Patric Figueiredo

Internal Combustion Engines

Turbocharged Engines

University of Maribor, January 2013

1
Patric Figueiredo
Turbocharged Engines

This work was presented to prof. dr. Breda Kegl in order to defend
approval of the subject Internal Combustion Engines, requirement for the
degree Master in Mechanical Engineering at the University of Maribor.
 Abstract

Turbocharging an internal combustion engine provides one of two possible

results: more power output as a same sized naturally aspirated engine or
allows engine downsizing, achievement of a smaller engine with the same
power output.
This work describes the principles of turbocharging, performing a dis-
cussion about its effects on engine operation while compared to naturally
aspirated engines. The purpose is to present introductory concepts about
turbocharging technology, starting with thermodynamic principles of heat
engines cycles.
Contents

1 Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines 6

1.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.1 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Reciprocating engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.1 Combustion Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.2 Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.3 Working cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.4 Mixture Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.5 Charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.6 Ignition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.7 Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Torque and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5 Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2 Engine developments 16
2.1 Exhaust gas treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.1.1 Catalytic Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 Alternative Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.1 Alcohol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.2 Methanol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.3 Biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 Engine Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3 Thermodynamic Principles 21
3.1 Heat Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2 The air-standard assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3 Carnot Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.4 Otto Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.4.1 Effect of compression ratio on performance . . . . . . . 25
3.5 Diesel Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

1
 3.5.1Effect of compression ratio and cutoff ratio on perfor-
mance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.6 Comparing Otto and Diesel cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

4 Engine cycles 30
4.1 Four-stroke cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.2 Two-stroke cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.2.1 Comparing two and four stroke engines . . . . . . . . . 33
4.3 Spark ignition engine operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.4 Compression ignition engine operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

5 Induction phase: Naturally aspirated and Turbocharged en-

gines 39
5.1 Engine and gas exchange efficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.1.1 Engine efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.1.2 Gas exchange characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.2 Naturally aspirated engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.3 Turbocharged engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.3.1 Introduction and wasted energy recovery . . . . . . . . 44
5.3.2 Operational consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

6 Turbocharged Engines 50
6.1 Types of Turbocharging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.1.1 Principles of constant-pressure turbocharging . . . . . 50
6.1.2 Principles of pulse turbocharging . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.2 Comparing constant-pressure and pulse turbocharging . . . . . 61
6.3 Supercharging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

7 Engine Modification 64
7.1 Spark-ignition engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.2 Compression ignition engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7.2.1 Lowering NOx emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

2
List of Figures

1.1 Basic layout of the reciprocating internal combustion engine

(four-stroke cycle). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Power and torque curves for a diesel engine [9]. . . . . . . . . 11
1.3 Power and torque curves for a gasoline engine [9]. . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Comparison of fuel consumption loops for spark and compres-
sion ignition engines on a base of engine load (bmep) [10]. . . 13
1.5 Spark-ignition engine exhaust gas composition in mole frac-
tions as a function of fuel/air equivalence ratio [4]. . . . . . . . 14

3.1 Classical representation of a heat engine . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3.2 Ideal Carnot cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3 Pressure-volume plot Ideal Otto cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.4 Thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto cycle as a function of
compression ratio (γ = 1.4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.5 Pressure-volume Ideal Diesel cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

4.1 Sketch of the four-strokes: Intake, Compression, Power and

Exhaust. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.2 Sketch of the two-strokes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.3 Pressure-volume plot for four-stroke spark-ignition cycle. Leg-
end: 1 - Intake valve opens, 2 - Ignition, 3 - End of combustion,
4 - Exhaust valve opens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.4 Pressure-volume plot for two-stroke spark-ignition cycle. . . . 35
4.5 Sequence of events in four-stroke spark-ignition engine oper-
ating cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.6 Pressure-volume plot for a compression-ignition cycle. Leg-
end: 1 - (Air) Intake valve opens, 2 - Fuel Injection, 3 - Ex-
haust valve opens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

5.1 Sketch of an intake system with carburator. Legend: 1 -

Throat, 2 - Venturi, 3 - Throttle valve, 4 - Capillary tube,
5 - Float chamber. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3
5.2 Possible work in ideally naturally aspirated Diesel cycle. . . . 45
5.3 Turbocharged engine sketch. Legend: C - Compressor, T -
Turbine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.4 P-v diagram for cycle comparison between naturally aspirated
and turbocharged engines (spark-ignition cycle). . . . . . . . . 46
5.5 Advantage in mechanical efficiency of turbocharged engines
(solid curve) in comparison to naturally aspirated engine (dashed
curve) [7]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.6 Effect of exhaust to inlet pressure ratio on ideal-cycle volu-
metric efficiency [1] (γ = 1.3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.7 Effect of Downsizing. Fuel consumption values of two medium-
speed diesel engines of equal horsepower with (solid curves)
and without (dash curves) turbocharging, showing significant
advantages for the turbocharged engine [5]. . . . . . . . . . . . 49

6.1 Boost pressure due to turbocharging (solid curve) compared

to naturally aspirated engine (dash curve) [5]. . . . . . . . . . 51
6.2 Ideal turbocharged limited pressure cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.3 Constant pressure turbocharging cylinder arrangement. Achiev-
able charge pressure and exhaust pressure curves, for four-
stroke inline engine. Legend: Pr - received pressure (com-
pressed air entering the engine)[11]. Piston position and valve
timing for the first cylinder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.4 Pulse turbocharging cylinder arrangement. Achievable charge
pressure and exhaust pressure curves, for four-stroke inline
engine. Legend: Pr - received pressure (compressed air enter-
ing the engine). Piston position and valve timing for the first
cylinder.[11] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.5 Effect of exhaust pipe length on pressure reflections relative
to the valve overlap period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.6 Pulse system, three cylinder four-stroke engine with automo-
tive type valve timing. Piston position relative to the first
cylinder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.7 Exhaust pressure diagram. Three cylinder four-stroke engine
with automotive type valve timing [6] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.8 Exhaust valve timing for an automotive six-cylinder four-stroke
engine. Piston position relative to the first cylinder. . . . . . . 59
6.9 Exhaust valve timing for an automotive six-cylinder four-stroke
engine. Piston position relative to the first cylinder. . . . . . . 60
6.10 Supercharged engine sketch. Legend: C - Compressor. . . . . . 63

4
6.11 Comparison of mechanical supercharging (SC) and exhaust
gas turbocharging (TC) on the vehicle acceleration process in
the car SI engine [5]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

7.1 Sketch of intercooler application. Legend: C - Compressor. . . 65

5
Chapter 1

Introduction to Internal
Combustion Engines

1.1 Definition
Internal combustion engines may be defined as machines in which the com-
bustion process occurs inside the engine. The purpose of such machines is
to convert chemical energy from the fuel into mechanical power. This en-
ergy transfer occurs directly between the working fluid and the mechanical
components of the engine.

1.1.1 Classification
There are different kinds of internal combustion engines, they can be classified
in therms of [9]:

• Combustion process
• Fuel
• Working cycle
• Mixture generation system
• Gas exchange control system
• Charging system
• Configuration
• Ignition system
• Cooling system
• Load-adjustment system
• Application
• Speed and output graduations

6
1.2 Reciprocating engine
The reciprocating engine is the most common type of internal combustion
engines. The Diesel and Otto engines are reciprocating engines. The main
purpose is to convert pressure into rotating motion. The combustion chamber
is located in the closed end of each cylinder. Power is delivered to a rotating
output crankshaft by mechanical linkage with the pistons. Figure 1.1 shows
a basic sketch of a reciprocating internal combustion engine.

Figure 1.1: Basic layout of the reciprocating internal combustion engine

(four-stroke cycle).

The piston is said to be at top dead center (TDC) when it has moved to
a position where the cylinder volume is a minimum. This minimum volume
is known as the clearance volume, Vc . When the piston has moved to the
position of maximum cylinder volume Vt , the piston is at bottom dead center
(BDC). The volume swept out by the piston, the difference between the
maximum and minimum volumes, is called the displaced volume Vd . The
ratio of maximum volume to minimum volume is the compression ratio, r.

7
1.2.1 Combustion Processes
The gasoline engine is a combustion engine in which combustion of the com-
pressed fuel + air mixture is initiated by means of synchronized extraneous
ignition. In the diesel engine, on the other hand, the liquid fuel injected into
the combustion chamber ignites on the air charge after this has previously
been heated, by means of compression, to a temperature sufficiently high to
initiate ignition.

1.2.2 Fuel
Gaseous, liquid, and solid fuels can be combusted in combustion engines:

• Gaseous fuels: Methane, propane, butane, natural gas, hydrogen.

• Liquid fuels:
Liquid fuels: Gasoline, kerosene, benzene, alcohols (methanol, ethanol),
acetone, ether, liquefied gases.
Heavy liquid fuels: Petroleum, gas oil (diesel fuel), fatty-acid methyl
esters, vegetable oils, heavy fuel oils.
Hybrid fuels: Diesel + water, gasoline + alcohol.

• Solid fuels: Pulverized coal.

1.2.3 Working cycles

Differentiation is made between four-stroke and two-stroke processes. Com-
mon to both is the compression of the charge (air, or a fuel vapor + air
mixture) in the first stroke by the reduction of the working chamber and
ignition occurring shortly before the reversal of piston motion. Also, com-
bustion associated with an increase in pressure up to the maximum cylinder
pressure and the expansion of the working gas in the subsequent stroke, dur-
ing which work is applied to the piston, is similar in both processes.

1.2.4 Mixture Generation

Combustion engines can be differentiated in terms of their type of mixture
generation:

• External mixture generation: Formation of the fuel-air mixture in the

inlet system.

8
 • Internal mixture generation: Formation of the mixture in the working
chamber.
on the basis of the quality of mixture generation:

• Homogeneous mixture generation: Carburetor and intake manifold in-

jection in the case of the gasoline engine, or gasoline direct injection
during the induction stroke.

• Nonhomogeneous mixture generation: Injection at extremely short in-

tervals in the diesel engine and in gasoline engines with gasoline direct
injection.
and on the basis of the location of mixture generation:

• Direct injection into the working chamber in the case, for example,
of diesel engines and gasoline engines. Injection may be air-directed,
jet-directed, or wall-directed.

• Indirect injection into a subsidiary chamber, such as antechamber,

swirl-chamber, and air-chamber diesel engines.

• Intake manifold injection (in gasoline engines).

1.2.5 Charging
In a naturally aspirated engine, the fresh charge (air or mixture) is drawn
into the cylinder by the working piston (natural aspiration). Supercharg-
ing enlarges the quantity of the charge as a result of pre-compression. A
supercharger conveys the fresh charge into the cylinder. The primary aims
of supercharging are the enhancement of power and torque output and the
reduction of fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions.

• Mechanical supercharging: The compressor is driven directly by the

engine.

• Exhaust turbocharging: A turbine (exhaust turbine) powered by the

engine exhaust drives the compressor.

1.2.6 Ignition
The fuel-air mixture may be ignited by means of supplied ignition or com-
pression ignition:

9
 • Supplied ignition (gasoline engine): An electrical spark ignites the mix-
ture in the cylinder (spark ignition).

• Autoignition (diesel engine): The fuel injected ignites spontaneously in

the air heated by compression in the cylinder (compression ignition).

1.2.7 Cooling
In view of the high temperatures that occur, the combustion engine needs to
be cooled, in order to protect its components and the lubricating oil. It is
necessary to differentiate between direct and indirect engine cooling.
Direct cooling is accomplished using air (air cooling) either with or with-
out the assistance of a fan. In the case of indirect cooling, the engine is
cooled with a mixture of water, antifreeze, and corrosion inhibitors, or with
oil (liquid cooling). Removal of heat to the environment is accomplished
via a heat exchanger arrangement. One differentiates between evaporative,
recirculating, once-through, and hybrid cooling.

1.3 Torque and Power

Both torque and power are functions of engine speed. At low speed, torque
increases as engine speed increases. As engine speed increases further, torque
reaches a maximum and then decreases as shown in Figure 1.2. Torque
decreases because the engine is unable to ingest a full charge of air at higher
speeds. Indicated power increases with speed, while brake power increases
to a maximum and then decreases at higher speeds. This is because friction
losses increase with speed and become the dominant factor at very high
speeds. For many automobile engines, maximum brake power occurs at about
6000 to 7000 RPM, about one and a half times the speed of maximum torque.
A spark-ignition engine compresses a fuel-air mixture and then ignites
it with a spark. A compression-ignition engine compresses just air, to such
a high pressure and temperature that when fuel is then injected, it ignites
automatically with no need for a spark. This is the fundamental difference
between the two engines. Hence, a CI engine has to do more compression
than a SI engine does, to get the fuel to ignite. Conversely, a SI engine cannot
do as much compression as the CI engine does, because the fuel-air mixture
is being compressed and would ignite too early, at the wrong moment. So,
the piston in the CI engine has to travel further, in order to compress the air
more, therefore piston stroke is longer in a CI engine. Longer piston stroke
means a larger diameter crankshaft. Assuming the force coming from the SI

10
 Figure 1.2: Power and torque curves for a diesel engine [9].

Figure 1.3: Power and torque curves for a gasoline engine [9].

11
piston and the CI piston is equal, then the CI piston has a longer lever arm
and is turning its crankshaft with greater torque (but, necessarily, at fewer
revolutions per minute). The SI engine piston may be delivering the same
power, but it is delivering it by turning a crankshaft at more revolutions per
minute, with less torque.
The reason for the faster drop in the diesel power curve (Figure 1.2)
when compared to SI engine (Figure 1.3) relies in the combustion speed.
At higher engine revolution, as the diesel fuel burns slower than gasoline,
the fuel will not have time to burn completely. Therefore, efficiency drops
and the result is high exhaust temperature, high emission values and lack
of power. Another reason is the short intake stroke. The engine will not be
supplied with the necessary amount of air, since the valve are opening and
closing faster. Therefore a poorer air mixture is burned.

1.4 Economy
Engine power output is always dependent on the amount of fuel burned per
cycle. In compression-ignition engines the fuel is added to the compressed
air, therefore the power output is regulated by the amount of fuel in the
mixture, quality of the mixture. On the other hand, spark-ignition engines
whose mixture is compressed, the power output is regulated with the amount
of mixture that enters each cylinder, so it is quantity regulated.
Figure 1.4 shows consumption loops, for both gasoline and diesel engines,
plotted on a base of brake mean effective pressure (bmep).
In case of a diesel engine, load and speed output is controlled entirely
by varying the quantity of fuel injected into the cylinder without misfiring
occurring,that is, from 0-100% of the maximum bmep developed. With gaso-
line engines, however, if there was no throttle (full load position) the effects
of varying the mixture quality from the richest position (a) to the weak-
est position (e) produces variations of bmep (load) on only about 25% of
the maximum possible bmep. Therefore, in gasoline engines the output con-
trol can not be achieved alone by varying the mixture quality and therefore
throttling the mixture coming into the cylinder becomes essential [10].

12
Figure 1.4: Comparison of fuel consumption loops for spark and compression
ignition engines on a base of engine load (bmep) [10].

• a - Excessively rich mixture gives slow and unstable combustion.

• b - Maximum bmep in about 10-20% rich mixture.
• c - Stoichiometric mixture of 14.7:1 (weight).
• d - Maximum thermal efficiency in about 10-20% week mixture, there-
fore approaching ideal constant volume combustion.
• e - Excessively weak mixture gives slow burning.
• f - Maximum bmep with satisfactory clear exhaust requires mixture of
about 18:1 (weight).
• g, h - Maximum thermal efficiency, minimum specific fuel consumption
ranges between 50-85% of maximum bmep.
• i - No-load requires mixture 100-75:1 (weight).

13
Figure 1.5: Spark-ignition engine exhaust gas composition in mole fractions
as a function of fuel/air equivalence ratio [4].

1.5 Ecology
The automobile air pollution problem arises in part because the reactions in
the exhaust system are not in chemical equilibrium as the gas temperature
drops. Oxides of nitrogen, once formed in the cylinder at high temperature,
do not return to equilibrium concentrations of nitrogen and oxygen in the
cooling exhaust products. Likewise, CO formed with rich mixtures or by
dissociation of CO2 in the cylinder at high temperature does not respond
rapidly to an infusion of air as its temperature drops in the exhaust system.
Their concentrations may be thought of as constant or frozen. Unburned
hydrocarbons are produced not only by rich combustion but also by unburned
mixture lurking in crevices (such as between piston and cylinder above the
top piston ring), by lubricating oil on cylinder walls and the cylinder head
that absorbs and desorbs hydrocarbons before and after combustion, and by
transient operating conditions.
The use of catalytic converters to deal with all three pollutants brought
about significant simultaneous reductions in the three major gaseous pollu-
tants from automobiles. This allowed fuel-economy-reducing modifications
that had been introduced earlier to satisfy emission reduction demands to be
eliminated or relaxed, leading to further improvements in fuel economy.
Catalytic converters, however, require precise control of exhaust gas oxy-

14
Perfect reaction: Air + F uel → N2 + CO2 + H2 O
Actual reaction: Air + F uel → N2 + CO2 + H2 O + CO + NOx + HC + P M

gen to near-stoichiometric mixtures. The on-board computer has made pos-

sible control of mixture ratio and spark timing in response to censor outputs
of intake manifold pressure, exhaust gas oxygen, engine speed, air flow, and
incipient knock. Computer control of carburetors or fuel injection as well as
other engine functions has allowed simultaneous improvement in fuel econ-
omy and emissions in recent years. With increasing compression, the NOx
and HC emissions initially continue to increase. The nitrous oxides rise be-
cause of the increased combustion temperatures in the combustion chamber,
and the HC emissions rise because of the greater splitting of the combustion
chamber (larger relative proportion of gaps) and the increase in the ratio of
combustion chamber surface area to combustion chamber volume (surface-to-
volume ratio). In order to avoid this, combustion chambers must be designed
as compactly as possible. With increasing compression, the exhaust gas tem-
perature also drops because of the better efficiency so that postreactions of
unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide in the exhaust system are pre-
vented. At the same time, however, an increase in compression results in a
better lean-off capability and allows the ignition to be retarded due to the
faster combustion. This enables the HC and NOx emissions to be further
reduced.

15
Chapter 2

Engine developments

2.1 Exhaust gas treatment

The temperature of exhaust gas in a spark-ignition engine can vary from 300
to 400◦ C during idle to about 900◦C at high-power operation. The most com-
mon range is 400 to 600◦ C. Spark-ignition engines usually operate at fuel-air
equivalence ratios between about 0.9 and 1.2. The exhaust gas may therefore
contain modest amounts of oxygen (when lean) or more substantial amounts
of CO (when rich). In contrast, diesel engines, where load is controlled by
the amount of fuel injected, always operate lean. The exhaust gas therefore
contains substantial oxygen and is at a lower temperature (200 to 500◦C).
Removal of gaseous pollutants from the exhaust gases after they leave the
engine cylinder can be either thermal or catalytic. In order to oxidize the
hydrocarbons in the gas phase without a catalyst, a residence time of order or
greater than 50 ms and temperatures in excess of 600◦C are required. To ox-
idize CO, temperatures in excess of 700◦ C are required. Temperatures high
enough for some homogeneous thermal oxidation can be obtained by spark
retard (with some loss in efficiency) and insulation of the exhaust ports and
manifold [4].
Catalytic oxidation of CO and hydrocarbons in the exhaust can be achieved
at temperatures as low as 250◦ C. Thus effective removal of these pollutants
occurs over a much wider range of exhaust temperatures than can be achieved
with thermal oxidation. The only satisfactory method known for the removal
of NO from exhaust gas involves catalytic processes. Removal of NO by cat-
alytic oxidation to NO2 , requires temperatures lower than 400◦ C.
Particulates in the exhaust gas stream can be removed by a trap. Due
to the small particle size involved, some type of filter is the most effective
trapping method. The accumulation of mass within the trap and the increase

16
A three-way catalytic converter1 has three simultaneous tasks:
Reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen and oxygen: 2NOx → xO2 + N2
Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2CO + O2 → 2CO2
Oxidation of unburnt hydrocarbons (HC) to carbon dioxide and water:
CxHy + nO2 → xCO2 + mH2 O

in exhaust manifold pressure during trap operation are major development

problems. Diesel particulates, once trapped, can be burned up either by
initiating oxidation within the trap with an external heat source or by using
a trap which contains catalytically active material.

2.1.1 Catalytic Converters

The catalytic converters used in spark-ignition engines consist of an active
catalytic material in a specially designed metal casing which directs the ex-
haust gas flow through the catalyst bed. The active material employed for
CO and HC oxidation or NO reduction (normally noble metals, though base
metals oxides can be used) must be distributed over a large surface area so
that the mass transfer characteristics between the gas phase and the active
catalyst surface are sufficient to allow close to 100 percent conversion with
high catalytic activity [4].
The function of an oxidation catalyst is to oxidize CO and hydrocarbons
to CO2 , and water in an exhaust gas stream which typically contains - 12
percent CO2 and H2 O, 100 to 2000 ppm NO, 20 ppm SO2 , 1 to 5 percent
O2 . About half the hydrocarbons emitted by the SI engine are unburned
fuel compounds. The saturated hydrocarbons (which comprise some 20 to 30
percent) are the most difficult to oxidize. The ease of oxidation increases with
increasing molecular weight. Sufficient oxygen must be present to oxidize
the CO and HC. This may be supplied by the engine itself running lean of
stoichiometric or with a pump that introduces air into the exhaust ports just
downstream of the valve. Venturi air addition into the exhaust port using
the pressure pulsations generated by the exhaust process can also be used to
add the required air.

Diesel engines
For compression-ignition the most commonly used catalytic converter is the
Diesel Oxidation Catalyst. This catalyst uses O2 in the exhaust gas stream
to convert CO to CO2 and HC to H2 O and CO2 . These converters often op-
erate at 90 percent efficiency, virtually eliminating diesel odor and helping to
reduce visible particulates. These catalysts are not active for NOx reduction

17
because any reductant present would react first with the high concentration
of O2 in diesel exhaust gas.

2.2 Alternative Fuels

[4] Fuel economy of engines is greatly improved from the past and will proba-
bly continue to be improved, numbers alone dictate that there will be a great
demand for fuel in the coming decades. Alternate fuel technology, availabil-
ity, and use must and will become more common in the coming decades.

2.2.1 Alcohol
Alcohols are an attractive alternate fuel because they can be obtained from
a number of sources, both natural and manufactured. Methanol (methyl
alcohol) and ethanol (ethyl alcohol) are two kinds of alcohol that seem most
promising and have had the most development as engine fuel. The advantages
of alcohol as a fuel include:

• Can be obtained from a number of sources, both natural and manufac-

tured.
• Is high octane fuel with anti-knock index numbers (octane number on
fuel pump) of over 100. High octane numbers result, at least in part,
from the high flame speed of alcohol. Engines using high-octane fuel
can run more efficiently by using higher compression ratios.
• Generally less overall emissions when compared with gasoline.
• When burned, it forms more moles of exhaust, which gives higher pres-
sure and more power in the expansion stroke.
• Has high evaporative cooling (hfg) which results in a cooler intake pro-
cess and compression stroke. This raises the volumetric efficiency of the
engine and reduces the required work input in the compression stroke.
• Low sulfur content in the fuel.

The disadvantages of alcohol fuels include:

• Low energy content of the fuel. This means that almost twice as much
alcohol as gasoline must be burned to give the same energy input to
the engine.
• More aldehydes in the exhaust. If as much alcohol fuel was consumed
as gasoline, aldehyde emissions would be a serious exhaust pollution
problem.

18
 • Alcohol is much more corrosive than gasoline on copper, brass, alu-
minum, rubber, and many plastics. This puts some restrictions on the
design and manufacturing of engines to be used with this fuel.
• Poor ignition characteristics in general.

2.2.2 Methanol
Of all the fuels being considered as an alternate to gasoline, methanol is one
of the more promising and has experienced major research and development.
One problem with gasoline-alcohol mixtures as a fuel is the tendency for
alcohol to combine with any water present. When this happens the alcohol
separates locally from the gasoline, resulting in a non-homogeneous mixture.
This causes the engine to run erratically.
Methanol is used in some dual-fuel CI engines. Methanol by itself is not
a good CI fuel because of its high octane number, but if a small amount of
diesel oil is used for ignition, it can be used with good results.

2.2.3 Biodiesel
Biodiesel is nontoxic and biodegradable, and it tends to reduce soot emis-
sions. When used in blends with diesel fuel, the nontoxicity and biodegrad-
ability advantages disappear but it still provides lower emissions. Carbon
monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons and the carbon portion of particulate are
generally lower with biodiesel but NOx and the soluble portion of the par-
ticulate increase. Biodiesel can be used in existing diesel engines with a
minimum of changes. Some elastomers are not compatible with esters, and
concerns have been expressed about interactions with the lubricating oil and
the thermal and oxidative stability of biodiesel.

2.3 Engine Control System

The purpose of an engine control system is to keep the performance of the
engine within specified limits. Historically for most engines this performance
objective is a speed which must be kept at a certain nominal value and within
an acceptable tolerance band. On vehicles the engine control system, often
now electronic, is responsible for the achievement of the legislated emissions
performance as well as efficiency while keeping driveability at an acceptable
level throughout the operating range of the engine.
In internal combustion engines there are a lot of aspects that should be
adjusted in all range of operation. The optimum ignition timing, the best

19
time to ignite the fuel, is not constant over all range of speeds. Successive
corrections have to be made in order to guarantee efficient engine operation.
This logic extends to other operational parameters like fuel-equivalence ratio
and valve timing.
A engine control system assures that the different variables in engine
operation are consequently adjusted, by receiving information from sensors,
in order to achieve maximum efficiency.

20
Chapter 3

Thermodynamic Principles

3.1 Heat Engines

A heat engine may be defined as a device that operates in a thermodynamic
cycle and does a certain amount of net work through the transfer of heat
from a high-temperature reservoir to a low-temperature reservoir, the internal
combustion engine operates with this principle. A heat engine uses thermal
energy to produce mechanical work by repeating cyclically a determinate
process.

Hot QH QC Could
System
Source, TH Source, TC

Figure 3.1: Classical representation of a heat engine

The first law of thermodynamics states that during any cycle that a sys-
tem undergoes, the cycling integral of the heat is equal to the cyclic integral
of the work. By other words, the first law of thermodynamics is the law of
energy conservation, it is not possible to obtain more energy from a system
than the energy given to it. Therefore, the efficiency of a cycle receiving QH
energy from a hot source and rejecting QC to a cold source is given by:
|Wcycle | |QC |
η= =1− (3.1)
|QH | |QH |
Where Wcycle is the work given by the system.

21
3.2 The air-standard assumptions
Internal combustion engines operate on a mechanical cycle but the working
fluid does not undergo a complete thermodynamic cycle. It is thrown out
of the engine at some point in the cycle (as exhaust gases) instead of being
returned to the initial state. To introduce the analysis of heat cycles the
following approximations are going to be used:
• A fixed amount of air modelled as an ideal gas is the working fluid
which continuously circulates in a closed loop.
• The combustion process is replaced by a heat transfer from an external
source.
• The exhaust process is replaced by a heat-rejection process that restores
the working fluid to its initial state.
• All processes are internally reversible.

3.3 Carnot Cycle

An idealization of a heat engine with the best efficiency was proposed by
the engineer Sadi Carnot. The efficiency of a machine operating by the
Carnot cycle is the highest. It is impossible to, even theoretically, design a
machine with higher efficiency then Carnot machine. This is the second law
of thermodynamics.

Figure 3.2: Ideal Carnot cycle.

A Carnot cycle consists of only reversible processes and hence is an ideal

heat engine cycle. The system executing the cycle undergoes a series of four

22
internally reversible processes: two adiabatic processes alternated with two
isothermal processes. The p-v diagram of a Carnot power cycle is shown in
Figure 3.2.
• Process 1-2:
– The fluid is compressed adiabatically to state 2, where the tem-
perature is TH
• Process 2-3:
– Once the fluid is in contact with the hot thermal source at TH it
follows heat transfer into the fluid as it expands isothermally.
• Process 3-4:
– The fluid continues to expand adiabatically as the temperature
drops down to TC
• Process 4-1:
– The fluid is placed in contact with the cold thermal source at TC .
It is compressed isothermally to its initial state while transferring
energy QC to the cold thermal source.
The processes 2-3 and 4-1 may only occur if the difference between the
temperatures of the fluid and the thermal sources is infinitesimally small.
Otherwise, it would not follow an isothermal heat transfer and therefore it
would be a non-reversible process.

3.4 Otto Cycle

The development of a car engine, as we know it today, was made in 1876
by Nicholas A. Otto who constructed the first operable engine. Otto cycle
is the ideal cycle for spark-ignition reciprocating engines. In most spark-
ignition engines, the piston executes four complete strokes (two mechanical
cycles) within the cylinder, and the crankshaft completes two revolutions
for each thermodynamic cycle. These engines are called four-stroke internal
combustion engines. The thermodynamic analysis of the Otto cycle can
be simplified significantly if the air-standard assumptions are used. The
resulting cycle closely resembles the actual operating conditions. It consists
of four internally reversible processes:

• Process 1-2:

23
 Figure 3.3: Pressure-volume plot Ideal Otto cycle

– Adiabatic compression
• Process 2-3:
– Isochoric heat transfer
• Process 3-4:
– Adiabatic expansion
• Process 4-1:
– Isochoric heat rejection

In processes 1-2 and 3-4 there is work but no heat transfer. In processes
2-3 and 4-1 there is heat transfer and no work involved since both take
place at constant volume. By reducing the closed system energy balance
and neglecting changes in kinetic and potential energies the energy balance,
according to the first law of thermodynamics, can be expressed as:
Δu = q + w = (qout − qin ) + (wout − win ) (3.2)
Where the heat transfer to and from the fluid can be expressed as:

qin = q23 = u3 − u2 = cv (T3 − T2 ) (3.3)

qout = q14 = u4 − u1 = cv (T4 − T1 ) (3.4)
The lower case used in q,w,u means that Q heat, W work and U internal en-
ergy are expressed per unit of mass. According to the definition of efficiency,
ratio of the net work of the cycle to the heat added, the thermal efficiency
of an ideal Otto Cycle will be:
wcycle qout T4 − T1
η= = =1− (3.5)
qin qin T3 − T2

24
Processes 1-2 and 3-4 are adiabatic (isentropic). Therefore, the suitable
adiabatic relations may be used and regarding that v2 = v3 and v4 = v1 :
 (γ−1)  (γ−1)
T1 v2 v3 T4
= = = (3.6)
T2 v1 v4 T3
cp
γ is the heat ratio cv
. Joining (2.5) and (2.6) the thermal efficiency becomes:

1 1
η = 1 −  γ−1 = 1 − γ−1 (3.7)
v1 r
v2

The fraction vv12 is known as compression ratio, r, it is the ratio between the
maximum and minimum volumes:
vmax v1
r= = (3.8)
vmin v2

3.4.1 Effect of compression ratio on performance

Increasing r will lead to a higher temperature of heat addition for the same
heat rejection process. The thermal efficiency, a function of temperatures,
will increase with a higher temperature of heat addition.
For internal combustion engines it is advantageous to have higher com-
pression ratios. Figure 3.4 shows a plot of thermal efficiency - compression
ratio, for γ = 1.4 (specific heat ratio of air at room temperature). For a given
compression ratio, the thermal efficiency of an actual spark-ignition engine
is less than that of an ideal Otto cycle because of irreversibilities, such as
friction and incomplete combustion.

3.5 Diesel Cycle

The Diesel cycle is an ideal cycle that assumes the heat addition occurs dur-
ing a constant-pressure process, it is the ideal cycle for combustion-ignition
reciprocating engines. First proposed by Rudolph Diesel in 1890, the cycle
consist of four internally reversible processes in series. The first process is
the same as in the Otto cycle, isentropic compression. The differences start
with the heat transfer to the working fluid. In Otto cycle it is a constant
volume process and in Diesel heat is transferred by constant pressure. The
Diesel cycle consists:

• Process 1-2:

– Adiabatic compression

25
 0.8

0.6

0.4
η

0.2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
r

Figure 3.4: Thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto cycle as a function of com-
pression ratio (γ = 1.4).

Figure 3.5: Pressure-volume Ideal Diesel cycle

26
 • Process 2-3:

– Constant pressure heat transfer

• Process 3-4:

– Adiabatic expansion

• Process 4-1:

– Constant volume heat rejection

In the Diesel cycle the heat addition takes place at constant pressure. So,
process 23 involves both work and heat. The work is given by the definition:
3
w23 = P dv = p2 (v3 − v2 ) (3.9)
2

3
As it is a constant pressure process vdP = 0. Applying an energy balance
2
to process 2-3 and regarding the assumptions made the heat added will be:

u3 − u2 = q23 − w23 (3.10)

Solving both equations for the heat transfer:

q23 = (u3 − u2 ) + P (v3 − v2 ) = (u3 + P v3 ) − (u2 + P v2 ) = h3 − h2 (3.11)

The process 3-4 is the same as in Otto cycle so the heat rejection is given
by:
q41 = (u4 − u1 ) (3.12)
The thermal efficiency of an ideal Diesel cycle is given by:
wcycle q41 u4 − u1
η= =1− = 1− (3.13)
q23 q23 h3 − h2
Similar to the Otto cycle, the processes 1-2 and 3-4 are adiabatic:
 γ−1
T2 v1
= = r γ−1 (3.14)
T1 v2
 γ−1  γ−1
T4 v3 rc
= = (3.15)
T3 v4 r

27
Where rc = vv32 is the cutoff ratio, ratio of the cylinder volumes after and
before the combustion process.
The thermal efficiency of the Diesel cycle can be expressed as:

1 rcγ − 1
η =1− (3.16)
r γ−1 γ(rc − 1)

3.5.1 Effect of compression ratio and cutoff ratio on

performance
The consequence of increasing the compression ratio is the same as in Otto
cycle, for the same reasons. In Diesel cycle as the cutoff ratio decreases, the
efficiency increases. It is important to notice that both expressions for the
thermal efficiency, Otto (3.7) and Diesel (3.16), are quite
similar,  the only
rcγ −1
difference is the quantity in the brackets. The quantity γ(rc −1) is always
greater than the unity. Therefore, for the same compression ratio:
ηOtto > ηDiesel (3.17)
Despite this conclusion it is true that Diesel engines have greater efficiency
than Otto engines as it will be discussed furthermore. One of the reasons is
that an Diesel engine can operate with a higher compression ratio than an
Otto cycle.

3.6 Comparing Otto and Diesel cycles

One of the advantages of the Diesel cycle over Otto cycle is the possibility to
increase the compression ratio. A Diesel cycle operates with a compression
ratio between 12 and 24 while an Otto engine between 8 and 12.
In a spark-ignition engine (Otto cycle) the air-fuel mixture is compressed
(Process 1-2, adiabatic compression) and detonation (spark knock) can be-
come a serious problem if too high compression ratio is used. Increasing the
compression ratio will lead the temperature of the air-fuel mixture above
the autoignition temperature of the fuel1 . If the temperatures becomes too
high during the combustion process it follows an early and quick burn of the
fuel causing almost an instantaneous inflammation. This becomes a serious
problem.
In spark-ignition engines autoignition is an undesirable effect and cannot
be accepted, otherwise the performance will decrease, produces noise and
1
Autoignition temperature is the temperature at which the fuel ignites without the
help of a spark.

28
may cause engine damage because the temperatures can reach above the
engine components thermal-metallurgical limit.
In Diesel engines there is no problem with autoignition during the com-
pression process because only air is compressed, so there is no possibility for
autoignition. Only air is sucked into the cylinder at the beginning of the cy-
cle. The fuel is only injected at the exact moment when ignition is wanted.
The fuel when injected self-ignites immediately. Therefore, Diesel engines
are designed to operate with higher compression ratios. Another benefit is
that the fuels may become less refined, thus less expensive.
One of the advantages of an Otto engine over a Diesel engine is the lower
pressure inside the cylinder, therefore stresses on machine elements is lower.
A Diesel engine needs, due the higher operation pressure, thicker cylinders
and heavier pistons and this will set limitations on the rotation speed, due
the higher friction between components and their increased weight.
Another discussion could be started if the fuels were analysed. The Diesel
fuel vaporizes quite slowly and at higher rotational speed it will not have
enough time to burn completely. So, engine efficiency will be reduced. Also,
specific heat of gasoline (Otto cycles) is usually higher than Diesel fuel.

29
Chapter 4

Engine cycles

In internal combustion engines there are two kinds of cycles: spark ignition
and compression ignition. Those two cycles can operate on a four-stroke
cycle or a two-stroke cycle. In all engines these cycles are mainly standard,
differences may exist from engine to engine based on their individual design
however, the principles of operation are the same.
The following presented cycles, and its references to qualitative pressure
values, assume to run on a naturally aspirated engine. The intake of fresh air
entering the cylinder takes place under conditions of subatmospheric pres-
sure, due to the pressure drop across the inlet valve.

4.1 Four-stroke cycle

The majority of reciprocating engines operate on a four-stroke cycle. The
spark ignition and compression ignition cycles both use this cycle, described
as follows:

• Intake stroke: The piston travels from TDC to TBC. A fresh mixture1
enters the cylinder. The pressure inside the cylinder is low so air is
forced to enter. The inlet valve is opened before the stroke and closes
after it ends.

• Compression stroke: Both valves are closed and the piston goes from
BDC to TDC while compressing the mixture by reducing the volume
inside the cylinder to Vc .

• Power stroke: The valves continue closed and the piston goes from TDC
to BDC. In spark ignition engines the spark plug turns on and starts
1
Fresh mixture: Mixture of air and fuel

30
Figure 4.1: Sketch of the four-strokes: Intake, Compression, Power and Ex-
haust.

the ignition. In compression ignition engines the pressure-temperature

state is such that leads the fuel to ignite. The gases force the piston
down and the crank rotates. This is the stroke in which the most
amount of work is developed.

• Exhaust stroke: The exhaust valve is opened and the burned gases are
forced to leave the cylinder. At the pressure beginning of the stroke
the pressure is still high. While the piston moves from BDC to TDC
the pressure drops and the cycle starts again.

4.2 Two-stroke cycle

Similar to the four-stroke engine the two-stroke also goes through four events:
intake, compression, power and exhaust. In this cycle only two strokes are
required to complete the cycle, the crankshaft only performs one revolution
per cycle. This is accomplished by a simultaneously combustion-compression
stroke and performing together the intake and exhaust (also know as scav-
ening). In Figure 4.2 the two strokes are shown, four images were used to
simplify comprehension. The working principle of a two-stroke engine is as
follows:

31
 Figure 4.2: Sketch of the two-strokes.

• Compression stroke: While closing inlet and exhaust ports, the cylinder
compresses the mixture and, at the same time, a fresh-mixture enters
the crankcase. As the piston approaches TDC, combustion is initiated.

• Power stroke: As the piston approaches BDC, with the exhaust ports
and then the intake ports uncovered, the burnt gases exit the cylinder.
As the inlet port is opened a fresh mixture, which has been compressed
in the crankcase, flows into the combustion chamber.

32
It is important to emphasize downward movement of the piston: it is com-
pressing the air-fuel mixture in the crankcase. So, in the power stroke, the
mixture will flow into the combustion chamber, displacing the remaining
exhaust gases and filling the cylinder with a fresh charge of fuel.
As mentioned before, each cycle is completed in one crankshaft revolu-
tion. It is difficult to fill completely the displaced volume with fresh mixture
because some will flow directly out of the cylinder during the intake process.
To minimize this undesirable effect, usually pistons in two-stroke engines
have a cross-flow design so that the shape avoids the incoming mixture to
flow directly out the exhaust port [1].

4.2.1 Comparing two and four stroke engines

For same sized two and four stroke engines the two-stroke takes advantage
for being less complicated construction and smaller amount of components
than four-stroke engines. Cheaper and simpler because a two-stroke engine
does not need an intricate system of valves that open and close to direct air
and fuel into the cylinders and to let burned gases exit. Instead, the piston
takes on this job.
The two-stroke engines are generally less efficient than their four-stroke
counterparts due to incomplete expulsion of the exhaust gases and the partial
expulsion of fresh airfuel mixture. However, they have high power-to-weight
and power-to-volume ratios, making them suitable for applications requiring
small size and weight such as for motorcycles and chain saws. The two-stroke
engine outputs one power stroke per crankshaft revolution contrasting with
the two revolutions needed by the four-stroke engine.
Four-stroke takes advantage in therms of fuel efficiency and generate less
pollution. Like said before, in two-stroke not all fuel mixture is burned as the
intake and exhaust processes are almost occurring simultaneously. Therefore,
non-burned fuel flows out the engine. Another reason for the higher pollution
is the lubrication system because the lubricant is burned with the fuel as the
crankcase cannot be used for an oil reservoir like in four-stroke engines.
Advances in several technologies such as direct fuel injection, stratified
charge combustion, and electronic controls brought about a renewed interest
in two-stroke engines that can offer high performance and fuel economy while
satisfying the stringent emission requirements. In the new two-stroke engines,
the highly atomized fuel spray that is injected into the combustion chamber
toward the end of the compression stroke burns much more completely. The
fuel is sprayed after the exhaust valve is closed, which prevents unburned
fuel from being ejected into the atmosphere. With stratified combustion, the
flame that is initiated by igniting a small amount of the rich fuel-air mixture

33
near the spark plug propagates through the combustion chamber filled with
a much leaner mixture, and this results in much cleaner combustion. Also,
the advances in electronics have made it possible to ensure the optimum
operation under varying engine load and speed conditions [3].

4.3 Spark ignition engine operation

Chapter 3.4 was the introduction to the ideal Otto cycle, the purpose of this
section is to discuss the working principle and operative characteristics of
a spark ignition engine as it is based on that cycle. In four-stroke spark

Figure 4.3: Pressure-volume plot for four-stroke spark-ignition cycle. Legend:

1 - Intake valve opens, 2 - Ignition, 3 - End of combustion, 4 - Exhaust valve
opens.

ignition engines a prior mixture of air and fuel is done before entering the
engine. So, in this engines the admission fluid is fuel and air. The air entering
the intake system is a mixture of ambient air and heated air that was held in
contact with the exhaust manifold. Therefore, the temperature of the intake
air is controlled. The intake system, to promise reliable combustion, assures
a constant ratio of air and fuel flows which is about 15 [1].
In Figure 4.5 the relationship between engine events and crank angle is
shown.

34
 Figure 4.4: Pressure-volume plot for two-stroke spark-ignition cycle.

Figure 4.5: Sequence of events in four-stroke spark-ignition engine operating

cycle.

35
 At higher engine speed, namely higher power outputs, the inlet valve
which opens before TDC closes significantly after the piston arrives BDC.
While the intake process is going on, some residual burned gases from the
previous cycle are still in the cylinder. This mix is almost unavoidable but it
is not that negative as it may look like. Indeed, the re-burn has the benefit
of lowering NOx emissions [2].
The intake valve closes and the piston compresses the cylinder contents
raising pressure and temperature to higher atmospheric values as the cylinder
volume is reduced.
The combustion process is initiated by an electrical discharge across the
spark plug. This is the most distinguishing characteristic of this kind of
engines: the spark plug ignites the fuel, that is the reason why they are named
spark-ignition engines. The development of the combustion flame begins
between 10 and 40 crank angles before TDC, as can be seen in Figure 4.5.
The combustion of the air-fuel mixture occurs in a very short but finite length
of time with the piston near TDC (nearly constant-volume combustion).
The duration of the combustion process depends on engine design and
operating conditions but it is commonly in the range of 40 to 60 crank angle
degrees.
After the spark it can be seen in Figure 4.5 that the pressure increases
although the piston is moving downward. As such, the effect of the temper-
ature rise generated by the combustion prevails over the increasing volume
leading to higher pressure.
There is an optimal moment to ignite the fuel where the highest possible
torque will be produced. So called maximum brake torque [1] this optimum
timing is an empirical relation between starting combustion too early in the
compression stroke and completing combustion too late in the expansion
stroke.
In the expansion stroke the exhaust valve opens when the piston travelled
about two-thirds of the stroke. The pressure difference between the cylinder
and the exhaust manifold forces the burned gases to leave the cylinder. The
piston only assists the discharge process in the exhaust stroke while moving
upward again. The exhaust gas carry away a high amount of enthalpy, which
lowers the cycle thermal efficiency, reducing the work obtained during the
power stroke. Although this negative effect, worse would be a long, and
otherwise not enough, exhaust time needed in the exhaust stroke. By the
time the piston reaches BDC the cylinder is still full of exhaust gases at
approximately atmospheric pressure.
The exhaust stroke is started with the exhaust valve remaining open,
the piston pushes most of the remaining exhaust gases out of the cylinder
leaving only a residual amount in the clearance volume when the piston

36
reaches TDC. Near the end of the stroke the inlet valve is opened and the
cycle will be repeated.
There are also two-stroke spark-ignition engines, although not common in
automotive application. As discussed in the last section such engines are used
for small-engine applications, for example chain saws or motorboat, where
weight-power ratio is important and the use factor is low.
In two-stroke engines, at about 50 crank angles before BDC [4], the intake
slot on the side of the cylinder is uncovered and intake air-fuel enters under
pressure. This incoming mixture pushes a part of the remaining exhaust
gases out the open exhaust valve and fills the cylinder with a combustible
air-fuel mixture. The higher pressure is established in one of two ways. Large
two-stroke cycle engines generally have a supercharger, while small engines
will intake the air through the crankcase.
The spark and following combustion proceeds as in the four-stroke engine.
At about 75 crank angles before BDC, the exhaust valve opens. The exhaust
valve may be a poppet valve in the cylinder head, or it may be a slot in the
side of the cylinder which is uncovered as the piston approaches BDC.

4.4 Compression ignition engine operation

The intake process in compression ignition engines is different than the de-
scribed in the last section, air alone is inducted into the cylinder. Therefore,
only air is compressed in the compression stroke. Since there is no fuel in the
cylinder, the compression is done to higher pressure and temperature, the
problem of spark knocking the engine do not exist. In spark ignition engines
the load control, engine power output, is done by varying the amount of fuel
and air since they enter into the cylinder simultaneously as a mixture. In this
kind of engines the amount of air, per cycle, remains approximately constant
so the load control is done by modifying the amount of fuel injected.
The intake and exhaust valves timing is roughly the same as in compres-
sion ignition engines, varying from case to case according to specific design.
While the compression stroke is going on, at about 20 crank angles before the
piston reaches TDC, injectors mounted at the top of the combustion chamber
inject fuel and it mixes with the hot air. The pressure and temperature state
is higher than the ignition point of the fuel. The fuel evaporates and self-
ignites starting the combustion. The flame spreads through the cylinder as
the fuel mixes with sufficient air to burn. The combustion proceeds at about
constant pressure and is fully developed when the piston reaches TDC.
It follows the expansion as the piston goes downwards to BDC and com-
bustion ends. The exhaust process is similar to the four-stroke spark-ignition

37
Figure 4.6: Pressure-volume plot for a compression-ignition cycle. Legend:
1 - (Air) Intake valve opens, 2 - Fuel Injection, 3 - Exhaust valve opens.

engine.
In two-stroke compression ignition engine cycle the main differences are
in the intake and exhaust pressure. During the exhaust, generally of approx-
imately 30 crank angles duration, a large part of the products of combustion
is discharged rapidly under the action of the large pressure difference between
cylinder and exhaust manifold and the rapidly opening exhaust valve. The
scavenging ports (intake and exhaust) are open from about 45 crank angles
before and after BDC and the fuel is injected at 4 crank angles before TDC
[4]. Once the ports close as the piston starts the compression stroke, com-
pression, fuel-injection, fuel-air mixing, combustion and expansion processes
proceed as in the four-stroke compression-ignition engine cycle.

38
Chapter 5

Induction phase: Naturally

aspirated and Turbocharged
engines

5.1 Engine and gas exchange efficiencies

5.1.1 Engine efficiency
The engine efficiency and thus the outputting power are dependent on pro-
cesses that take part in the whole cycle. All processes, individually, are
irreversible in real engine operation. In this section are presented thermody-
namic relations for those process efficiencies related with the engine intake
and exhaust.
The brake or effective efficiency ηef f is a defined as the ratio between
the brake effective work delivered and the mechanical work equivalent of the
added fuel [5].
Wef f
ηef f = (5.1)
Qf
In order to be able to evaluate and, if needed, minimize the losses indi-
vidually, this total efficiency is subdivided into the following subefficiencies:
fuel combustion rate ηF , indicated efficiency ηi , process efficiency ηth , cycle
efficiency factor ηcy and mechanical efficiency ηm .
The effective efficiency is then product of subefficiencies.
ηef f = ηF ηi ηth ηcy ηm (5.2)
For gasoline engines, which operate at rich air-to-fuel ratios, very inter-
esting is the fuel combustion rate, ηF , defined as

39
 QF − QF,u
ηF = (5.3)
QF
the ratio of burned fuel energy to added fuel energy, QF , and not utilized
(unburned) fuel energy QF,u .
The indicated efficiency, ηi ,
Wi
ηi = (5.4)
QF
is the ratio between the indicated work and the heat equivalent of the added
fuel.
The process efficiency, ηth ,
Qadd − Qdiss
ηth = (5.5)
Qadd
Qadd is the added and Qdiss the removed heat quantities in a cycle. The
maximum extractable work Wth is related with the theoretical efficiency of
the cycle ηth and the energy given to it QF . So, Wth = ηth QF .
The cycle efficiency, ηcyc ,
Wi
ηcyc = (5.6)
Wth
relates the work obtained with internal losses of high and low pressures
or gas exchange cycles, describes how near the efficiency of the real process
approaches the value of the theoretical cycle.
The mechanical efficiency ηm ,
bmep bmep
ηm = = (5.7)
imep bmep + fmep
is defined as the ratio of effective to indicated work. Therefore, it is also the
ratio of brake to indicated mean effective pressure.

5.1.2 Gas exchange characteristics

The gas exchange cycle (intake and exhaust) is very important in engine
analysis as the behaviour of the engine is significantly affected: quality and
efficiencies of those processes affect engine performance.
The performance of internal combustion engines can be increased by tur-
bocharging the engine. A turbocharger compresses the air so that more
oxygen flows into the combustion chamber. In this way, more fuel is burned
and the power output of the engine increases accordingly.

40
 The volumetric efficiency, λV , is defined as the volume flow rate of air
into the intake system divided by the rate at which volume is displaced by
the piston. Ideally, a mass of air equal to the density of atmospheric air times
the displacement volume of the cylinder should be ingested for each cycle.
By other words, it is the ratio between the air actually entering the cylinder
and the air that would enter the cylinder if the flow would experience no
restrictions and no energy losses.
mf A
λV = (5.8)
ρa Vd
For natural aspired engines, like the engine cycles described in chapter 4,
the volumetric efficiency is in the range of 80 to 90%, due to head losses in
the intake manifold, intake valves and other restrictions presented to the air
flow. Turbocharged engines, by definition, will have volumetric efficiencies
way over 100% [4].
Other important relations are scavenging ratio, λS , amount of residual
gas ,φRG , and scavenging efficiency of the engine, Γ.
mf A
λS = (5.9)
mf A + mRG
mRG
φRG = (5.10)
mf A + mRG
mf A
Γ= (5.11)
mf A + mS
Where: mf A is fresh air mass remaining in cylinder, mRG is residual gas
mass, mS is scavenging mass.
For two-stroke engines, in particular, it is important to make a distinction
between the ’used’ rate of airflow and the total rate of airflow supplied to
the engine. This arises from the fact that the scavenging process in two-
stroke engines is accompanied by substantial loss of air to exhaust, partly
through mixing with products of combustion, therefore in two-stroke analysis
scavenging air delivery ratio is used [6].
Scavenging ratio specifies the ratio of the fresh gas mass entered the cylin-
der to the total cylinder charge mass. The amount of residual gas specifies
the ratio of the gas remaining in the cylinder after the gas exchange process
to the total cylinder charge mass. And the scavenging efficiency specifies
partial of the total aspirated fresh gas mass which remains in the cylinder
after the gas exchange. The scavenging efficiency represents a very charac-
teristic value for the two-stroke engines. High scavenging efficiencies have to
be accomplished in order to utilize the fresh gas provided.

41
5.2 Naturally aspirated engines
The main principle for intake process operation is the existence of a pres-
sure difference between the cylinder and the ambient. In naturally aspirated
engines, while the intake valve is open the piston is moving downward. There-
fore, vacuum is created and ambient air is aspirated into the engine due the
pressure drop created inside the cylinder.
Naturally aspirated engines operate on a small pressure difference between
intake and exhaust. The piston during the exhaust stroke displaces the most
exhaust gases out of the engine. Although this working principle covers the
need to clear the engine and let in fresh mixture, it is undesirable. The
negative work done by the piston to expel the exhaust gases results in less
useful engine power output and therefore engine efficiency is lowered. In four-
stroke naturally aspirate engines there is no significant scavenging of residual
gases because both inlet and exhaust pressures are near to atmospheric.
Another problem in naturally aspirate engines is the back flow of exhaust
gases. If the exhaust exceeds atmospheric pressure, what eases burned gases
to be expelled, that means higher exhaust than inlet pressure. A considerable
quantity of residual gas will be left in the cylinder, reducing the volume
of fresh air drawn during the next intake stroke compromising volumetric
efficiency. Some back flow of residual gases into the intake manifold will also
occur during valve overlap, resulting in an undesirable build-up of carbon
deposits. For these reasons, it is to avoid high pressure differences between
inlet and exhaust manifolds.

Spark-ignition engines
In four-stroke spark-ignition engine, the naturally aspirated intake system
typically consists of an air filter, a carburetor and throttle or fuel injector
and throttle or throttle with individual fuel injectors in each intake port, and
intake manifold. During the induction process, pressure drops occur as the
mixture passes through these components. There is an additional pressure
drop across the intake port and valve.
Fuel and air are usually mixed together in spark-ignition engines before
entering the cylinder. This job is done by the carburator or by a fuel injection
system. Before entering the engine, air flows through a venturi (a converging-
diverging nozzle) and a pressure difference is established between the venturi
inlet and throat which is used to meter an appropriate amount of fuel from the
float chamber, therefore the engine output. The mixture is throttled to below
atmospheric pressure by reducing the flow area when the power required (at
any engine speed) is below the maximum which is obtained when the throttle

42
Figure 5.1: Sketch of an intake system with carburator. Legend: 1 - Throat,
2 - Venturi, 3 - Throttle valve, 4 - Capillary tube, 5 - Float chamber.

is wide open [1]. In order to achieve faster uniform fuel distribution between
the engine cylinder the intake manifold is usually heated. Otherwise it could
happen that the fuel content in the mixture would vary from cylinder to
cylinder leading to non-uniform power output.
As it was discussed before, there is a time in which both intake and
exhaust valves are open, the valves overlap period. In this period backflow of
exhausted gas into the cylinder and of cylinder gases into the intake system
will usually occur [4]. The advantage of valve overlap occurs at high engine
speeds when the longer valve-open periods improves volumetric efficiency.
As the piston moves past TDC and the cylinder pressure falls below the
intake pressure, gas flows from the intake into the cylinder. The intake valve
remains open until 50 to 70 crank angles after BDC so that fresh charge may
continue to flow into the cylinder after BDC.

Compression-ignition engines
In compression-ignition engine intake system, the carburetor or electronic
fuel injection system are absent as the fuel-air mixture is done inside the

43
cylinder. The unthrottled intake system operation allows high volumetric
efficiency at all speeds [4], with the intake system designed for very little
flow restriction of the incoming air. Further raising the volumetric efficiency
is the fact that no fuel is added until late in the compression stroke, after air
intake is fully completed.
Naturally aspirated compression-ignition engines are not very interest-
ing in terms of practical application. For the same capacity, as a spark-
ignition engine, stronger internal components are needed due the develop-
ment of greater stresses. The power-to-weight ratio is lower. Turbocharged
compression-ignition engines are generally considered more flexible for au-
tomotive uses than naturally aspirated, which have strong low-speed torque
outputs but lack power at higher speeds [4].

Two-stroke engines
Two-stroke naturally aspirated engines can only work if they operate on
crankcase compression because the inputting air pressure has to be higher
than atmospheric. After the intake process the cylinder is still filled with
exhaust gases at atmospheric pressure, unlikely four-stroke engines there is
no exhaust stroke, so it has to be the incoming air to push out the exhaust
gases. To perform scavenging, incoming air has to be pressurised upper
atmospheric because there is no vacuum effect. The intake air is pressurized
using a supercharger, turbocharger or crankcase compression.
In two-stroke naturally aspirated engines, ambient air is introduced into
the cylinder below the piston through a one-way valve directing to the crankcase
when the piston is near TDC, see Figure 4.2. While the power stroke is going
on, the downward movement of the piston compresses the air in the crankcase.
The pressurised air is then introduced into the combustion chamber.

5.3 Turbocharged engines

5.3.1 Introduction and wasted energy recovery
In four-stroke engine operation the exhaust valve opens when the piston is
near BDC where the pressure inside the cylinder is way higher than atmo-
spheric. By exhausting pressurized gases a great amount of energy is wasted.
If it would be possible to continue expanding the cylinder contents till atmo-
spheric pressure the work output would be considerably increased.
The recovery of this wasted possible work could be done by allowing the
piston to move further downward. However, practice shows that the friction
between components offsets the work by such a long expansion stroke. The

44
filled area in Figure 5.2 shows the work that could be done in ideally Diesel
cycle. The referred wasted energy is called ’blow-down’ energy1 .

Figure 5.2: Possible work in ideally naturally aspirated Diesel cycle.

The work represented by the filled area is therefore potentially available

to a turbocharger turbine placed in the exhaust manifold.
The purpose of turbocharging2 is to increase power density, increase air
mass entering the engine in each cycle by increasing air density as it is al-
most directly proportional to pressure. Before entering the cylinder, in tur-
bocharged engines, air is compressed in a compressor. The motion of the
compressor is done by a shaft connected turbine that expands exhaust gases
which otherwise would be lost at the end of the cycle and carried away high
enthalpy amount. Therefore, no mechanical energy from the engine is needed
to compress air in the intake. For this reason turbochargers differ from su-
perchargers which are connected and rotate with the engine. Exhaust gas
turbocharging will always be preferred as long it can be technically realized
with an acceptable cost wherever high engine power density has to be ob-
tained in combination with minimized emission and fuel consumption values.
Pressurization of fresh air leads to higher intake flow and volumetric ef-
ficiency is improved, so more air enters the engine. As power output of a
cycle is a function depending on the amount of fuel burned, by increasing air
flow per cycle more fuel will also be injected. Turbocharging increases power
output.
In Figure 5.4 can be seen the P-v comparison of turbocharged and natu-
rally aspirated working cycles. The intake pressure is higher due to prior air
compression and as well do the exhaust gases pressure, which is higher than
atmospheric although expansion through the turbine.
1
So called since it involves the combustion products being ’blown-down’ from cylinder
pressure to atmospheric pressure, when the exhaust valve opens [6].
2
The performed discussion assumes constant-pressure turbocharging. When compared
to naturally aspirated, same sized engines are considered unless the opposite is stated.

45
Figure 5.3: Turbocharged engine sketch. Legend: C - Compressor, T - Tur-
bine.

Figure 5.4: P-v diagram for cycle comparison between naturally aspirated
and turbocharged engines (spark-ignition cycle).

46
5.3.2 Operational consequences
Turbocharging leads to higher operational pressures, therefore engine com-
ponents have to be designed for that as well. Engine inlet pressures up to
about 100 kPa above atmospheric pressure are typical [5].
Comparing to naturally aspirated engines, turbocharged force the scav-
enging of exhaust gases. It was referred before that in naturally aspirated
the exhaust due to scavenging is almost regardless because inlet and exhaust
pressures are almost atmospheric. In turbocharged engines the inlet pressure
is much higher than atmospheric (as can be seen qualitatively on Figure 5.4)
as well as the exhaust. Therefore, advantage can be taken and generate an
effective air scavenging and clear the cylinder of residual combustion prod-
ucts without developing negative work. Thus a pressure drop between intake
and exhaust is desirable, especially during the period of valve overlap. To
establish this pressure difference, and release the piston of doing negative
work, compressing work is needed. This expense is although desirable as it
comes from otherwise wasted energy.
Turbocharging an engine produces one of two possible results: higher
engine power for same sized engine as naturally aspirated or allows engine
downsizing. This means, to have same power output as naturally aspirated
only accomplished by smaller engine dimensions.
For a particular power output, a turbocharged engine has a better ef-
fective efficiency than a naturally aspirated engine, Figure 5.5. A decisive
factor is that for many reasons e.g., the hydrodynamics of bearing and pis-
ton lubrication the friction mean effective pressure increases with increasing
speed, but only to a small extent with increasing load. The mechanic effi-
ciency of the engine is improved and thus the effective efficiency. The other
efficiency factors are barely influenced by turbocharging, since, due to the
change of density of the intake air, the flow and thermodynamic conditions
are influenced only to a minor extent [5].
The fraction occupied by residual gases at intake pressure varies with the
pressure ratio (ratio between exhaust and inlet pressures). The volumetric
efficiency increases with lower pressure ratios as the burned gases are expelled
more easily. Naturally aspirated engines operate on exhaust to inlet pressure
ratios barely higher than unity (intake is sub-atmospheric and exhaust some-
what higher). Increasing the inlet pressure, via turbocharging, will reduce
the referred ratio, thus higher volumetric efficiency is achieved.
It can be seen in Figure 5.6 the effect on volumetric efficiency by changing
the exhaust to intake pressures ratio for different compression ratios. Operat-
ing with higher volumetric efficiency means more fuel burned per cycle. The
fuel consumption increases per cycle in comparison with same sized naturally

47
Figure 5.5: Advantage in mechanical efficiency of turbocharged engines (solid
curve) in comparison to naturally aspirated engine (dashed curve) [7].

1.2

1.1
λv0
λv

0.9
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Pe
Pi

Figure 5.6: Effect of exhaust to inlet pressure ratio on ideal-cycle volumetric

efficiency [1] (γ = 1.3).

48
Figure 5.7: Effect of Downsizing. Fuel consumption values of two medium-
speed diesel engines of equal horsepower with (solid curves) and without
(dash curves) turbocharging, showing significant advantages for the tur-
bocharged engine [5].

aspirated engine.
Downsized engines, for a desired power output, present smaller brake
specific fuel consumption values, Figure 5.7. BSFC is defined as the rate of
fuel consumption divided by the power produced. It may also be thought as
power-specific fuel consumption.

49
Chapter 6

Turbocharged Engines

A turbocharger is essentially a single stage impulse turbine consisting of

two sections, the turbine and the compressor. The turbine uses the high
velocity and pressure of exhaust gases to drive the centrifugal compressor
which compressing the air and hence is supplied to the cylinder to.

6.1 Types of Turbocharging

6.1.1 Principles of constant-pressure turbocharging
Constant-pressure turbocharging is so called because all cylinders are con-
nected to a single exhaust manifold whose volume is sufficiently large to
ensure constant pressure. This means, only one turbine is used to expand
the exhaust gases coming from the cylinder through the large manifold. Al-
though this principle, frequently more than one of this units are used in order
to achieve a reasonable boost pressure in case of turbocharger failure.
In this way of operation, turbine inlet conditions are steady and known.
That is, the pulses of energy that occur as the exhaust is released from the
cylinder are absorbed in the large volume exhaust manifold so that, at the
turbocharger, almost steady flow conditions exist [8]. The volume of the
manifold must be large enough to accommodate the gas flow from individual
cylinders without causing any localized pressure rise in the manifold as ex-
haust gas leaves the cylinder. The exhaust gas is led from the manifold into
the exhaust-gas turbocharger at a constant pressure.
The advantage of this type of turbocharging is that turbine design is
easily matched with operational optimum efficiency, since flow conditions
are almost constant. On the other hand, the available energy entering the
turbine is low, since full advantage has not been taken of the pulse energy

50
Figure 6.1: Boost pressure due to turbocharging (solid curve) compared to
naturally aspirated engine (dash curve) [5].

[5]. In Figure 6.2 area 7-8-10-11 denotes energy available to the turbine,
hence the energy represented by area 5-7-13 cannot be used. This energy is
not lost, since energy loss only occurs by heat transfer, but since no work is
done during the pressure reducing process 5-7 it represents a loss of potential
turbine work.

Figure 6.2: Ideal turbocharged limited pressure cycle.

51
Constant pressure turbocharging of four-stroke engines
Naturally aspirated engines run with virtually equal inlet and exhaust pres-
sures, no significant scavenging of the residual gas takes place. When tur-
bocharging, advantage can be taken of the potential difference in manifold
pressures to generate a scavenge air throughput to clear the cylinder of resid-
ual combustion products. Thus, a pressure drop between intake and exhaust
is desirable, especially during the period of valve overlap.
During the intake process (12-1), Figure 6.2, the pressure on the piston
crown (the boost pressure P1 ) exceeds the crankcase pressure on the under-
side (ambient pressure Patm ). Hence useful work will be done by the com-
pressed fresh air on the piston (area 12-1-9-10). During the exhaust stroke
(13-11), gas pressure on the piston crown (P7 ) again exceeds crankcase pres-
sure (Patm ) but the piston motion opposes the resultant force, hence the
piston is doing work on the exhaust gas [6].
The net gain or loss (gain in the above described case) of useful work
during this ’gas exchange’ process will be given by the area 12-1-13-11. This
work benefit is only gained at the expense of compressor work, although
that is desirable since it in turn is derived from exhaust gas energy normally
wasted. This is one reason why a turbocharged engine may be more efficient
than a naturally aspirated engine. High turbocharger efficiency will raise the
inlet manifold to exhaust manifold pressure ratio (Figure 5.6) and increase
this work gain, Figure 5.7 shows the direct effect of this gain on engine specific
fuel consumption.

Figure 6.3: Constant pressure turbocharging cylinder arrangement. Achiev-

able charge pressure and exhaust pressure curves, for four-stroke inline en-
gine. Legend: Pr - received pressure (compressed air entering the engine)[11].
Piston position and valve timing for the first cylinder.

The present discussion of constant pressure turbocharging has related

only to full engine load and speed. However, engines for most applications

52
are required to operate at part load for much of the time. The engine is
controlled via its fuel injection system, hence under part load conditions the
volume of fresh air drawn in to the cylinder will not change significantly but
the quantity of fuel injected will [5]. Thus the principle change will be to the
air-fuel ratio and hence, as far as the turbocharger is concerned, the exhaust
temperature. The lower exhaust temperature is equivalent to reduced energy
arriving at the turbine, hence turbine and therefore compressor work drops.
The boost pressure is therefore lower resulting in a reduced mass of fresh
charge being drawn in to the cylinder. Hence the boost pressure, mass flow
rate and turbine inlet temperature all fall. The drop in boost pressure is to
be expected and will not create any problems unless the exhaust pressure
has not dropped by a comparable amount.
At low loads, the turbine inlet temperature will drop and, since the mass
flow rate and pressure ratios will also have fallen, the turbocharger is proba-
bly operating off the design point conditions on the turbine and compressor
characteristics. At part-load engine operation, the pressure drop between
inlet and exhaust will deteriorate and will eventually become negative. Scav-
enging will be impaired, the gas-exchange work will become a loss and hence
power output and efficiency will fall. Thus the constant pressure system is
not ideal for part load operation. Similar conditions apply at high load and
low speed operation of the engine [6].

Constant pressure turbocharging of two-stroke engines

The two-stroke engine is neither self-aspirating nor self-exhausting. It relies
on a positive pressure drop between the inlet and exhaust manifold in order
to run at all. The scavenging process, in which fresh charge is forced in and
residual gas out, is the key to a successful two-stroke engine. It follows that
the two-stroke engine is far more dependent on a reasonable pressure drop
being developed across the cylinder than is the case with the four-stroke
engine. The four-stroke engine can work with an adverse pressure gradient,
the two-stroke will not.
The consequence to the turbocharger is twofold. Firstly, the gas in the
exhaust manifold will be diluted with cool scavenge air lowering the turbine
inlet temperature. Secondly, a penalty must be paid for compressing the
excess air since, although it will be expended through the turbine, only part
of the energy expanded will be regained, due to compressor and turbine
inefficiencies. Thus not only does the turbocharger have a more difficult job
than on a four-stroke engine, since it must provide a positive pressure drop
across the cylinder, but it is required to work under the adverse conditions
mentioned above.

53
 At part load, the turbine inlet temperature will fall due to the lower air-
fuel ratio. Turbocharger efficiency will also fall since the turbocharger would
usually be matched for optimum working conditions near full load.
The use of the constant pressure turbocharging system on two-stroke
engines is usually restricted to large engines, since most other engines are
required to operate over a wide load and speed range [6]

6.1.2 Principles of pulse turbocharging

The objective is to make the maximum use of the high pressure and temper-
ature which exists in the cylinder when the exhaust valve opens, even at the
expense of creating highly unsteady flow through the turbine. In most cases
the benefit from increasing the available energy will more than offset the loss
in turbine efficiency due to unsteady flow. The key to the pulse system is
to try to use the additional (relative to a constant pressure system) energy
represented by area 5-7-13 in Figure 6.2.
The principle of operation can be explained by considering an exhaust
port connected to a turbine by a very small exhaust manifold, the turbine
also having a small flow area. Initially, before the exhaust valve opens, the
manifold may be at atmospheric pressure. As the exhaust valve begins to
open, exhaust gas flows from cylinder to manifold under the influence of the
large pressure drop. Mass flow rate rapidly increases as the valve opens. Since
the turbine acts as a flow restriction, the pressure in the manifold increases,
governed by the difference in flow into the manifold and out through the
turbine. Thus, exhaust manifold (turbine inlet) pressure tends to rise towards
cylinder pressure.

Figure 6.4: Pulse turbocharging cylinder arrangement. Achievable charge

pressure and exhaust pressure curves, for four-stroke inline engine. Legend:
Pr - received pressure (compressed air entering the engine). Piston position
and valve timing for the first cylinder.[11]

54
 It is called pulse turbocharging because there is no constant pressure nor
steady state conditions at the exhaust manifold. The turbine inlet conditions
are transient, since the pressure is varying. This system gives a rapid build
up of turbine speed when an engine is started or manoeuvring [8].
During the exhaust stroke of the piston, from BDC to TDC, exhaust
gas is pushed out from cylinder to manifold. It passes through the turbine
doing useful work. The actual exhaust process is similar but not identical to
the ideal process, Figure 6.2, in which the exhaust manifold pressure would
instantaneously rise to P5 , gradually fall to P7 then remain constant until the
exhaust valve is closed. Thus a considerable portion of the blow-down (area
5-8-9) and piston pumping (area 13-9-10-11) energies are made available to
the turbine. Relative to the constant pressure system, the energy available
to the turbine is higher [6].
By suitably grouping the different cylinder exhaust ports so that the ex-
haust pulses are sequential and have minimum overlap, the flow unsteadiness
can be held to an acceptable level. The turbine must be specifically designed
for this pulsating flow to achieve adequate efficiencies. The combination of
increased energy available at the turbine, with reasonable turbine efficiencies,
results in the pulse system being more commonly used for larger diesels [1].
The basic method of increasing (or reducing) the available energy at the
turbine is common to both pulse and constant pressure systems. The avail-
able energy is governed by, amongst other factors, the pressure at the turbine
inlet or the exhaust manifold pressure. This in turn is controlled by the flow
area of the turbine. By reducing the turbine area, pressure will be increased
and vice versa.

Pressure build in the exhaust

In this way of operation the exhaust pipes play a decisive role in order to have
a efficient turbocharged system. The exhaust manifold has to be as small and
narrow as possible. In constant-pressure turbocharging the manifold reduces
exhaust gas pressure since pulse energy is converted into heat.
Having narrow exhaust pipe allows, at the exhaust valve, a pressure in-
crease due the small cross-sectional area since the pipe itself is sufficient for
pressure to build up. This pressure pulse (hence the term pulse turbocharg-
ing), travels at sonic velocity along the pipe to reach the turbine. Thus,
energy is being transmitted along the pipe at sonic velocity to the turbine.
At the turbine the pressure pulse is reflected with reduced amplitude since
the turbine is a partial flow restriction. A pressure pulse is generated by the
gas initially released at high pressure by the cylinder, which travels forwards
and backwards along the pipe with gradually diminishing amplitude [6].

55
 Although the available energy at the turbine is not considerably influ-
enced by the pipe length, the importance is shown in Figure 6.5. Here the
effect of varying pipe length on the timing of the reflected pulse is shown.
In case 1, the reflection occurs after the exhaust valve has closed causing no
problem, but this is a rare case since it can only occur with an exceptionally
long manifold, which is undesired due to flow head losses. More common is
case 3, in which the reflection time is very short relative to the valve open-
ing period. Case 2 is the serious one, that can occur with long pipes, of
the reflected pulse raising exhaust pressure at the valve or port, during the
scavenge period. The turbocharger position and exhaust pipe length must
be chosen to avoid this situation, or scavenging will be seriously impaired.

Figure 6.5: Effect of exhaust pipe length on pressure reflections relative to

the valve overlap period.

When the engine speed changes (horizontal scale magnifies or reduces),

the effective time of arrival at a reflected pulse will vary. Hence the exhaust
pipe length is critical and must be optimized to suit the speed range of the
engine.

Cylinder amount and valve timing

On a multi-cylinder engine, narrow pipes from several cylinders can be con-
nected via a single branch manifold to one turbine. Considering the three-
cylinder four-stroke shown in Figure 6.6, due to the phase angle between
cylinders the opening periods of the exhaust valves follow successively ev-
ery 240 with very little overlap between them. Thus a steady sequence of
pressure pulses arrive at the turbine, virtually eliminating the long periods,
although the average turbine efficiency will remain lower than that obtained
with a correctly matched constant pressure system (operating near the peak
of the efficiency curve). The remaining important point to consider is the

56
Figure 6.6: Pulse system, three cylinder four-stroke engine with automotive
type valve timing. Piston position relative to the first cylinder.

exhaust pressure close to the valves, during the valve overlap (scavenging)
period. As with the constant pressure system, a good pressure drop between
inlet and exhaust manifold during the period when both valves are open is
important in the case of a four-stroke engine with significant valve overlap
and vital for a two-stroke engine.
Such an engine is rarely made, but is a convenient unit on which to
present some important aims of pulse turbocharging, namely, the way to
increase average turbine efficiency by avoiding interference with scavenging
of one cylinder due to the effect of the blow-down pulse from another. The
pressure pulse exhausting from a cylinder travels along the manifold until
it reaches a junction. At the junction it divides into two pulses (each of
smaller magnitude due to the effective area increase) one travelling down
each adjacent pipe. One pulse will travel towards the turbine, the other
will arrive at the exhaust valve of another cylinder. It is the latter pulse,
from cylinder number 3 (Figure 6.6), that has arrived near cylinder 1 just
at the end of the scavenge period of cylinder 1, that could be a problem. If
it had arrived earlier (perhaps due to shorter exhaust pipes) it would have
interfered with scavenging. This type of interference due to the direct action
of a pressure pulse from another cylinder, is quite separate from the action of
a pressure pulse reflected from the turbine, whether the latter started from
cylinder 1, 2 or 3.
Most engines have four or more cylinders, but it is convenient to consider

57
Figure 6.7: Exhaust pressure diagram. Three cylinder four-stroke engine
with automotive type valve timing [6]

a six-cylinder engine next. Figure 6.8 shows valve timing of a typical au-
tomotive six-cylinder diesel engine and its firing order. It is obvious that if
all six cylinders were connected to a single entry turbine via narrow pipes,
the pressure waves from each cylinder would significantly interfere with the
exhaust processes of each other during valve overlap and the exhaust stroke,
thus increasing piston pumping work. The effect would be poor engine effi-
ciency. A two-stroke engine might not operate under these conditions. The
difficulty can be avoided by simply connecting the cylinders in two groups of
three, either to two different turbines, or separate entries of a single turbine.
If the correct cylinders are grouped together, then the pressure pulse system
in each group will be the same as that shown in Figure 6.8.
From Figure 6.8 it is clear that cylinders 1, 2 and 3 may form one group
and cylinders 4, 5 and 6 the other, but the arrangement would differ if the
firing order were changed. It may be concluded that the six-cylinder engine
is similar to the three-cylinder, from the turbocharging point of view, but
turbine performance may be slightly worse due to the losses associated with
the join of two sectors of a divided entry turbine. It is disadvantageous to
connect more than three cylinders to a single turbine entry. Thus, for the
four-cylinder engine shown in Figure 6.9 pairs of cylinders (1-2 and 3-4) would
be connected to a double entry turbine. On engines with other numbers of
cylinders, the general rule will be to connect cylinders whose firing sequences
are separated by 240◦ crank angle (in the case of four-stroke) and 120◦ (two-
stroke) to a turbine inlet, and select those cylinders whose exhaust processes
are evenly spaced out. However, this is not always possible. For example, on
a vee-form engine, the vee angle will introduce an additional phase difference
to the firing intervals between cylinders. In such cases, the more basic rule

58
Figure 6.8: Exhaust valve timing for an automotive six-cylinder four-stroke
engine. Piston position relative to the first cylinder.

59
of avoiding direct pressure wave interference must be observed.

Figure 6.9: Exhaust valve timing for an automotive six-cylinder four-stroke

engine. Piston position relative to the first cylinder.

The principal advantage of the pulse over the constant pressure system
is that the energy available for conversion to useful work in the turbine is
greater. However, this is of little value if the energy conversion process is
inefficient. The operation of radial and axial flow turbines under partial
admission (i.e. multiple entries), unsteady flow conditions is complex. One
single pulse will result in low average turbine efficiency due to a long windage
period, and quite significant mass flow when the equivalent steady-state tur-
bine efficiency is known to be low. Thus the benefits of pulse energy will
be lost by low turbine efficiency. Of course, it is difficult to use the alter-
native ’constant pressure’ system with a single cylinder engine, the example
has merely been given to illustrate the penalty when one cylinder of a multi-
cylinder engine is connected to a single turbine entry, unfortunately this is
necessary on some engines like five-cylinder engine.
With three cylinders to a turbine entry (Figure 6.7) the average turbine
efficiency will be much higher since windage is almost eliminated. The effi-
ciency is better still if the valve timing permits a larger overlap by having
longer exhaust periods (290◦ ) as is the practice in medium speed diesel en-
gines. However, turbine efficiency, averaged over the unsteady flow cycle, will

60
be lower than that obtained in a well-matched steady-flow system. If two
cylinders are connected to a turbine entry the average turbine efficiency will
be lower than would be the case with three cylinders, since (short) windage
periods would exist (see Figure 6.9). Thus, pulse turbocharging system is
most suitable for those engines whose exhaust manifolds may connect groups
of three cylinders to a turbine entry. However, even if this is not possible,
the loss in turbine efficiency due to partial admission and unsteady flow, is
usually more than offset by the additional energy available at the turbine,
hence the pulse system is by far the more widely used.

6.2 Comparing constant-pressure and pulse

turbocharging
The pulse system has several other attractive features over the constant pres-
sure system. If the system is properly designed, it will usually be possible
to arrange for the pressure just downstream of the exhaust valve to fall sub-
stantially below the cylinder and inlet manifold pressure during the valve
overlap period (Figure 6.7). Hence reasonable scavenging can be obtained
even at low engine load when the exhaust gas temperature, turbine efficiency
and hence boost pressure are low. For the same reason if the overall tur-
bocharger efficiency falls slightly (due to fouling in service), scavenging is
not seriously impaired.
From the practical point of view, the pulse system is attractive on engines
with small numbers of cylinders, since the exhaust system is simple and
compact. On larger engine, with many cylinders, the manifolds become very
complex and expansion joints become a problem, hence the constant pressure
system becomes more convenient. For many applications a further advantage
of the pulse system is superior acceleration. The small volume of the exhaust
manifold results in rapid transfer of energy by pressure waves to the turbine.
One of the important disadvantages of the pulse system has already been
touched upon, namely poor performance when one or two cylinders only are
connected to a turbine inlet, particularly if the pressure ratio is high. In these
arrangements, the pressure downstream of the exhaust valves may be close
to atmospheric before the valve opens. Hence, little of the first part of the
pressure pulse will be used effectively at the turbine. The higher the charging
pressure ratio, the higher the cylinder pressure will be at the moment when
the exhaust valve opens, hence the more significant this loss will be. At the
same time turbine efficiency will be poor due to partial admission and the
highly unsteady flow. Another important disadvantage of the pulse system

61
has also been mentioned, namely a problem of poor scavenging if pressure
waves arrive at an exhaust valve at the wrong time. Some engines, having
long pipes, may even be speed limited to avoid this happening. Undesirable
pulse interference may occur on only one cylinder, in which case that cylinder
may have low air flow and will run at a very rich fuel-air ratio unless the fuel
pump is adjusted to compensate. In the latter case, overall power output is
naturally reduced. Usually, a turbocharger correctly matched to an engine
operating with the pulse system will use a larger turbine than would be
fitted for constant pressure operation. With the pulse system, the mass flow
through the turbine is intermittent, taking place over shorter time intervals,
hence the turbine must be sized to accept a high instantaneous flow rate,
especially for two-cylinder/pipe and one-cylinder/pipe groups.
The choice between pulse or constant pressure turbocharging system is
governed by engine duty, performance plus economic and maintenance con-
siderations. In practice, these criteria mean that the constant pressure system
is used exclusively on very large, highly rated two-stroke engines and some
industrial medium speed engines. On these engines the ratings are such
that very large pressure pulses would be generated with the pulse system.
Since most of the exhaust pulse energy coincides with the peak of the pulse,
matching this point with high instantaneous turbine efficiency is important.

6.3 Supercharging
Superchargers are mechanically driven directly off the engine crankshaft.
Generally positive displacement compressors running at speeds about the
same as engine speed. The power to drive the compressor, and compress
the incoming air, is a parasitic load on the engine output, and this is one
of the major disadvantages compared to a turbocharger. Other disadvan-
tages include higher cost, greater weight, and noise [4]. A major advantage
of a supercharger is very quick response to engine speed change. Being me-
chanically linked to the crankshaft, any engine speed change is immediately
transferred to the compressor.
A disadvantage of turbochargers is turbo-lag, which occurs with a sudden
valve timing change. When the intake valve is quickly opened to accelerate an
engine, the turbocharger will not respond as quickly as a supercharger. This
weakness at transient response, occurs because the turbine needs an exhaust
flow to provide mechanical energy to the compressor, unlike superchargers
whose compressor is driven by the engine. While the intake flow is changing,
the turbine does not have the needed available exhaust to expand the gases
and drive the compressor. Therefore, this lack in response, causes a drop

62
 Figure 6.10: Supercharged engine sketch. Legend: C - Compressor.

Figure 6.11: Comparison of mechanical supercharging (SC) and exhaust gas

turbocharging (TC) on the vehicle acceleration process in the car SI engine
[5].

in turbocharger operation below the optimum. The comparison between

transient operation of the two charging systems can be seen in Figure 6.11.
The peak operating speed of a typical automotive supercharger is more than
30,000 rpm, more than 100,000 rpm for some turbochargers.

63
Chapter 7

Engine Modification

As discussed in the previous chapters, turbocharging an engine leads to higher

operational pressures and temperatures. In order to run, in a reliable way, a
turbocharged engine performing adjustments and modifications are so much
as needed as desired. This chapter not only performs a discussion about
which engine parameters have to be modified it as well relates those with the
engine efficiency.
In section 3.6 a introductory discussion was made about the effect on
increasing pressure and its implication on the spark-knock relative to spark-
ignition engines. When turbocharging, as the charge-air pressure (intake air
to the cylinder) is increased, the compression ratio needs to be lowered. Both
spark and compression-ignition engines need to lower the compression ratio.
The reason is distinct for the two kinds of engine.

7.1 Spark-ignition engines

Naturally aspirated spark-ignition engines are designed to operate with a
safety margin relative to spark-knock (fuel auto-detonation due to high pres-
sure and temperature). Air compression prior to cylinder entry requires
adjustments to offset the negative impact on knock: compression ratio has
to be lowered, spark retarded from optimum1 , charge-air temperature also
has to be lowered and the air-fuel ratio increased (less parts of fuel per part
of air). The knock limit is usually reached at spark timings retarded from
the MBT2 optimum.
Charge-air temperature has a strong influence on allowable boost lev-
els: lowering the compressed air temperature prior to entry to the cylinder
1
See section 4.3
2
Maximum brake torque, section 4.3

64
with a intercooler allows a substantially higher compression ratio to be used
(than without intercooling), with a corresponding positive impact on engine
efficiency, since volumetric efficiency is also improved because the density is
reduced and more air can be sucked.

Figure 7.1: Sketch of intercooler application. Legend: C - Compressor.

Since compression ratio reductions and retarded ignition timings result in

losses in efficiency, and unintended knock with high boost pressures would be
especially damaging. Therefore, precise control of ignition timing is critical.
Most turbocharged spark-ignition engines use a knock sensor and ignition-
timing control system so that timing can be adjusted continuously to avoid
knock without unnecessary retard. The sensor is usually an accelerometer
which senses above-normal vibration levels on the cylinder head at the char-
acteristic knock frequency [6]. With a knock sensor, ignition timing can be
automatically adjusted minimizing efficiency loss.
Running with lower compression ratios for turbocharged engines, and
intercooling, knock avoidance requires that boost pressures (which would
continue to rise with increasing engine speed in the absence of any control)
be maintained approximately constant [1]. This is normally achieved by
reducing the exhaust flow through the turbine as speed increases by passing
a substantial fraction of the exhaust around the turbine through a wastegate
or flow control valve. A wastegate is a spring-loaded valve acting in response
to the inlet manifold pressure.

7.2 Compression ignition engines

The factors that limit turbocharged diesel engine performance are completely
different to those that limit turbocharged spark-ignition engines. The prob-
lem of spark-knock does not exist. The output of naturally aspirated diesel
engines is limited by the maximum tolerable smoke emission levels. Tur-

65
bocharged diesel engine output is usually constrained by stress levels in criti-
cal mechanical components. These maximum stress levels limit the maximum
cylinder pressure which can be tolerated under continuous operation, though
the thermal loading of critical components can become limiting too [1]. As
boost pressure is raised, unless engine design and operating conditions are
changed, maximum pressures and thermal loadings will increase almost in
proportion. So, the compression ratio needs to be lowered and the maximum
fuel-air ratio must be reduced in turbocharged engines (relative to naturally
aspirated engines) to maintain pressures and thermal loadings at acceptable
levels.
The diesel combustion process always operates with excess air. This
eliminates the possibility of using three-way catalysts. Critical emissions
are particulate matter (P M), NOx as well as CO and HC emissions. In
heterogeneous combustion, soot must and will always result to some extent
as a combustion end product, so that substantial generation of particulate
matter cannot be avoided. The soot emission, and with it a part of the
particulate matter emission, depend on the combustion air ratio. With a
suitable layout of the charging system, a charged engine can be operated
with high excess air ratios in all load ranges even at full load so that the
preconditions for low particulate operation are better with a charged engine.
With excess oxygen, the flame temperatures are also always high, inevitably
leading to high nitrogen oxide formation. This can best be prevented by
diluting the charge with inert gas.

7.2.1 Lowering N Ox emissions

Water injection
One way to lower NOx emission is water injection in the exhaust, not only
the temperature of the exhaust gases is lowered due to the vaporization of
the water in the combustion chamber but also the volume flow through the
turbine is increased. This results in a significant increase of the enthalpy of
the turbine intake gases, which itself can be used for a further increase in
boost pressure. If particulate filters are located in the high-pressure exhaust
stream, upstream of the turbine, they represent a considerable heat sink with
undesirable consequences for load changes of the engine. The same is valid
for the application of oxidation or NOx storage catalysts if, for whatever
reasons, they are also located upstream of the turbine [5].

66
Exhaust gas recirculation
Another way to lower NOx , as its emissions limit for diesel engine turbocharg-
ing, is to burn part of the exhaust gases again. Recirculating exhaust gases
into the engine intake lowers the combustion efficiency, as the amount of O2
burned is lowered. This allows reducing NOx emissions, since the combustion
is done bellow the temperature at which NOx forms. Although this benefit,
less efficient combustion means lower fuel economy and less power output.

67
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[3] CENGEL, Yunus A., BOLES, Michael, Thermodynamics: An Engi-

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[4] PULKRABEK, Willard W., Engineering Fundamentals of the Internal

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[5] HIERETH, Herman, PRENNINGER, Peter, Aufladung der Verbren-

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