III.

Analysis
Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in length, area, and/or
volume in response to a change in temperature through heat transfer. When an
object is heated the molecules are vibrating and they are pushed in all direction
which causes expansion of an object. This property is very important specially in the
infrastructures, such as bridges (which are built with metal expansion).
However, in this experiment, the concept of linear expansion is the focus and
was discussed using two different metals such as copper and aluminum. By
definition, linear expansion usually takes an asymmetric form, rather than a
symmetric form as a function of particle-particle distance. This is why matters
expands and contracts as temperature changes. There are three phases of matter
(solid, liquid, and gas) undergo a change in dimension when experiencing shift of
temperature. With the exception of water which expands anomalously at a
temperature between 0 and 4oC, materials in general expand when the temperature
increases and contract when the temperature decreases. The change in dimension
could be one dimensional called the linear expansion.
In a solid or liquid, there is a dynamic balance between the cohesive forces
holding the atoms or molecules together and the conditions created by temperature;
higher temperatures imply greater distance between atoms. Different materials have
different bonding forces and therefore different expansion coefficients.
In terms of the materials associated with the linear expansion, it states that as
the temperature of a material increases, it begins to expand. For instance, a metal rod
or beam will increase its length by an amount ∆L (change in length). The value of
∆L depends on the original length at the original temperature, the temperature to
which it is heated and the coefficient of linear expansion. describes how the size of
an object changes with a change in temperature. Specifically, it measures the
fractional change in size per degree change in temperature at a constant pressure.
Several types of coefficients have been developed: volumetric, area, and linear. The
choice of coefficient varies depending on the particular application and which
dimensions are considered important. For solids, one might only be concerned with
the change along a length, or over some area.
As for the experiment’s objective, it aims to measure and verify the coefficient
of linear expansion for copper and aluminum. When heat is added to most materials,
the average amplitude of the atoms' vibration within the material increases. This, in
turn, increases the separation between the atoms causing the material to expand.
As for the theory of linear expansion means change in one dimension (length) as
opposed to change in volume (volumetric expansion). The change in length per unit
length per degree rise in temperature is called the coefficient of linear expansion. It
is defined by:
1 𝑑𝐿
𝛼𝐿 = (eqn. 1)
𝐿 𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝐿
where 𝛼 is the coefficient of linear expansion, L is the initial length and is the rate
𝑑𝑇

of change in length with temperature T. Logically the initial temperature should be

a fixed standard, such as 0ºC; however, because the value of a is very small for
solids, the error introduced by using any other initial temperature is not large.
The change in length and the total length are always expressed in the same
units; the value of the coefficient is therefore independent of the length unit used but
depends on the temperature unit. The value of the coefficient of expansion should
be specified as "per degree centigrade" or "per degree Fahrenheit." If ∆L represents
a small finite change in length of a metal bar for a finite change in temperature, then
the value of 𝛼 may be found from
1 ∆𝐿
𝛼𝐿 = (eqn. 2)
𝐿 ∆𝑇

The change in the linear dimension can be estimated to be:

 ∆𝐿
𝐿∆𝑇 = (eqn. 3)
𝐿

This equation works well as long as the linear-expansion coefficient does not change
much over the change in temperature ∆𝑇 and the fractional change in length is
∆𝐿
small ≪ 1. If either of these conditions does not hold, the equation must be
𝐿

integrated.
For solid materials with a significant length, like rods or cables, an estimate
of the amount of thermal expansion can be described by the material strain given by
𝜖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 and defined as:
(𝐿𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 )
𝜖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = (eqn. 4)
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙

where 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 is the length before the change of temperature and 𝐿𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑖s the length
after the change of temperature.

For most solids, thermal expansion is proportional to the change in temperature

𝜖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 ∝ ∆𝑇
Thus, the change in either the strain or temperature can be estimated by:
𝜖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = 𝐿∆𝑇
where
∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 (eqn. 5)
is the difference of the temperature between the two recorded strains, measured in
degrees Fahrenheit, degrees Rankine, degrees Celsius, or kelvins, and 𝐿 is the
linear coefficient of thermal expansion in "per degree Fahrenheit", "per degree
Rankine", “per degree Celsius”, or “per kelvin”, denoted by °F −1, R−1, °C−1, or K−1,
respectively. In the field of continuum mechanics, the thermal expansion and its
effects are treated as Eigen strain and Eigen stress.
 The change in temperature, ∆𝑻 is directly proportional to the change in length,
∆𝑳. This relationship is set into an equation by introducing a constant, called the
coefficient of linear expansion, 𝜶 (alpha). An equation was formulated ∆𝑳 =
𝜶𝑳𝟎 ∆𝑻. Using this equation, our experiment aims to determine the coefficient of
linear expansion of two metal rods which are the aluminum tube and copper tube,
and to determine the factors affecting the change in length in thermal expansion.

Considering an aluminum rod as shown in the figure 1, the length of the rod
is defined in the figure, and is similar but not identical to the definition you will use
in the experiment. The rod is at a temperature T0 and has a length of L0.

Figure 1. Initial presentation of Aluminum Rod

Using a tab on the right-hand side of the rod, and we measure the length of
the rod to the right-hand side of the tab. In the actual experiment, there is a line
inscribed on the top of the tab, and you will measure the length of the rod from the
left-hand side to the line inscribed on the tab. Thus, the lengths and changes in length
of the rod shown in the figures are only similar to the actual definitions you will use
in the experiment.
As we heat the rod up to a temperature T > T0, and its length increases to L
as shown in Figure 2.
 Figure 2. Presentation of the Aluminum Rod After the Change in Temperature
The change in length is the difference of the final length from its initial
length as in equation 6
∆𝐿 = 𝐿 − 𝐿𝑜 (eqn. 6)
If the change in temperature is less than 100, the change in length ∆𝐿 is
directly proportional to both the change in temperature ∆𝑇 and the initial length 𝐿𝑜
of the rod. The proportionality constant, known as the coefficient of linear expansion
, depends on the material. These relationships are shown to Equation 7.
∆𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜 ∆𝑇 (eqn. 7)
From equation 7, one may express the relation to solve and define the
coefficient of linear expansion as
∆𝐿
= (eqn. 8)
𝐿𝑜 ∆𝑇
By definition the coefficient of linear expansion is the ratio of change in
length to the original length for every degree change in temperature.
Combining equations 6 and 7 will give the equation of the final length of the
body as shown in equation 9.
𝐿𝑓 = 𝐿𝑜 + 𝐿𝑜 ∆𝑇 (eqn. 9)
Linear expansion is under the three types of thermal expansion. Thermal
expansion states that the dimensions of a substance change as temperature changes.
In thermal expansion, the change in volume is directly proportional to the change in
the substance dimensions. These concepts are proven in the experiment that we have
conducted. When performing the experiment, the first thing we did was to measure
the original length of the metal tubes. Then, we measured again their lengths after
heating them using a steam generator. It is seen from the data that both the metal
tubes changed in length after it was exposed to higher temperature.

Figure 3. Experimental Set-up

The thermal expansion apparatus is shown in Figure 2. It allows you to make
reasonably accurate measurements of the coefficient of linear expansion for steel,
copper, and aluminum in a straightforward manner. The length of the bar is measured
at room temperature, and again when it has been heated up. By measuring the length
at room temperature, the expansion, and the temperature difference, you can work
out the value of α.
Table 1: Coefficient of Linear Expansion of Solids
Material α, Coefficient of linear expansion
(C0)-1
Aluminum 23.80 x 10-6
Brass 19.30 x 10-6
Copper 16.80 x 10-6
Glass 8.97 x 10-6
Gold 14.30 x 10-6
Iron 11.40 x 10-6
Lead 29.40 x 10-6
Nickel 13.00 x 10-6
Platinum 8.99 x 10-6
Silver 18.80 x 10-6
Steel 12.00 x 10-6
Tin 26.92 x 10-6
Zinc 26.28 x 10-6
 As the coefficient of linear expansion was constant with different kinds of
solids, we can still learn how to calculate it with the use of experiment by following
a formula acquired from the concept of thermal and linear expansion.
As the experimental value of the coefficient of linear expansion was
calculated, the percentage error was computed through
| Accepted Value – Expected Value |
% error = 𝑥100 (eqn. 9)
Accepted Value

As for the results, two metals were used to classify the accuracy of determined
coefficient of linear expansion such as the aluminum and copper. For the trial 1, the
aluminum tube was used and its actual coefficient of linear expansion is constant at
23.8 x 10−6 / ℃ while the experimental value that was calculated using the equation
8 is 23.6407 x 10-6 /𝐶°. Its initial temperature was considered to be 26 ℃ and its final
temperature was 89 ℃. With that the percentage error was calculated using the
equation 9 is 0.67 %.
Same process goes with the trial 2 where the copper tube was used. The actual
coefficient of linear expansion of copper is constant at 16.8 x 10−6 / ℃ while the
experimental value that was calculated using the equation 8 was 16.0938 x 10-6 /𝐶°.
Its initial temperature was considered to be 24 ℃ and its final temperature was 79
℃. With that the percentage error was calculated using the equation 9 is 4.20 %.
When we evaluate, the aluminum tube can acquire higher temperature than
the copper tube that make the aluminum tube have a longer change in length and a
higher coefficient of linear expansion.
The proportionality between the change in temperature and the change in
length of the tube was visible for both trial. As the change of temperature increases,
the change of length of a tube also increases that causes them to become directly
proportional with each other. Also, the maximum temperature that can acquire by
both of the tube varies considering the temperature of the environment, where the
experiment happened and kind of metal that was used to observe and have a deeper
understanding towards the concepts and principles of linear expansion and how it
was connected with the thermal expansion itself.
As for the source of error, it is the temperature of the environment affects the
accuracy of the values that were determined using the equipment. Also, human error
can also be a source, sometimes, we tend to forget to observe the things we are
experimenting with that causes data inaccuracy.
Table 2. Results of Linear Expansion
Type of Tube Trial 1: Trial 2: Copper
Aluminium Tube Tube
Initial Length of Tube, Lo 705 mm 705 mm
Initial Resistance of Thermistor at 95,447 Ω 104,800 Ω
Room Temperature, Ro
Initial Temperature, To 26 ℃ 24 ℃
Change in Length of Tube, ∆𝐿 1.05 mm 0.59 mm
Resistance of Thermistor at Final 7.969.1 Ω 12,479 Ω
Temperature, R
Final Temperature of the Tube, T 89 ℃ 76 ℃
Change in Temperature of the Tube, 63 𝐶° 52 𝐶°
T- To
Experimental Coefficient of Linear 23.6407 x 10-6 /𝐶° 16.0938 x 10-6
Expansion, αexperimental /𝐶°
Actual Coefficient of Linear 23.8 x 10-6 /𝐶° 16.8 x 10-6 /𝐶°
Expansion, αacutal
Percentage Error 0.67 % 4.20 %
IV. Conclusion
In conclusion, the linear expansion of the materials verified that as the
temperature increases, the material expands. Considering thermal expansion, the
change of in volume is directly proportional to the change in substance dimension.
As shown in the experiment, it proves how the material such as aluminum and copper
tube expands when the temperature increases that shows the proportionality of
change in length and change in temperature that explains the concept of thermal
linear expansion. The maximum temperature of a tube varies as what kind of metal
was used like in the experiment, the aluminum tube has a higher maximum/final
temperature acquired than the copper tube.
The main factors that were needed to calculate the coefficient of linear
expansion was said to be the change in temperature and the change in length. Also,
considering the type of metal used. The higher the value calculated means a higher
coefficient value of the metal.
For the source of error, it was human error and the temperature of the
environment that matters. With the temperature of the environment, the final
temperature acquired by the metal can be affected that causes the change to also get
affected that can cause a larger percentage of error. Thus, the change of temperature
is really a big factor in determining the coefficient of linear expansion like as the
change of temperature increases, both of the change of length and the coefficient of
linear expansion also increases.