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Lab Partner(s)

E X P E R I M E N T 1 6

The Thermal Coefficient

of Linear Expansion
Advance Study Assignment

Read the experiment and answer the following questions.

1. What is the cause of thermal expansion on the molecular level?

2. Distinguish between linear expansion and isotropic expansion.

3. How is the thermal coefficient of linear expansion determined experimentally?

4. What are the units of the thermal coefficient of linear expansion?

(continued)

249
E X P E R I M E N T 1 6 Advance Study Assignment

5. What is meant by the fractional change in length?

250
 E X P E R I M E N T 1 6

The Thermal Coefficient

of Linear Expansion
INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES
With few exceptions, solids increase in size or dimensions
as the temperature increases. Although this effect is rela-
tively small, it is very important in applications involving
materials that undergo heating and cooling. Unless these
changes are taken into account, material and structural
damage can result; for example, a piston may become too
tight in its cylinder, a rivet could loosen, or a bridge girder
could produce damaging stress.
The expansion properties of a material depend on its
internal makeup and structure. Macroscopically, the ther-
mal expansion is expressed in terms of temperature coef-
ficients of expansion, which are experimental quantities
that represent the change in the dimensions of a material
per degree of temperature change. In this experiment, the
thermal expansion of some metals will be investigated
and their temperature coefficients of linear expansion
determined.
After performing this experiment and analyzing the data,
you should be able to:
1. Tell how the thermal coefficient of linear expansion
describes such expansion.
2. Explain how the thermal coefficient of linear expan-
sion is measured, and give an order of magnitude of
its values for metals.
3. Describe and give examples of how thermal expan-
sion considerations are important in applications of
materials.

EQUIPMENT NEEDED • Beaker

• Meter stick
• Linear expansion apparatus and accessories
• Thermometer (0 °C to 110 °C)
• Steam generator and stand
• Two or three kinds of metal rods (for example, iron
• Bunsen burner and striker or electric hot plate
and aluminum)
• Rubber tubing

THEORY small temperature changes, linear expansion is approxi-

mately proportional to DT, or the change in temperature,
Changes in the dimensions and volumes of materials are
T 2To (● Fig. 16.2). The fractional change in length is
common effects. The thermal expansion of gases is very
XL 2 LoC/Lo or DL/Lo, where Lo is the original length of the
obvious and is generally described by gas laws. But the
solid at the initial temperature. This ratio is related to the
thermal expansion of liquids and solids is no less impor-
change in temperature by
tant. For example, such expansions are used to measure
temperature in liquid-in-glass thermometers and bimetallic
(oven) thermometers. DL
In general for solids, a temperature increase leads to the 5 aDT or DL 5 aLo DT (16.1)
Lo
thermal expansion of an object as a whole. This expansion
results from a change in the average distance separating
the atoms (or molecules) of a substance. The atoms are
where DL 5 L 2 Lo and DT 5 T 2 To and a is the thermal
held together by bonding forces, which can be represented
coefficient of linear expansion, with units of inverse
simplistically as springs in a simple model of a solid
temperature—that is, 1/°C. Note that with a temperature
(● Fig. 16.1). The atoms vibrate back and forth; and with
decrease and a contraction, DL would be negative, or a
increased temperature (more internal energy), they become
negative expansion.
increasingly active and vibrate over greater distances. With
As Eq. 16.1 shows, a is the fractional change in length
wider vibrations in all dimensions, the solid expands as a
per degree temperature change, DL/L o.* This thermal
whole. This may be different in different directions; however,
if the expansion is the same in all directions, it is referred *To help understand what is meant by fractional change, consider a
to as isotopic expansion. money analogy. If you have $1.00 in the bank and get 5¢ interest, then
The change in one dimension (length, width, or the fractional change (increase) in your money is
thickness) of a solid is called linear expansion. For D$/$o 5 5 cents/100 cents 5 1/20 5 0.050 Xor 5.0%C.

251
252 EXPERIMENT 16 / The Thermal Coefficient of Linear Expansion

Heat

(a) (b)
Figure 16.1 A springy solid. (a) The elastic nature of interatomic forces is indicated by simplistically representing them
as springs, which, like the forces, resist deformation. (b) Heat causes the molecules to vibrate with greater amplitudes in the
lattice, thereby increasing the volume of the solid (right). The arrows represent the molecular bonds, and the drawing is obvi-
ously not to scale. (Shipman, Wilson, and Todd, An Introduction to Physical Science, Twelfth Edition. Copyright © 2008 by
Houghton Mifflin Company. Reprinted with permission. From Wilson/Buffa, College Physics, Sixth Edition. Copyright ©
2007. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education.)

coefficient of expansion may vary slightly for different

temperature ranges, but this variation is usually negli- A 5 L2
gible for common applications, and a is considered to be
5 L2o 1 1 1 aDT 2 2
constant.
By Eq. 16.1, a is defined in terms of experimentally 5 Ao 1 1 1 2aDT 1 a2DT2 2
measurable quantities:

DL where Ao 5 L2o . Since typical a’s are of the order of 1026 / °C,
a5 (16.2)
the a2 term may be dropped with negligible error, and to a
Lo DT
good approximation,
Hence, by measuring the initial length Lo of an object (for
example, a metal rod) at an initial temperature To and the
change in its length DL for a corresponding temperature A 5 Ao 1 1 1 2aDT 2 (16.4)
change DT, a can be computed.
This development may be extended to two dimen-
sions. The linear expansion expression [Eq. 16.1] may be Comparing this expression with Eq. 16.3, the thermal
written coefficient of area expansion is seen to be approximately
twice the coefficient of linear expansion (that is, 2a).
L 5 Lo 1 1 1 aDT 2 (16.3) A similar development can be carried out for the coef-
ficient of volume expansion, which is approximately equal
and for an isotropic material, its area is A 5 L 3 L, or to 3a.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. A typical arrangement for determining thermal coef-
ficients of linear expansion is shown in ● Fig. 16.3.
The apparatus consists of a steam jacket with a mi-
crometer attachment for measuring DL of a metal
rod. A thermometer in the steam jacket measures the
temperature of the rod. Steam is supplied to the jacket
by a steam generator, and a beaker is used to catch the
condensate.

Figure 16.2 Linear thermal expansion. At the initial tem-
perature To, the length of the rod is Lo. At some higher
temperature T, the rod has expanded to a length L, and
the change in length is DL 5 L 2 Lo for the temperature
change DT.
2. Before assembling the apparatus, measure the lengths
Lo of the metal rods with a meter stick to the nearest
0.1 mm, and record these lengths in the data table. Avoid
handling the rods with your bare hands in order not to
raise their temperature. Use a paper towel or cloth.
 EXPERIMENT 16
(a)
Figure 16.3 Linear thermal expansion apparatus. (a) The heat of steam admitted to the steam jacket causes a metal rod to
expand. Rods of different metals may be used. (b) The expansion is measured with a dial indicator. (Photos Courtesy of
Sargent-Welch.)
3. Assemble the apparatus, placing one of the rods in the
steam jacket. Initially, have one end of the rod placed
firmly against the fixed end screw and the other end
not touching the micrometer screw.
Carefully turn the micrometer screw until it just
makes contact with the rod. Avoid mechanical backlash
(and electrical spark-gap ionization, see below) by al-
ways turning the screw toward the rod just before read-
ing. Do not force the screw. Record the micrometer
setting. Do this three times and take the average as the
initial setting. As soon as the initial micrometer reading
is taken, read and record the initial temperature To.
(The linear expansion apparatus may be equipped
with an electrical circuit that uses a bell, light, or
voltmeter to indicate when contact is made. The
averaging process is unnecessary in this case.)
4. Turn the micrometer screw back from the end of
the rod several millimeters to allow for the thermal
expansion of the rod with increasing temperature.
With the steam generator about one-half full, turn on
the hot plate (or light the Bunsen burner) and boil the
/ The Thermal Coefficient of Linear Expansion 253
(b)
water so that steam passes through the jacket. The
thermometer in the steam jacket should just touch the
metal rod.
Allow steam to pass through the jacket until the
thermometer reading stabilizes (several minutes).
When equilibrium has been reached, record the ther-
mometer reading. Then carefully advance the mi-
crometer screw until it touches the end of the rod, and
record the micrometer setting. Do this three times,
and take the average of the micrometer readings un-
less contact is indicated by electrical circuit. Turn off
the heat source.
5. Repeat Procedures 3 and 4 for the other metal rods.
Caution: Be careful not to burn yourself with the
condensed hot water in the steam jacket or the hot rod
when you remove it. Take proper precautions.
6. Compute DL and DT, and find the coefficient of linear
expansion for each metal. Compare these a’s with the
accepted values given in Appendix A, Table A3, by
computing the percent errors.