Ques 1. Which are the various sources of ignition in a refinery?

How can we prevent the fire associated

with these sources?

Ans. An oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an industrial process plant where crude oil is transformed and
refined into more useful products such as petroleum naphtha, gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt base, heating oil,
kerosene, liquefied petroleum gas, jet fuel and fuel oils. These products are highly flammable and easily
ignitable. A Petroleum Refinery is considered as Major Accident Hazard(MAH) Industry as per MSIHC Rules.
The Various sources of ignition in a refinery are given in the table along with examples and methods to prevent
the fire and explosion.

Sources of Ignition Examples of Fire or Methods to Prevent the Fire

Explosion
Spark from vehicles Exhaust and Dynamos Flame arrestors and entry
permit to hazardous area

Static Electricity Occurs when there is no proper Proper earthing of equipment

earthing during splash loading
and loading at high velocity
Do not do splash loading

Loading velocity should be

controlled as permissible

Open Flame Cutting and welding torches, Strict compliance of

gas and oil burners precautions stipulated in the
work permit for such jobs

Hot Surface Contact of combustibles Provide proper insulation and

material with hot surface air circulation

Electrical Equipment Electrical defects (mostly in Use of only approved

wiring), motors, switches, equipment
lamps and hot elements

Follow national codes, like

Friction Hot bearings, misaligned or
broken machine parts, choking,
jamming of materials, poor
adjustment
Spontaneous combustion Hot oil leakages and
pyrophoric iron
Indian Electricity Rules,
Explosives regulations, etc
Preventive maintenance and
proper lubrication
Flush the equipment likely to
contain pyrophoric iron with
 water before opening. Keep the
pyrophoric iron wet all the
time.

Lighting Bad weather such as Provide lighting arrestors and

thunderstorm and bursting earthing continuity
clouds

Ques 2. Which are the various fire extinguishing methods and media?
Ans. Considering the elements of Fire Triangle and Fire Tetrahedral the fire extinguishing principle is
based. The removal of any one of the elements of Fire Triangle or Fire Tetrahedral the Fire is extinguished.
Based on this principle, the fire Extinguishing methods are:
Cooling: Removing the heat is one of the most effective methods of fire extinction. Water due to having high
specific heat and latent heat and its cheap availability is the most suitable cooling agent. The fire will go out so
long as the heat generated by the fire is less than that which is absorbed by the water. But water is not an
appropriate extinguishing material to use on electrical fires and as well as on those caused by cooking oils/fast
or other flammable liquids.
Starving: While cooling removes heat/ignition element of the Fire Triangle/Tetrahedral, starving the blaze of
its fuel sources approaches extinction from a different angle. A ragging fire will burn itself out if it runs out of
flammable materials, such as a bonfire out in the open that isn’t in contact with any other wood or dry grass.
Similarly, a gas fire will immediately extinguish if the gas supply is cut off. So, in this method the removal of
fuel source will extinguish the fire.
Smothering: Another key component present in the chemical reaction that causes combustion is oxygen,
Oxygen supports combustion. So, removal of oxygen supply will cease the process of combustion and hence
the fire will be extinguished. For example, smothering a frying pan blaze with a fire blanket reduces the
oxygen to below 16% required to react, while covering a candle with a glass will snuff it out in a vacuum.
Smothering is a technique that is mostly applicable to solid fuel fires, although some materials may contain
enough oxygen within their own chemical makeup to keep the blaze burning. CO2 and foam can also be used
to form blanket over flames and thereby cut the supply of oxygen to reaction zone of fire.
Chemical Inhibition or Breaking Chain Reaction: As per the Fire tetrahedral the 4th element of a fire is
chain reaction. So, to extinguish a fire this chain reaction can also be inhibited. Breaking the chain reaction
ceases the possibility of the chemical reaction involved in a combustion to proceed further and hence the fire is
extinguished. This can achieved by using chemical inhibitors such as Dry Chemical Powders.
The 4 methods of fire extinguishment are based on principle of removal of any one of the elements of Fire
Tetrahedral. These methods are applied in different ways by using various extinguishing media. They are:
• Water
• Foam
• Dry chemicals
• Wet chemicals
• Dry powder
• Gaseous agent
• Halogenated agent
• Steam
• Sand

Water: Water is an efficient, plentiful and inexpensive extinguishing agent. Water absorbs 85 Cal/gram on
being heated from room temperature to boiling point. So, water readily absorbs heat and therefore reduces
the temperature of the fuel to below its ignition point and the fire stops burning. Water is an excellent
extinguishing agent for Class A fires. Many Class A fuels will absorb liquid water, which further lowers the
temperature of the fuels. This also prevents rekindling. Water is much less effective extinguishing agent for
other classes of fire. Applying water to hot cooking oil can cause splattering, which can spread the fire and
possibly endanger the operator of the fire extinguisher. Many burning flammable liquid will simply float on
top of water.

Foam: Foam used for firefighting consists of tiny air or gas bubbles, which can form a compact fluid layer
or blanket on the surface of flammable liquids and thus preventing combustion of the liquid surface.
Foam extinguishing agents are formulated for use on either Class A or Class B fires. Class A foam
extinguishers for ordinary combustible fires extinguish fires in the same way that water extinguisher
fires. The foam concentrate reduces the surface tension of the water, allowing for its better penetration
into the burning materials. Class B foam extinguishers discharge a foam solution that floats across the
surface of a burning liquid and prevents the fuel from vaporizing. This foam blanket forms a barrier
between the fuel and the oxygen, extinguishing the flames and preventing reignition. These agents are
not suitable for Class B fires that involve pressurized fuels or cooking oils. The various types of foam
available in market are:
(i) Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF)
(ii) Alcohol Resistant Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AR-AFFF)
(iii) Protein Foam
(iv) Fluoroprotein Foam
(v) Film Forming Fluoroprotein Foam (FFFP)
(vi) Synthetic Foam Concentrate
(vii) Class A Foam Concentrate
(viii) Wetting Agent

Dry Chemicals: Dry chemical fire extinguishers deliver a stream of very finely ground particles onto a fire.
Dry chemical work in two ways,
(i) The dry chemicals interrupt the chemical chain reaction that occur as part of
combustion process.
(ii) The tremendous surface area of the finely ground particles allows them to absorb large
quantities of heat.

Dry chemical extinguishing agents offer several advantages over water extinguishers,
i. They are effective on Class B (flammable liquids and gases ) fires.
ii. They can be used on Class C (energized electrical equipment) fires, because the
chemicals are nonconductive.
iii. They are not subject to freezing.

Five compounds are used as the primary dry chemical extinguishing agent,
1. Sodium bicarbonate – rated for Class B and C fires only.
2. Potassium bicarbonate- rated for Class B and C fires only.
 3. Urea based potassium bicarbonate rated for Class B and Class C fires only.
4. Potassium chloride- rated for Class B and C fires only.
5. Ammonium phosphate – rated for Class A, B and C fires.

Wet Chemicals: Wet chemical is new agent that extinguishing the fire by removing the heat of the fire
triangle and prevent reignition by creating a barrier between the oxygen and the fuel element. Wet chemical
fire extinguishers are the only type of extinguisher to qualify under the new Class K rating requirements. They
use wet extinguishing agents which are chemicals applied as water solutions. The wet chemical agents mainly
include aqu. Solution of potassium acetate, potassium carbonate and potassium citrate either singly or in
various combinations. The wet agents convert the fatty acids in cooking oils or fats to a soap or foam, a
process known as saponification. The main extinguishing action is by cooling caused by heat of evaporation.
When wet chemical agents are applied to burning vegetable oils, they create thick blanket of foam that
quickly smothers the fire and prevents it reigniting while the hot oil cools. The agents are discharged as a fine
spray, which reduces the risk of splattering. They are very effective at extinguishing cooking oil fires and clean
up afterward is much easier.

Dry Powder: Dry powder extinguishers are similar to dry chemicals except that they extinguish the fire by
separating the fuel from the oxygen element or by removing the heat element of the fire triangle. These are
chemical compounds used to extinguish fires involving combustible metals (Class D). These agents are stored
in fine granular or powdered form and are applied to smother the fire. They form a solid crust over the
burning metals, which both block out oxygen and absorbs heat. The most commonly used dry powder
extinguishing agent is formulated from finely ground sodium chloride (table salt) plus additives to help it flow
freely over fire. Another dry powder agent is produced from a mixture of finely granulated graphite powder
and phosphorous containing compounds. This agent cannot be expelled from extinguishers; instead, it is
produced in bulk form and applied by hand, using a scoop or a shovel. When applied to a metal fire, the
phosphorous compounds release gases that blanket the fire and cut off its supply of oxygen; the graphite
absorbs the heat from the fore, allowing the metal to cool below its ignition point. The metal fire pose special
problems to the fire fighting operations as water or foam cannot be used as fire extinguishing agent because
some metals react violently with water, even at room temperature. So Class D agents should be used and
must be applied carefully so that the molten metal does not splatter.

Gaseous Agents: Gaseous agent are mainly used in the enclosed area containing electronic systems such as
total flooding system in the control room of the industry etc.
Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide is a gas that is 1.5 times heavier than air. When CO2 is discharged on a fire, it
forms a dense cloud that displace the air surrounding the fuel. This effect interrupts the combustion process by
reducing the amount of oxygen that can reach the fuel. A blanket of CO2 over the surface of a liquid fuel can
also disrupt the fuel’s ability to vaporize.
Special gaseous agent
A special gaseous system uses a mixture CO2, argon and nitrogen. This gas mixture extinguishes
a fire by reducing the oxygen level below 15%, the point at which most combustibles will no
longer burn. Simultaneously the CO2 in the mixture stimulates the uptake of oxygen by the
human body, thereby protecting anyone who might be trapped in the fire area from the effect of
the lowered oxygen level. Ex: Argonite, Inergen, etc.
Halogenated Agents: Halogenated hydrocarbon as halons are a group of extinguishing agents, which are
produced from a family of liquefied gases, known as halogens that includes fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine
and astatine. They are released in such a way as to vapourize readily in a fire zone. They extinguish fire mainly
by interfering with the chemical reaction involved in the spreading of flame. They possess little cooling effect.
Halons can be effectively used in Class B and C fires especially in enclosed spaces. Halogenated extinguishing
agents are commonly called clean agent, because they have no residue and are ideally suitable for areas that
contain computers or sensitive electronic equipment’s. Per pound, they are approximately twice as effective at
extinguishing fires as is carbon dioxide. The halogenated agents are stored as liquids and are discharged under
relatively high pressure. They release a mist of vapour and liquid droplets that disrupts the molecular chain
reactions within the combustion process, thereby extinguish the fire. Ex: Halon 1301 (CF3Br-
bromotrifluoromethane [BTM]) and Halon 1211 (CF2BrCl-bromochloridofluoromethane [BCF])

Steam: Steam in large quantities may be used to extinguish a fire. In situations where it is readily available, it
can be used in fixed installations. Ships and industries having individual compartments are adapting steam to
fill the compartment under pressure for smothering.

Sand: Applicable in case of fire which does not spread to other combustible materials and able to access the
point of application of extinguishing agent. Some burning materials cannot be extinguished by the use of water
may be dealt with by means of dry earth or sand which excludes the air. Dry sand may also be used for dealing
with fires in letter boxes and for preventing burning liquids such as paints and oils from flowing down drains
or basement lights. Also for confining shallow layers of such liquids and permitting the use of foam or spray
branches. Do not use sand for extinguishing fires in machinery such as electric motors. Sand should be applied
with a spade or by hand, working progressively across the burning material – using a sweeping action such as
is used to grit a road.
Ques 3. What do you mean by a tank farm? What are the fire protection arrangements in tank farm?
Ans. A tank farm refers to an area or facility used exclusively for the storage of chemicals such as petroleum.
It includes all of the tanks and equipment of this area. Liquid petrochemicals are stored in a tank farm before
being sent to end consumers or retail facilities. Tank farms are also common when producing or handling acid
of varying concentrations and qualities. Tank farms may be affected by corrosion and fire, so proper corrosion
and fire protection is necessary. In the petroleum industry, a tank farm is also known as an oil depot,
installation or oil terminal.
Since these tank farms store highly flammable chemicals these need to be protected to prevent fire. They are
the high risk zones within any industry. Tank Farms in Petroleum and Petrochemical Plants within the country
are protected as per Oil Industry Safety Directorate (OISD) Standards and
Regulations. As per OISD standards and regulations the fire protection arrangements in a tank farm are as
follows:
• All tank farms shall be covered fully by fire water network.
• The fire water network should be laid in closed loops.
• The fire water system shall be designed for a minimum residual pressure of 7.0 kg/cm2g at the hydraulically
remotest point of application at the designed flow rate at that point.
• The fire water network shall be kept pressurized at minimum 7.0 kg/cm2g at all the time.
• Tanks should be separated by various dyke areas and each dyke areas should be supplied with 4 hydrants and
1 High-Volume Long-Range Monitor.
• Portable monitors/ Medium Expansion foam generator/ foam hose streams shall be considered for fighting
fires in dyke area, spills and oil separator.
• Hydrocarbon detectors shall installed near all potential leak source of class-A e.g. tank dykes tank manifolds,
pump house manifold be etc.
• Smoke/ Flame / Heat detectors with alarm and/or system to actuate relevant fire suppression system should
be installed in all LPG Spheres.
• Fire Water flow rate for tank farm shall be aggregate of the following:
▪ Water flow calculated for cooling a tank-on-fire at a rate of 3 lpm/m2 of tank shell area.
▪ Water flow calculated for all other tanks falling within a radius of (R+30) M from centre of the tank
on fire at a rate of 3 lpm/m2 of tank shell area.
▪ Water flow calculated for all other tanks falling outside a radius of (R+30) M from centre of the tank
on fire and situated in the same dyke area at a rate of 1 Ipm/m2 of tank shell area.
 ▪ Water flow required for applying foam into a single largest cone roof or floating roof tank (after the
roof has sunk) burning surface area of oil, by way of fixed foam system, where provided or by use of
water/foam monitors. (Refer section 6.8 for foam rates).
▪ Fire water flow rate for supplementary stream, shall be based on using 4 single hydrant outlets and 1
HVLR (1000GPM) simultaneously. Capacity of each hydrant outlet as 36 m3/hr and of each monitor
as 228 m3/hr shall be considered at a pressure of 7 kg/cm2g.

• Fire water flow rate for LPG sphere storage area shall be aggregate of the following: Water flow calculated
for cooling LPG sphere on fire at a rate of 10.2 Ipm/ m2 of sphere surface area. Water flow calculated for all
other spheres falling within a radius of (R+30) metre from centre of the sphere on fire at the rate of 10.2 lpm/
m2 of surface area. If the water rate as calculated above works out to be more than 2000 m 3/hr the layout of the
spheres should be reviewed. Water flow for supplementary stream shall be considered as 372 m 3/hr as
indicated under item
(i) The spheres should be laid in two separate groups with each group limited to a maximum of 6 vessels.
The groups shall preferably be separated by a distance of (R+30) metre

• Fixed Water Spray on storage Tanks

▪ Class ‘A’ Petroleum storage in above ground tanks shall have fixed water spray system, whether
floating roof or fixed roof.
▪ Class 'B' Petroleum storage tanks of following dimensions shall be provided with fixed water spray.
● Floating roof tanks of diameter larger than 30 M.
● Fixed roof tanks of diameter larger than 20 M.

Semi-fixed Foam system for Storage

• Semi-fixed Foam system shall be provided for the following tanks:
O Floating roof tanks storing Class 'A' and Class 'B' petroleum
products.
o Fixed roof tanks storing Class 'A' and class 'B' petroleum products.
o Fixed roof tanks storing class 'C' petroleum products, of diameter larger than 40 M.

• Automatic Actuated Rim Seal Protection System for External Floating roof tanks:
• Automatic actuated Rim Seal fire detection and extinguishing system shall be provided on all
existing as well as new external floating roof tanks storing Class A Petroleum products.
• The rim seal protection system shall be of linear hollow metallic tube type detectors with
foam based extinguishing media or equivalent system*, for existing, new installation as well
as for replacements of existing system when due. These detection systems shall be listed
and/or approved by any of the international agencies like UL, FM, VdS or LPC to ensure that
those systems are used which meet with highest standards of safety.
• The minimum requirement for design of the system is given in Annexure VII. This
shall be in addition to the water spray and semi-fixed foam system on all the floating
roof tanks storing class-A products.

• Automatic Water Spray for Pressurized storages including LPG / Hydrogen

 • LPG and hydrogen Pressure storage vessels shall be provided with automatic water spray
system.
• Automatic water spray system shall be provided in LPG bottling stations, LPG
loading/unloading gantries and LPG pump and compressor areas in all new refineries and for
existing refineries this conversion to automatic shall be done in phased manner.

FLOATING ROOF TANK PROTECTION USING FOAM

• Protection using Semi-Fixed Foam System: For floating roof tank, foam shall be poured at the foam
dam to blanket the roof’s rim seal. Features of foam system for floating roof tank protection shall be as
follows:
• System shall be designed to create foam blanket on the burning surface in a reasonably short
period.
• Foam shall be applied to the burning hazard continuously at a rate high enough to overcome
the destructive effects of radiant heat.
• Foam makers/foam pourers shall be located not more than 24 M apart on the shell perimeter
based on 600 mm foam dam height. The height of foam dam shall be at least 51 mm above
the top of metallic secondary seal.
• A minimum of two foam pourers shall be provided.

• FIXED ROOF TANK PROTECTION USING FOAM

• Foam conveying system shall have same features as of floating roof tank excepting that a
vapour seal chamber is required before the foam discharge outlet.
• Features of the foam system for fixed roof protection shall be as follows:

• The vapour seal chamber shall be provided with an effective and durable seal, fragile
under low pressure, to prevent entrance of vapour into the foam conveying piping
system.
• Where two or more vapour seal chambers are required these shall be equally
spaced at the periphery of the tank and each discharge outlet shall be sized to
deliver foam at approximately the same rate
Ques 4. Safety precautions to be considered in transportation of Bulk Petroleum Products.

Ans. The various precautions to be taken during transportation of Bulk Petroleum Products as per OISD-157
are given as:
For Road Transportation by Tank Truck:
• The cabin of the vehicle shall be of fully metal construction and its rear window, if provided, shall be covered
with wire reinforced glass.
• the cabin and engine shall be separated from the tank or the load, as the case may be, by a fire resisting shield
or screen which shall fully cover the tank or the load. There shall be a clear space of at least 15 cm. between
the back of the cabin and the tank.
• The exhaust shall be located wholly in front of the tank or the load, as the case may be, and shall have ample
clearance from fuel system and combustible materials and shall not be exposed to leakage or spillage of the
fuel or product or accumulation of grease or oil.
• The exhaust system shall be fitted with effective spark arrestor of a design approved by the Chief Controller
of Explosives and the same should be labelled in the spark arrestor.
• Fuel tank of the vehicle, if installed behind the cabin of the vehicle, shall be protected against blows by stout
steel guards and provided with a lock on the fuel tank cap.
• The voltage of the electric circuit shall not exceed 24 volts.
• Electrical wiring shall be provided with suitable over current protection in the form of automatic circuit
breakers and installed so as to be protected from physical damage and contact with possible product spill either
by location or by being encased in metal conduit or other protective covering.
• The Generator, battery, switches and circuit breakers shall be located in the cabin of the vehicle or in the
engine compartment and the battery shall be in an easily accessible position with an approved type heavy duty
master switch/cut off switch of not less than 300 amps rating close by to cut-off the battery.
• The vehicle should have a bonding lug and a bonding cable and the tank/vessel shall be electrically
continuous with the chassis.
• A portable ISI marked 10 kg DCP extinguisher shall be provided in an easily accessible position away from
the discharge faucets on every vehicle. One portable 1 kg CO2 /DCP/Halon/Approved equivalent fire
extinguisher shall be kept in the cabin of the vehicle. All extinguishers must have marking indicating the next
due date for pressure testing.
• The rear of the vessel shall be protected by a robust steel bumper and this bumper shall be:
i) Attached so that collision stresses will be transmitted to the frame work of the vehicle or in the case of an
articulated vehicle, to the frame work carrying the wheels of the tank.
ii) Situated at least 15 cm to the rear of the rear most part of the tank.
iii) Extended on each side of the vessel to at least cover the maximum width of the tank.
• The Tank Truck should have fitness certificate of the tanker issued by appropriate authority.
• The Driver should have appropriate license and Transport Emergency (TREM) card with him and he
should be well trained to use the TREM card in case of any emergency.
• Driver of the vehicle should carry TREM card and route-map with detail locations and contact agencies in
case of an emergency.
• All the Tank trucks should have Hazchem code marked on the front, side and back of the Truck. Hazchem
Code contains information such as UN No. of Petroleum Product being carried, the firefighting method to
be adopted to fight the fire involving the product, etc.
SAFETY RECOMMENDATIONS AT UNLOADING POINT
• In order to prevent accidental movement, the handbrake and wheel chocks shall be firmly on and the
engine shall be stopped.
• When discharge is in progress, the driver shall remain at his vehicle in such a position as to be able to
stop the discharge immediately in an emergency.
• A visual check shall be made of the surroundings, the tank and connections for unusual or dangerous
situations.
• Warning notices shall be displayed and suitable fire appliances shall be available for instant use.
• Bonding leads shall be connected before making the hose connections and shall remain connected till
the hoses have been removed. Perfect bonding contact should be ensured.
• When operations are commenced, a further examination for leakage at connections shall be carried
out.
• No person shall smoke while on or attending such a vehicle.
• No article or substance capable of causing fire or explosion shall be carried on such a vehicle.
•
•
For Transportation by Rail:
• All tank wagons used for the conveyance of petroleum products and LPG shall be of a design
approved by RDSO.
• Tank Wagons for Petroleum Class A Vapour space of not less than 4% of the capacity of tank wagon
shall be kept.
• Tank wagons for Petroleum Class B & Class C Vapour space shall be a minimum of 2.5%. Provision
of fill pipe or a contraption in lieu of fill pipe to avoid splash loading if unloading arm/hose is not extending
fully.
• Tank Wagons for Asphalt and LSHS Minimum of 2.5% air space shall be left and also loading limited
to specified gross weight on the wagon.
• Tank wagons for petroleum class A These wagons are marked as “TP” as per Railway Code, except
Hexane which is loaded in TH tank wagon. • Each tank wagon is provided with an effective pressure valve as
per approved design.
• All openings of fill pipe and dip pipe are provided with air tight caps.
• A master valve set at the bottom inside the body with control from the top of tank wagon.
•
• The top fittings are protected by a dome cover. • The master valve control is from top of the tank.
• All other fittings such as liquid valves, vapour valves, magnetic gauging device, thermowell, sample
valve and safety valves, pressure gauges are provided on top of the pressure vessel in a protective housing
known as ‘dome’ with a cover.
• After repair or maintenance tank wagons are required to be purged with LPG/inert gases.
•
• During degassing operation, all loading/unloading operations on that spur shall be stopped. Earthing to
be ensured even on the degassing bay before commencing the degassing.
• Sampling valve should be opened and vapours allowed to escape fully.
• The method adopted to make the barrel free from LPG is to fill the barrel completely with water and
allow to overflow for an hour. Pump out the water after 24 hours
• A safety instruction checklist should be exhibited at the degassing station containing all relevant
points in the degassing procedure.
• Degassing operation should be discontinued at the approach of thunder storm and all valves
manhole covers and hoses disconnected to make the wagon ready for removal.
• Disposal of sludge from the LPG wagons should be transported away from the siding in wet condition
and disposed of in safe manner.