade Shape, 4.137
Imperfect Intercooling, 4.65
Incomplete, 4.65
Indicated Power (IP), 3.2
indicated, 3.10
Indicated Power (I.P), 4.22
Indicator Diagram, 3.1
 Index In.3

Infinitesimal Stage Efficiency, Octane Number (ON), 2.21

4.176 Open combustion chamber, 2.42
Intake pressure (Super Overhead valve, 2.26
charging), 2.33 Oxides of Nitrogen, 3.41
Intake temperature, 2.33
P
J
Perfect Intercooling, 4.65
Juncker’s Gas Calorimeter, 1.85 Performance Calculation, 5.99
K Period of Rapid Combustion,
2.32
Knocking Petroil System, 1.70
Knocking, 2.9, 2.35 Petrol Engine, 1.4
L PH Chart, 5.56
Physical delay, 2.30
L-head combustion chamber, 2.27
Pinking, 2.9
Liquid fuels:, 1.78
Piston speed, 4.23
Lithium Bromide Absorption
Piston, 1.16
System, 5.109
Polytropic Efficiency, 4.176
Lower Calorific Value (LCV),
Port Timing Diagrams, 1.24
1.82
Pour Point of Fuel, 1.81
Lower Calorific Value (LCV),
Pre combustion chamber, 2.46
2.20
Pre-ignition, 2.8
Lubricant properties, 6.14
Pre-Ignition, 2.14
Lubrication System, 1.69
Pressure System (Forced
M Lubrication), 1.71
Magneto Ignition System, 1.63 Pressure ratio, 4.181
Mean Effective Pressure m.e.p, Pressure co-efficient p, 4.181
4.22 Pressure Co-efficient p, 4.149
Mean Effective Pressure Pm,
R
3.2
Mechanical Efficiency mech, Reciprocating Air Compressors,
3.10 4.5
Minimum Workdone, 4.11 Refrigerant, 5.106
Multi Stage Compressor, 4.5 Refrigerants Number, 5.107
Multistage Compressor, 4.71 Relative Efficiency, 3.11
Remedies, 2.25
N Reversed Carnot Cycle , 5.7
Number of stages, 4.181 Roots Blower, 4.112

O S
Obscuration method, 3.48 Semipressure System, 1.72
Octane value, 2.17 Shallow depth chamber, 2.43
In.4 Thermal Engineering - I

Simple Carburetor, 1.38 Transistorized Assisted Contact

Single Stage Compressor, 4.4, (TAC) Ignition System, 1.67
4.69 Turbulence, 2.5
Single Acting Reciprocating Air Turbulent combustion chamber,
Compressor, 4.3 2.45
Slip factor, 4.147 Two Stage Compression, 4.64
Smoke, 3.47
U
Solid fuels, 1.78, 1.79
Solved Problems 5.70-5.95 Unburnt hydrocarbons, 3.45
Spark Plug, 1.57 Uncontrolled Combustion, 2.32
Specific Work, 4.171 Unit of Refrigeration, 5.3
Specific Fuel Consumption V
(S.F.C), 3.9
Valve Timing Diagrams, 1.24
Splash System, 1.70
Vane Type Blower of
Stage Work, 4.149
Compressor, 4.117
Stage Pressure Rise, 4.151
Vapour Absorption System, 5.102
Stage Velocity Triangles, 4.169
Vapour Compression
Stagnation Enthalpy, 4.131
Refrigeration, 5.39
Stagnation pressure ratio, 4.181
Velocity Triangle, 4.140
Stagnation Temperature, 4.129
Velocity And Pressure
Stalling, 4.186
Variation, 4.128
Static Temperature, 4.129
Venturi and Throttle valve, 1.39
Steady-flow Energy Equation,
Viscosity of Fuel, 1.81
4.132
Visible Emissions, 3.47
Subcooling or Undercooling, 5.66
Volatility, 1.81
Sulphur Content in the Fuel,
Volume Rate, 4.21
1.81
Volume, 4.21
Super Heating, 5.69
Volumetric Efficiency vol, 4.20,
Surface finish, 6.14
6.10
Surging, 4.184
Volumetric type, 3.35
Swept Volume Vs, 4.23
Volumetric Efficiency, 3.11
T
W
T-Head combustion chamber,
Wedge form, 2.26
2.27
Work factor, 4.149
Thermal Efficiency, 3.10
Time factors, 2.16
Time Loss, 6.4
Ton of Refrigeration, 5.3
Toroidal chamber, 2.43
Total Head Temperature, 4.129