Richelle Ann S.

Santiano, MD
Cuéllar, Cruz, A. , Muncada, Panganiban, Torre, M., Torre, Q.

1S1L: ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

OUTLINE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
I. REVIEW • Mainly composed of the brain and spinal cord:
II. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM o Are the main centers where correlation and
A. Layers of the Scalp (to skull) integration of nervous information occur
B. Parts of the CNS
a. Forebrain
i. Cerebrum
ii. Diencephalon Brain
b. Midbrain 1. Forebrain
c. Hindbrain a) Cerebrum
i. Pons and Medulla b) Diencephalon (between brain)
ii. Cerebellum o Named “between the brain”
d. Spinal Cord bc when you cut the brain
III. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM sagittally in the midline, you
A. Cranial Nerves and their Ganglia can see the diencephalon
B. Spinal Nerves and their Ganglia which is mainly composed of
C. Ganglia the hypothalamus, thalamus
IV. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM and epithalamus
V. VENTRICULAR SYSTEM AND CSF CIRCULATION 2. Midbrain
VI. EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 3. Hindbrain
A Primary Neurulation a) Medulla oblongata
B Development of Neural Tube: General Concepts b) Pons
C Congenital Nervous System Defects of Primary c) Cerebellum
Neurulation Spinal cord
D Secondary Neurulation Cervical segments
a. Differentiation Thoracic segments
b. Differentiation of the Forebrain Lumbar segments
c. Differentiation of the Midbrain Sacral segments
d. Differentiation of the Rostral and Caudal Coccygeal segments
Hindbrain
e. Differentiation of the Spinal Cord • Both brain and spinal cord are:
E The Primary Divisions of the Developing Brain o Covered with a system of membranes called
F The Ventricular System of the Brain meninges
VII. SUMMARY
o Suspended in the cerebrospinal fluid
o Further protected by the bones of the skull and the
vertebral column
REVIEW
LAYERS OF THE SCALP (TO SKULL)

1. Skin
2. Connective tissue
3. Galea aponeurotica
A. Dorsal: view from above (anterior= front; posterior= back) 4. Loose areolar tissue
B. Ventral: view from below o Harbor for potential infection that can spread to the
C. Lateral: looking from the outermost side meninges
D. Medial: looking from the inner side o Called the danger zone of the skull
o The tissue contains valveless emissary veins that
Anatomical Planes: have direct access to the cranial cavity
§ Subgalean hematoma: Tearing of the emissary
• Horizontal (axial): dividing into ventral and dorsal sides
veins in the loose areolar connective tissue layer
• Coronal (front): dividing into anterior and posterior sides
causes build up of blood that gets trapped
• Sagittal: dividing into medial and lateral sides between the tense galea aponeurotica and
pericranium; the hematoma accumulates below

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 ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

the galea aponeurotica o Surface layer of each hemisphere (cortex) is

• Can present in adults secondary to trauma composed of gray matter
• Usually occurs in neonates after delivery § Cerebral cortex is thrown into folds/ gyri,
with vacuum-assistance separated by fissures/ sulci
5. Pericranium • Surface area of cortex is greatly increased
6. Skull by this means
7. Dura mater • Lobes are named from the cranial bones they are under
o Latin: “hard mother” due to its leather-like consistency o Under frontal bone = frontal lobe, etc.
8. Arachnoid membrane o Central sulcus of Rolando: separates frontal from
• Greek: “spider” due to its consistency and appearance as parietal lobe
a spider web o Sylvian fissure/ lateral fissure: separates frontal and
9. Pia mater parietal from temporal lobe
• Latin. “gentle mother” • Lies above the tentorium cerebelli
• Thin membrane that adheres closely to the surface of the o Cerebrum and cerebellum are separated by this
brain membrane
• Subarachnoid space
o Just below the arachnoid
o A real space because it contains the cerebrospinal
fluid
§ In leptomeningitis = inflammation of the arachnoid
and pia in CNS infections, the subarachnoid space
may also be involved

• Subdural and Epidural Spaces

o Potential space = not a real space
o Epi: outside the dura
o Sub: below the dura
§ May be filled with blood secondary to head trauma

• Central Core of White Matter

o Within the Hemisphere
o Containing several large masses of Grey matter
within the White matter
• Basal Nuclei / Basal Ganglia
o Subcortical region
• Corona Radiata
o Fan-shaped collection of nerve-fibers
o Passes from the White matter to and from the
PAD (internal à external) = Pia, Arachnoid, Dura Cerebral Cortex to the Brainstem
• These protective coverings continue up to the spinal cord o Converges on the Basal Nuclei/Ganglia and passes
between them as them as the Internal Capsule
PARTS OF THE CNS • Caudate Nucleus
• Contains a large number of excitable nerve cells and their o Tail of a Nucleus
processes called neurons o Medial Side of the Internal Capsule
o Neurons are supported by specialized tissue called • Lentiform Nucleus
neuroglia o Lens-shaped nucleus
• Interior of CNS is organized into gray and white matter o Lateral Side of the Internal Capsule
o Gray matter o Comprised of Putamen and Globus Pallidus
§ Nerve cells embedded in neuroglia • Lateral Ventricle
o White matter o Cavity present within each Cerebral hemisphere
§ Nerve fibers embedded in neuroglia o Communicated with the Third Ventricle through the
§ White in color d.t the presence of lipid material Interventricular Foramina
in the myelin sheaths of the nerve fibers • Corpus Callosum
• Cerebrum has outer grey & inner white matter o Connects the 2 Cerebral Hemispheres
o Massive bundle of fibers
FOREBRAIN

CEREBRUM
• Largest part of forebrain
• 2 hemispheres extends form the frontal to the occipital
bones in the skull posteriorly
o Hemispheres are separated by a deep cleft
(longitudinal fissure); into which projects the falx
cerebri
o Connected by corpus callosum (a mass of white
matter)

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 ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

MIDBRAIN
• “Mesencephalon”
DIENEPHALON
• Narrow part of the Brain
• Completely hidden from the surface of the brain • Connects the Forebrain the Hindbrain
• Dorsal Thalamus, Ventral Hypothalamus and • Contains many Nuclei, Cranial Nerves, and Bundles of
Epithalamus Ascending & Descending Nerve Fibers
o Composed of Pineal Gland, Habenular Nuclei, and
Stria Medullaris Thalami • Cerebral Aqueduct of Midbrain
o A narrow cavity
• Control of visceromotor (autonomic) functions
o Connects the Third Ventricle (rostrally) to the
• Thalamus Fourth Ventricle (caudally)
o Large egg-shaped mass of Grey matter
o Lies on either side (lateral side) of the Third
Ventricle
• Anterior End of the Thalamus
o forms the posterior boundary of the Interventricular
Foramen
o Opening between Lateral and Third Ventricle
• Hypothalamus
o Forms the lower part of the Lateral Wall and Third
Ventricle
• Dorsal Thalamus
o Conscious sensation and motor control
• Ventral Thalamus
o Includes subthalamic nucleus w/c is linked to the
basal nuclei of the forebrain and functions in the
motor sphere
o Lesions in Subthalamus is responsible for
involuntary movement disorders
• Epithalamus HINDBRAIN
o Limbic system
PONS AND MEDULLA
• Narrow part of the Brain
• Situated on the Anterior Surface of the Cerebellum
• Inferior to the Midbrain above and Superior to the Medulla
Oblongata below
• Both Pons and Medulla contains:
o Nuclei, Cranial Nerves, and Bundles of
Ascending & Descending Nerve Fibers
• Pons
o Latin: “bridge” - large number of transverse fibers
on its Anterior aspect connecting the 2 Cerebral
Hemispheres
o Comprises of 1.3% of the brain weight
o The motor and sensory nuclei and the exit points
of CNs V to VIII are associated with the pons
• Medulla Oblongata
o Conical in shape
o Connect the Pons Superiorly to the Spinal Cord
Inferiorly
o Most caudal segment of the brainstem — extends

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 ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

from the Foramen Magnum to the Pons-Medulla CEREBELLUM

junction. • Not part of the brainstem, rather is considered a
o It’s size (0.5% of the brain) belies its importance suprasegmental structure because it is located
o All tracts passing to or from the spinal cord traverse superior to the brainstem
the medulla, and 6 of the 12 nerves (VI to X, XII)
are associated with the medulla.
• Comprises 10.5% of the brain weight
o It influences heart rate and respiration • Part of the motor system
• The blood supply to the pons and cerebellum arises
• Ascending Pathways from the branches of the Basilar and Cerebellar Arteries
o Major ascending pathways seen in the medulla • 2 Hemispheres connected by Vermis
continuous into the pons o Laterally-placed hemispheres
o Fibers w/c continue through pons: Medial o Vermis: worm-shaped
Lemniscus, Antero-lateral system, Anterior
trigeminothalamic fibers, and anterior
spinocerebellar tract
o Restiform Body
§ Prominent structure in the rostral medulla,
sweeps posteriorly in the cerebellum in the
caudal pons
§ Largest part of the inferior cerebellar
peduncle
Connected to:
• Descending Pathways
o Midbrain by the Superior Cerebellar Peduncles
o Most prominent groups of descending fibers arise
(Brachium Conjunctivum)
from cells located in the midbrain or forebrain w/c
o Pons by the Middle Cerebellar Peduncles
transverse the pons
(Brachium Pontis)
o Corticospinal fibers, Central tegmental and
Rubrospinal tracts, and the Tectobulbospinal o Medulla by the Inferior Cerebellar Peduncles
(Restiform Body)
System
o Medial Longitudinal Fasciculus o A structure that lies within the Posterior Cranial Fossa of
the Skull
§ Occupies a characteristic position near the
o Posterior to the Pons and Medulla
midline in the floor of the fourth (4th)
ventricle
Pons-Medullary Junction Descending Fibers • Cerebral Cortex
Rostral Pons Ascending Fibers o Surface Layer of each Cerebral Hemisphere
o Composed of Grey Matter
o Thrown into folds called Folia
§ Separated by Closely-set Transverse
Fissures
• Arbor Vitae
o Latin: “tree of life”
o Cerebral White Matter
o Branch-tree like strands
• 4th Ventricle
o Medulla Oblongata, Pons, Cerebellum surround a
cavity-filled with CSF (Cerebrospinal Fluid)
o Connected Superiorly to the Third (3rd) Ventricle
by the Cerebral Aqueduct
o Inferiorly it is continuous with the Central Canal of
the Spinal Cord
o Communicated with the Subarachnoid Space
through three (3) openings in the inferior part of the
Roof
o Passes through an opening — Median Aperture
(Foramen of Magendie) and Lateral Aperture
(Lateral Foramina of Luschka)
• Interior of the Cerebellum
o Contains certain masses of Grey matter
o Embedded in the White Matter like the Basal
Ganglia in the Cerebral Cortex

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 ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

4 DEEP CEBELLAR NUCLEI (MEDIAL à LATERAL) Lumbar Puncture

• Minimally invasive procedure to get CSF
• Cells which receive input from branches of
cerebellar afferent fibers • Our goal is to get fluid below the Spinal Cord
Fastigial Nucleus Innermost Nucleus Since Subarachnoid Space is quite longer and ends below
Globose Nucleus Interposed Nuclei S2 — using Iliac Crest as a landmark. While the patient is
Emboliform Nucleus lying on his side, we draw an imaginary line from the Iliac
Dentate Nucleus Largest and Outermost Nucleus Crest then we can approximate the 4th Lumbar Spine. We
can puncture from the space above or below L4.
DON’T EAT GREASY FOOD (lateral → medial)
= Dentate, Emboliform, Globose, Fastigial
• Spinal Nerves
o Thirty-one (31) pairs attached along the entire length
of the spinal cord
o Attached by anterior/motor roots or posterior/sensory
roots.
§ Each root is attached to the cord by a series of
rootlets, which extends the whole length of the
corresponding segment of the cord
§ Each posterior nerve root has a posterior root
ganglion, cells of which give rise to peripheral
and central nerve fibers
§ When the anterior and posterior roots and the
mixed spinal nerves have combined, are part of
SPINAL CORD the peripheral nervous system.
• Situated within the Vertebral Canal of the Vertebral
Column Ganglion = collection of neuronal bodies in the PNS
• Surrounded by 3 meninges: Nucleus = collection of neuronal bodies in the CNS
• Further protections are provided by the CSF which
surrounds the Spinal Cord in the Subarachnoid Space • Gray Matter
o Composes the inner core of the spinal cord, which is
• Roughly Cylindrical
surrounded by an outer covering of white matter
• Begins: Superiorly at the Foramen Magnum (opening of o It can be seen in the cross-section as an H-shaped
the skull) it continues at the Medulla Oblongata of the pillar, with anterior and posterior columns or horns
Brain and united by a thin gray commissure containing the
• Terminates: Inferiorly in the Lumbar Region small central canal.
• White matter
Terminate Region o Located outside
SPINAL CORD LEVEL o May be divided into anterior, lateral, and posterior
Adults Below L1 white columns or funiculi
Infant Below L3 o Contains different ascending and descending tracts
Subarachnoid Space Below S2 • Cauda Equina
o Continuation of nerve roots that looks like a horse tail

• Conus Medullaris
o Below the Spinal Cord tapers off into the Conus
Medullaris
• Filum Terminale
o From the Apex of which a prolongation of the Pia
o Spinal cord terminates below L1, nerve roots for
Mater
lumbar and sacral regions continue downward and it
o Attached to the back of the Coccyx
sits in their respective segments below.

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 ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Cranial and spinal nerves, which consists of bundles of
nerve fibers/ axon, conduct information to and from the
CNS.
• Composed of cranial nerves, spinal nerves, and their
ganglia

CRANIAL NERVES AND THEIR GANGLIA

• Twelve (12) pairs that exit the skull through the foramina
Cranial Nerves
1 Olfactory
2 Optic
3 Oculomotor
4 Trochlear
5 Trigeminal
6 Abducent
7 Facial
8 Vestibulocochlear
9 Glossopharyngeal
10 Vagus
11 Accessory
12 Hypoglossal

SPINAL NERVES AND THEIR GANGLIA

• Thirty-one (31) pairs that exit the vertebral column and
through the intervertebral foramina
• Named according to the regions of the vertebral columns
they are associated with
• 8 Cervical, 12 Thoracic, 5 Lumbar, 5 Sacral, and 1
Coccygeal • Anterior Root
o Eight cervical nerves but only seven cervical o Motor fibers
vertebrae. o Consists of bundles of nerve fibers (efferent fibers)
o One coccygeal nerve and four coccygeal vertebrae carrying nerve impulses away from the nervous
• Due to the disproportionate growth and length of the system
vertebral column during development compared to that of o Go to the skeletal muscles and causes them to
the spinal cord, the length of the roots increases contract
progressively from above going downward. o Cells of origin lie in the anterior gray horn of the spinal
o Spinal nerve roots in the cervical region are short and cord
are almost horizontal. • Posterior Root
o The spinal nerve exits above the respective vertebra. o Sensory fibers
o Because there are seven cervical vertebrae, C8 exits o Consists of bundles of nerve fibers (afferent fibers)
below C7 and above T1. carrying nerve impulses from the periphery towards
o As you go down further, the nerve needs to go down the nervous system
a few segments before reaching their respective o Concerned with conveying information about
foramina sensations of touch, pain, temperature, and vibration
• Connected to the spinal cord by two roots: anterior root o Cell bodies of these nerve fibers are situated in a
and posterior root swelling in the posterior root called posterior root
• Spinal nerve roots pass from the spinal cord to the level of
RELATIONSHIP OF SPINAL CORD SEGMENTS TO their respective intervertebral foramina, where they unite
to form a spinal nerve.
VERTEBRAL NUMBERS
• Spinal nerves are a mixture of both motor and sensory
fibers.
• Posterior Ramus
Vertebrae Spinal Segment
o Arises from the mixed spinal nerve
Cervical vertebrae Add 1
o Passes posteriorly around the vertebral column
Upper thoracic vertebrae Add 2 o Supplies the muscles and skin of the back
Lower thoracic vertebrae (7-9) Add 3 • Anterior Ramus
10th thoracic vertebra L1-2 cord segments o Bigger
11th thoracic vertebra L3-4 cord segments o Continues anteriorly to supply the muscles and skin
12th thoracic vertebra L5 cord segment over the anterolateral body wall and all the muscles
Sacral and coccygeal cord and skin of the limbs
1st lumbar vertebrae
segments o Anterior rami join one another at the root of the limbs
to form complicated nerve plexuses.
§ Cervical and brachial plexuses: found at the
root of the upper limbs
§ Lumbar and sacral plexuses: found at the root
of the lower limbs

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 ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

o Cranio meaning cranial nerves

GANGLIA
• Sensory Ganglia
o Fusiform swellings on posterior root of each spinal • The figure shows the:
nerve proximal to the root’s junction with a o Efferent parts of the ANS
corresponding anterior root o Autonomic fibers and organs that they innervate
o Referred to as posterior root ganglia o The RED ones from the thoracolumbar are the
o Similar ganglia found along the course of CN V, VII, sympathetic fibers
VIII, IX, X are called the sensory ganglia. They have o The BLUE ones from the craniosacral are the
sensory functions. parasympathetic fibers
• Autonomic Ganglia o The solid lines are preganglionic
o Irregular in shape o The interrupted lines are postganglionic
o Situated along the course of efferent nerve fibers of o To compare,
the ANS § The sympathetic have short preganglionic
o Found in the paravertebral sympathetic chains around portion and long postganglionic
the roots of the great visceral arteries and close to or § The parasympathetic have long preganglionic
embedded within the walls of various viscera. portion and shorter postganglionic such that the
ganglion is closer to the visceral organ
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Some books include ANS under the PNS, but the VENTRICULAR SYSTEM AND CSF CIRCULATION
previously discussed cranial and spinal nerves and In summary
ganglia are grouped under the somatic PNS. 1. Choroid plexus
• And the ANS, which is the other subgroup is also called 2. Lateral ventricles
the visceral PNS 3. Interventricular foramina
4. 3rd ventricle
But for our lectures, we will be considering the ANS as a 5. Cerebral aqueduct
separate part of the nervous system 6. 4th ventricle
A. Median Aperture and Lateral Foramina à
• Concerned with the innervation of involuntary structures Cerebellomedullary cistern, pontine cisterns à
o Structures such as, the heart, smooth muscle, and Inferior cerebrum then lateral Cerebrum
glands within the body B. Subarachnoid Space around Spinal Cord
o Distributed throughout the central and peripheral 7. Arachnoid Villi
nervous systems
• It may be divided into two parts:
o Sympathetic and parasympathetic
§ In both parts there are afferent and efferent
nerve fibers
• The activities of the sympathetic part prepare the body
for an emergency, which is the fight or flight response
• The activities of the parasympathetic part are aimed at
conserving and restoring energy, which is the rest and
digest
• Sympathetic fibers come from the thoracolumbar
segments.
• Parasympathetic fibers come from the cranio and sacral
regions.

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 ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
• CSF Circulation
o The circulation begins with the formation of the CSF,
which is produced from the choroid plexuses in the
ventricles. However, a small amount comes from the
brain surface.
o Once produced by the choroid plexus, the CSF
passes from the lateral ventricles into the 3rd
ventricle through the interventricular foramina (of
Monro)
o Then passes to the 4th ventricle through the cerebral
aqueduct
o The circulation is aided by
§ the arterial pulsations of the choroid
plexuses and
§ by the cilia on the ependymal cells lining the
ventricles
o From the 4th ventricle, the fluid passes slowly through
the median aperture and lateral foramina of the
lateral recesses of the 4th ventricle
o After which, it enters the subarachnoid space
o The fluid then moves to the cerebellomedullary
cistern and pontine cisterns
o Then, it flows superiorly through the tentorial notch of
the tentorium cerebelli to reach the inferior surface of
cerebrum
o Moves superiorly over the lateral aspect of each
cerebral hemisphere
§ This flow is assisted by the pulsations of the
cerebral arteries
o While some CSF moves inferiorly in the
subarachnoid space around spinal cord and the
cauda equina
o So here, the fluid is at the dead end and its further
circulation relies on the pulsations of the spinal
arteries and movements of vertebral column e.g.
respiration, coughing and changing positions of the
body.
o The CSF not only bathes the ependymal surfaces of
the brain and spinal cord, but also penetrates the
nervous tissues along the blood vessels
o The main obstruction sites of the CSF are the
§ Arachnoid villi that project into the Dural
venous sinuses, especially the superior
sagittal sinus
§ The arachnoid villi tend to be
grouped together to form
elevations known as arachnoid
granulations
EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Before the formation of the NS in the embryo, three main
cell layers become differentiated.
PRIMARY NEURULATION
Primary Cell Layers
Ectoderm
Nervous system and skin
(outermost)
Muscle, connective tissue,
Mesoderm
vascular system
Gastrointestinal tract, lungs,
Endoderm (innermost)
liver
• The notochord arises from the axial mesoderm at about
16 days and is completely formed by the beginning of the
4th week
• Notochord
o defines the longitudinal access of the embryo
o determines the orientation of the vertebral column
o persists as the nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral
discs
o one important function is induction
§ to direct the overlining ectoderm to form the
neural plate
• During the 3rd week of development/gestation, the
ectoderm in the dorsal surface of the embryo becomes
thickened. It thickens to form the neural plate.
• Neural plate
o pear-shaped and wider cranially
o develops a longitudinal neural groove in the midline
• By about day 18 after fertilization, the neural plate begins
to thicken at its lateral margins.
o this thickening elevates the edges of the neural plate
to form neural folds
o the groove deepens so that it is bounded in either side
by the neural folds
• At about 20 days the neural folds first contact each other
to begin the formation of the neural tube.
o This fusion initially takes place on the dorsal midline
at what will become a cervical level of the spinal cord
and proceeds zipperlike in rostral and caudal
directions
o During the process the lumen of the neural tube; the
neural canal is open to the amniotic cavity both
rostrally and caudally
§ Rostral opening is called the anterior
neuropore
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 ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
§ Caudal opening is called the posterior
neuropore
§ Anterior neuropore closes at 24 days.
§ Posterior neuropore closes at 26 days.
• Normally, the neural tube closure is complete within 28
days
• During the invagination of the neural plate to form the
neural groove, the cells forming the lateral margin marked
the lateral margin of the plate do not become
incorporated in the neural tube, but instead form a strip of
ectodermal cells that lie between the neural tube and
ectoderm.
o Strip of ectoderm is called neural crest
• Neural Crest
o All neurons with cell bodies in the PNS are derived
from the neural crest
o The neural crest develops in close association with
the underlying mesoderm
o The mesoderm at this stage, forms prominent bulges
on either side of the neural tube, which is called the
somites
o From the somites the 33 individual vertebrae of the
spinal column and related skeletal muscles will
develop
o The nerves that innervate the skeletal muscles are
called somatic motor nerves
• Primary Neurulation
o the process by which neural plate becomes the
neural tube
Principal Structures Derived from Neural Crest
• Posterior root ganglia
• Paravertebral (sympathetic chain)
ganglia
• Prevertebral (preaortic) ganglia
Neural Elements • Enteric ganglia
• Parasympathetic ganglia of cranial
nerves II, VII, IX, and X
• Sensory ganglia of cranial Nerves
V, VII, VIII, IX and X
• Schwann cells
• Melanocytes
• Odontoblasts
Nonneural • Satellite cells of peripheral ganglia
Elements • Cartilage of the pharyngeal arches
• Ciliary and pupillary muscles
• Chromaffin cells of the adrenal
medulla
• Pia and arachnoid of the meninges
DEVELOPMENT OF NEURAL TUBE:
GENERAL CONCEPTS
• After the formation of the neural tube, three layers—the
ventricular, marginal, and intermediate zones—appear
in rapid succession
o although these zones are transient in their embryonic
forms, they give rise to important adult derivatives
• Early Stages: these closing neural plates and tubes
consist of a single layer: Ventricular Zone
o composed of pseudostratified layer of fusiform-
shaped cells undergoing DNA replication and cell
proliferation
o the nuclei in these cells migrate in a to-and-fro
manner within the cell as mitosis takes place
§ Progenitor Cells will give rise to the future
neurons and some glial cells of the mature
nervous system and to the ependymal cells
lining the ventricles
• After ventricular zone is formed, Marginal Zone appears
o located at the abluminal aspect of the neural tube
o consists of the processes of the cells from the
ventricular zone but it does not contain their nuclei
o contains almost no cell bodies
o this zone will be invaded by axons of neurons that are
located in the intermediate zone later on
• Third Zone to appear: Intermediate Zone
o forms between the ventricular and the marginal zones
as the progenitor cells from the ventricular zone gives
rise to the immature post-mitotic neuron
§ these immature neurons may be into the area
immediately external to the ventricular zone
o the processes of some intermediate zone neurons go
into the marginal zones
o generally corresponds to what we previously call as
the mantle layer
• Subventricular Zone forms at the interface of the
ventricular and intermediate zones
o unlike the nuclei in the cells of the ventricular zone,
nuclei at the subventricular zones do not migrate
o the progenitor cells of the subventricular zone gives
rise to the macroglial cells of the CNS and to
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 ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

specific population of developing neurons in the

brainstem and forebrain

The three-zone configuration of ventricular zone, intermediate

zone, and marginal zone is the basic organizational plan from
which the spinal cord will arise

• There are individual developmental events limit to regions

in the CNS. In certain regions, the basic plan of the neural
tube is modified to accommodate:
o Cerebellum —> development of Cerebellar Cortex
o Forebrain —> development of Cerebral Cortex
o Spinal Cord —> the posterior part of the ventricular • AFTER THE NEURULATION OF THE SPINAL CORD
zone and adjacent intermediate zone becomes the o Alar Plate (later on forms the Posterior Horn)
Alar Cell Column or Alar Plate o Basal Plate (later on forms the Anterior Horn)
§ will differentiate or develop into Posterior o Neural Tube
Horn o Vertebral Arch
§ sensory component of the future spinal cord o Vertebral Body with Notocohord (later on will be
o Corresponding layers in the anterior region of the Nucleus Pulposus)
developing nerves will become the Basal Cell
Column or the Basal Plate CONGENITAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DEFECTS OF
§ will differentiate or develop into Anterior PRIMARY NEURULATION
Horn
§ motor aspect of the spinal cord • Dysraphic Defects
• As development proceeds, the ventricular zone will o congenital malformations associated with defective
essentially disappear while the intermediate zone with neurulation
mature neurons will progressively enlarge to form the adult o a common birth defect is the failure of appropriate
derivative closure of the neural tube

ANENCEPHALY

• The modification of the neural tube to accommodate the

cerebral cortex is the appearance of the cortical plate and • failure of anterior neuropore closure
the subplate • the brain is not formed as well as the surrounding
o Cortical Plate meninges in the skull and there are facial abnormalities
§ forms at the interface between the marginal zone
and the intermediate zone ENCEPHALOCELE
§ composed of neurons that are made from the • a herniation of the intracranial contents through a defect
ventricular zone through the cranium (crania bifidum) or the skull
§ these post mitotic immature neurons traverse the • specific enlarged structure may contain:
intermediate zone from the ventricular zone using o only meninges — meningocele
the radially oriented processes of radial glia
§ they use the glia as a scaffold to become the
cortical plate
• cell migration of the radial glia is
characteristically seen in all portions of
the developing nervous system
o Subplate
§ a narrow region located immediately internal to
the cortical plate

• Cerebral Cortex develops from the Cortical Plate and the

marginal zone
• The histogenesis of the Cerebellar Cortex is a slight
modification of what happened in the cerebral cortex plan
due to the presence of an external germinal layer
o external germinal layer originate from the rhombic
lip which is an alar plate derivative and is located
within the marginal layer

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 ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

o meninges plus the brain — meningoencephalocele SECONDARY NEURULATION

o meninges with the brain and part of the ventricular

system — meningohydroencephalocele

1. Cut Edge of Amnion

2. Anterior Neuropore
3. Future Brain
4. Initial Closure of Neural Tube
5. Somite
6. Future Spinal Cord
7. Posterior Neuropore
8. Region of Secondary Neurulation
• are most common in the occipital region but they may also 9. Neural Plate
occur in the frontal and parietal location
• When the sacrococcygeal segment of the spinal cord
MYELOSCHISIS and their corresponding dorsal and ventral lobes are
• defects in the closure of the posterior neuropore cause formed, this process begins on day 20 and is
this range of malformation completed on day 42.
• defect always involves failure of the vertebral arch and o Formation of sacrococcygeal segment of the
affected levels to form completely or to fuse as to cover spinal cord and their corresponding dorsal and
the spinal cord ventral lobes
o if this happens, spina bifida occurs o Process begins – day 20
o Process is completed – day 42
SPINA BIFIDA • A cell mass called the caudal egg eminence appears
• Spina Bifida Occulta just caudal to the neural tube. This mass enlarges and
o if that is the only defect and the skin is closed over it cavitates.
o occulta – occult : not seen • Later on, it joins the neural tube and its cavity becomes
o at the site of the defect, it is usually marked by a continuous with the neural canal.
patch of dark coarse hair. • Malformations related to secondary neurulation are
• Spina Bifida Aperta called Myelodysplasia.
o malformation where the skin is not closed over the o the malformation is covered with skin in most
vertebral defect it will leave a patent aperture opening cases but the site may be marked by unusual
• Spina Bifida Cystica pigmentation, hair growth like in spina bifida
o as with occipital encephaloceles, a cystic mass, spina occulta, large superficial capillaries, or a
bifida cystica, may also accompany spina bifida prominent dimple.
o this saccular structure may contain:
§ only meninges + CSF — meningocele
§ meninges + CSF + spinal neural tissue —
meningomyelocele

• A common abnormality is what we call Tethered cord

syndrome (left side of the pic)
o The conus medullaris and filum terminale are
abnormally fixed to the defective vertebral
column
o In tethered cord syndrome, the conus medullaris
and filum terminale are pulled downwards to
the defective vertebral column
o Normally (right side of the pic), it appeared like
that.

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 ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

o The secondary vesicles are the two optic vesicles

o However, in tethered cord syndrome, the conus and the two telencephalic vesicles
medullaris and filum terminale are pulled o The essential structure that remains in the midline is
downwards to the defective vertebral column. the diencephalon
o With this, it sustained traction damages to the
spinal cord and causes variable weakness, DIFFERENTIATION OF THE FOREBRAIN
sensory loss, and asymmetric growth of the
legs and feet, and problems with bowel and
bladder control.

DIFFERENTIATION

• The optic vesicles grow and invaginate.

• They fold in to form the optic stalk and the optic cup.
• Later on, the structures will ultimately become the optic
nerves and the two retinas in the adult.
1. Rostral: front or anterior
2. Caudal: back or posterior
3. Prosencephalon or Forebrain
a. Telencephalic vesicles
b. Diencephalon
c. Optic vesicles
4. Mesencephalon or Midbrain
5. Rhombencephalon or Hindbrain

• Differentiation
• The telencephalic vesicles together form the
o The process by which the structures become
telencephalon or the endbrain.
more complex and functionally specialized
o Telencephalon – consists of two cerebral
during development.
hemispheres)
• The first step in the differentiation of the brain is the
o The telencephalic vesicles grow posteriorly so that
development at the rostral end of the neural tube of the
they lie over in lateral to diencephalon.
3 primary swellings (3 primary swellings or also called
as 3 primary vesicles) • Another pair of vesicles sprout off the ventral surfaces of
the cerebral hemispheres, giving rise to the olfactory
bulbs.
• The olfactory bulbs in related to structures participate in
the sense of smell.

• Prosencephalon or Forebrain
o Rostral most vesicle (rostral means front or
anterior)
o Pro – Greek for before
o Cephalon – Greek for brain 1. Main Divisions
• Mesencephalon or Midbrain a. Telencephalon
o Behind the forebrain b. Diencephalon
• Rhombencephalon or Hindbrain 2. Ventricles
o Caudal to forebrain (caudal means back or a. Lateral ventricles
posterior) b. Third ventricle
o The rhombencephalon connects to the caudal 3. Gray Matter Structures
neural tube which gives rise to the spinal cord a. Cerebral cortex and Basal telencephalon
(telencephalon)
b. Thalamus and Hypothalamus (diencephalon)
4. White Matter Structures
a. Corpus callosum: continuous with the
cortical white matter and forms an axonal
bridge that links cortical neurons of two
cerebral hemispheres
b. Cortical white matter: contains all axons
that run to and from the neurons in the
• The next important development (2nd development)
cerebral cortex; also continuous with the
occurs in the forebrain where the secondary vesicles internal capsule
sprout off on both sides of Prosencephalon. c. Internal capsule: which links to cortex with

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 ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

the brainstem and the thalamus cross section is a simple tube.

• Lateral Ventricles
o The fluid spaces within the cerebral hemispheres
• Third Ventricle.
o The space on the center of the diencephalon
• The walls of the telencephalic vesicles appear swollen due
to proliferation of neurons.
o These neurons perform two different types of gray
matter in the telencephalon (cerebral cortex and basal
telencephalon)
o The diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus)
o The neurons of the developing forebrain extend axons
to communicate with other parts of the nervous
system.
o The axons bundle together to form 3 major white
matter systems (corpus callosum, cortical white
matter, internal capsule)
DIFFERENTIATION OF THE MIDBRAIN
• In subsequent weeks, the tissue along the dorsal lateral
wall called the rhombic lips grows dorsally and medially
until it fuses with its twin on the other side resulting to a
flat tissue which grows into the cerebellum.
• The ventral wall of the tube differentiates and swells to
form the pons.
• Less dramatic change occurs in the differentiation of the
caudal half of the hindbrain.
• The ventral and lateral walls of these regions swell, thus
leaving the roof covered with thin layer of non-neuronal
ependymal cells.
• Along the ventral surface of each side of the medulla runs
a major white matter system.
• Medullary Pyramids
o When you cut across this system, bundles of axons
appear somewhat triangular in shape
o important because this is the point of decussation of
the fissure motor tract
DIFFERENTIATION OF THE SPINAL CORD

• Unlike the Forebrain, the midbrain differentiates relatively

little during subsequent brain development.
• Tectum • The transformation of the caudal neural tube to the spinal
o The dorsal (back) surface of the mesencephalic cord is somewhat straightforward compared to the
vesicle becomes a structure differentiation of the brain.
o Latin for roof • With the expansion of the tissue on the walls, the cavity of
• Tegmentum the tube constricts to form the tiny CSF-filled spinal canal
o The floor of the midbrain • Cut in cross section, the gray matter of spinal cord where
• Cerebral aqueduct the neurons are as the appearance of the butterfly.
o the oblong or circle filled space in between constricts • Dorsal horn
into a thin narrow channel o Upper part
o Derived from the alar plate
DIFFERENTIATION OF THE ROSTRAL AND CAUDAL • Ventral horn
HINDBRAIN o Lower part
o Derived from the basal plate
• Intermediate zone
o The gray matter between the dorsal horn and ventral
horn
• White matter
o the rest (outside the butterfly)
o consists of columns of axons that run up and down of
the spinal cord

THE VENTRICULAR SYSTEM OF THE BRAIN

• Hindbrain differentiates the 3 important structures:
o Cerebellum Component Related Brain Structure
o Pons Lateral Ventricles Cerebral Cortex
o Medulla Basal telencephalon
• Cerebellum and Pons Third Ventricle Thalamus
o develop from the upper half or frontal half of the
Hypothalamus
hindbrain called metencephalon
• Medulla Cerebral Aqueduct Tectum
o develops from the lower half or caudal half of the Midbrain tegmentum
hindbrain called myelencephalon Fourth Ventricle Cerebellum
• The CSF tube becomes the fourth (4th) ventricle which is Pons
continuous with the cerebral aqueduct of the midbrain Medulla
• At the three-vesicle stage, the rostral of the hindbrain in

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 ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

THE PRIMARY DIVISIONS OF THE SUMMARY

DEVELOPING BRAINS • Central Nervous System
o composed of brain and spinal cord
Table 1-2: The Primary Divisions of the Developing Brain • Brain
Primary Primary Division Subdivision Adult o subdivided to forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain
Vesicle Structures • Spinal Cord
Forebrain Prosencephalon Telencephalon Cerebral o divided to the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and
vesicle (forebrain) hemisphere, coccygeal segments
Basal ganglia, o has inner gray and outer white matter
• Cerebrum and Cerebellum
Hippocampus
o have outer gray and inner white matter
• Peripheral Nervous System
Thalamus, o composed of cranial nerves and spinal nerves with
Diencephalon Hypothalamus, their associated ganglia
Pineal body, • Autonomic Nervous System
Infundibulum o has sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
Midbrain Mesencephalon Mesencephalon Tectum, • Cerebrospinal Fluid
Vesicle (midbrain) (midbrain) Tegmentum, o formed from the choroid plexus, circulates through the
ventricles, cisterns, and subarachnoid space, then
Crus cerebi
absorbed through the arachnoid villi
Hindbrain Rhombencephalon Metencephalon Pons, • Nervous System
vesicle (hindbrain) Cerebellum o developed through primary neurulation, secondary
Myelencephalon neurulation, and differentiation
Medulla
Oblongata
REFERENCES
Primary Vesicle Secondary Vesicle Some Adult
Derivatives Bear, M., et.al. (2015). Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain (4th
Forebrain Optic vesicle Retina ed.). Wolters Kluwer.
(prosencephalon) Optic Nerve
Haines, D. & Mihailoff, G. (2018). Fundamental Neuroscience
Thalamus Dorsal thalamus
for Basic and Clinical Applications (5th ed.). Elsevier,Inc
(diencephalon) Hypothalamus
Third ventricle University of Santo Tomas powerpoint presentation of Richelle
Telencephalon Olfactory bulb Ann S. Santiano, MD
Cerebral cortex
Basal telencephalon
Corpus callosum
Cortical white matter
QUICK QUIZ
Internal capsule
1. The Central sulcus of Rolando separates frontal from ______ lobe
a. ) Temporal b.) Parietal c.) Occipital
Primary Vesicle Some Adult Derivatives 2. Arrange the following from external to internal
Midbrain (mesencephalon) Tectum (1) Arachnoid (2) Dura (3) Pia
a. ) 3-2-1 b.) 2-1-3 c.) 2-3-1 d.) 3-1-2
Tegmentum
3. What is the largest part of forebrain?
Cerebral aqueduct 4. What does Don’t Eat Greasy Food stands for?
Hindbrain (rhombencephalon) Cerebellum 5. Which of the following has the correct number of spinal nerves?
a.) 7 Cervical, 12 Thoracic, 5 Lumbar, 5 Sacral, 2 Coccygeal
Pons b.) 8 Cervical, 12 Thoracic, 5 Lumbar, 5 Sacral, 1 Coccygeal
Fourth ventricle c.) 8 Cervical, 11 Thoracic, 5 Lumbar, 5 Sacral, 2 Coccygeal
Medulla d.) 8 Cervical, 12 Thoracic, 4 Lumbar, 4 Sacral, 1 Coccygeal
6. It is referred to as the posterior root ganglia
a.) Sensory Ganglia b.) Autonomic Ganglia
c.) Anterior Ganglia d.) Posterior Ramus
7. The CSF is produced from the
a.) Cerebral Aqueduct
b.) Choroid plexus
c.) Arachnoid Villi
8. The anterior neuropore closes at
a. ) 24 days b.) 28 days c.) 26 days
9. The gray matter between the dorsal horn and ventral horn is
called _____
a.) Primary Vesicle b.) Cortical White Matter
c.) Internal Capsule d.) Intermediate zone
10. ____ differentiates the three important structures
(Cerebellum, Pons, Medulla)
a.) Midbrain b.) Hindbrain
c.) Forebrain d.) Rhombencephalon

(1) B (2) B (3) CEREBRUM (4) Dentante, Emboliform, Globose, Fastigial (5) B (6) A (7) B (8) A (9) D (10) B

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