ROLE OF HORMONES

GLANDS: [EXOCRINE and ENDOCRINE]

 Glands are a group of epithelial cells producing secretions and these secretions are utilized in other
parts of the body.
 A gland is an organ in a human or animal body that synthesizes a substance for release, such as
hormones or breast milk, often into the bloodstream (endocrine) or into cavities inside the body or its
outer surface (exocrine).
 Thus glands are of two types:
(1) Exocrine glands and (2) Endocrine glands.

(1) Exocrine glands:

 The body is able to secrete substances out of the body because of the cellular sub-structures present
in the organs known as the exocrine glands.
 These glands form a system which enables secretion of substances.
 They are not the same as the endocrine glands because their secretions are out of body.
 Most glands in the human body deliver their secretions by the means of ducts called exocrine glands.
 Secretions produced by the exocrine glands travel through the ducts to reach the target sites to
execute their functions.
Types of Exocrine Glands:
1) Holocrine glands
2) Merocrine (or) Eccrine glands
3) Apocrine glands
Examples of Exocrine Glands:
1) Lacrimal gland
2) Mammary gland
3) Eccrine sweat glands
4) Salivary glands
5) Pancreas – secretes digestive juices
6) Liver-secretes bile juice
Functions of Exocrine glands:
1) They help in regulating the temperature of the body
2) They help in lubrication of parts of body
3) They help in lactation of new-born
4) They assist in the digestin of food
5) They assist in reproduction.

(2) Endocrine glands: [The secretion of endocrine glands is called as hormones.]

 There are some other glands that produce chemical substances that are directly secreted into the
blood stream for transmission to various target tissues. These are ductless or endocrine glands.
 The secretions of endocrine are going into the blood within the body.
 The secretion is done with a help of a system of ducts.
 The secretion of endocrine glands is called as hormones.
 It is a chemical substance, which is produced in one part of the body, enters the circulation and is
carried to distant target organs and tissues to modify their structures and functions.
 Hormones are stimulating substances and act as body catalysts.
 The hormones catalyze and control diverse metabolic processes. Despite their varying actions and
different specificity’s depending on the target organ, hormones act as body catalysts.
 Hormones are usually present in the plasma and interstitial tissue at concentrations in the range of
10-7M to 10-10M.
The various endocrine organs are as follows:
1) Pituitary gland (hypophysis)
2) Thyroid gland
3) Parathyroid gland
4) Adrenal gland
5) Islets of Langerhans (Pancreas)
6) Pineal gland.

Hormones Classification:
Classification : - (1) General Classification of Hormones
(2) Chemical Classification of Hormones
I. General Classification of hormones:-
(1) According to chemical Nature:-
i) Steroid Hormones: These hormones which are the derivative of cholesterol which includes
sex hormones and hormones of the adrenal cortex. They are comprised
of 3 groups which include glucocorticoids, mineral corticoids and
Sex hormones (Testosterone, Estrogen and Progesterone)
Steroids also play roles in inflammatory responses, stress responses,
bone metabolism, cardiovascular fitness, behavior, cognition and mood.
ii) Amine Hormones: Amino acid these are hormones derived from amino acids. Many of the
amino acid hormones are neurotransmitters. The hormones derived from
amino acids are thyroid hormones (T3,T4) and the hormones of the
adrenal medulla (epinephrine, norepinephrine)
iii) Peptide Hormones: Protein Hormones or peptide hormones are prepared from polymers of
amino acids. Most of these hormones encourage other glands to create
hormones. They are also significant in regulation of metabolism
Ex. Oxytocin and vasopressin.
(2) According to Origin:-
Mostly reproductive hormones are primarily derived from 4 Major organs or system
1) Hypothalamus,
2) Anterior and Posterior lobe of Pituitary gland,
3) Gonads (testis and ovary including their interstitial tissues and corpus luteum)
4) Placenta and Uterus.
(3) According to Nature of Action :-
i) General Hormones: Growth hormone influence nearly all the body tissues, similar is the case
with Thyroid and Insulin hormones, hence they fall in general category.
ii) Specific Hormones: These hormones affect functions of specific organs
Ex. FSH and androgens
iii) Local Hormones: Prostaglandins, Acetyl choline, Histamine act locally to their site of
production
II. Chemical Classification of Hormones:-
1) Pitutary Hormones : Oxytocin, Vasopressin(ADH), MSH, ACTH, LPH, TSH, GH, PRL, LH, FSH
2) Hypothalamic Hormones : Somatostatin (SIF) (It inhibits GH & TSH secretion)
3) Thyroid Hormones : Thyroxin and Tri iodo thyronine, Calcitonin,
Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide (CGRP)
4) Parathyroid Hormone : PTH
5) Adipose Tissue Hormones : Leptin, Adiponectin, Resistin
6) Hormones and Peptides : GLP-1, GIP, Ghrelin, Obestatin, Gastrin, Secretin, CCK,
of the Gut Motilin, VIP, Somatostatin, PYY, NPY
7) Pancreatic Hormones : Insulin, Glucagon, Pancreatic Polypeptide, Somatostatin
8) Placental Hormones : Estrogens, Progestins,Chorionic Gonadotropin, Placental Lactogen, Relaxin
9) Gonadal Hormones : Androgens (Testicular), Inhibins A and B
10) Adrenal Cortical Hormones : Glucocorticoids, Mineralocorticoids
11) Adrenal Medullary Hormones : Epinephrine (Adrenalin), Norepinephrine (Noradrenalin)
12) Liver Hormones : Angiotensin II
13) Kidney Hormones : Calcitriol
14) Cardiac Hormones : Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP):
15) Pineal Hormones : Melatonin – It regulates the circadian rhythms.

List of Hormones:
(1)Pitutary Hormones: (5)Adipose Tissue Hormones: (8)Placental Hormones:
1) Oxytocin 16) Leptin 35) Estrogens
2) Vasopressin(ADH) 17) Adiponectin 36) Progestins
3) MSH 18) Resistin 37)Chorionic Gonadotropin
4) ACTH (6)Hormones and Peptides of 38) Placental Lactogen
5) LPH the Gut: 39) Relaxin
6) TSH 19) GLP-1 (9) Gonadal Hormones:
7) GH 20) GIP 41) Androgens (Testicular)
8) PRL 21) Ghrelin 41) Inhibins A and B
9) LH 22) Obestatin (10)Adrenal Cortical Hormones:
10) FSH 23) Gastrin 42) Glucocorticoids
(2)Hypothalamic 24) Secretin 43) Mineralocorticoids
Hormones: 25) CCK (11) Adrenal Medullary Hormones:
11) Somatostatin (SIF) 26) Motilin 44) Epinephrine (Adrenalin)
(3)Thyroid Hormones: 27) VIP 45) Norepinephrine (Noradrenalin)
12) Thyroxin and 28) Somatostatin (12)Liver Hormones:
Tri iodo thyronine 29) PYY 46) Angiotensin II
13) Calcitonin, 30) NPY (13)Kidney Hormones:
14) Calcitonin Gene- (7)Pancreatic Hormones: 47) Calcitriol
Related Peptide 31) Insulin (14)Cardiac Hormones:
(CGRP) 32) Glucagon 48) Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP):
(4)Parathyroid Hormone: 33) Pancreatic Polypeptide (15) Pineal Hormones:
15) PTH 34) Somatostatin 49) Melatonin
HORMONES AND ITS FUNCTIONS:
(1) PITUTARY HORMONES:
1 Oxytocin: The basic functions of oxytocin are as follows
 It causes uterine contraction,
 It causes milk ejection in lactating females.
 It responds to suckling reflex and estradiol.
 It lowers steroid synthesis in testes.
2 Vasopressin The major functions of vasopressin are as follows:
(AntiDiuretic  It responds to osmo-receptor, which senses
Hormone, ADH): extracellular [Na+].
 It regulates blood pressure.
 It increases H20 re-absorption from distal tubules in
kidney.
3 Melanocyte-
Stimulating  The major function of melanocyte is pigmentation.
Hormones (MSH):

4 Corticotropin The major functions of corticotrophin are as follows:

(Adrenocorticotropin  It stimulates cells of adrenal gland.
, ACTH)L:  It increases the steroid synthesis and secretion.

5 Lipotropin (LPH):  Lipotropin basically increases the fatty acid release

from the adipocytes.

6 Thyrotropin (Thyroid- It acts on thyroid follicle cells to stimulate thyroid hormone

Stimulating synthesis.
Hormone, TSH):
7 Growth Hormone Major functions :
(GH):  It acts as a general anabolic stimulant.
 It increases the release of Insulin-like Growth Factor-I
(IGF-I).
 It leads to cell growth and bone sulfation.
8 Prolactin (PRL): Major functions :
 It stimulates the differentiation of secretory cells of
mammary gland.
 It stimulates the milk synthesis.
9 Luteinizing Hormone Major functions of luteinizing hormones are as follows:
(LH):  It increases the Ovarian Progesterone synthesis.
 It acts on Leydig cells of testes to increase
Testosterone synthesis,
 It releases and increases the interstitial cell
development.
1 Follicle-Stimulating Major functions of FSH Hormone are as follows:
0 Hormone (FSH):  It assists in the ovarian follicle development and
ovulation.
 It increases the estrogen production.
 It acts on Sertoli cells of semi-ferous tubule to
increase spermatogenesis.
(2)HYPOTHALAMIC HORMONES:
1 Somatostatin (SIF) It inhibits GH and TSH secretion.
1

(3)THYROID HORMONES:
1 Thyroxine and It responds to TSH and stimulates oxidations in many cells.
2 Tri-iodo-thyronine
1 Calcitonin It is produced in parafollicular C cells of the thyroid and it
3 regulates Ca2+ and Pi metabolism.
1 Calcitonin Gene-
4 Related Peptide It acts as a vasodilator.
(CGRP):

(4) PARATHYROID HORMONE:

1 Parathyroid Hormone The basic functions of parathyroid hormone are as follows:
5 (PTH)  It regulates Ca2+ and Pi metabolism.
 It stimulates bone resorption.
 It increasing serum [Ca2+].
 It stimulates Pi secretion through the kidneys.

(5) ADIPOSE TISSUE HORMONES:

1 Leptin The major functions of leptin are as follows:
6 a) It regulates the overall body weight by limiting the food
intake
b) It increases the energy expenditure.
c) It regulates the neuroendocrine axis, inflammatory
responses, blood pressure and bone mass.

1 Adiponectin: This hormone assists in increasing the major biological

7 actions
of insulin sensitivity and fatty acid oxidation.

1 Resistin It induces the insulin resistance.

8

(6)HORMONES AND PEPTIDES OF THE GUT :

1 Glucagon-like The major functions of Glucagon are as follows:-
9 Peptide 1 (GLP-1):  It potentiates the glucose-dependent insulin secretion.
 It inhibits glucagon secretion.
 It inhibits gastric emptying.
2 Glucose-Dependent It inhibits secretion of gastric acid and it enhances the insulin
0 Insulinotropic secretion.
Polypeptide (GIP):
2 Ghrelin: The major functions of ghrelin are as follows:-
1 o It assists in appetite stimulation.
o It stimulates the NPY release.
o It regulates the energy homeostasis, glucose
metabolism, gastric secretion and emptying.
 o It helps in insulin secretion.

2 Obestatin: It acts in the opposition to ghrelin action on appetite.

2
2 Gastrin: It is produced by stomach antrum and it stimulates acid and
3 pepsin secretion and it also stimulates the pancreatic
secretions.
2 Secretin: It is secreted from duodenum at pH values below 12.5 and it
4 stimulates pancreatic acinar cells to release bicarbonate and
H2O.
2 CholeCystoKinin It stimulates gallbladder contraction and bile
5 (CCK): flow and it increases the secretion of digestive enzymes from
pancreas.
2 Motilin: It controls gastrointestinal muscles.
6
2 Vasoactive Intestinal It is produced by hypothalamus and GI tract, and it relaxes
7 Peptide (VIP): the GI. It even inhibits the acid and pepsin secretion and acts
as a neurotransmitter in peripheral autonomic nervous
system.
It increases the secretion of H2O.and electrolytes from the
pancreas and gut.
2 Somatostatin: It inhibits the release and action of numerous gut peptides
8 and it also inhibits the insulin and glucagon secretion from
the pancreas.
2 Peptide Tyrosine It inhibits gastric motility by inhibiting cholinergic
9 (PYY): Neuro transmission and it inhibits the gastric acid secretion.
3 Neuro-Peptide It effects the hypothalamic function of
0 Tyrosine (NPY): appetite and it controls the feeding behaviour and energy
homeostasis.

(7) PANCREATIC HORMONES:-

3 Insulin: It is produced by B-cells of the pancreas and it increases the
1 glucose uptake and utilization and lipogenesis.
3 Glucagon: It is produced by a-cells of the pancreas and it increases lipid
2 mobilization and glycogenolysis in order to increase the
blood glucose levels.
3 Pancreatic It increases glycogenolysis and it regulates the
3 Polypeptide: gastrointestinal activity.
3 Somatostatin: It assists in the inhibition of glucagon and somatotropin
4 release.

(8) PLACENTAL HORMONES:-

3 Estrogens: It helps in the maintenance of pregnancy.
5
3 Progestins: It mimics the action of progesterone.
6
3 Chorionic Its activities are similar to luteinizing hormone.
7 Gonadotropin:
3 Placental Lactogen: It acts like prolactin and GH.
8
3 Relaxin It is produced in ovarian corpus luteum and it inhibits
9 myometrial Contractions.

(9)GONADAL HORMONES:-
4 Androgens It helps in the maturation and function of male
0 (Testicular): secondary sex organs.
4 Inhibins A and B: It inhibits FSH secretion.
1

(10)ADRENAL CORTICAL HORMONES:-

4 Glucocorticoids: It has diverse effects on inflammation and protein synthesis.
2
4 Mineralocorticoids: It helps in maintaining salt balance.
3

(11)ADRENAL MEDULLARY HORMONES:-

4 Epinephrine It increases glycogenolysis, lipid mobilization,
4 (Adrenalin): smooth muscle contraction, cardiac function.
4 Norepinephrine It assists in lipid mobilization, arteriole
5 (Noradrenalin): contraction and it also acts as neurotransmitter in the CNS.

(12)LIVER HORMONES:-
4 Angiotensin II: It is responsible for the essential hypértension through
6 stimulated synthesis.

(13)KIDNEY HORMONES:-
4 Calcitriol It is responsible for maintenance of
7 [1,25-(OH)2-Vitamin D3]: Calcium and Phosphorous homeostasis and it increases the
intestinal Ca2+ uptake and regulates the bone mineralization.

(14)CARDIAC HORMONES:-
48 Atrial Natriuretic It is released from heart atria in response
Peptide (ANP): to hypovolemia and it also acts on the outer adrenal cells to
decrease the aldosterone production.
(15)PINEAL HORMONES:-
4 Melatonin It regulates the circadian rhythms.
9

Mechanism of Action of Hormones:

Hormones are the chemical messengers/information molecules formed by cells of endocrine gland cells of
mixed gland/organ, produced in one part of the body and translocated by circulatory system to another part
for stimulating or inhibiting one or more physiological process for the welfare of the body. The various types
of hormones are as follows:
(1) Local hormones:
They refer to the hormones that are effective in low concentration (e.g.0.003 ppm adrenaline).
(2) Trophic hormones:
They are the hormones that control the growth and/or activity of other endocrine glands. This includes TSH,
ACTH, FSH and GH
(3) Neuro endocrine hormone:
They refer to the hormones that are secreted by neurosensory neurons as, releasing hormones of
hypothalamus. Releasing hormone is one that controls the production (stimulation or inhibition) of tropic
hormones.

Chemical nature of hormones:

Chemical nature of hormones has the following qualities:
1) Amines
2) Modified amino acids
3) Peptides
4) Proteins
5) Steroids
Characteristics of hormones:
Hormones have the following characteristics:
1) They are the regulatory chemical that control and coordinate functions of different body organs
2) They are formed by ductless or endocrine glands functioning away from area of formation in vey
low concentrations (e.g. testosterone 30-100 ig/mL).
3) They are poured into circulatory system I which they are soluble and carried to the target cells.
4) They do not catalyse reactions but function by stimulating or inhibiting the target cells
5) They can be proteins, peptides, amino acids derivatives and attach to target cell membrane at
specific points having receptors for inward passage or reaction.

General Considerations of Hormones

Hormones generally act as a body catalyst like enzymes.
However, they differ from the enzymes in the following ways.
i) They are not always protein in nature
ii) The hormones are secreted in the blood stream prior to use, because, circulating levels can
indicate, the activity of endocrine gland and the exposure of target organs
Features of hormones
1) Action in Low concentration:
Hormones act in a very low concentration like vitamins
2) Storage Destruction and Excretion:
Hormones are not ordinarily stored, except in the gland, of origin.
They do not have any cumulative actin, because they are destroyed and excreted as soon as
their functions are over.
Some hormones work quickly and are destroyed quickly like thyroxine.

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