QUALITY STANDARDS OF CONCRETE

MATERIALS AND WORKMANSHIP IN

CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS AROUND ADDIS
ABABA

BY:-
1. BIZUALEM TAYE
2. DEREJE HASSEN
3. MUHDIN RESHAD

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO
ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
FACULITY OF TECHNOLOGY (SOUTH)
DEPARTEMENT OF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY
AND MANAGEMENT

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE REQUIRMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR
OF SCIENCE IN CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND
MANAGEMENT

AUGUST 2006
 A THESIS SUBMITTED TO
ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
FACULITY OF TECHNOLOGY (SOUTH)
DEPARTEMENT OF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY
AND MANAGEMENT

QUALITY STANDARD OF CONCRETE MATERIALS AND

WORKMANSHIP IN CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
AROUND ADDIS ABABA

BY:-
1. BIZUALEM TAYE
2. DEREJE HASSEN
3. MUHDIN RESHAD

APPROVED BY BOARD OF EXAMINERS:

Dr.-Ing. Surafel Ketema _____________________________

ADVISOR

____________________ ______________________
EXAMINER

____________________ ______________________
CHAIRMAN

ii
ABSTRACT

The aim of every construction project stakeholder is the completion of a

project that meets the objectives of time, cost and quality. In Ethiopia,
there are many problems associated with quality standards of concrete
making materials and workmanship in construction projects. This is
usually due to poor quality control, poor production methods, poor
workmanship as well as poor quality of available materials. As a result of
such conditions, construction failures, delays and additional costs are
usually incurred on projects. Therefore, there is a great need to improve
such conditions in order to get a well-developed quality works as well as
quality control techniques at construction sites.

The main ingredients of concrete are cement, mineral aggregates and

water. Among the Ingredients mineral aggregates are not factory
produced, hence great attention should be given to them. The selection of
Ingredients greatly affect the quality of concrete product, which satisfies
both strength and durability requirements. Therefore, Quality of concrete
making material should fulfill the requirements stated on standards. In
addition workmanship in concrete production should follow the proper
procedure of the Ethiopian building codes of standard.

Quality control is the complete meeting of agreed or specified

requirements. It includes measures that are taken during material
selection, transporting, storing, and concrete production process
(workmanship).

A standard is a document established by consensus and approved by a

recognized body that provides, for common and repeated use, rules,

iii
guidelines or characteristics for activities or their results, aimed at the
achievement of the optimum degree of order in a given context.

Considering this, investigations focusing on quality standards of concrete

making materials and workmanship are under taken in the year 2006 on
17 building construction projects found in various parts of Addis Ababa.

The research is carried out by collecting sample test results data and
information on aggregates and quality standards of concrete making
materials through questioner and workmanship of concrete production
process through on site observation. The findings of the investigation
have shown that: when aggregates are brought from different quarry
sites and river deposits enough tests are not made, the use of natural
sand as fine aggregate is found out to be very common, most of the time
tests are conducted only for documentation purposes, among the
respondents most of them are not satisfied with the quality of aggregates,
it is found out from the respondents that among projects adopting
volume-batching techniques 81.25 % of the projects do not make any
adjustments to sand bulking or the moisture content in aggregates, most
of the conducted projects do not fulfill the standard requirements for
handling & storing of aggregates, among the conducted sites that there is
poor workmanship in batching of concrete, the site engineer follows
traditional way of concrete production techniques and among the
observed sites most of them have poor quality control mechanism on
aggregates and concrete production techniques.

Key words: - Cement mineral aggregates, water, batching, mixing,

transporting, placing, compacting, quality control, quality standard,
quality assurance, quality audit and workmanship.

iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to express our gratitude and deep appreciation to our
advisor Dr. Ing. Surafel Ketema, for his valuable comments, suggestions
and advice during preparing the thesis paper.

We want to acknowledge Addis Ababa University, Faculty of Technology

(South), Department of Construction Technology and Management for
giving us support and the head of the Materials Research and Testing
Department Ato Taddess Kebede and the staff member Ato Dereje Bekele,
for their kind cooperation in giving us the requested data for the
investigation.

We also wish to acknowledge Dr. Solomon Imam from Quality Standards

Authority of Ethiopia for giving us Ethiopian standards and information
on quality standards.

We are also highly indebted to all site engineers, and supervisors, who
have shown their keen interest of cooperation by providing us with the
necessary information and data required for the thesis.

Finally we like to thank our classmates and all students of the campus
for their kind support and cooperation.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ………………………………..…………………………………….…....iii
Acknowledgement…………………………………………...………………….v
Table of Contents……………………………………………….……………...vi
List of Tables…………………………………………...……….………………. ix
Abbreviations………………………………………………………………….. x
1. Introduction…………………………………………………………….. ……..1
1.1.Quality Standards of Concrete Making Materials and Workmanship in
Construction Projects……………...………………………………………………….…...1
1.2 Objective of the Research ……………………………………………………………..3
2. Literature Review………………………………………………….4
2.1. Concrete Making Material……………………………………………………...…….4
2.1.1. Portland Cement…………………………………………………………………….4
2.1.2. Chemical Properties of Portland Cement…………………………………………...5
2.1.3. Test on Physical and Chemical Properties of Cement……………………………...6
2.1.4. Ordinary Portland and Portland Pozzolana Cement………………………………..6
2.1.5. Transports, Storage and Batching…………………………………………………..8
2.2. Aggregates……………………………………………………………………….…...8
2.2.1. General……………………………………………………………………………...8
2.2.2.Physical Properties Of Aggregates………………………………………………….9
2.2.3. Reactions between Active Aggregate and Alkalis tha Affect Concrete
Quality..……………………………………………………………………………15
2.2.4. Soundness of Aggregate…………………………………………………………..16
2.2.5. Grading of Aggregates…………………………………………………………….17
2.2.6. Strength of Aggregate……………………………………………………………..22
2.3.Water…………………………………………………………………………………22
2.3.1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………..22
2.3.2 Quality of Mixing Water……………………………………………………….…..23

vi
2.3.3 Impurities in Water which Affect Concrete Propertie………………………….….23
2.3.4. Curing Water………………………………………………………………………24
2.3.5. Admixtures…………………………………………………………………….…..24
2.4. Quality Control of Concrete Making Materials……………………………………..25
2.4.1 Quality of Aggregates………………………………………………………….…..25
2.5.Concrete Production………………………………………………………………….29
2.5.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………….…..29
2.5.2 Batching……………………… ………………………………………………..…..30
2.5.3 Mixing Time and its Impact on Concrete Quality…………………………………31
2.5.4 Transport of Concrete……………………………………………………………...32
2.5.5 Placement of Concrete……………………………………………………………..33
2.5.6 Compaction of Concrete…………………………………………………………...35
2.5.7 Curing of Concrete…………………………………………………………………36
2.6.Quality Control of Concrete………………………………………………………….37
2.6.1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………..37
2.6.2. Personnel…………………………………………………………………………..38
2.6.3. Material, Equipment and Workmanship…………………………………………..38
2.6.4. Field Control………………………………………………………………………39
2.7.Quality Management in Concrete Construction……………………………………..40
2.7.1. Management of Uncertainties……………………………………………………..41
2.7.2. Quality Management System (QMS) ……………………………………………..42
2.7.2.1. Quality Assurance……………………………………………………………….42
3. Research Methodology………………………………………….44
4. Results and Discussions……………………………………….46
4.1.Quality Standards of Concrete Making Materials…………………………………...46
4.1.1. Quality Standards of Aggregates………………………………………………….46
4.1.2.Qulity Standards of Cement………………………………………………………..55
4.1.3.Quality Standards of Water………………………………………………………...56
4.2.Production of Concretes……………………………………………………………...57
4.2.1.Concrete Mix Preparations………………………………………………………...57
4.2.2. Batching and Mixing of Concretes ……………………………………………57

vii
4.3.Quality Control of Concrete Making Materials ……………………………………59
4.4. Workmanship Control in Concrete Construction ……………………………60
4.4.1. Handling and Storage of Materials Used for Making Concrete..…………………60
4.4.2. Batching and mixing………………………………………………………………61
4.4.3. Transporting, placing and compacting……………………… ……………………62
4.4.4. Construction of cold Joints………………………………………………………..62
5.Conclusions and Recommendations………………………..63
5.1. Conclusions………………………………………………………………………….63
5.2.Recomondations……………………………………………………………………...67
6.References…………………………………………………………..69
7.Appendices………………………………………………………….70

viii
LIST OF TABLES pages
Table 2.1 Approximate Oxide Composition Limits Of Portland cement…………..5
Table 2.2 ES-Permissible Limits for Deleterious Substances in Coarse
aggregate……...……………………………………………………………………………….14
Table 2.3. ES-Permissible Limits for Deleterious Substances in Fine
Aggregates……………………………………………………………………………………..14
Table 2.4. ASTM-Limits for Deleterious Substances in Coarse Aggregate for
Concrete………………………………………………………………………………………..14
Table 2. 5. ASTM-Limit for Deleterious Substances in Fine Aggregate for
Concrete………………………………………………………………………………………..15
Table 2. 6. ES- Grading Requirement For Coarse Aggregate…………….………..17
Table 2.7. ASTM and ES- Grading requirement for fine aggregate……………….18
Table2.8. ASTM- requirements for coarse aggregate…………………………………19
Table2.9. BS-grading requirements for various aggregates……………….……….20
Table 2.10 limits of permissible impurities in water (2)…………………… ………24
Table 2.11. Mixing time standards………………………………………………………32
Table 4.1.Types of fine aggregates……………………………………………………….47
Table 4.2. Tests conducted for coarse aggregates…………………………………….48
Table 4.3. Tests conducted for fine aggregates……………………………….……….49
Table 4.4. Testing frequencies on aggregates………………………………………….50
Table4.5. Types of tests conducted for coarse aggregates and their compliance
to the standard……………………………………………………….……….……….…….52
Table4.6. Types of tests conducted for fine aggregates and their compliance to
the standard…………………………………………………………………………………..52
Table 4.7. Respondent’s satisfaction on quality of aggregates…………………….53
Table 4.8. Percentages of user on standard specification………………….………55
Table 4.9 Usage of Portland cements among conducted projects………..………55
Table 4.10. Type of water used for concrete mixing…………………………………57
Table 4.11. Method of concrete mix proportioning………………………….………57
Table 4.12. Concrete mixing batching technique……………………………………58
Table 4.13. Adjustments on volume batching………………………………..………58
Table 4.14. Method of concrete mixing…………………………………………………59

ix
ABBREVIATIONS
EBCS = Ethiopian building codes of standards
ES = Ethiopian standard
ASTM = Americans society for testing of materials
ACI = American concrete institute
BS = British standards
OPC = Ordinary Portland Cement
PPC = Portland Pozzolana Cement
QC = quality control
QA = quality assurance or quality audit
QMS = Quality Management System
LA = Losangeles abrasion test
ACV = Aggregate crushing value

x
1. Introduction
1.1. Quality Standards of Concrete Making Materials and
Workmanship in Construction Projects
Concrete is one of the major construction materials in building
construction industry and it is produced from three basic
ingredients; namely, cement, aggregate and water. In addition
admixture is sometimes used to improve some properties of
concretes like workability and setting times. The ingredients of
concrete should be of good quality that satisfies the requirements
set in standards.

It is not enough to have only good quality concrete ingredients; the

production processes also have the most important influences on
concrete quality. These production processes are batching, mixing,
transporting, placing, compacting and curing which requires
proper and scientific approaches. A good and a bad concrete may
be made of exactly the same ingredients if there is a difference on
the quality control of the production.

Quality control is a means of checking that concrete ingredients

and production processes are in compliance with the requirements
stated in code of practices. In order to have a good quality of
concrete it should be done as per the contract document in the
contract agreement.

Standard is something considered by an authority or by a general

consent as a basis of comparisons. It is a must to work according
to the sated standard in order to obtain a good quality of concrete.

0
In addition to the production processes and the compliance of the
standard that determines the quality of concrete the workman ship
also affect the quality of concrete. It must be in accordance with
the stated standards.

To get quality concrete products, proper care and control has to be

done during ingredient selection, checking compliance with the
standards, production processes and workman ship. It should also
be reminded that all professionals and firms involved in the
construction industry have to give special emphasis to quality
control.

The quality of the material and workman ship is as per the

contract the contractor ensures document in the contract
agreement. The consulting engineer also approves the quality
control work under taken by the contractor.

In most parts of Ethiopia, especially in major cities and towns

building construction is highly observed. Most of these buildings
are reinforced concrete structures in which concrete takes the
major proportion.

It is an indication as how much the quality of concrete is important

for the overall quality of a building that the major component of a
building made with reinforced concrete such as beams, columns,
slabs and foundations are load bearing as opposed to other non
load bearing elements which are rather loads to be carried by
reinforced concrete structural parts.

Furthermore, concrete is a non-factory product, which is mostly

produced on site; as a result, there are a number of factors that

1
 bring variations on concrete quality. These include quality of
ingredients, variation in concrete production processes,
compliance with the standards and quality of workman ship.
Hence, proper quality control is highly necessitated, especially to
concrete, which forms the critical part of a building.

Hence, the fact that concrete forms the load bearing parts of a
building and the variability in concrete product became leading
motivational factors to undertake research on this area so that to
identify the problems associated with the quality standards of
concrete and workman ship in the newly flourishing construction
industry and at the end to suggest ways of improving it.

1.2 Objective of the Research

The purpose of the current work is to perform some studies on the
quality standards of concrete making materials and concrete
production process, which are often difficult to attain the specified
quality on site. In addition, focus will be made on the standards of
workmanship as a case study in some selective building project sites.
The objective of the present work could be stated briefly as follows:
A) To review the concept and principle of quality standards of
concrete making materials and workmanship of concrete
production. In addition, to make comparison between
Ethiopian, British and the American standards.
B) Investigating the existing practice of quality standards of
concrete making materials and workmanship of concrete
production.
C) Evaluating sample test results on aggregates and workmanship
on concrete production process by performing analysis on
questioner, observations & sample test results collected from
construction sites and laboratories. More over the test results

2
 are checked whether it complies with the Ethiopian, the British
and the American standards or not.

Finally, after making assessment on the quality standards of

concrete making materials and workmanship of concrete
production, conclusion and recommendations are drawn out.

3
2. Literature Review
2.1. Concrete Making Material
2.1.1. Portland Cement and its Production Process
Cement in general can be described as a material with adhesive and
cohesive properties, which makes it capable of bonding mineral
fragments into a hard continuous compact mass. (1)

Though there are various types of cements used for concrete

production, Portland cement is the one, which is commonly used in
Ethiopia for concrete production. (3)

The principal raw materials used in the manufacturing of cement are:

Argillaceous or silicates of alumina in the form of clays and shapes.
Calcareous, or calcium carbonate, in the form of limestone, chalk and
marl, which is a mixture of clay and calcium carbonate [5].

Two processes of manufacture are employed, the dry process and the
wet process. In the dry process the materials are crushed, dried, and
then ground in ball mills to a powder, which is burnt in its dry
condition. In wet process the materials are first crushed and then
ground to form slurry in wash mills. After passing through the wash
mills and the slurry silos, the slurry passes to the slurry tanks. The
slurry is next pumped to a kiln and made to clinker at clinkering
temperature of about 1400ºc to 1500ºc. the cement clinker then
passes through clinker coolers. Having cooler sufficiently, the clinker
is ground to the required degree of fineness. During grinding, gypsum,
which acts as “a retarder” is incorporated. (1)

4
2.1.2. Chemical Properties of Portland Cement
2.1.2.1. Chemical Composition of Portland Cement
The major constituents of raw materials used in Portland cement
production: mainly lime silica, alumina and iron oxide compounds
interact with one another in the kiln to form a series of more complex
products. Which are usually regarded as the major constituents of
cement. These are the tricalcium silicate (C3S), dicalcium silicate
(C2S), tricalciu aluminate (C3A) and tetracalcium alumino ferrite or
iron compound (C4AF). Table 1 gives approximate oxide composition
limits of Portland cement. (1)

Table 2.1 Approximate Oxide Composition Limits Of Portland cement.

Oxide Content in percent
CaO 60-67
SiO2 17-25
Al2O3 3-8
FE2O3 0.5-6
MgO 0.1-4.0
Alkalies 0.2-1.3
SO3 1-3

2.1.2.2. Hydration of cement

Hydration is the reaction in which cement becomes a bonding agent
that takes place in a water cement paste or the process, in which in
the presence of water, the silicates and aluminate compounds of
cement form products of hydration which in time produce a firm and
hard mass. (1)

Hydration is fast during the first few minutes of mixing and decreases
continuously with time. Because of reduction in rate of hydration even

5
after a long time there remains an appreciated amount of unhydrated
cement. Hence there is hydration at any time after hardening of
concrete though it is at a very lower rate. (1)

The hydration products of the major cement compounds, C3S and

C2S, gives calcium silicate hydrates which is commonly designated as
C-S-H. This hydrate product determines the basic physical properties
of concrete such as setting and strength gain. (1)

2.1.3. Test on Physical and Chemical Properties of Cement

The manufacture of cement requires stringent control, and a number
of tests are performed in the cement works laboratory to ensure that
the cement is of the desired quality and that it conforms to the
requirements of the relevant national codes and standards. These
tests are; consistency test, fineness test, setting time test, soundness
test, strength test, etc. (5,8).

2.1.4. Ordinary Portland and Portland Pozzolana Cement

There are various types of Portland cements. The two, namely,
Ordinary and pozzolanic Portland cements, are cements which are
mostly produced by the cement factories in Ethiopia and used for
concrete production. Hence the properties of these two cements are
discussed in detail here. (3)

Ordinary Portland cement is admirably suitable for use in general

concrete construction when there is no exposure to sulphates in the
soil or in ground water. However; in urban and near urban areas,
underground water has higher tendency of getting spoiled with
chemicals due to the possibility of percolation of wastes discharged
from factories and various chemicals which has been used for
domestic purposes. Therefore, the placing of sub structural reinforced

6
 concrete elements like footing, mats or piles generally concrete
foundations are subject to these chemicals. (3)

Portland pozzolana cement is produced by partially replacing a certain

percentage of the Portland cement by prozzolanic material obtained
from volcanic ash. The pozzolana added varies commonly between 10-
30% (1). Pozzolanas aren’t reactive by themselves but becomes
reactive when it gets in contact with Portland cement. It reacts with
the calcium hydroxide liberated from Portland cement at ordinary
temperatures to form compounds possessing cementitious properties.
Portland pozzolana cements gain strength slowly and require,
therefore, curing over comparatively long period, but their ultimate
strength is approximately the same as that of ordinary Portland
cement alone. (1)

Low heat Portland cement such as Portland possolana cement has

approximately half the strength of ordinary Portland cement at 7
days, two-thirds at 28 days and is approximately equal in strength at
3 months. (1)

Pozzolanas are cheaper than Portland cement. Its slow hydration and
the resulting slow rate of heat development make it important in mass
concrete construction. It also shows good resistance to sulphate
attack and to some other destructive agents. This is so because the
pozzolanic reaction leaves less lime to be leached out and also reduces
the permeability of concrete. (1)

2.1.5. Transports, Storage and Batching

The storage of cement is entirely a matter of keeping it dry, and it is
necessary to stack the bags in a shed or under whatever cover is
available. On small projects where storage without a shed is required

7
for a few days, the cement should be placed on a raised platform and
covered with tarpaulins, polyethylene film (0.2mm thick) or water
proof building paper. (6)

Even when stored under good conditions bagged cement may lose up
to 20 percent of its strength after 2 months of storage, and 40 percent
after 6 months of storage. (1) Cement can be stored in airtight bins
indefinitely without deteriorating in any way, but this is not
practicable for site use. Cement, which is 4 months old, should be
classified as “aged” and be retested for use. (9)

Air set cement results from storage in a damp atmosphere. This is due
to the moisture present in the air being absorbed by the cement and
causing a partial set. Preventing the movement of air in to the store as
far as practicable reduces the absorption of moisture from a damp
atmosphere. As a rough guide, lumpy cement, which cannot be easily
crumbled in the fingers, is unsatisfactory for general use. (9) Cement
should be stacked in such a way that the cement first delivered can
be used first.

2.2. Aggregates
2.2.1. General
Aggregate may be defined as relatively inert mineral filler used in
construction of concrete. This aggregate consists of uncrushed or
crushed gravel, crushed stone, sand or rock, or artificially produced
inorganic materials.

Aggregate represent the major proportion of concrete by volume.

Hence it has significant importance on the quality of concrete,
especially on strength. This is because good aggregate are known to
have better crushing strength and better resistance to impact. Not

8
only that aggregates affect the strength of concrete, but also the
proper ties of aggregates such as its size and shape affect the
durability and structural performance of concrete. (1)

Aggregate is cheaper than cement. It is therefore, economical to put in

to the mix in as much proportion as possible.

2.2.2.Physical Properties Of Aggregates

The physical properties of aggregates such as size, shape, texture,
porosity, absorption, moisture content, bulking of fine materials
presence of deleterious substances etc affects significantly the
resulting concrete quality produced as briefly explained under.

2.2.2.1 Aggregates Size, Shape And Texture

Shape of aggregates has an effect on the degree of packing particles
and on the surface area to volume ratio of particles. Well-packed
aggregates have less void content. This is important in concrete as it
reduces the void content of concrete resulting in better strength
concrete. Particles with high ratio of surface area to volume lower the
workability of the mix; however, it has an advantage of providing
larger bond surface area. Flaky and elongated particles affect the
durability of concrete in that, as they tend to be oriented in one plan,
with water and air voids forming underneath. As a result, the
presence of elongated or flaky particles in excess of 10 to 15% of the
weight of course aggregate is undesirable. (1)

The rounded aggregate requires lesser amount of water and cement

paste for a given workability. The amount of mixing water could be
reduced by 5 to 10%, and the sand content by 3to 5 percent (1). On
the other hand, the use of crushed aggregate may result in 10 to 20
percent higher compressive strength due to the development of

9
stronger aggregate-mortar bond. This increase in strength may be due
to the development of stronger aggregate-mortar bond. This increase
in strength may be up to 38 percent for a concrete having a water-
cement ratio below 0.4.the elongated and flaky particles, having a
higher ratio of surface area to volume reduce the workability
appreciably. These particles, having a higher ratio of surface area to
volume reduce the workability appreciably. These particles tend to be
oriented in one plane with water and air voids underneath. An
aggregate with a rough and porous texture is preferred to one with a
smooth surface as the former can increase the aggregate-cement bond
by 75%, which may increase the compressive and flexural strength up
to 20%. (2)

2.2.2.2. Porosity And Absorption Of Aggregate

Due to the presence of air bubbles, which are entrapped in a rock
during its formation or on account of the decomposition of certain
constituent minerals by atmospheric action, minute holes or cavities
are formed in it that is commonly known as pores. (1) Since aggregate
constitutes about 75% by volume of concrete, the porosity and
absorption affect the bond between aggregate and the cement paste,
the resistance of concrete to freezing and thawing, chemical stability,
resistance to abrasion, and the specific gravity of the aggregate. (1)

2.2.2.3. Moisture Content of Aggregates

Aggregate exposed to rain collects a considerable amount of moisture
on the surface of the particles, and, except at the surface of the
stockpile, keeps this moisture over long periods. This is particularly
true of fine aggregate, and hence the surface or free moisture (in
excess of that held by aggregate in a saturated and surface dry
condition) must be allowed for in the calculation of batch quantities.
The surface moisture is expressed as a percentage of the weight of the

10
saturated and surface dry aggregate, and is termed the moisture
content. (1)

Since absorption represents the water contained in aggregate in a

saturated and surface-dry condition, and the moisture content is the
water in excess of that state, the total water content of a moist
aggregate is equal to the sum of the absorption and moisture content.
(1)

The determination of moisture content of an aggregate is necessary in

order to determine the net water-cement ratio for a batch of concrete.
Otherwise: if the moisture content and absorption of aggregates is not
properly determined, the water added during preparing the mix
becomes variable. This results in either high or low water to cement
ratio. Higher water to cement ratio may affect the properties of
concrete like workability in which concretes either lower water content
becomes less workable as a result it makes difficult to attain full
compaction and leave excessive void in the concrete mass. (1)

2.2.2.4.Bulking of Fine Aggregate

The presence of free moisture on the surface of sand results in a
phenomenon known as bulking. This is the increase in the volume of
a given mass of fine aggregate caused by the films of water pushing
sand particles apart. (1) The extent of bulking depends on the
percentage of moisture present on the sand and on its fineness. The
increase in volume relative to that occupied by saturated and surface
dry sand increase with an increase with an in the moisture content of
the sand up to a value of some 5to8%, when the bulking of 20 to 30 %
occurs. Up on further addition of water, the films merge and the water
moves in to the voids between the particles so that the total volume of
the sand decreases until, when fully saturated or flooded, its volume

11
is approximately the same as the volume of dry sand for the same
method of filling the container. Finer sand bulks considerably more
and the maximum bulking is obtained at higher water content than
the coarse sand. In the case of coarse aggregate, the increase in
volume is negligible due to the presence of free water as the thickness
of the moisture film is very small compared with particle size. (1)

Bulking doesn’t affect the proportion of the materials by weight of

sand occupying the fixed volume of the measuring .the results in a
mix deficient sand hence the concrete is prone to segregation and
honeycombing. Therefore allowance for bulking of sand has to be
considered during proportioning of sand. (1)

2.2.2.5.Deleterious Substances in Aggregate

Materials in aggregates, which may affect adversely the strength or
durability of concrete, or reinforcement in concrete are termed
deleterious materials. There are broad categories of deleterious
substances, such as:
a. Impurities interfering with the process of hydration of
cement
b. Coatings preventing the development of good bond between
aggregate, and the cement paste
c. Unsound particles which are weak or bring about chemical
reaction

The impurities in the form of organic matter interfere with the

chemical reactions of hydration. These impurities are generally
consisting of decayed vegetable matter (mainly tannic acid and its
derivatives) and appearing in the form of humus or organic loam are
more likely to be present in fine aggregate than coarse aggregate,
which is easily washed. (2)

12
Clay and other fine materials in aggregate may affect the quality of
concrete if present in excess amount. Clay may be present in the form
of surface coatings, which interfere with the bond between aggregate
and the cement paste. Since good bond is essential to ensure a
satisfactory strength and durability of concrete, the problems of clay
coating is an important one. The other tow fine materials that can be
present in aggregates are silt and crusher dust. Silt may thus be
found in aggregate obtained from natural deposit, on the other hand,
crusher dust is a fine material formed during the process of crushing
rock into crushed coarse and fine aggregate. The soft or loosely
adherent coatings can be removed by washing. The well-bonded
chemically stable coatings have no harmful effect except that the
shrinkage may be increased. However, aggregates with chemically
reactive coatings have no harmful effect except that the shrinkage
may be increased. However, aggregates with chemically reactive
coatings, even if physically stable, can lead to serious trouble. Silt and
fine dust, if present in excessive amount, a large amount of water is
required to wet all the surface of the aggregate and hence the amount
of water required to wet all particles in the mix, thereby affect the
water-cement ratio and hence reducing the strength and durability of
concrete. (2)

The other deleterious material is salt, which is usually obtained from

seashore or a riverbed. Such deleterious materials may be removed
from the sand by washing with fresh water before use. If such salt is
not removed, it absorbs moisture from air and may cause
efflorescence. Furthermore corrosion of reinforcement may also occur
if soluble chloride salts are present. (2)

13
 Coarse aggregate shall be free of injurious amounts of organic
impurities. The amount of deleterious substance in coarse and fine
aggregate according to Ethiopian standards, British standard and
ASTM shall not exceed the limits specified in Table 2 below.

Table 2.2 ES-Permissible Limits for Deleterious Substances in Coarse

Aggregate
Deleterious substance Maximum percentage
by mass
Friable soft fragments 3.0
Coal and Lignite 1.0
Clay lumps 0.25
Material passing 63 µm
sieve including crusher
dust 1.5

Table2.3. ES-Permissible Limits for Deleterious Substances in Fine

Aggregates

Deleterious substances Maximum percent, by

mass of total sample
Friable particles clay or fine silt 1.0
(passing 63 sieve) in fine aggregate
used for
Concrete subject to abrasion 3.0
All other concrete 5.0
Coal and lignite 1.0

14
Table2.4. ASTM-Limits for Deleterious Substances in Coarse
Aggregate for Concrete
Item Maximum, per cent by weight of
total sample
Friable particles 0.25
Soft particles 5.0
Chert as an impurity:
Sever exposure 1.0
Mild exposure 5.0
Material finer than no. 200 sieve 1.0
Coal and lignite where surface 0.5
appearance of concrete is of
importance
All other concrete 1.0

Table2.5. ASTM-Limit for Deleterious Substances in Fine Aggregate

for Concrete
Item Weight percent of total sample,
maximum
Clay lumps and friable particles 3.0
material finer than No.200 (75)
sieve
Concrete subject to abrasion 3.0
All other concrete 5.0
Coal and lignite where surface 0.5
appearance of concrete is of
importance
All other concrete 1.0

2.2.3. Reactions between Active Aggregate and Alkalis that Affect

Concrete Quality
A deleterious chemical reaction, which takes place between the active
silica of aggregate and the alkalis in cement, is called the alkali-
aggregate reaction (AAR). The reactive forms of silica occur in opaline
chalcedonic cherts, phyllites, etc. The reaction between the siliceous
mineral of the aggregate and the alkaline hydroxide of the cement
results in an alkali silicate gel. The surrounding cement paste

15
confines the gel and an internal pressure is developed leading to
expansion resulting in cracks and disruption of cement paste. (2)

There is another reaction that takes place between alkalis of the

cement and carbonate of aggregates known as alkali carbonate
reaction (ACR). This results in expansive materials that deteriorate
concrete. Humid condition is required for the reaction to take place.
(1) Hence the amount and type of the mineralogical content of
aggregates used in concrete production is essential for determining
the resulting quality of concrete.

2.2.4. Soundness of Aggregate

Soundness is the resistance of aggregates change in volume as a
result of changes in physical or environmental conditions such as
freezing, and altering wetting and drying. The aggregate is said to be
unsound when volume changes result in deterioration of the concrete.
This may range from local scaling and so-called pop-outs to extensive
surface cracking and to disintegration over a considerable depth, and
can thus vary from no more than impaired appearance to structurally
dangerous situation. (2)
Therefore, aggregate used for concrete production are tested for its
soundness and it should comply with the requirement set in
specification.

ES- Soundness specification on coarse aggregate: Coarse aggregate,

when subjected to five cycles of soundness test, shall not show loss in
mass exceeding 12 per cent when sodium sulphate solution is used or
18 per cent when magnesium sulphate solution is used.

ES- Soundness specification on fine aggregate: Fine aggregate, when

subjected to five cycles of soundness test, shall not show loss in mass

16
exceeding 10 percent when sodium sulphate solution is used or 15
percent when magnesium solution is used

ASTM-Soundness specification on fine aggregate: fine aggregate

subjected to five cycles of the soundness test shall have a weighted
average loss not greater than 10 % when sodium sulfate is used or 15
% when magnesium sulfate is used.

2.2.5. Grading of Aggregates

The particle size distribution of an aggregate as determined by sieve
analysis is termed grading of aggregate. If a concrete contains
aggregate of uniform size, the compacted mass will contain a lot of
voids. However, use of graded aggregate produces dense concrete and
needs less quantity of fine aggregate. Therefore, a well-graded
aggregate is required to produce quality concrete. (1)

The grading of aggregates affects the workability, which, in turn,

controls the water and cement requirements, segregation, and
influence the placing, and finishing of concrete. These factors
represent the placing and finishing of concrete and affect properties in
the important characteristics of fresh concrete as well as properties in
the hardened state. (1) Therefore aggregate has to conform to the
grading requirement of standards specified on the technical
specification.
Coarse aggregate shall consist of gravel, crushed gravel, or crushed
stone. The grading or particle size distribution of coarse and fine
aggregate on ES, BS and ASTM shall be within the limits specified in
Tables below.

17
Table2.6. ES- Grading Requirement For Coarse Aggregate
Normal size of Percentage passing through test sieves having square
graded openings
aggregate,
mm 75mm 63mm 37.5mm 19mm 13.2mm 9.5mm 4.75mm
38-5 100 - 95-100 30-70 - 10-35 0-5
19-5 - - 100 95-100 - 25-55 0-10
13-5 - - - 100 90-100 40-85 0-10

ES-fine aggregate general requirements: Fine aggregate shall consist

of natural sand obtained from the natural disintegration of rock or
sand obtained from crushed stones. The grading or particle size
distribution of fine aggregate shall be the limits specified in table 7.
The fine aggregate shall not have more than 45 percent retained
between any two consecutive sieves. The fineness modulus shall not
be less than 2.0 or more than 3.5 with a tolerance of 0.2.
Table 2.7. ASTM and ES- Grading requirement for fine aggregate

Sieve Percentage passing

9.5mm 100
4.75mm 95-100
2.36mm 80-100
1.18mm 50-85
600 25-60
300 10-30
150 2-10

ASTM- requirements for coarse aggregate: coarse aggregate shall be

graded between the limits specified and shall conform to the
requirements prescribed in table 8.

BS-grading requirements for various aggregates are graded between

the limits specified and shall conform to the requirements prescribed
in table 9.

18
Table 2.8. ASTM- requirements for coarse aggregate

19
Table 2.9. BS-grading requirements for various aggregates

20
2.2.6. Strength of Aggregate
Aggregates contribute the significance proportion of strength
possessed by concrete due to its higher modulus of elasticity as
compared to the cement paste. To have a strong concrete, the
aggregate should have high load bearing capacity and resistance to
wearing and abrasion effects. To assess the strength of aggregates, a
number of strength tests are under taken in laboratories. Some of
these are: aggregate crushing value, aggregate impact value,
Losangeles abrasion test, and ten percent fines values etc. Therefore,
aggregates in use for concrete production have to be strong that
satisfy the specified requirement.

2.3.Water
2.3.1. Introduction
Water is the most important and least expensive ingredient of
concrete. A part of mixing water is used in the hydration of cement to
form the binding matrix. The remaining serves as a lubricant between
fine and coarse aggregate and makes concrete workable. (1)

Cement requires about 30% by weight of water for hydration. But

concrete containing water in this proportion will be very harsh and
difficult to place. Hence additional water is required for workability.
However, if this additional water is present in excess, it will pose a
problem. Therefore, it must be kept to the minimum. The problems
associated with too much water in the mix are, reduction in strength,
formation of laitance on surfaces of concrete through bleeding. The
excess water may also leak through the joints of the formwork and
make the concrete honeycombed. (1)

21
2.3.2 Quality of Mixing Water
The water used for mixing and curing of concrete should be free of
materials that significantly affect concrete quality like rate of
hardening, strength and durability of concrete, or which promote
efflorescence or the rusting of steel reinforcement. Potable water is
generally considered satisfactory for mixing concrete. In the case of
doubt about the suitability of water particularly in the remote areas,
where water is derived from sources of normally utilized for domestic
purpose, water should be tested. (2)

2.3.3 Impurities in Water which Affect Concrete Properties

The effect of impurities present in mixing water are mainly expressed
in terms of the difference of the setting times and strength of cement
mixes containing impure mixing water as compared to clean fresh
water or distilled water.

The effluents from sewerage works, gas works, and from paint, textile,
sugar and fertilizer industry are harmful to concrete. Tests show that
water containing excessive amounts of dissolved salts reduces
compressive strength by 10to30% of that obtained using fresh water.
(2)

Deleterious substances which affect the quality of both the fresh and
hardened concrete that could possibly be found in impure water like
silt, clay, acids, alkalis, algae, inorganic salts and sugars should be
with in the permissible limits so that concrete quality shouldn’t be
adversely affected. Generally the ph value of water that is suitable for
concrete construction has to be in the range of 6to8.The water, which
is fit for drinking purpose, is fit for concrete production. Table 2.3
shows the limit set for impurities in mixing water. (2)

22
Table 2.10 limits of permissible impurities in water (2)
Type of impurities Permissible
percentage of solids
by weight of water
Organic 0.02
Inorganic
0.3
Sulphates 0.05
a. For plain concrete
Alkali chlorides 0.2
b. For reinforced
concrete 0.1

2.3.4. Curing Water

The water, which is satisfactory for mixing purpose, can also be used
for curing. Curing water shouldn’t produce any objectionable stain or
unsightly deposit on the surface. Iron and organic matter in the water
are chiefly responsible for staining or discoloration and especially
when concrete is subjected to prolonged wetting, even a very low
concentration of these can cause staining. (2)

2.3.5. Admixtures
Admixtures are substances or chemicals used in concrete for the
purpose of improving or imparting particular properties. The use of
admixture should offer an improvement not economically attainable
by adjusting the proportions of cement and concrete, and should not
adversely affect any property of the concrete. Admixtures are not
substitute for good concreting practice. An admixture should be
employed only after an appropriate evaluation of its effects on the
concrete that intended to be used made. It is often necessary to
conduct tests on the representative’s samples of the materials for a
particular job under simulated job conditions in order to obtain
reliable information on the properties of concrete containing
admixtures. (2)

23
The properties of concrete commonly modified are workability, rate of
hydration or setting time i.e. either accelerating or retarding the
setting time, desperation and air entertainment. Admixture is
generally added in a relatively small quantity. A certain degree of
control may be detrimental to the properties of concrete. In using any
admixture, careful attention should be given to the instructions
provided by the manufacturer of the product. (2)

2.4. Quality Control of Concrete Making Materials

2.4.1 Quality of Aggregates
Aggregates are the major component of concrete making materials.
The selection and use of any aggregate in concrete should be based on
technical criteria and moderated by economic consideration and
knowledge of types of aggregates generally available in the area. The
properties of aggregates influence the properties of both hardened and
plastic concrete. The processing and handling of aggregates affect the
properties of freshly mixed and hardened concrete. (8)

Properties of hardened concrete influenced by aggregate properties are

durability, strength, shrinkage, thermal properties, unit weight,
modulus of elasticity, surface frictional properties and economy. (8)

Properties of freshly mixed concrete as influenced by aggregates are

mix proportioning, slump and workability, pumpability, bleeding,
finishing characteristics of normal concrete, air content and other
properties. (8)

The effectiveness of quality control procedures will have an effect on

batch-to-batch or day-to-day variation in the properties of concrete.
(8)

24
As aggregates, unlike cements, are non-factory products which goes
through less controlled production process; the variation in physical
and chemical features, like shape, texture, mineral content and other
properties contribute a lot to the variability of concretes. Therefore,
aggregates need to be carefully tested and inspected. (8)

The basic laboratory tests to be conducted on fine aggregates are sieve

analysis, silt and clay content, organic impurity, unit weight, specific
gravity, water absorption, soundness test and chloride test. (3)

Similarly, tests like sieve analysis, Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV),

Losangeles Abrasion Test (LAT), clay lump & friable particles, dust
content, unit weight, specific gravity, water absorption and soundness
tests are conducted on coarse aggregates. (3)

2.4.1.1. Sieve Analysis

Since gradation or particle size distribution significantly affects the
compactability of aggregates, it generally determines the quality of
concrete. Therefore, concrete produced from a well-graded aggregate
have less voids, which implies concretes having higher strength and
lower permeability and porosity. Similarly, the grading of aggregates
has influence on the properties of fresh concrete especially on
workability, placing and finishing properties of concrete. Hence
gradation tests have to seriously taken to be made to insure the
compliance of the distribution of aggregate size complies with the
requirement stated by standard specification.

2.4.1.2. Tests on Deleterious Substances

In order to determine the quantity and availability of unwanted
deleterious materials, the following tests should be conducted. Clay
lump &friable particles content, dust content, silt & clay content, and

25
tests for organic impurities are made for fine and coarse aggregate. In
clay lumps, many specifications, including ASTM specification C-33
place rigorous limitation on the permissible percentage of clay lump in
aggregate. The harmfulness of such particles depends up on their
surviving and thawing or wetting and drying to produce unsightly pits
or pop outs. (10).

Clay coating in aggregates interfere with the bond between cement

paste and aggregate, which inhibits the development of satisfactory
strength and durability of concrete and also it may result in disruptive
expansion on freezing or during exposure to water. (2) Excessive
amount of dust and silt increases the water consumption, there by
reducing the strength and durability of concrete. When organic
impurities are available in significant amount in concrete aggregates,
it interferes with the chemical hydration reaction, which is
determinant to the strength gain in concretes. (2) Hence tests of
deleterious materials have to be seriously taken to make sure that
their contents comply with the requirements stated by the standards.

2.4.1.3. Chloride Test

The presence of soluble chloride salts in aggregates of concretes
causes corrosion of reinforcement and efflorescence. Hence it is good
to check the presence of sulphates and other unwanted chemicals
that has a potential to deteriorate concretes as a result of the
formation of expansive compound due to the reaction, which takes
place between sulphates and C3A cements. (3)

2.4.1.4. Specific Gravity Test

Specific gravity is required for calculation of the yield of concrete or of
the quantity of aggregate required for a given volume of concrete. The
specific gravity of an aggregate gives valuable information on the

26
quality and properties. It is seen that the higher the specific gravity of
an aggregate, the harder and the stronger it will be. (1) Standard
procedures for the determination of the bulk specific gravity of coarse
and fine aggregates are given in various standard specifications.

2.4.1.5. Unit Weight Test.

The unit weight of a concrete aggregate is the weight of a unit volume
of representative particles. The unit weight determination provides a
method for classifying aggregates as light weight, normal weight, or
heavy weight such a classification serves to indicate whether the
weight of the aggregate qualifies it as a suitable material for special
use. Unit weight is specified as a measure of quality of some
aggregates and is used as a factor in some methods of designing
concrete proportions. The uniformity of unit weight may also be of
interest either as a direct measure of quality because of its influence
on the quality control of concrete. Since concrete proportion are
influenced by the workability of the mixture, it follows that the unit
weight determination measures properties of aggregates which can
affect the final quality of concrete. (11)

2.4.1.6. Water absorption

The absorption capacity is a measure of the porosity of an aggregate.
If the aggregate is dry, it absorbs water, which does not take part in
the reactions and also in lubrication of particles. Thus workability is
likely to be reduced and water-cement ratio is also altered. It is,
therefore, always necessary to make allowance for water absorption
while calculating total water to be added to the mixes. (9)

27
2.4.1.7. Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV)
The aggregate crushing value gives a relative measure of the
resistance of an aggregate to crushing under a gradually applied load.
The standard aggregate crushing test shall be made on aggregate
passing a 14 mm BS (12.5mm ASTM) test sieve and retained on a
10.0mm BS (10 mm ASTM) test sieve. (3)

2.4.1.8. Abrasion Test

This test give a measure of the resistance of aggregates to surface
wears by abrasion. The most widely used abrasion test is the
Losangeles abrasion test (LAT). The LAT value is the percentage of
fines passing the 1.18mm (BS) or 1.7mm(ASTM) sieve that gives the
abrasion resistance of the aggregates are quickly ground to dust while
hard aggregates lose little mass. (1)

2.4.1.9. Soundness Test

This method covers the testing of aggregates to determine their
resistance to disintegration by saturated solutions of sodium sulphate
or magnesium sulphate. It furnishes information helpful in judging
the soundness of aggregates subject to weathering action, particularly
when adequate information is not available from service records of the
material exposed to actual weathering conditions.(1)

2.5.Concrete Production
2.5.1 Introduction
Only a good concrete mix design is not sufficient in getting the
intended concrete quality product, rather the concrete placed in a
structure must be of uniform quality, free of voids and discontinuities,
and adequately cured. Hence, the proper execution of the operations
in the production process namely, batching, mixing, transportation,

28
placing, compaction, finishing and curing are important in attaining
the desired quality.

Concrete production is a scientific process that is based on some

established principles and governs the properties of concrete mixes in
fresh as well as in hardened state. The various phases of the
production processes stated above will be discussed in detail in the
succeeding section with the consequent impact on concrete quality.

2.5.2 Batching
For solid granular materials, such as aggregates and cements,
batching is best done by weight. Only water and liquid admixtures
can be measured accurately by volume. Batching by weight also
follows rapid and convenient adjustments of aggregates and water
contents when changes in aggregates moisture contents occurs.(1)

In volume batching, solid ingredients are measured by loose volume

using measuring boxes, wheelbarrows, etc. In batching by loose
volume allowances has to be made for the moisture present in sand,
which results in its bulking and adjustments to the amount of water
depending on the absorption capacity and the free moisture content of
the sand and the coarse aggregates. (1)

In volume batching, it is generally advisable to set the volumes in

terms of whole bags of cement. Fractional bags lead to variable
proportions, resulting in concretes of variable strength in successive
batches. Before the batching operations are started; the engineer-in-
charge should check the batch box volumes. When filling the boxes,
the material should be loosely filled in to the box and struck off, and
no compaction is to be allowed.

29
During batching, quantities should be measured with a high degree of
accuracy. Batching could be done in one of the following methods,
manually, use of semiautomatic equipment or fully automatic
equipment.
Manual batching is acceptable for small jobs of up to 400m3 and
having low batching rates up to 15m3/hr; otherwise, semiautomatic
or automatic batching should be used.

The Ethiopia building code of standard (EBCS, Part 2) recommends

on batching of concrete:
i. The quantity of cement, the quantity of fine aggregate and the
quantities of the various sizes of coarse aggregate shall be
measured by weight except that aggregates may be measured by
volume for class 2 concrete or for standard mixes.
ii. The batch weights of aggregates shall be adjusted to allow for
moisture content typical of the aggregates being used.

2.5.3 Mixing Time and its Impact on Concrete Quality

On a site, there is often a tendency to mix concrete as rapidly, and it
is, therefore, important to know the minimum mixing time necessary
to produce a concrete of uniform in composition and of satisfactory
strength. The time of mixing varies with the type of mixer and also on
its size. The ASTM minimum mixing time in relation to capacity of
mixer is indicated in table2.11.

30
Table 2.11. Mixing time standards
Capacity of mixer Mixing times, in min.
(m3) American concrete institute and ASTM
standard C94-78a

0.8 1
1.5 11/4
2.3 11/2
3.1 13/4
3.8 2
4.6 21/4
7.6 31/4

The mixing time is counted from the time when all the solid materials
have been put in the mixer, and it is usual to specify all the water has
to be added not later than after one quarter of the mixing time. (m) On
the other hand, the Ethiopia building code of standard recommends
on mixing that the mixing shall be carried out in such a way that the
constituent materials are uniformly distributed and the mixture has
uniform workability. (4)

2.5.4 Transport of Concrete

Concrete from mixer should be transported to the point where it has
to be placed as rapidly as possible by a method, which prevents
segregation or loss of ingredients. The concrete has to be placed
before setting has commenced. A maximum of two hours between
mixing and discharge of concrete is permitted, if the concrete is
transported in a truck mixer or agitator. In the absence of agitator,
the time is reduced to one hour only. This maximum permitted time
lapse between mixing and discharging holds if the concrete
temperature is between 5ºC and 32ºC. Delayed concrete
transportation may result in the formation of poor planes, cold joints
or construction joints between the interface of previously placed and

31
newly placed concrete. Such joints are susceptible to water leakage
and structural parts. (4)

In case when the mixing and placing locations are far apart or
transportation of concrete takes longer time, the use of retarding
admixture could help in increasing the setting time by two to four
hours and reducing water requirement by 5 to 10 percent.(4)

The prevention of segregation is the most important consideration in

handling and transporting concrete. The segregation should be
prevented and corrected before its occurrence. Ensuring that the
direction of fall during the damping or dropping of concrete is vertical
can prevent segregation. When the discharge is at an angle, the larger
aggregate is thrown at the far side of the container being charged and
the mortar is collected at the near side, thus resulting in segregation.

The Ethiopia building code of standard recommends the following on

transporting of fresh concrete transporting:
i. Concrete shall be transported from the mixer to the formwork
as rapidly as practicable by methods, which will prevent the
segregation or loss of the ingredients, and maintain the required
workability.
ii. It shall be deposited as nearly as practicable in its position to
avoid re-handling.

2.5.5 Placement of Concrete

The method used in placing concrete in its final position has an
important effect on its homogeneity, density and behavior in service.

The concrete should be placed in its final position as rapidly as

possible so that it is not too stiff to work. Water should not be added

32
after the concrete has left the mixer. When placing the concrete, care
should be taken to drop the concrete vertically and from not too great
height. (1)

The surface against which the fresh concrete is to be placed must be

examined as to their possible effect in absorbing mixing water. For
example, sub grade should be compacted and thoroughly dampened
to prevent loss of moisture from concrete.

During concreting slab, the batches of concrete should be placed

against or towards preceding ones, not away from them. Batches
should not be dumped in separate individual piles.

The Ethiopia building code of standard recommends the following on

placing of concrete:
i. Concrete shall be placed soon after mixing and thoroughly
compacted during the operation of placing. It shall be
thoroughly worked around the reinforcement, tendons or duct
formers, around embedded fixtures and into corners of
formwork to form a solid mass from voids.
ii. Care shall be taken to avoid the displacement of reinforcement
or movement of formwork and damage to faces of formwork.
iii. In order to avoid segregation, the free fall of concrete mass shall
be restricted to a maximum of three meters.
iv. If concrete temperatures as placed are expected to be
abnormally high, preparation shall be made to place,
consolidate and finish the concrete at the fastest possible rate.
v. For best assurance of good results with concrete placing in hot
weather, the initial concrete placement should be limited
between 25ºC and 40ºC. Every effort shall be made to keep the
concrete temperature uniform.

33
vi. Under extreme conditions of high ambient temperature,
exposure to direct rays of the sun, low humidity, and wind, is
suggested to restrict concrete placement to late afternoon or
evening.

The effect of delay in placement of concrete varies with the richness of

the mix and the initial slump.

When concrete in a lift hardens before the next lift can be placed, a
weak layer called cold joint or construction joint is formed. This is one
the serious problems of extreme delay of concrete placement. (1)

The Ethiopia building code of standard recommends on placement of

concrete construction joints to be at right angle to the general
direction of the member and shall take due account of shear and
other stress.

2.5.6 Compaction of Concrete

Compaction of concrete is one of the most important concrete phases
that determines both the strength and durability of concretes. For
good quality concrete, after placement, the concrete should be worked
to eliminate voids and entrapped air and to consolidate the concrete
into the corners of the forms and around the reinforcing steel. Most
concrete compacted by vibration allows stiffer mixes to be used and
generally leads to better consolidation and a superior finish. (1)

However, over vibration brings excess paste to the surface, enhance

bleeding, and causes loss of entertained air. The presence of 5 percent
of voids in improperly or insufficiently compacted concrete reduces
the strength by as much as 30 percent. (1)

34
The two most common methods of compacting concrete are using
mechanical vibration and hand roding.

The Ethiopia building code of standard recommends the following on

concrete compacting. When vibrators are used to compact the
concrete, vibration shall be applied continuously during the placing of
each batch of concrete until the expulsion of air ceased and in a
manner, which does not promote segregation of the ingredients.

2.5.7 Curing of Concrete

Theoretically, there is enough water in concrete to ensure complete
hydration without additional water being supplied apart from the
water added during mixing. However, in practice a significant loss of
water due to evaporation or by absorption of water by aggregates,
formwork or sub grade is observed. Hence, in order to obtain good
concrete, curing in a suitable environment during the early stages of
hardening must follow the placing of an appropriate mix. In addition,
evaporation can cause early and rapid drying shrinkage, resulting in
tensile stress, which is likely to cause cracking unless the concrete
has achieved sufficient strength to withstand these stresses. (1)

Evaporation of water from concrete after placing depends on the

temperature, relative humidity of the surrounding air and velocity of
wind, which affects change of air over the surface of the concrete

There are various methods adopted for curing. These are direct
provisions of water or moisture, preventing evaporation by providing
impervious cover or by spraying chemical compounds, forming
membrane and the method that accelerates strength gain by providing
heat and moisture. The last technique of curing, i.e. curing with heat

35
and moisture is mainly used with the production of prefabricated
element and some times for testing concretes on production sites.

To develop design strength, the concrete has to be cured up to 28

days with the normal curing techniques that is with direct supply of
water.

Exposed surface of concrete containing ordinary or standard Portland

cement is kept continually moist cured for at least 7 days. Concretes
containing high early strength cements require less time, about half
the time required for OPC. For pozzolana or blast furnace slag
cements (slow hardening cements), two to three times more than OPC.
(1)

The Ethiopia building code of standard recommends the following on

curing of concrete.
i. In hot weather there is great need for continuous curing,
preferably by water. The need is greatest during the first few
hours, and throughout the first day after the concrete is placed.
ii. In hot weather, forms shall be covered and kept moist. During
form removal, care shall be taken to provide wet cover to newly
exposed surfaces to avoid exposure to hot sun and wind. 10 days
is recommended for curing period.

2.6.Quality Control of Concrete

2.6.1. Introduction
Concrete is generally produced in batches at the site with the locally
available materials of variable characteristics. It is, therefore, likely to
be variable from one batch to another. The magnitude of this variation
depends upon several factors, such as variation in the quality of
constituent materials; variation in mix proportions due to batching

36
process; variation in the quality of batching and mixing equipment
available; the quality of overall workmanship and supervision at the
site. Moreover, concrete undergoes a number of operations, such as
transportation, placing, compacting and curing. During these
operations considerable variations occur partly due to quality of plant
available and partly due to differences in the efficiency of techniques
used. The main factors causing variations in concrete quality control
are the personnel, the materials and equipment, & the workmanship
in all stages of concreting, i.e. batching of materials, mixing,
transportation, placing, compaction, curing, and finally testing and
inspection. (1)

2.6.2. Personnel
The basic requirement for the success of any quality control is the
availability of experienced, knowledgeable and trained personnel at all
levels. The designer and the specification-writer should have the
knowledge of construction operations as well. The site engineer
should be able to comprehend the specification stipulations.
Everything in quality control cannot be codified or specified and much
depends upon the attitude and orientation of people involved. In fact,
quality must be a discipline imbibed in the mind and there should be
strong motivation to do every thing right the firs time. (1)

2.6.3. Material, Equipment and Workmanship

Grading, maximum size, shape, and moisture content of the aggregate
are the major sources of variability. Aggregate should be separately
stock piled in single sizes. The graded aggregate should not be allowed
to segregate.

The water used for mixing concrete should be free from silt, organic
matter, alkali, and suspended impurities. Sulphates and chlorides in

37
water should not exceed the permissible limits. Generally, water fit for
drinking may be used for mixing concrete.

The equipment used for batching, mixing and vibration should be of

the right capacity. Weight-batchers should be frequently checked for
their accuracy. Mixer’s performance should be checked for conformity
to the requirements of the relevant standards. Concrete should be
mixed for the required time. Both under mixing and over mixing
should be avoided. The vibrators should have the required frequency
and amplitude of vibration.

The green concrete should be handled, transported and placed in

such a manner that it does not get segregated. The time interval
between mixing and placing the concrete should be reduced to the
minimum possible. Anticipated target of strength, impermeability and
durability of concrete can be achieved only by through and adequate
compaction. One per cent of the air voids left in concrete due to
incomplete compaction can lower the compressive strength by nearly
five percent. Adequate curing is essential for handling and
development of strength of concrete. (1)

2.6.4. Field Control

Inspection and testing play a vital role in the overall quality control
plan. Inspection could be of two types, quality inspection and
acceptance inspection. Apart from the test on concrete materials,
concrete can be tested both in the fresh and hardened stages. Of
these two, the tests on fresh concrete offer some opportunity for
necessary corrective actions to be taken before it is too late. These
include test on workability, unit weight or air content (where air-
entrained concrete is used), etc. Accelerated strength tests by which a

38
reliable idea about the potential 28 – day strength can be obtained
within few hours, are effective quality control tools. (1)

2.7.Quality Management in Concrete Construction

Quality means to measure the degree of excellence, does in fact
measure the degree of fulfillment. (1)

In the industrial climate, particularly in manufacturing and

processing industry, the concept of quality management is age old
and is extremely used, where as it is recent in concrete construction
industry.

Today we are interested not only in 28-day cube strength, but also in
its variability. The word characteristic has now come to stay in the
codes of practice. The characteristics value approach gives insight and
underlines the importance of quality assurance. (1)

Apart from the strength of concrete, the other important area of

concern is durability of concrete. A great deal of attention has been
focused on this and concrete technologists have come up with many
effective suggestions. Some of them are stated below.
i. Use of minimum quantities of cement.
ii. Drastic reduction in water-cement ratio maintaining the
workability by use of plasticizers.
iii. Use of pozzolanas
iv. Use of low-heat cement, and
v. The most important of all is a good quality control in design,
testing and production of concrete

39
2.7.1. Management of Uncertainties
2.7.1.1.Primary Uncertainties
All the structures have probabilities of failure in spite of being
designed to carry the loads safely because in the probabilistic design
approach, the design variables such as loads, material strength, etc
are considered as random variables. Hence the probability of such
occurrence of a very large or a very small value is never zero; the
probability of such occurrence, may however, be very small. Thus
whenever, the load variable exceeds the strength variable a failure
situation occurs. If by applying a better quality control the standard
deviation of mix is reduced, where by the probability of failure will be
reduced. (1)

2.7.1.2. Secondary Uncertainties

The secondary uncertainties are introduced during both the design
and construction phases. Selection of in appropriate design condition,
use of inapplicable site data, injudicious assumption regarding
boundary conditions and other data in design introduces secondary
uncertainties. During construction, more secondary uncertainties are
introduced. An example for such case is use of inappropriate
materials, violation of design conditions and incorrect interpretation
of designer requirements, etc. Thus the level of confidence, which may
be, viewed as a measure of closeness of analytical model influences
the probability of failure. (1)

Although the odds of primary uncertainties can be taken care of by

allowing for the randomness of the design variables, proven analytical
approach is available with the present state-of the art to increase the
level of confidence against the effect of secondary uncertainties. It is
therefore, imperative that a systematic implementation of quality

40
management system in design, manufacture and construction is a
must as to produce safe and reliable structures. (1)

2.7.2. Quality Management System (QMS)

QMS is the management and control system document having three
elements. Quality assurance (QA) plans implementation of quality
control (QC) process and quality audit (QA) system of tracking and
documentation of quality assurance and quality control programmes.
QMS ensures that the intended degree of excellence is attained. The
owner or his representative formulates the policy, determines the
scope of quality planning and quality management, establishes the
relationship between the various participating agencies and delegates
responsibilities and authorities to them so that the quality objectives
as set by owner are achieved. It must be understood that QMS cannot
be developed in the inception. QMS has to undergo stages of
development as various project phases such as design, procurement
of materials, inspection, erection and commissioning are entered into
with more and more agencies being involved and interfaces take place.
(1)

2.7.2.1. Quality Assurance

It is planned and systematic pattern of all actions necessary to
provide adequate confidence that a product will conform to
established requirements. It is a systematic of procedures for selecting
the levels of quality required for a project or a portion they’re of to
perform the functions intended and assuring that those levels are
obtained. QA is thus the responsibility of the owner/user to ensure
that consultants follow codes and sound engineering practices and
that contractors and suppliers of materials comply with the contract
requirement. QA program developed by each agency responsible to the
extent of its contractual obligation must contain the polices,

41
procedures and method to be followed such that the quality objectives
laid down by the owner in his QA plan are fully met. The QA activity
has to start right at the planning and design stage. (1)

2.7.2.2.Quality Control (QC)

It implements the quality plan by those actions necessary for
conformance to the established requirements. It is the system of
procedure and standards by which a contractor, product
manufacturer, material processor or the like monitors the properties
of finished work.

QC is the responsibility of the contracting organization. The

contracting organization is also responsible for QC activities related to
its sub-contractor. QC starts with the construction. (1)

2.7.2.3 Quality Audit (QA)

This is a system of tacking and documentation of Quality assurance
and Quality control programs. Quality audit is the responsibility of
the owner, and has to be performed at regular intervals through the
tenure of the project. Quality audit covers both the design as well as
the construction phases. Thus the concept of quality management
encompasses a total project and each element of that project. (1)

42
3. Research Methodology
The research methodology is structured in theoretical exploring of
relevant topics in quality of concrete making materials &
workmanship in concrete production through questionnaires and on
site observations. The methods adopted in conducting the research
are:
1. The literature survey includes Concrete-making materials,
Quality control of concrete making materials, Concrete
production, Quality control of concrete and Quality
management in concrete construction.

2. Design questionnaires and distribute to site engineers of the

contractors around Addis Ababa. The questionnaires are
designed to be uniform to all contractors. These questionnaires
are distributed with preamble on the topic as objective of the
research. The questionnaires are structured to focus on the
quality standards of concrete making materials; standards used
in the specification of contract documents & laboratory tests
made to control the quality of materials. Moreover, their opinion
and what should have to be done to improve the quality of
concrete making materials and workmanship.

3. On site observation of workmanship in the production of

concrete. The site observation is needed to check the
compliance of the workmanship on site is according to the
standard stated in Ethiopian building codes of standards (EBCS
2) concrete construction rules.

4. Collecting test results of coarse and fine aggregates. Test results

will be collected from projects under investigation and data kept

43
 in laboratories so that the compliance of the test results with
the standards will be checked.

5. Analysis of the responses from questionnaires, test results &

site observations. Analyzing the information gathered through
questionnaires, from test results and on site observations. Then
make a subjective assessment on the current quality standards
of concrete making materials and concrete production practices
with respect to the recommended scientific approaches of the
literatures and also to make a quantitative evaluation of the
level of concrete making materials and quality control on
building construction sites of the investigated projects. Hence,
the analysis was carried out based on the responses of the
participants.

6. Conclusion will be made from the analysis made through

gathered questionnaires, test results and on site observations.

7. Recommendations to the quality standards of concrete making

materials and workmanship in the production of concrete will
be given.

44
4. Results and Discussions
Introduction
The analysis of the research is carried out by data collected from the
laboratory, information gathered through questioners and observation
on building construction sites. The questionnaires are collected from
seventeen active projects. While test results are obtained from two
contractors and sample data from AAU technology faculty south,
Material Research and Testing Department. More over site
observations on workmanship were conducted on nine projects. The
investigation is carried out in various parts of Addis Ababa and on
various types of construction projects. The names of the contractors
and projects are not given in order to keep the privacy of the
companies.

As the quality of concrete is affected both by the quality of concrete

making materials and workmanship in the production process, each
concrete ingredient and every production process are thoroughly seen.
The test results are also analyzed and their compliance with the
requirement of various codes and standards is evaluated.

4.1.Quality Standards of Concrete Making Materials

4.1.1. Quality Standards of Aggregates
The major sources of fine aggregate of the conducted projects are
Langano, Koka, Meki, Mojo, Debrezeit, Alemtena, Dukem, Soderie,
Zewaye, Chancho, Wolenchite, and Crushed stone from Chinese
Supplier in Addis Ababa. However, the major suppliers of coarse
aggregate of the conducted projects are Tikury Abay Crushing
Supplier, Yerer Crushing supplier, Chinese Supplier in Addis Ababa,
Akaki crushed aggregate suppliers, Kality supplier, Yencomad crusher
site, Ethiopian Road Authority, and Bole Bulbula supplier.

45
Various aggregate sources are observed for the investigated projects.
Most of these projects have used materials, which can be obtained
nearer to the location of the projects. However, when aggregates are
brought from different quarry sites and river deposits, the
mineralogical contents of aggregates and the presence of other
deleterious substances like salts and sulphates are not tested.

There is an observation that the coarse aggregate used for concrete

production is crushed whereas the fine aggregate is either crushed,
natural sand or a mixture of crushed and natural sand. But the use
of natural sand as fine aggregate is found out to be very common as
shown on table 4.1. The higher consumption of natural sand, in 47.06
% of the projects, is due to the easiness of obtaining these materials
economically. However, 29.41 and 23.53 % of the projects use
crushed aggregate sand and a combination of natural sand & crushed
aggregates respectively, as a fine aggregate.

Table 4.1.Types of fine aggregates

Types of fine aggregates Projects in %
Natural sand only 47.06
Crushed fine aggregate only 29.41
Mixed crushed fine aggregate
and natural sand 23.53

The coarse aggregates have passed through a number of tests. The

tests conducted in all projects under investigation are sieve analysis,
Aggregate crushing value, Losangeles abrasion, clay lump & friable
particles, dust content, unit weight, specific gravity, water absorption
and soundness test.

46
Table 4.2. Tests conducted for coarse aggregates
Test types conducted Percent of projects of
for coarse aggregates conducted the test
Sieve analysis 88.24
Dust content 29.41
Losangeles abrasion
(LA) 23.53
Unit weight 23.53
Specific gravity 23.53
Water absorption 23.53
Clay lump & friable
particles 23.53
Soundness test 11.76
Flakiness index 5.88
Aggregate crushing
value (ACV) 5.88

The fine aggregates have passed through a number of tests. The

various tests conducted in all projects under investigation are sieve
analysis, silt & clay content, organic impurity, unit weight, specific
gravity, water absorption, soundness and chloride test.
Sieve analysis is conducted on 88.24 % and 88.24 % of the projects
for fine and coarse aggregates respectively as shown on Table 4.2 and
Table 4.3.

Aggregate crushing value (ACV) and Losangeles abrasion test (LAT)

are conducted to assess the strength of coarse aggregates in bearing
various loads and showing resistance of aggregates to weathering.
Among the investigated projects, only 5.88 % of the projects conduct
ACV test and 23.53 % of the projects conduct LAT test.

47
Table 4.3. Tests conducted for fine aggregates
Test of types Percent of projects of
conducted for fine conducted the test
aggregates
Sieve analysis 88.24
Silt and clay content 58.82
Organic impurities 52.94
Unit weight 17.65
Specific gravity 17.65
Water absorption 11.76
Soundness test 5.88
Chloride test 0.00

To determine the quality and availability of unwanted deleterious

materials, the following tests are conducted. Determination of the
amount of friable particles, and dust content are conducted on 23.53
% of the projects. Clay coating on coarse aggregate interfere with the
bond between cement paste and aggregate, which inhibits the
development of satisfactory strength and durability of concrete,
resulting in disruptive expansion on freezing or during exposure to
water. (3) Excessive amount of dust and silt increases the water
consumption, there by reducing the strength and durability of
concrete. For fine aggregates, the silt and clay content test is made on
58.82 % of the projects while organic impurity test is conducted on
52.94 % of the projects. When organic impurities are available in
significant amount in fine aggregates, it interferes with the chemical
hydration reaction, which is determinant in the strength gaining
property of concrete.

The presence of soluble chloride salts in aggregates causes corrosion

of reinforcement and efflorescence. (2) Among the conducted tests, all
of the projects have not made any test to check the presence of
sulphates and other unwanted chemicals that have a potential to
deteriorate concretes especially in the formation of expansive

48
compound due to the reaction, which takes place between sulphates
and C3A of cements. (2)

Unit weight, specific gravity and water absorption capacity tests help
assessing the quality of aggregates and also in determining the
proportion of materials during mixing. Aggregates showing high water
absorption capacity require lots of water in excess of that needed for
hydrating the cement. Among the conducted projects, it is observed
that 17.65 % of the projects conduct unit weight, 17.65 % of the
projects conduct specific gravity, and 11.76 % of the projects conduct
water absorption.

Flakiness index test is conducted only for 5.88 % of the projects. As

flakiness is one of the characteristics of defective aggregate, the
presence of such an aggregate leaves significant amount of void in
concrete with a consequent decrease in the compressive strength.
Hence, it has to be limited as per the allowable values stated on
standards.

Tests for aggregate discussed in the preceding parts are carried out
either once or more than once for a source. Among the conducted
projects, which take samples of aggregates to be tested once, are
23.53 % of the projects. The remaining, 76.47 % of the projects,
conduct tests more than a time as indicated on table4.4.

Table 4.4. Testing frequencies on aggregates

Testing frequencies Projects in
percent
Only once when it comes from the
source 23.53
Once when it comes from the source
and then depending on conditions 76.47

49
Since most of the projects are not willing to give their material test
results, only two out of the seventeen projects inspected were willing
to show their results. With this limitation, this test result discussion
is limited to tests conducted at Addis Ababa University Faculty of
Technology (south) Materials Research & Testing department. Eleven
such test results were obtained from the above testing department
and two additional among the conducted projects.

The tests conducted among the projects under investigation are sieve
analysis, Silt and clay content, Organic impurities content, Unit
weight test (loose and compacted), Los Angeles abrasion, Specific
gravity, Water absorption & Dust content. However it was found out
that only two projects have conducted all the above types of tests.

Sieve analysis is conducted and checked to comply with the

requirements of standards specified in the technical specification
(ASTM C-33 & ES CD3.201) on 46.15% and 76.92% of the projects for
coarse and fine aggregate respectively. The results obtained are shown
in table 4.5 and 4.6. From the above projects 16.67% and 30.0% for
coarse and fine aggregate satisfied the required standard respectively.

As observed on table 4.5 and 4.6, only 15.38% of the projects conduct
Losangeles abrasion test, from this test 100% of the result comply
with the standard.

The values of unit weight, specific gravity & water absorption tests
help in assessing the quality of aggregates and also in determining the
proportion of materials during mixing. From the investigation 23.08%
and 38.46% of the projects conduct unit weight test for coarse and
fine aggregates respectively, while 30.77% and 38.46% of the projects
conducted Specific gravity & Water absorption for both coarse and

50
 fine aggregates respectively and all of them satisfied the standard
requirements.

Table4.5. Types of tests conducted for coarse aggregates and their

compliance to the standard.

Types of tests conducted for Projects in

coarse aggregate percent
Sieve analysis 46.15
Water absorption 38.46
Specific gravity 30.77
Unit weight test 23.08
Los Angeles abrasion 15.38
Dust content 15.38

Table4.6. Types of tests conducted for fine aggregates and their

compliance to the standard.
Types of tests conducted for
fine aggregate Projects in percent
Sieve analysis 76.92
Silt and clay content 69.23
Organic impurities content 61.54
Unit weight test 38.46
Water absorption 38.46
Specific gravity 30.77

To determine the availability of unwanted deleterious materials 15.38%,

69.23% and 61.54% of the projects conduct dust content for coarse
aggregate, silt and clay content and organic impurities for fine aggregate
respectively and all of them satisfied the standard requirements.

51
Among the respondents, 47.06 % are satisfied with the quality of the
aggregates. However, the remaining 52.94 % are not satisfied with the
quality of aggregates.

Table 4.7. Respondent’s satisfaction on quality of aggregates

Percent of satisfied Percent of unsatisfied
respondent respondent
47.06 52.94

It was observed that contractors would do the followings, if quality of

aggregates does not meet the standard specification:
• Make adjustments to upgrade the quality of aggregates e.g.
washing, blending or using them for lower grade works like lean
concrete.
• If the failure is due to clay/mud, washing could be a solution.
But if it is due to other defects, they will reject the aggregate.
• If it happens due to either crusher defect or from the source,
they will change the source.
• If it does not satisfy the requirements, it will be removed within
24 hours from the site.
• For sand, washing or shifting the purpose to lower grade work,
but for the coarse aggregates it has to be rejected.
• Even if it does not satisfy the requirement in the specification in
the contract, they use it for the intended purpose

In order to get better quality of aggregates, the following important

points are recommended by respondents.
• There must be strong supervision on construction sites.
• The concerned government body should strictly follow up the
quality of crushing machines.

52
 • The quarry has to be studied carefully before starting producing
aggregates and it has to get appropriate certificate.
• Stocking problems are most common at construction site,
therefore, it is important to select appropriate place.
• Appropriate aggregate tests according to the standards have to
be made according to the standards.
• Most of the crushing machines are very old; therefore they have
to be replaced by modern crusher.
• Aggregates should be prepared with efficient crushers and
professionals shall inspect quarries.
• The quality control should be free from corruption.
• The concerned body should give focus on which quarry should
be selected for the specified quality of work.
• Controlling of rock quarry from mixing with overburden and
weathered rocks.
• Appropriate Protection of stockpiles from contamination should
be given after conducting the first test until time of usage.
• Aggregate stones have different character from place to place,
hence, the quarry place should be carefully studied

Among the conducted projects, it is observed that 47.06 % of the

projects use ES (Ethiopian standard) for specification and 29.41 % of
the projects use ASTM (American standard) for specification. However,
11.76 % of the projects use both BS& ASTM and the remaining 11.76
% of the projects use both ES, BS& ASTM for specification as
indicated on table 4.8.

53
Table 4.8. Percentages of user on standard specification
Specification type Percent of users
ES (Ethiopian standard) 47.06
BS (British standard) 0.00
ASTM (American standard) 29.41
Both BS& ASTM 11.76
Both ES, BS& ASTM 11.76

4.1.2 Quality Standards of Cement

There are two common cement types used in construction projects
under consideration. These are OPC and PPC. Their source is from the
three factories located in different parts of the country. These are
Mugher, Mossebo and Addis Ababa cement factories. When the usage
of these two cements are observed on seventeen projects that have
given their response on the type cement using for concrete, it was
observed that OPC consumption is higher. 52.94 % of projects have
been using OPC cement for concrete production, 23.53 % PPC and the
rest 23.53 percent of the projects used either OPC or PPC cement see
table 4.9.

Table 4.9 Usage of Portland cements among conducted projects

Types of cement Percentage of
respondents
OPC 52.94
PPC 23.53
Both PPC and OPC 23.53

The reason for most projects using OPC cement as explained by

resident engineers of the projects is due to the faster strength gain
capability compared to PPC. However such assumption does not have
any scientific ground. PPC is better cement particularly when
durability is of special interest. The only problem with use of PPC is
its lower rate of strength gain. (3)

54
The date of production of cements produced in Ethiopia is not
specified and written on the packing paper; hence the age of cement
used for concrete production on construction sites is not exactly
known.

Among the conducted projects, it was observed that no test was

conducted for the cement to check the quality of cement. Therefore,
this is considered as one of the problems that could seriously affect
the quality of concrete.

4.1.3 Quality Standards of Water

Among the conducted projects, 88.24 percent of the projects use tap
water for concrete mixing, however, the other 5.88 percent of the
projects use drilled water (ground water) and the remaining 5.88
percent of the projects use either tap or drilled water (ground water).
From the seventeen investigated projects, only two projects use non
tap water for concrete. Between these two projects, only the one
project conducts PH, Chloride and Sulphate content test on non-tap
water.

It is well known that, drinking water could be used for mixing purpose
without any test; however, when water is brought from sources like
river and drilled water well of the ground, it should be tested. This is
because non-visually observed dissolved salts and other impurities,
could have a negative impact on the quality both fresh and hardened
concrete.

55
Table 4.10. Type of water used for concrete mixing

Type of water Percentage of

respondents
Tap water 88.24
River water Nil
Drilled well (ground
water) 5.88
Both tap and Drilled
well (ground water) 5.88

4.2 Production of Concretes

4.2.1 Concrete Mix Preparations
Among the conducted projects most follow designed mix proportions
while some follow mix proportions that are commonly adopted to
prepare concrete fresh. 76.47 % of projects adopt properly designed
mix proportions, while the remaining 23.53 % adopt the commonly
available nominal mix design as shown in table 4.10.

Table 4.11. Method of concrete mix proportioning

Method of concrete mix Percentage of
proportion respondents
Following designed mix
proportions 76.47
The commonly available
nominal mix 23.53
Following arbitrary mix Nil
proportions

4.2.2. Batching and Mixing of Concretes

Concrete ingredients on sites are batched either using volume or
weight. In volume batching, boxes of the given capacity are
constructed manually on sites for coarse and fine aggregates. The box
sizes are decided per 50 Kg or 1 sack of cement, in accordance with
the proportion specified in mix design. In weight batching, automatic
batching plants weigh and feed to the mixing plant as per the mass
set by the mix design. Among the conducted projects, 94.12 % of the

56
projects follow batching while the remaining 5.88 % of the projects
follow weight batching as indicated in table. 4.11.

Table 4.12. Concrete mixing batching technique

Batching techniques Percent of users
By weight 5.88
By volume 94.12

It is well known that batching is done best by weight. It allows rapid

and convenient adjustment of aggregates and water when a change in
aggregates moisture content occurs. The other important advantage of
weight batching is that there is no adjustment required for bulking of
sand, which has to be carefully handled in volume batching.

Table 4.13. Adjustments on volume batching

Batching Percentage of Percentage of respondents
techniques respondents making making adjustments
no adjustments
By volume 81.25 18.75

It is found out from the respondents that among projects adopting

volume-batching techniques, 81.25 % of the projects do not make any
adjustments, while the remaining 18.75 % of the projects have been
making adjustments to sand bulking and/or the moisture content in
aggregates. This shows that, there is negligence on adjusting the
quantities of aggregates on construction sites. Most of the time, the
aggregates are left open outside; hence, during the rainy season,
aggregates have excess water or free moisture on their surface and
during dry season aggregates need additional water to be saturated.
In volume batching, in addition to adjusting the amount of water,
bulking of sand should also be considered.

57
From the conducted projects 82.35 % of the projects use mixer for
concrete mixing. But 11.76 % of the projects mix concrete manually,
the remaining 5.88 % of the projects mix concrete Using mixer and
manually.

Table 4.14. Method of concrete mixing

Method of concrete Percentage of
mixing respondents
Manually 11.76
Using mixer 82.35
Both of them 5.88

4.3 Quality Control of Concrete Making Materials

Respondents on quality control gave the following additional
comments:
• The site engineer should not be biased to the contractor
• The concerned government body should give license to
aggregate suppliers.
• Strong and close supervision on the workmanship of concrete
production is highly recommended.
• Inexperienced site engineers with only little knowledge of
construction, mostly lead projects. Hence they follow the
traditional way of construction techniques.
• Poor materials are coming from suppliers and traders
• In Ethiopia, mostly standard specifications are used only for
documentation purpose.
• Contractors should have quality control mechanism, in which
Quality control should be done with specified interval of time.
• Strong site supervision recommended.
• The work should be done with skilled person.

58
 • Coarse aggregates are commonly produced using mechanically
operated crushers. Hence, usually satisfy the requirements.
Therefore, sand or fine aggregates should be semi-processed
before use.
• It is necessary to have strict following up of the construction
standards.
• The standards should be updated with the introduction of
modern construction techniques.
• The testing centers should be well equipped with modern
testing equipments.
• Professional ethics should be kept.
• During production of materials, quality control for aggregates
should be regular and follow up on daily bases must be a
requirement.

4.4 Workmanship Control in Concrete Construction

4.4.1 Handling and Storage of Materials Used for Making
Concrete
Among the conducted projects, 66.67% of the respondents store their
cement in a clean container and protect the cement from moisture
both in transit and during storage. But only 33.33% of the
respondents fulfill the requirement that the cement pile must be kept
at least 15 cm away from the wall. Moreover all projects prevent
accidental mixing of different types. The maximum number of bags
that exists in a pile of cement is different in different projects ranging
from 10 – 12 bags per pile. Therefore, it could be concluded that most
projects store cements according to the standard.

The handling & storing of aggregates shall be as to minimize

segregation and contamination with undesirable constituents and

59
from the projects conducted, 44.44% fulfills this requirement and
22.22% of them have a separate storage facilities with adequate
provision for drainage. The mixing of different nominal size of
aggregates before batching will greatly affects the grading
requirement. Therefore, it could be concluded that most projects do
not store aggregates according to the standard. Such negligence in
aggregate handling affects or degrades the quality of aggregate.

It was observed on some sites that aggregates are not stored properly
until the time of usage. The following ways of placing of aggregates are
observed on some projects:
• They are placed where they easily get dust due to the work on
site by moving loaders, dump truck, truck mixers, dumpers etc.
• They might be kept under trees where leaves drop on the
stockpiles and increases the amount of organic content of
aggregates after decay.
• They might be kept on any free place or previous stocking place
of sand, on soil, on dirty place, etc.
• In a place where it does not hinder construction process, but
they do not take care for the nature of the surface.
• Simply damped on open space without worrying for any
contamination and segregation.

4.4.2 Batching and mixing

It was observed from the investigation that all of the projects mix
Concrete-making materials in such away that they are uniformly
distributed and also the mixture has uniform workability. Even
though EBCS-2 states that the quality of concrete making materials
should be measured by weight for class I concrete, none of the
investigated class I concrete projects satisfy the above requirement.

60
Rather they adopt volume-batching method for both classes of
concrete in all projects.
4.4.3 Transporting, placing and compacting
During the investigation, it was observed that 88.89 % of the projects
transport fresh concrete from the mixing place to the formwork as
rapidly as practicable. This helps to prevent segregation and loss of
water by evaporation, so as to maintain the required workability.
Moreover they deposit the concrete near the final position to avoid
rehandling. In all the projects, concrete is compacted by using
vibrators. The free fall of all concrete mass is restricted to a maximum
of three meters and thoroughly compacted during the operation of
placing of concrete.

4.4.4 Construction of cold Joints

The investigation showed that there is good workmanship in the
construction of cold joints. The construction joints are thoroughly
cleaned & laitance are removed. Moreover all construction joints
wetted & standing water is removed before new concrete is placed.

61
5. Conclusions and Recommendations
The research carried out has shown some of the problems associated
with quality standards of concrete making materials and
workmanship in the production process of concrete among the
investigated building construction sites. Attempt is made to show the
impact of low quality standards of aggregates and poor workmanship
in the production process of concrete. The following conclusions and
recommendations are drawn out from the investigation undertaken on
the building construction projects.
5.1. Conclusions
1. Various aggregate sources are observed for the investigated
projects. Most of these projects have used materials, which can
be obtained nearer to the location of the projects. However, when
aggregates are brought from different quarry sites and river
deposits, enough tests are not made.

2. It is observed that the coarse aggregate used for concrete

production is crushed whereas the fine aggregate is either
crushed, natural sand or a mixture of crushed and natural
sand. But the use of natural sand as fine aggregate is found out
to be very common.

3. Most of the projects under investigation (88.24%) conduct sieve

analysis. It is observed that only sieve analysis test is given
more emphasis and other important tests like Aggregate
crushing value, Losangeles abrasion, clay lump & friable
particles, dust content, unit weight, specific gravity, water
absorption and soundness test are given less attention.

62
4. Most of the time tests are conducted only for documentation
purposes. Sieve analysis is conducted on 46.15% and 76.92% of
the projects for coarse and fine aggregate respectively. However,
among the projects, which conducted the test, only 16.67% and
30.0% for coarse and fine aggregate respectively satisfied the
required standard.

5. Most the conducted projects, which take samples of aggregates

to be tested, 76.47 % of the projects conduct tests more than a
time.

6. Among the respondents most of them are not satisfied with the
quality of aggregates.

7. From the conducted projects, it is observed that 47.06 percents

of the projects use ES (Ethiopian standard) for specification and
29.41 percents of the projects use ASTM (American standard) for
specification.

8. When the usage of the two cements is compared, OPC

consumption is higher than PPC for concrete production.

9. Among the conducted projects, a great number of respondents

use (88.24 percent) tap water for concrete mixing.

10. The conducted projects, most of them, follow designed mix

proportions.

11. It is observed that from the conducted projects, 94.12 % of

them follow volume batching is adopted while the remaining
5.88 % of adopt weight batching.

63
12. It is found out from the respondents that among projects
adopting volume-batching techniques, 81.25 % of the projects
do not make any adjustment, while the remaining 18.75 % of
the projects make adjustments to sand bulking and/or the
moisture content in aggregates. This shows that, there is
negligence on adjusting the quantities of aggregates on
construction sites.

13. The conducted projects, most of them fulfill the standard

requirements for storing and handling of cement. Therefore, it
could be concluded that most projects store cements according
to the standard.

14. Most of the conducted projects don’t fulfill the standard

requirements for handling & storing of aggregates. Such
negligence in aggregate handling affects or degrades the quality
of aggregate. Hence, it can be concluded that there is poor
workmanship handling & storing of aggregates.

15. Among the conducted sites it was observed that poor

workmanship in batching of concrete while there is good
workmanship in transporting, placing and compacting of
concrete.

16. It was observed that there is good workmanship in the

construction of cold joints.

17. Most of the observed sites have poor quality control mechanism
on aggregates and concrete production techniques.

64
18. Inexperienced site engineers with only little knowledge of
construction are common, and are lead by the Foreman; hence
the site engineers are obliged to follow traditional way of
construction techniques.

65
5.2 Recomondations
1. The quarry has to be studied carefully before starting
producing aggregates and it has to get appropriate certificate
from the concerned body.

2. Stocking problems are most common at construction site,

therefore, it is important to select appropriate place.

3. Appropriate aggregate tests according to the standards have

to be made.

4. Most of the crushing machines are very old; they have to be

replaced by modern crushers.

5. Aggregate production sites should have efficient crushers and

literate staffs.

6. Strong and close supervision on the workmanship of concrete

production is necessary.

7. Contractors should have their own quality control

mechanism.
8. The concrete production should be done with skilled person.

9. Coarse aggregates are commonly produced by crushers.

Hence, usually satisfy the standard requirements. However,
sand or fine aggregates should be semi-processed before use
(cleaning, grading, etc).

66
10. It is a must to have strict follow up of the construction
standards.

11. The testing centers should be well equipped with testing

materials and their numbers should be adequate enough.

12. Stakeholders in the construction industry should keep their

professional ethics.

13. Batching could be done best by weight. It allows rapid and

convenient adjustment of aggregates and water when a
change in aggregate moisture content has occurred.

14. Most of the local contractors are not willing to show the test
results of the materials they use. In the future they should be
advised to cooperate with researchers so as to get a good feed
back for their jobs.

67
6. References
1. M.L Gambhir (2nd edition, 2002); Concrete Technology, MC
Grawhill Book.
2. Nevile, A.M, (1985); Properties Of Concrete, Longman Scientific
And Technical.
3. Abebe Eshetu (2005); Concrete Production And Quality Control
In Building Construction Industry Of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa
University School Of Graduates.
4. EBCS-2 (1995); Ethiopian Building Codes And standards,
Structural Use Of Concrete.
5. Ethiopia Standard, (1990); Aggregates: Normal Concrete
Aggregates (ESCD3.201).
6. ASTM Standard, (1993); concrete and mineral aggregates (part
10).
7. British standard, (1970); BS 882.
8. American concrete institute, (1989), part 1 materials and
general properties of concrete.
9. Laboratory Manual for Concrete Technology, Kulkarni, 1985.
10. Composition and properties of Concrete, Troxell, George Earl,
1968.
11. Significance of tests and Properties of Concrete and Concrete
making Materials, ASTM special technical publication,
No.169-A.

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Appendix

69
7. Appendix-A
7.1. Questionnaire-I
Please give your response to the following questions either by putting
an “X” marks at your choice rectangle shown for questions having
choice or by writing your answers in the space provided.

1. Where is the source(s) of your coarse and fine aggregate?

i. Coarse aggregate:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
ii. Fine aggregate:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

2. What kind of fine aggregate do you use for concrete production?

Natural sand
Crushed aggregate
Both natural and crushed aggregate

3. Which laboratory tests were conducted for coarse aggregates?

Please enclose the corresponding test results. If any.
i. Physical tests:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
ii. Chemical tests:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

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4. Which laboratory tests were conducted for fine aggregates? Please
enclose the corresponding test results. If any.
i. Physical test:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
ii. Chemical test:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5. How frequent do you take samples testing aggregate?
Only once for one source
Once when it came from the source and then after depending
on conditions (that is when the aggregate seems defective, test
may be ordered).
If any other sampling procedure is to be followed, please specify?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
6. Are you satisfied with the quality of aggregate?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
7. What would you do with the aggregate if it doesn’t satisfy the
requirement on the specification?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
8. What do you propose to maintain the quality of aggregate?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

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8. Which standard specification of aggregate is used in the
specification contract document of this specification contract?
ES (Ethiopian standard)
BS (British standard)
ASTM (American standard)
Other (Please specify)
9. How would you handle and store aggregates at the construction
site?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
11. What type of cement do you use for concrete production?
OPC
PPC
Other (please specify)
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

12. How do you store cement?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
13 Is there any test made for the cement that you are using? If any,
please specify?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
14. What type of water do you use for concrete mixing?
Tap water
River water
Drilled well (ground water)
15. If the water used was not tap water, is there any test that was
made for the water? (if any, please specify)
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

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16. How do you prepare the concrete mix proportions?
Following designed mix proportions
Following standard (normal) mix proportions
Following arbitrary mix proportions
Other
17. Which batching techniques do you use?
By weight
By volume
18. What are the adjustments that you make to ingredients when
using?
Weight batching
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Volume batching
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
19. How do you mix your concrete?
Manually
Using mixing plant
Both of them (both manually and mixing plant)
20. Do you have quality control mechanism for concrete in your
organization? If so, how do you manage to control the quality of?
I. Aggregate
II. Cement
III. Fresh concrete
IV. Hardened concrete (curing, compressive strength,
etc)
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

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21. Additional comments if any (on quality control)
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

THANK YOU!

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 7.2 Questionnaire-II
Workmanship Control in Concrete Construction
I. Handling And Storage Of Materials Used For Making
Concrete
1. How do they transport and store cement at construction site?
Checking point
Cement shall be stored and transported in clean containers and
protected from moisture both in transit and during storage.
2. What are the precautions made to protect cement from moisture
both in transit and during storage?
Checking points
Provision shall be made to prevent accidental mixing of different
types.
The cement must be kept at least 15 cm away from the wall.
The maximum number of bags of that exists in a pile of cement.
3. How do they handle and store aggregate at construction site?
Checking points
Aggregates shall be handled and stored so as to minimize
segregation and contamination with undesirable constituents.
Separate storage facilities with adequate provision for drainage
shall be provided for each different nominal size of aggregate
used.
a. Batching and mixing
1. Are they carrying out mixing in such a way that the constituent
materials are uniformly distributed and the mixture has uniform
workability?
Checking point
The mixing shall be carried out in such away that the
constituent materials are uniformly distributed and the mixture
has uniform workability.

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2. Which batching techniques do they use?
2.1 By weight
Checking point
The quantity of cement, the quantity of fine aggregate and the
various sizes of coarse aggregates shall be measured by weight
except that aggregates may be measured by volume for class 2
concrete or for standard.
2.2 By volume
Checking point
Aggregates may be measured by volume for class II concrete or
for standard.
b. Transporting, placing and compacting
1. How do they transport concrete from the mixer to the formwork?
Checking point
Concrete shall be transported from the mixer to the formwork as
rapidly as practicable by method which prevent the segregation or
loss of any of the ingredients, and maintain the required
workability.
2. How do they place and compact concrete?
Checking points
It shall be deposited as nearly as practicable in its final position
to avoid re-handling.
Class I concrete of grades C 20 and above shall be compacted by
using vibrators.
Concrete shall be placed soon after mixing and thoroughly
compacted during the operation of placing.
In order to avoid segregation, the free fall of concrete mass shall
be restricted to a maximum of three meters.
The mix shall be such that there will not be excess water on the
top surface on completion of compaction.

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II. Construction of Cold Joints
1. What are the particular cares shall be taken in placing of new
concrete close to the joint.
Checking points
The surface of concrete construction joints shall be thoroughly
cleaned and laitance removed. Immediately before new concrete is
placed, all construction joints shall be wetted and standing water
removed.

77