GRAMMAR

The grammar of a language is a complex of

systems that may be analyzed and studied on
these three levels

PHONOLOGY (set of sounds/ symbols)

MORPHOLOGY (combinations of sounds that

carry single units of
meaning)
SYNTAX (how single units of meaning are
combined to form words, phrases and
sentences.
PHONLOGY
Phonology is just one of
several aspects of language

•A sound in a language that

has meaning and is distinctive
from all other sounds

•Study of the ways in which

speech sounds form systems
and patterns
MORPHOLOGY
 The study of the internal structure of words

 Morph – ology -- words – jumping

 Morphemes – identifiable form one word to another

 Un – uncomplicated , unhappy, unclear

 Able- variable, solvable
 Al – cultural , fedaral, liberal
SYNTAX
 The scientific study of sentence structure

 Syntax is from a Greek word

meaning order or arrangement.

 A hierarchically organized structure of words that maps

sound to meaning and vice versa.

 Sounds  sentences  meaning

SUBJECT/PREDICATE:
 The something or someone that the sentence is about is
called the subject of the sentence.

 The predicate contains information about the someone or

something that is the subject.
EIGHT PARTS OF SPEECH

Interjections

Adjectives
Conjunctions
THE TYPES OF SENTENCES

 Almost everything we say is said in sentences

 There are
 DECLARATIVE OR ASSERTIVE SENTENCE
 INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE
 IMPERATIVE SENTENCE
 EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE
DECLARATIVE SENTENCES
 Are the most common type of sentence.
 Are punctuated with a period.
 Are used to tell our thoughts, and what we see.
 Can be simple or complex

“I have a dream . . .” as MLK Jr. once said.

“I saw a bird as beautiful as the summer sky as it rises
above the horizon.”
INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES

 ALWAYS has a (?) question mark.

 If you ask enough of them they become self-

explanatory.

“Do stars burn out ?”

“Why are my eyes colored ?”
“Why is global warming such a problem ?”
IMPERATIVE SENTENCES
 May need more than 1 or 2 words

 Used to give orders and make requests

 Always ends in a (!) exclamation point if used to make

requests

 Always ends in (.) a period to give orders

“Stop!”
“Hug Me.”
** In many sentences YOU is not spoken but is understood.
EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES
 An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feelings.

 It ends with an exclamation point.

 My birthday party is tomorrow!

It does this by ending the

sentence with an
exclamation point.
PARAGRAPH
 It consists of a group sentences relating to a single
idea or single topic.
 It is an independent piece of writing. It is of
narrative , descriptive , expository, argumentative,
evaluative, reflective, imaginative and etc
 A well written paragraph always poses a topic
sentence, unity of thought , logic and coherence
PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE
 UNITY
 The paragraphs consist of one topic or idea and with no
more than one.
 TOPIC SENTENCE
 The sentence which express the main idea of the
paragraph is known as the topic sentence or key
sentence
 ORDER
 There are some order of arrangement of the sentence in
a paragraph
PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE
 INDUCTIVE ORDER: from particular to general. In
topic sentence comes at the end of the paragraph

 DEDUCTIVE ORDER: from general to the particular.

The first sentence is the topic sentence

 QUESTION AND ANSWER ORDER: This order has no

topic sentence, the paragraph begins with a question
and the following sentences answer the question

 TIME AND ORDER : It is mostly used in narration.

Events are narrates as they happen, one leading to
another
CONNECTIVES WORDS
 CONTRAST - Yet, though, although, nevertheless,
however, in spite of, on the other hand, on the contrary
 ADDITION - In addition to and moreover, besides,
further
 OCCURRENCE - After, before, when, first , second, finally,
meanwhile, until , afterward
 LISTING - First, second, third, finally, next, last
 CHOICE - Or , either ----or, neither ---- nor, etc
 EXAMPLE - For instance, namely, that is, such as , like etc
are used to indicate
 SUMMARY - In conclusion, to conclude, in short m to
sum up, on the whole
HINTS TO WRITE A PARAGRAPH
 Read the title given
 Note down the points concerning the topic
 Formulate your topic sentence
 Using the orders of developing a paragraph. Give
special importance to the first and last sentence to
impress upon the reader
 Use some connectives or link words
 use simple language and short sentence
EXPANSION OF A PROVERB OR
A MAXIM
 To elaborate the theme in a proverb or maxim into a
paragraph
 To states the meaning of the proverb, methodical
process of logical reasoning and conclusion.
 It should be explained with the examples taken from
daily today life, history or a story
 Expanding the proverb or maxims it should have the
literal meaning as well as figurative meaning
WRITING A PRECIS
A precis is a condensed restatement of an article,
roughly ¼ the length of the original or less

In contrast to a summary, a precis should preserve

the article’s logic and emphases, and include main
examples where relevant.
WRITING A PRECIS
A precis of a primary-literature scientific paper should follow
the standard format:

- background/hypothesis
- methods
- results
- conclusion

The precis should be written from the original author’s point of

view, without editorializing.
WRITING A PRECIS
1 - Read the article carefully all the way through

2 - Consider the main points

3 - Go over the article again, jotting down the main points

(NOT whole sentences)

4 – Seam together the points, in order, in a logical narrative

5 – Edit to place proper stress on main points, cut out extra

details
VARIOUS FORMS OF WRITTEN
COMMUNICATIONS
 Email  Postcards

 Internet websites  Contracts

 Letters  Advertisements

 Proposals  Brochures

 Telegrams  News releases

 Faxes