Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 10 (2017) 315–324

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Case Studies in Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/csite

Flame spread and smoke temperature of full-scale fire test of car

T
fire
⁎
Dayan Li, Guoqing Zhu , Hui Zhu, Zhichao Yu, Yunji Gao, Xiaohui Jiang
School of Safety Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221116, PR China

AR TI CLE I NF O AB S T R A CT

Keywords: Full-scale experiments using two 4-door sedan passenger cars, placed side by side in the reverse
Car fires direction, were carried out to establish the burning behavior and describe the spread of fire to
Fire spread adjacent car. The temperature was measured by thermocouples. Radiant heat flux was measured
Temperature with heat flux gauge placed at a distance of 5 m, at the right side of the car. Four cameras were
placed inside the car and in the fire test room recording burning behavior during the test. Engine
compartment was ignited by a sponge dipped with little gasoline. During the experiment, the
ignition was initiated in the engine compartment of car I and approximately 20 min were enough
time for fire to spread into the second car. Fully-developed burning of two cars occurred at
29 min. It was observed that the flame spread through car roof faster than through the bottom of
car compartment. The fire followed a slow rate spread from engine compartment to car cab. The
temperature inside the car peaked at the point of 900 °C. The peak smoke temperatures at every
location were measured at the range of 89–285 °C. The smoke production at the time of 11 min to
15 min 50 s of fire was 1.76 m3/s, which was obtained through indirect calculation method.

1. Introduction

With the rapid development of economy, there has been an increase of the number of fires in car parks, since the number of cars
grows rapidly. More than half of these are car fires. The consequences include great human suffering and property loss; thus, car fire
poses a significant threat to public safety. It is difficult to extinguish flames by common fire extinguishers once vehicle fire occurs due
to quick fire spread, since cars include large quantities of combustible materials, such as fuel, plastic parts, interior lining and seats.
Thus, the study on car fire accidents has become one of the most essential research directions of fire safety science.
According to past researches, many experiments were carried out under various conditions and innovative achievements were
accomplished. Johan Mangs et al. [1,2], studied a realistic scenario of a car fire in an open car park, by using ordinary medium-size
passenger cars. Gas temperatures were calculated using rate of heat release for the model plumes, and compared to experimental
temperatures. The calculated and measured temperatures were found to be in good accordance. Katsuhiro Okamoto et al. [3–7],
carried out four full-scale fire experiments, by using 4-door sedan passenger cars ignited in different parts, including door glazing in
various states (open or closed) to obtain the temperature and HRR curves. The temperature inside the passenger compartment peaked
at about 1000 °C. The measured HRR curves were characterized, and the combustion of the sedan passenger cars could be described
by simple mathe-matical models. Four full-scale fire experiments using minivan passenger cars were carried out to establish the
burning behavior of these kinds of cars. The behavior of the fire was significantly affected by the breaking of car glazing [8]. The
results of a series of sequential and parallel simulations of car fires performed by Peter Weisenpacher et al. [9] were compared to the

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zgq119xz@cumt.edu.cn (G. Zhu).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2017.08.001
Received 20 April 2017; Received in revised form 2 August 2017; Accepted 3 August 2017
Available online 07 August 2017
2214-157X/ © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
D. Li et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 10 (2017) 315–324

Fig. 1. Fire test room.

results of the full-scale fire experiment conducted in Povazsky Chlmec (Slovakia) in 2009. Simulation reliability was validated. Cheng
Yuanping et al. [10] performed experiments on 4-door sedan passenger cars and the results showed that about 15 min after the car
catching fire is the best chance for fire-fighting and human evacuation. In several other experiments, the car fire and its impact on car
park structures were investigated by adopting different numerical models [11–14]. Fire service intervention and operational issues of
smoke and heat control (SHC) systems were reported in previous researches [15–18] However, previous studies did not investigate a)
the situation where cars ranged tightly in sealed car park and b) the smoke temperature during the experiment.
In this study, full-scale experiments were carried out to establish the burning behavior of sedan passenger cars, which were placed
side by side in the reverse direction. In addition, authors attempted to describe the spread of fire to adjacent cars, while monitoring
fire temperature with combustion time of cars in a test room. This includes studies of burning progress with particular focus on: a) the
flame spread behavior in engine compartment and car cab, b) temperature evolution in the burning car, c) smoke temperature and d)
smoke production rate.

2. Test facility

In this section, initially the layout and the test facility of the full-scale experiments are introduced. The experiments were carried
out in a fire test room of 12.87 m width, 12 m height and 40 m length, as shown in Fig. 1. To ensure the ventilation conditions of test
room, the windows of the first floor on each side of test room were open (as illustrated in Fig. 1), while the door was closed. Window
1 and window 4 are 1.7 m high and 2 m long, while window 2 and window 3 are 1.7 m high and 2.3 m long. The test room can
provide a regular flow field to prevent external disturbances.

2.1. Description of the cars

The experiments layout is illustrated in Fig. 2. Authors used 4-door sedan passenger cars of the same model in all fire experiments.
The cars were all manufactured in 2008 and specifications are presented in Table 1. The combustion characteristics parameters of the
main combustibles, such as engine cover, seats, plastic parts and tires, including ignition point and oxygen index are given in Table 2.
Polyurethane soft foam material is the most easily ignited with the lowest ignition point, and the oxygen index is 17%, which make it
more danger in fire. Automotive engine and ancillary parts were still operational during the experiment. Two cars were placed side by
side in the reverse direction in the middle of the room. The fire was allowed to burn for approximately 35 min until it was put out by
firefighters. The distance between the two cars was 0.8 m. Limited quantity of gasoline (about 100 mL) was left in the fuel tank in
consideration of the experiment safety. In order to ensure the ventilation conditions inside the car, the window near co-driver's seat
was left open (10 cm gap) during the entire process of cars combustion.

2.2. Instrumentation

Laboratory facilities used to obtain detailed experimental data as illustrated in Fig. 2. K-type, 1.5 mm diameter thermocouples
including mineral insulation and metal sheath, were installed inside and outside the car to measure gas temperature; the mea-
surement range is 0–1200 °C. During the fire test, three thermocouples were fixed in engine compartment along a straight line
(T1–T3), on the tire (T4, T5), on the lower parts between front seats (T6, T8, 35 cm from the ground) and on the driver's seat back
(T7, 20 cm under the roof) in car I. A thermocouple (T9) was installed in the top of the left rear tire in car II. Two thermocouple trees
were also installed right above fire and 10 m from the car, along the wall in interval of 1 m. They were arranged 35 cm from the
ground, marked as T10–T23. Additionally, two thermocouples were at right angles and they were located along the ceiling 8.5 m
from the ground marked from T24 to T34.
In all of the tests, radiant heat flux was measured by using a heat flux gauge placed at a distance of 5 m away, on the right side of
the car and 0.75 m from the ground. The measurement range was 0–120 kW/m2 and the accuracy was ± 3%. Four cameras marked
as C1–C4 were placed inside the car and in the fire test room to record burning behavior during the test. Fig. 2 illustrates the location
of all cameras. C1–C3 were located in the test room to observe the flame propagation of the entire cars, while C4 was installed inside

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Fig. 2. Experiments layout.

Table 1
Specification of tested cars.

Marque Size (length, width, height) [mm] Engine displacement [L] Fuel Weight [kg] Typical combustible materials

VW 4487 × 1706 × 1470 1.6 Gasoline 1360 Engine cover, seats, plastic parts and tires

Table 2
The combustion characteristics parameters of the typical combustible materials.

Combustible materials Main compositive materials Ignition point [°C] Oxygen index [%]

Engine cover Polypropylene 211 19

Seats Polyurethane foam 205 17
Console shell Polyvinyl chloride 238 20
Tires Rubber 289 38

the car cab to observe the fire spread from the engine compartment to the cab.

2.3. Ignition

The engine compartment space is small with high temperature and combustibles such as gasoline. Thus, it has become one of the
most common spots for car fire accidents. Car-crash, cooling and electrical system failures contribute to car fire. Therefore, car fire
caused by local engine compartment fire was the basic case in car fire experiment. A sponge dipped with little gasoline ignited car

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Table 3
Burning process of car fire.

Time Line (min:s) Events

0:00 Car I Ignition at engine compartment

Flame emerged from the cracks
9:24–10:10 Air leaked from the right rear tire
14:20 Left front tire began burning
19:00 Fire spread into car Cab
19:28 The flame reached the roof
20.00 Left rear glazing was blown out
20:10 Car II Right rear tire burst and burn;
Fire spread to the second car
23:42 Car I The passenger compartment was enveloped in flame
25:50 Left rear tire began burning
25:52 Car II Rear passenger compartment started burning
26:23 Front passenger compartment started burning
29:00 Car I, Car II Fully-developed burning of two cars occurred
35:00 Car I, Car II The fire was put out by firemen

engine compartment to simulate a real case scenario, in which engine compartment fire was caused by circuit aging. Considering the
experiment safety, gasoline was drawn off from the fuel tank and the fire was put out by firefighters when the fully developed burning
occurred.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Burning progress

The evolution of burning experiment is described in Table 3. Fig. 3 illustrates photos captured by the camera placed outside the
car. Following the ignition at the engine compartment of car I, flame emerged from the cracks due to a small amount of gasoline
spilled on the front right engine. After approximately 2 min 30 s, the fire intensified locally at the engine compartment, while

Fig. 3. Burning process of car fire recorded by cameras.

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Fig. 4. Flame spread behavior in engine compartment.

quantity of black smoke emitted from the car's hood. At the time of 9 min 28 s to 10 min 10 s air leaked from the right rear tire, which
caused the front of the car tilted forward. At the time of 14 min 20 s, the left front tire started burning after it reached its ignition
temperature and then the fire spread into the cab. The flames passing through the front windshield glass reached at the roof area at
18 min 25 s. It was observed that the flame spread through car roof faster compared to the bottom of car compartment. The smoke
accumulated in the top of the test room and slowly covered terrain area, preventing experiment observation. At 20 min, rear left
window was shattered because of the glass temperature increase and the smoke came out the window.
The right rear tire of the car II burst and burned because of thermal radiation of the fire at 20 min 10 s. Hence, it took about
20 min to expand the fire to the second car. The passenger compartment of car I was enveloped in flames at 23 min 42 s after ignition.
Flame height was measured approximately 4 m, as observed from the video. The fire expanded to rear passenger compartment of car
II at 25 min 52 s. At the same time, the left rear tire of car I started burning and the rear fire extended rapidly. Complete development
of burning of the two cars occurred at 29 min following the fire ignition and the fire was allowed to burn for approximately 35 min
until it was put out by firefighters. Almost all interior combustibles of cars, such as dashboard, interior lining and seats were
consumed.
Authors compared results described in experiment to that in the experiment A, performed by Katsuhiro Okamoto [3], including
identical windows states but different points of origin. In Katsuhiro Okamoto's research, the fire was ignited at the rear right
splashguard and the rate of flame spread was slower compared to this study. The complete developed burning of the car occurred16
min later compared to the Katsuhiro Okamoto’ experiment A.

3.2. Flame spread behavior in engine compartment and car cab

Photos captured from camera 3 are illustrated in Fig. 4 and illustrate the flame spread behavior in engine compartment. After fire
ignition at engine compartment of car I, quantity of black smoke poured out from the car's hood. At the same time, the flame emerged
from the cracks of right hood. Car's paint above the ignition source became darker and started burning at 3 min, which further
accelerated the burning process. Plastic components at the bumper and the right headlight began burning at 5 min and the flame
sprawled in all directions. The flame shot out from the car's hood in all directions and the burning of all plastic components could be

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Fig. 5. Flame spread behavior in car cab.

observed from the front of car. At the time of 13 min, the car's hood was entirely dark, since the entire combustible of engine
compartments has been burned. Engine compartment was enveloped in flame after 15 min of experimental procedure and in the next
step, the fire would expand to car cab. It should be noted that after engine compartment ignition, fire plumes increased and shifted
along the lower surface of car's hood after impinging it. Therefore, ceiling jet occurred in the car's hood.
Photos from camera 1 and camera 4 fixed on the driver's seat in Fig. 5 illustrates the progress of flames spread from engine
compartment to car cab. To ensure the ventilation conditions of the car, the window near co-driver's seat was open in the whole
process of cars combustion. At that point (1 min after ignition) smoke came through the air-conditioning vents. The smoke moved
downward and accumulated in large amounts at the bottom of car cab at 3 min. Three minutes later, the car cab had already been
filled with smoke and the burning of car's hood was observed through the recording of camera 4. Large quantities of smoke produced
by the burning obscured vision. Large smoke pouring out with flames from the window could be observed from the picture captured
by camera 1 at the time of 20 min and then a flashover occurred in car's cab. At 11 min after ignition the camera 4 fixed on the
driver's seat was destroyed by fire and the video recording interrupted.

3.3. Temperature

3.3.1. Temperature in the burning cars

The temperature evolution in the burning car is illustrated in Fig. 6. The peak temperatures at every location were measured at the
range of 580 °C to 900 °C. Thermocouples 1–3 were located in engine compartment along a straight line in car I. The temperature of
the engine compartment is presented in Fig. 6(a). The temperature trend at the thermocouple 1 was discontinuous and fluctuations
occurred during the first 4 min of the fire, due the flame emerging from the cracks. Thermocouple 2 was fixed near the ignition point
and the temperature increased rapidly after ignition. The peak value of temperature at the thermocouple 2 was 830 °C, which was
measured 3 min and 40 s after the ignition. This phenomenon was temporarily caused due to the burning of sponge dipped with little
gasoline. The temperature at thermocouple 3 reached 800 °C at the time of 20 min 50 s and then the temperature remained constant
until the end of the experiment. The temperature at the thermocouple 3 increased slowly and this can be explained by the slow flame
propagation speed in the narrow space of the engine compartment. The combustion in the passenger compartment subsided because
of the oxygen shortage and the temperature at the thermocouple 1–3 continued decreasing after 25 min approximately.
The temperature on the tire of two cars is illustrated in Fig. 6(b). Thermocouple 4 was fixed on the right front tire of car I. The
temperature presented small fluctuations in the first 8 min 20 s of the experiment. At 8 min 20 s, the temperature increased rapidly,
due to the pyrolysis reaction occurred in car tire with the action of thermal radiation. Immediately after the right front tire started
burning and the temperature reached a pick of 760 °C at 19 min. The effect of thermal radiation on the left front tire of car II also
produced a gradual increase in temperature at the thermocouple 9 approximately at 10 min. At 20 min 10 s, the tire of car I started
burning since ignition temperature occurred and the fire spread to the second car.
Thermocouples 6–8 were located in passenger compartment in car I. The temperature in passenger compartment is illustrated in
Fig. 6(c). Small variations occurred until the 20 first min of the experiment and it was demonstrated that the fire expanded from
engine compartment to car cab at a slow rate. That occurred since dashboard, operation panel and other separator set car cab apart
from engine compartment. The temperature on the middle of the seat started rising 19 min after ignition and few seconds later the left
rear glass broke down, as illustrated in Fig. 6(c-T6, T7). The temperature increased immediately and reached a pick of 900 °C within
three minutes (Fig. 6(c-T7)). A large flame was developed around this part. The temperature in the thermocouple 8 started to rise at
25 min when the fire spread to the rear passenger compartment.
The radiant heat flux was measured by heat flux gauge placed at right side of the car at a distance of 5 m (Fig. 6(d)). It was

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Fig. 6. Temperature and radiant heat flux curves measured in the car fire experiment.

approximately unchanged until the moment the fire spread to car cab at 20 min after ignition. This can be explained since the burning
happened mainly in engine compartment and the heat flux gauge could hardly measure thermal radiation at this section of the
experiment. As the fire spread throughout the car, the radiant heat flux increased and reached a maximum of 2.5 kW/m2, at 1800 s.
The moment that the maximum radiant heat flux was measured corresponds approximately to fully developed fire observed in
experiment.
The peak value of temperature in this experiment was measured at 900 °C and was slightly lower than that measured by Peter
Weisenpacher et al. [9]. Simultaneously, the results are in a satisfying agreement with the data reported by Cheng Yuanping et al.
[10]. The minor discrepancy may occur due to the specific models of cars or particular environmental conditions.

3.3.2. Smoke temperature

Smoke temperature distribution is illustrated in Fig. 7. Thermocouples 10–16 were fixed exactly above fire area. The trend for
temperature change was up from the bottom up at first, and then the temperature raced up as the fire spread to the middle of car I at
21 min 40 s after ignited. However, the trend of temperature presents to be downward from the bottom up, as illustrated in Fig. 7(a).
The cause could be that the temperature mainly influenced by fire plumes thermal convection and conduction within a short time
after ignition. The origin point of the fire was at engine compartment, while thermocouples 10–16 were fixed exactly above the
middle part of car. Upper thermocouple was relatively close to fire plumes and the temperature is higher compared to that measured
at the lower thermocouple as illustrated in Fig. 8. In Fig. 7(a), a trend reversal was pronounced at the junction of temperatures. As

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Fig. 7. Smoke temperature distribution.

Fig. 8. The trend of temperature at T10–T16.

flames reached thermocouple installation point, the influence of flame on them is more intense compared to smoke. Therefore, the
trend of temperature presented downward from the bottom up. The fluctuation range of the temperature of thermocouples 10 and 11
was larger compared to thermocouples 12–16. Stratification was pronounced between thermocouples 11 and 12. Hence, authors
assumed that thermocouples 10 and 11 essentially measured the flame temperature and the flame height was approximately 4 m.
The smoke temperature 10 m away from the car was measured through thermocouples 17–23. Fig. 7(b) illustrates a gradually
increasing tendency from the bottom up. The reason could be that the smoke plumes produced after ignition and increased by means
of buoyancy effect and spread out radially along ceiling after impinging it. This formed a ceiling jet. When the ceiling jet was blocked

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Fig. 9. Smoke filling in ventilation skylight.

by wall surface, smoke layer continued to drop. Hence, the temperature increased with the height increase. The greater the height is,
the faster the temperature increase.
According to Fig. 7(b, c, d), it is observed that all curves experienced a steady stage between 11 min to 15 min and 50 s in each
graph. During this period, the temperature remained approximately constant. This was caused by smoke filling in sealed ventilation
skylight and smoke layer did not drop, as illustrated in Fig. 9. The combination of thermal convection and thermal conduction of
smoke caused constant temperature of thermocouples 17–34. It can be assumed that the moment filling the ventilation skylight with
smoke equals approximately 290 s (11 min to 15 min 50 s). Accordingly, smoke production rate between 11 min to 15 min 50 s can
be directly calculated, according to this corollary. The ventilation skylight was 6.8 m wide, 3 m high and 25 m long and the smoke
production rate R is:
V
R=
t (1)
where the V equals
V = 6.8 × 3 × 25 = 510m3
and t is the filling time of the ventilation skylight. The smoke production rate in Eq. (1) is expressed in units of m3/s. Ordinary, smoke
production is measured by a light source and a detector installed in the exhaust duct [1]. Nevertheless, in this study, it was obtained
through an indirect calculation method. However, this method was effective only at particular circumstances of this experiment. The
smoke production rate was 1.76 m3/s. The peak smoke temperatures were measured at a range of 89–285 °C, which was based on the
premise that thermocouples 10 and 11 essentially measured the flame temperature.

4. Conclusions

This paper described the development of a fire in 4-door sedan passenger cars placed side by side in the reverse direction from
ignition to full car engulfment based on the measured temperatures, radiant heat flux and photo images. Smoke production rate was
calculated indirectly at 11 min to 15 min 50 s into the fire, during the developing process. The flame spread from engine com-
partment to the car cab through the air-conditioning vents. It took almost 20 min for the flame to be expanded at the second car and
fully-developed burning of two cars occurred at the 29 min. Dash board and operation panel act as separators, thus caused the fire
spread at a slow rate from engine compartment to car cab. It was pronounced that the flame spread through car roof faster than
through the bottom of car compartment. The temperature inside the car reached a peak at 900 °C. The peak smoke temperatures at
every location were measured at a range of 89–285 °C. The smoke production rate at 11 min to 15 min 50 s into the fire during the
developing process was 1.76 m3/s.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province (BK20160270), National Key Research, Development
Plan (2016YFC0802907), the Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions (PAPD) and
Postgraduate Research and Innovation Plan Project in Jiangsu Province (KYLX16_0575).

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