MAK4049/TERM PROJECT

Check Valves/Microswitches/Promixity Sensors/Pressure Meters

UTKU AYRANCILAR / 030150351

ARDA ARSLAN / 030150251
TUNAHAN ÖZKAN / 030150090

ISTANBUL TEKNIK UNIVERSITESI

Doc.Dr. Kenan Refah Kutlu
Table Of Contents
What is a Check Valve? ........................................................................................................................... 3
Construction of a Check Valve............................................................................................................ 3
Types of Valves ................................................................................................................................... 3
Swing Check Valves......................................................................................................................... 4
Resilient hinge check valves ........................................................................................................... 5
Recoil check valves ......................................................................................................................... 5
Tilting disc check valves .................................................................................................................. 6
Slanted seat check valves ............................................................................................................... 7
Dual disc check valves..................................................................................................................... 7
Nozzle check valves ........................................................................................................................ 8
Ball Check Valves ............................................................................................................................ 9
Selection and sizing of check valves ................................................................................................. 10
Installation and maintenance of check valves ..................................................................................... 11
Check valve applications ...................................................................................................................... 12
Single pump systems ..................................................................................................................... 12
Parallel pump systems................................................................................................................... 12
Emergency cooling systems .......................................................................................................... 13
Pressure relief systems .................................................................................................................. 14
Vacuum breaker systems .............................................................................................................. 14
Combustion systems ..................................................................................................................... 15
Water hammer mitigation............................................................................................................. 15
Why Use a Check Valve Instead of Others? ......................................................................................... 15
Advantages of Check Valves ................................................................................................................. 16
MICROSWITCH ...................................................................................................................................... 17
History ............................................................................................................................................... 18
Construction And Operation ............................................................................................................ 19
MECHANISM OF MICROSWITCH ...................................................................................................... 20
Brief Description Of The Drawings ................................................................................................... 21
Background Of The Invention........................................................................................................... 21
Summary Of The Invention .............................................................................................................. 22
COMMON MICRO SWITCH APPLICATIONS ...................................................................................... 23
PLUNGER SWITCHES ......................................................................................................................... 24
FLOAT SWITCH .................................................................................................................................. 24
MICRO SNAP ACTION SWITCH ......................................................................................................... 25
LEAF SWITCH ..................................................................................................................................... 25

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 SAIL SWITCH ...................................................................................................................................... 25
WHISKER SWITCH ............................................................................................................................. 26
PROXIMITY SENSORS ............................................................................................................................ 30
Use With Smartphones And Tablet Computers ............................................................................... 31
Applications ...................................................................................................................................... 32
Inductive sensors .................................................................................................................................. 33
Capacitive sensors ............................................................................................................................ 34
Photoelectric sensors ....................................................................................................................... 35
Retro-reflective ................................................................................................................................. 37
Ultrasonic sensors............................................................................................................................. 38
Pressure Meters .................................................................................................................................... 40
What is a Pressure Sensor? .............................................................................................................. 41
Pressure Sensor Design .................................................................................................................... 41
PRESSURE APPLICATION EXAMPLES ................................................................................................ 43
The Bourdon tube: ............................................................................................................................ 45
Barometers ....................................................................................................................................... 46
Types of Barometers......................................................................................................................... 46
Aneroid Barometer ........................................................................................................................... 47
Digital Barometers ............................................................................................................................ 48
Working Principle of a Pressure Transducer .................................................................................... 49
Operating Principle of Bourdon Type Manometer .......................................................................... 50
Working Principle of Strain Gage Type Manometer........................................................................ 50
Load Cell Working Principle of Pressure Sensors............................................................................ 50
Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors ......................................................................................................... 51
Pressure Measurement Applications ............................................................................................... 51
References............................................................................................................................................. 53

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What is a Check Valve?
The valve that used to prevent backflow in a piping system is known as a check valve. It is also known
as a non-return valve or NRV. The pressure of the fluid passing through a pipeline opens the valve,
while any reversal of flow will close the valve. It allows full unobstructed flow and automatically
shuts as pressure decreases. The exact operation will vary depending on the mechanism of the valve.

The check or non‐return valve is most commonly used in pumping stations and allows the flow in
only one (and always the same) direction thus preventing back flow when the fluid in the line
reverses direction. The main importance of this function is twofold:

1) To prevent damage to upstream equipment that can be affected by reverse flows such as pumps
and measuring equipment.

2) To prevent reverse flow after system shutdown (water hammer). Check valves are therefore
safety critical valves that protect the system and its equipment from damage which can range from
accelerated wear and tear to full, catastrophic system failure depending on the extent of the system
design. The importance of selecting the correct type, size and specification of check valve is crucial to
ensure the running of the system is smooth, trouble free and provides long‐term operation.

Construction of a Check Valve

A basic check valve consists of a valve body, bonnet or cover, and a disc which is attached to a hinge
and swings away from the valve seat to allow fluid to flow in the forward direction, as in a swing- or
tilting-disc check valve, and returns to valve seat when upstream flow is stopped. Thus, reverse flow
is prevented. In folding disc check valves, the disc consists of two halves attached in the middle. The
two halves fold backward when upstream flow is initiated. Activated by a spring, the two halves
quickly close the flow path when upstream flow ceases. In the case of lift-check valves, the disc is in
the form of a piston which is moved out of the flow path by upstream flow and returns to the valve
seat by gravity to stop back flow. Ball-check valves have a disc in the form of a ball.

Types of Valves
The type of disk will decide the type of valve. Most common types of Check valves are

 Swing Type.

 Top Hinged

 Tilting disk

 Lift Type

 Piston Type

 Ball type

 Dual Plate Type

 Stop Check Valve

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Swing Check Valves

The valve consists of a double flanged body and cover which are manufactured from cast ductile
iron. The upper part of the body, just under the cover, accommodates the valve disc when in the
fully open position. The shaft is positioned above the top of the seat and is installed horizontally,
supported at both ends by either plastic or metallic bushes. The shaft is free to rotate and usually
one end protrudes from the body allowing the fitting of optional levers and weights. The disc is
circular and is attached to the shaft via hinge arms. A typical cutaway section is shown in Fig.
2. When closed, the disc seals onto the metal seat section within the body. The disc seal can be
either resilient of metallic. In order to ensure optimal sealing performance, it is important that there
is some flexibility in the disc sub‐assembly so that the disc seal maintains close contact with the
metal seat around the complete circumference. The metal to metal seal is usually used for larger
size valves and allowance is made for slight leakage rates. The resilient seat design provides fully
drop‐tight sealing performance and generates less noise during operation.

The operation of the swing check valve is based on a rotary motion. Under flow conditions, the fluid
exerts a force on the disc which causes it to rotate upwards. When the flow reduces, due to gravity,
the disc returns back to its closed position. When the flow reverses, the pressure of the fluid acting
on the disc forces it onto its seat which seals the valve and prevents flow reversal. The main
advantages for swing
check valves are that they
can be designed with a full
bore design.

This results in very low

head loss across the valve
during full flow
conditions. This design
feature provides an
unobstructed flow path
which greatly reduces
turbulence and also allows
this valve type to be used
for both water and waste water applications. These valves can also be designed with relatively low
disc weights which reduces the force required to open and close the valve, thus are suitable for
operation in both low and high pressure applications. They are also suitable for installation in the

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horizontal and vertical orientations although careful consideration is required for the correct
positioning of levers and weights when these are attached to the valve.

Resilient hinge check valves

The resilient hinge check valve is a relatively new concept in the non‐return valve family. Figure 4
shows an example of this valve type and it can be seen that the valve disc and hinge pin assembly is
fully encapsulated with rubber and reinforced with nylon. As flow enters the valve, the disc opens
and bends the resilient section of the disc until it reaches the fully open position. This disc will be
constantly flexing during operation so it is of vital importance that the rubber is adequately
reinforced with a suitable material to ensure that rupture of the disc is eliminated. Due to the
inclined seating angle (usually 35 degrees), this shortens the operating travel of the valve allowing
quicker closure. When fully open, the valve has low obstruction resulting in a low pressure drop
across the valve. Unlike conventional swing check valves, the resilient hinge check valve does not
rely on rotation around the hinge pin. It is the resilience of the rubber that allows the movement of
the disc and because of this, frictional losses between the hinge pin is completely avoided, reducing
the time taken to close. Also, the resilient hinge check valve requires no protrusion from the valve
body and the maintenance requirements for this valve are practically zero. Because of this, the
resilient hinge check valve is suitable for use in water and sewage applications and due to its quicker
reaction times, can be used to prevent valve slam in water and waste water pumping systems.

Recoil check valves

The recoil check valve is one of the oldest and recognized types of high performance check valves.
They are used in pumping systems where high rapid flow reversal takes place. Typically, these active
systems are pumping stations which adopt high branch velocities and, in addition, provide automatic
stopping and starting, deliver into a vertically rising main and have multi‐pump sets delivering into a
common main.

The recoil check valve is used for more extreme conditions and is designed to incorporate every
mechanical and hydraulic assistance for accelerating the closure of the door(s). Mechanical
assistance is given by a combination of inertia reduction, concentration of mass and ideal suspension
of the moving elements. Hydraulic assistance is given by the provision for forward and backward
water streams within the body and around the valve door(s).

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Recoil valves are generally used in water systems and are not recommended for sewage applications
due to the potential for ragging within the valve. These valves are suitable for horizontal installations
only.

Tilting disc check valves

The tilting disc check valve is similar in appearance to an eccentric butterfly valve. The valve body is
double‐flanged and of a short length. The disc is held in place via a shaft which is positioned
eccentrically from the body centreline in both the horizontal and vertical axes. Higher quality
products have stoppers attached to the disc which limits the valve opening and ensures that the disc
remains in a more static position when subjected to sufficient flow rates. This reduces the wear and
tear of the rotating components of the valve and also provides stable and consistent head loss
characteristics during operation. Figure 7 shows an example of a tilting disc valve in the fully open
position

The substantial double eccentricity of the shaft results in the lower section of the disc occupying a
greater area in the flow path. Consequently, the disc begins to open at very low flow rates. The
tilting disc check valve is therefore commonly used in pumping systems with low flow rates and also
for pulsating flows. During flow reversal, the disc closes due to gravity and the upper part of the disc
above the shaft centreline pushes against the flow thus acting as a hydraulic brake which cushions
the disc as it returns to the closed position. Tilting disc valves can be supplied with optional levers
and weights to adjust the closing characteristics of the valve. As such, the tilting disc check valves
are better suited to reduce the risk of water hammer compared to conventional swing check valves.
Because of the internal shafts which are within the flow stream, the tilting disc check valve is used for
water and treated effluent applications.

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Slanted seat check valves
Like the tilting disc check valve, the slanted seat offers enhanced resistance to water hammer. The
valve has the double eccentric shaft position similar to the tilting disc but it also has an increased
seating angle. This yields a shorter valve stroke, thus reducing the time taken for the door to
close. The slanted seat check valve can be installed with an optional hydraulic damper which is
located at the internal base of the valve body.

The valve disc closes quickly over the first 85% of its angular travel before coming into contact with
the hydraulic damper. The damper then dissipates the kinetic energy of the disc and forces it to
open slightly. The disc closes until it contacts the damper again and this cushions the disc until it
returns to its fully closed position, sealing the valve. This function greatly reduces the onset of water
hammer due to the damped and controlled method of valve closure. Hydraulic dampers are strongly
recommended for use on the slanted check valves, especially when they are installed on a pumping
station where high frequency opening and closing of the valve is required. Under these conditions,
the damper will greatly protect the valve from accelerated wear and tear of the internal moving
parts. The slanted seat design also allows these valves to seal at lower back pressures.

Dual disc check valves

Also known as the butterfly check valve, the dual disc check valve is a maintenance free, self‐acting
pivoting check valve of the double disc wafer type. This valve is particularly useful for installation in
pipelines due to its compact design and very short face to face dimensions. The short cylindrical
body is usually of the wafer type and has a centric shaft design which is inserted into the
body. Torsional springs are fitted onto the shaft which hold the discs in a closed position in zero flow
conditions. When flow passes through the valve, the hydraulic force exceeds the spring force and
causes the discs to open parallel to the axis of flow. The resilient seal is fixed onto the internals of
the valve body so that when the metallic discs are fully closed, they provide leakage‐free sealing
performance.

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Figures 10a and 10b show a wafer type valve in the closed and open positions for a horizontal
installation with the shaft orientated vertically. These valves can also be installed in vertical pipelines
with the liquid flowing upwards. The wafer type design generally has a minimal reduced bore and the
discs are streamlined resulting in a higher Kv value compared to many other check valve designs. This
valve type is mainly used in water applications. Their compact design is space saving, resulting in
potential civil cost reductions of pump houses. Maintenance costs are very low as there are no stem
protrusions from the valve body. Consideration is required when installing these valves. The short
face to face of the body results in the discs protruding out with the body space envelope (see Fig.
10b). Connection directly to other pieces of equipment or to pipes with internal diameters less than
the diameter of the valve can cause fouling and must be avoided.

Nozzle check valves

The nozzle check valve has a double flanged valve body with a venturi type internal profile. The valve
disc is connected to a stem which is guided on the central horizontal axis. A spring is positioned
between the disc and the diffuser sleeve. When flow enters the valve, the hydraulic force exerted
onto the front face reacts against the spring, causing the spring to compress and allow the valve to
open. When the flow stops, the spring forces the disc to return to the closed position. The disc
surface is resilient, providing a drop‐tight seal against the body seat.

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Ball Check Valves
Because of their clear bore design, ball check valves are commonly used in waste water
applications. This check valve type consists of the following components– the body , cover and ball.
The body is generally flanged but can also be threaded. The internals of the body provide a full and
smooth bore ensuring full flow with low head loss across the valve. This design also ensures that no
solid deposits can build up at the base of the valve. The ball rotates during operation eliminating the
risk of impurities getting stuck on the ball. The ball material is generally manufactured as an NBR
lined ball but optional materials such as polyurethane are also available.

During flow conditions, the fluid makes contact with the ball and is guided up via contours into the
top chamber of the body just below the cover When the forward flow ceases, the ball returns back to
the closed position due to gravity and seals onto its seat preventing reverse flow.

Further to the aforementioned low head loss and unobstructed flow path, these valves are also
relatively economical and can be installed in both the horizontal or vertical orientations as
standard. Due to the simple nature of the operation and the small number of moving parts, ball
check valves require very little maintenance. When maintenance is required, the ball check valve can
be accessed from the top and can be maintained with the body installed onto the pipe. High end
manufacturers provide balls with different weights. These differing weights can be used to modify
the closing characteristics of the valve. Generally, if frequent noise is heard from a ball check valve, it
is due to the standard ball weight being too heavy for the flow conditions resulting in unstable
operation. By reducing the weight of the ball, this will help the ball to lift more easily and stabilize
under the same flow conditions. If the standard ball is too light, it will take longer to close and by
using a heavier ball, this will close more quickly, thus reducing the risk of water hammer.

These valves are not used for installations where there is a high risk of water hammer as they are not
particularly fast closing compared to other check valve types. This is mainly due to the ball not being
in direct contact with the reverse flow.

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Selection and sizing of check valves
Some of the selection criteria to consider when choosing your check valves

Some of the things you may need to consider are fluid compatibility, flow characteristics, headloss,
non-slam characteristics and total cost of ownership. For optimal performance, it is of course
important to choose your valve respecting the characteristics of each specific installation.

Fluid

All check valves are designed to handle water and treated wastewater but handling of raw waste
water/sewage may cause some issues. When selecting a valve for these fluids, you should probably
consider how the presence of solids may potentially affect operation of the valve.

Flow characteristics

If a check valve closes very fast, it may prevent slamming. However, the rapid closure will not protect
against the surges caused by pumps being started and shut down. If the valve opens (and closes)
quickly, the flow will be changed suddenly and surges will more likely occur.

Headloss

Headloss is a function of fluid velocity and the valve headloss is affected by the flow conditions of the
system and the internal surface of the valve. The geometry of the valve body and the closure design
determines the flow area through the valve and thereby also affects the headloss.

The headloss to be considered is a combination of static head (caused by elevation difference) and
friction head (caused by the internal of the pipes and valves). There are a number of formulas for
headloss and rating of valves based on this. The most common is probably the flow coefficient of the
amount of water passing through the valve at a certain pressure drop during a certain amount of
time. However, for comparisons the resistance coefficient Kv is considered the best choice.

Total cost of ownership

The costs for your check valve may consist of more than just the purchase price. For some
installations, the most important costs may be purchasing and installation but in other cases
maintenance or energy costs may be equally or even more important. When considering costs as a
selection criteria for your check valve, the total costs over the life of the valve should therefore be
considered. In general, the more simple the valve construction is, the lower are the maintenance
requirements.

Non-slam characteristics

Check valve slam results in system pressure surge. First step of the process is when the pumps stop
and the flow is reversed. That may cause some reverse flow through the valve before it gets to a fully
closed position. Then the reverse flow is shut off and the change in flow velocity turns the kinetic
energy of the fluid into pressure.

A slam sounds like if the disc or the ball from the check valve is hitting the seat and can make quite
some noise. However, the sound is not caused by the physical closing but by a sound wave arising
from a pressure spike stretching the pipe wall. To completely avoid slamming, the check valve should
close before any reverse velocity can occur. Unfortunately, that does not happen. The geometry of
the valve decides how much reverse flow will occur so the faster the valve closes, the less slamming.

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As swing check valves have the disc in the flow stream helping with rapid closure, they have better
non-slam characteristics but today most pumps are frequency converted enabling them to adjust the
start-up and closure time in order to avoid water hammer.

Check valves can be installed both horizontally and vertically. Slamming may be a bigger issue for
vertical installations since a vertical flow reverses more rapidly but a vertical installation allows
gravity to assist in closing the valve rapidly.

Installation and maintenance of check valves

The check valve is installed on the discharge or downstream side of the pump to protect the pump
from excessive back pressure and the prevention of flow reversal in case of pump failure. It is good
engineering practice to ensure suitable isolation of the check valve is provided for maintenance
purposes. It is preferable to use gate valves as isolators as this provides a smoother system flow due
to the full bore design of the gate valve and makes this valve type a more efficient isolator as it has a
lower head loss, thus providing reduced energy consumption costs. Butterfly valve isolators create
some turbulence as the flow passes over the butterfly valve disc and if these valves are used, a
sufficient distance should be made between the butterfly and check valves to ensure smooth flow
conditions. Butterfly valves are not recommended for water systems with medium to high levels of
solid particles. As a general principle, the check valve should be installed at least 5 x the valve DN
from the pump or any pipe fittings which will cause discontinuous flow velocities such as
bends. These velocities can cause turbulence which may affect the operational performance of the
check valve, the stability of the system, increase the head loss across the valve and accelerate the
wear and tear of the moving parts. For rotary check valves such as the swing check and recoil valves,
it is crucial to ensure that the hinge and shaft of the valve is installed perfectly horizontal as any
slight angular offset will result in erratic performance of the valve and accelerated wear and tear. The
maintenance for check valves, like any other piece of hydro‐mechanical equipment, is important and
should be carried out in line with the manufacturer’s instructions. Some check valve types require
less maintenance than others as explained earlier. However, for any valve type, checking that the
valve disc can move completely free will help provide a long and trouble free operation of the check
valve. This usually involves periodic checking of the hinge pin, bushes and disc to ensure no
sedimentation build‐up or excessive wear has taken place.

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Check valve applications
Single pump systems
This is the most common application of a check valve where a check valve permits flow from suction
tank to the discharge tank and prevents the reverse flow from the discharge tank back to the suction
tank during pump stoppage or pump failure.

Parallel pump systems

This is another common application of check valves. In this configuration two or more pumps are
connected in parallel. The check valve has two functions in such a scenario:

 The check valve prevents the duty pump, pumping into the standby pumps

 The check valve prevents the discharge tank back flowing into suction tank during pump
stoppage.

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Series pumping systems

When pumps are connected in series especially when pumping fluids in cross country pipelines then
it is recommended to place check valves in parallel to each pump. Under normal operation the
discharge pressure of the pump will keep the check valve in closed position. However if any pump
fails then the pressure drop across the pump will activate the check valve. This will split the flow in
two streams and reduce the hydraulic losses.

Emergency cooling systems

This is a smart way of using check valves. Under normal operation only a small amount of fluid will go
to the header tank and the same amount will overflow and drain back into the suction tank. So in
effect the header tank will be always charged with water. The main flow will go through the load. The
discharge pressure of pump will keep CV2 closed. When the pump fails CV2 opens and drains all the
water via the load thereby saving critical equipment and allowing sufficient time for controls to take
over.

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Pressure relief systems
Spring loaded check valves are commonly used in gas projects as relief valves for low pressure
applications. Once the system pressure goes above the cracking pressure the check valve opens and
releases the gas to a safe location or flare header. Figure 5 shows a sketch for this application.

Vacuum breaker systems

Check valves can also be used as vacuum breakers. This application for a boiler steam drum. Under
positive pressure the check valve remains closed. In case vacuum is developed in the steam drum,
the drum pressure falls below atmospheric and permits the entry of air thereby breaking the vacuum
and preventing the vessel from buckling collapse.

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Combustion systems
Check valves to a certain extent can also mitigate the deflagration risk in pre-mix combustion
systems. In case the premix ignites in the mixing pipe the pressure rise accompanied by flame
propagation will slam the check valve and may reduce the risk of the flame propagation upstream of
check valves. However this is not 100 per cent fail safe and other means may be required to mitigate
this risk. Refer to Figure 9.

Water hammer mitigation

In pumping systems the check valve can also help to mitigate the water hammer. For example if the
pump fails then there will be reverse flow from the discharge tank to suction tank. The magnitude of
this reverse flow determines the water hammer i.e. the lower the reverse velocity, the lower the
pressure rise due to water hammer. The reverse velocity of a check valve is a function of valve inertia
and the valve spring constant.

Why Use a Check Valve Instead of Others?

With each industry needing different fluids and/or gases transported over different landscapes,
lengths, and at different temperatures, check valves can have a variety of benefits.

 Ball check valves are mostly used to move liquids, since the ball mechanism is not the best
for creating an airtight seal.

 Swing check valves can wear out prematurely due to the force used when closing the valve.
As a result, many swing check valves come with a non-slam feature that regulates how the
valve closes.

 Swing check valves often feature a larger pressure drop than across other types.

 Disc check valves usually cost less than other standard valves since they are usually smaller
and lighter. They can be installed in any position, including vertical pipelines.

 Disc check valves do not perform well for applications where there is heavily pulsating flow.

 Split disc check valves are used when the size and pressure drop of swing and disc check
valves are too great and limit functionality.

 Split disc check valves are advantageous in applications that need large check valves, low
pressure drops, lower operating pressures, and/or for applications that need check valves
installed in any position, even vertical pipes.

 The rubber and other materials used in a diaphragm check valve do not operate well at
extreme temperatures, which limit the valve to working with fluids between 180°C and 16
bar.

 Due to their small, sleek design and relatively small production cost, wafer valves have
become the valve of choice for a wide range of applications.

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Advantages of Check Valves
 protect pumps and compressor equipment from damage caused by backflow / reverse flow

 reduce down time and loss of production due to failure of unsuitable valves

 low pressure drop increases energy savings

 check valves are very effective in preventing water hammer

 eliminate chatter and reduce the possibility of sudden valve failure

 lower maintenance costs; fewer moving parts

 smaller footprint than conventional check valves

 flexibility to cope with variable flow conditions

 interchangeability with most conventional swing check valves without expensive piping
modification

 They open and close automatically. They do not need exterior force to open or close. They
move quickly.

Disadvantages of Check Valves

 It is hard to determine if the valve is open or closed, because all the moving parts of the valve
are placed in a closed area.

 Check valves have restrictions during assembly.

 Valve disc can get stuck in open position.

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MICROSWITCH
A micro switch is a small sensor. Not like the ones, you think of in the movies where you walk past a
laser and alarms go off. Think dish washing machines. Have you ever started your dishwasher just to
realize you forgot a plate in the sink? When you open the door, the whole machine instantly shuts
down. Now you may ask how it knows…

When it detects movement or pressure around it, the micro switches operate with the logic of
applying pressure to the actuator, also known as a button or piston. A micro switch works by sensing
movement or pressure from its surroundings. For example, when the dishwasher opens it takes
pressure off an actuator, also known in Laymen’s terms, as a button or plunger. When the pressure is
taken off of this button it opens a circuit. This means the electricity is cut off from the rest of the
machine. Micro switches used in home applications, building, automation and security systems have
many different application areas. For example, these micro switches are used to manually activate
the alarm within push buttons, such as a fire alarm. Another area of use is elevators. They are used
for door switches that are opened manually and in the buttons we select floor. We find these micro
switches in many household appliances. An example of the use of the on / off switches of washing
machines and the micro switches of air conditioning units.

Electrical values are printed on the micro switch. These values generally range from 5-25 amperes to
125, 250, 380, 500, 600 volts alternating current, as well as 0.5-0.25 amperes and 125, 250 volts
direct current. Micro switches normally have three terminals. The number of leads is higher in multi-
circuit ones. Micro switch type with two terminals is very small. The contact resistances of the micro
switches are very low. They do not damage the functions of the circuits to which they are connected.
Micro switches are used to ensure the safety of various machines and devices and to prevent a
possible accident. For example, if a boiler is left open, the burner will not start. The micro switch
signals the fault. It prevents the burner from operating. If the centrifugal door is opened in the
washing machines, the drying cylinder stops. If the cover is closed, the roller rotates if the button is
open. A microswitch that controls this has been used as a safety precaution in order to prevent a
possible work accident. The micro switch is an integral part of modern industry and automatic
control. It is used in every field of the technique.

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A miniature snap-action switch, also trademarked and frequently known as a micro switch, is an
electric switch that is actuated by very little physical force, through the use of a tipping-point
mechanism, sometimes called an "over-center" mechanism. Electrical values are printed on the
micro switch. These values generally range from 5-25 amperes to 125, 250, 380, 500, 600 volts
alternating current, as well as 0.5-0.25 amperes and 125, 250 volts direct current. Micro switches
normally have three terminals. The number of leads is higher in multi-circuit ones. Micro switch type
with two terminals is very small. The contact resistances of the micro switches are very low. They do
not damage the functions of the circuits to which they are connected.

Switching happens reliably at specific and repeatable positions of the actuator, which is not
necessarily true of other mechanisms. They are very common due to their low cost but high
durability, greater than 1 million cycles and up to 10 million cycles for heavy duty models. This
durability is a natural consequence of the design.

The defining feature of micro switches is that a relatively small movement at the actuator button
produces a relatively large movement at the electrical contacts, which occurs at high speed
(regardless of the speed of actuation). Most successful designs also exhibit hysteresis, meaning that a
small reversal of the actuator is insufficient to reverse the contacts; there must be a significant
movement in the opposite direction. Both of these characteristics help to achieve a clean and reliable
interruption to the switched circuit.

History
The first micro switch was invented by Phillip Kenneth McGall in 1932 in Freeport, Illinois, patent
1,960,020. McGall was an employee of the Burgess Battery Company at the time. In 1937 W.B.
Schulte, McGall's employer, started the company micro switch. The company and the Micro Switch
trademark has been owned by Honeywell Sensing and Control since 1950. The name has become a
generic trademark for any snap-action switch. Companies other than Honeywell now manufacture
miniature snap-action switches.

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Construction And Operation
In one type of microswitch, internally there are two conductive springs. A long flat spring is hinged at
one end of the switch and has electrical contacts on the other. A small curved spring, preloaded so it
attempts to extend itself, is connected between the flat spring near the contacts and a fulcrum near
the midpoint of the flat spring. An actuator nub presses on the flat spring near its hinge point.

Because the flat spring is anchored and strong in tension the curved spring cannot move it to the
right. The curved spring presses, or pulls, the flat spring upward, that is away, from the anchor point.
Owing to the geometry, the upward force is proportional to the displacement which decreases as the
flat spring moves downward. (Actually, the force is proportional to the sine of the angle, which is
approximately proportional to the angle for small angles.)

As the actuator depresses it flexes the flat spring while the curved spring keeps the electrical
contacts touching. When the flat spring is flexed enough it will provide sufficient force to compress
the curved spring and the contacts will begin to move.

As the flat spring moves downward the upward force of the curved spring reduces causing the
motion to accelerate even in the absence of further motion of the actuator until the flat spring
impacts the normally-open contact. Even though the flat spring unflexes as it moves downward, the
switch is designed so the net effect is acceleration. This "over-center" action produces a very
distinctive clicking sound and a very crisp feel.

In the actuated position the curved spring provides some upward force. If the actuator is released
this will move the flat spring upward. As the flat spring moves, the force from the curved spring
increases. This results in acceleration until the normally-closed contacts are hit. Just as in the
downward direction, the switch is designed so that the curved spring is strong enough to move the
contacts, even if the flat spring must flex, because the actuator does not move during the
changeover.

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MECHANISM OF MICROSWITCH

Page | 20
Brief Description Of The Drawings
A more complete understanding of this invention may be had by referring to the following detailed
explanations in connection with the accompanying drawings, in which fig. 1 is a front view of a
working example of a microswitch of this invention in which a cover is removed. Fig. 2 is an
explanatory view of the operation of fig. 1. Figs. 3a and 3b are a front view (top) and a plan view
(down) of a seesaw contact piece. Figs. 4a and 4b are a front view (left) and a left side view (right) of
a fixed contact piece. Fig. 5 is a front view of a working example in which fixed contacts are provided
above and below a movable contact. Fig. 6 is a front view of a working example in which movable
contacts are provided to both of the right and left side pieces of the seesaw contact piece. Fig. 7 is a
front view of a working example in which the fixed contact piece is prepared from a spring piece and
the corner part of the seesaw contact piece is supported with a projection formed in the case.

Background Of The Invention

1. Field Of The Invention

This invention provides a microswitch which can be switched by loading a projection of a push lever
projecting outside a case with external force or releasing the external force therefrom and which has
general-purpose properties for an operation, a detection and so on of a wide variety of apparatuses.

2. Description Of The Prior Art

A conventional microswitch which has been generally and widely used is constructed so that one end
of a contact spring piece comprising a tension member and a compression member is fixed in a small
box-shaped case (common terminal) and the other end is provided with a movable contact, said
movable contact being provided opposite a fixed contact (terminal) (separately therefrom or coming
into contact therewith), the above-described contact spring piece is pressed and inverted by pressing
and descending an actuator, for example, a press button, the contact spring piece is reversed and
inverted (snap action) at a given pressing point and contact of the movable contact with the fixed
spring (on) or separation of the movable contact from the fixed spring (off) is performed instantly.
However, in case of the above-described conventional microswitch, not only has it been difficult to
produce the contact spring piece comprising the tension member and the compression member
precisely without scatter in each switch for manufacturing processing technique, material and so on
with miniaturization of the switch, but also the precision in mounting technique for mounting the
microswitch to a case has been at the end of its limitation and, particularly, it has not been possible
to correspond to the recent super-miniaturization, for example, each dimension of longitude, side
and height is proximately 10 mm, and there has been a problem that cost rises inevitably because of
miniaturization and improvement in precision. Furthermore, since the contact (on) pressure of the
movable contact with fixed contact which are important points for a switch operation is only spring
pressure of a small contact spring piece, there occurs scatter in the contact pressure for every switch
operation, thereby making the switch performance unstable. Also, there has been a problem that the
switch performance deteriorates because of dirt on a contact part after long-term use, repeated use
and so on.

Page | 21
Summary Of The Invention
This invention comprises as main members a push lever and a seesaw contact piece which can be
easily miniaturized and sophisticated in high-precision and realizes miniaturization of a switch and
cost reduction and, simultaneously, performs simply but precisely switch operation, that is to say,
operations of a movable contact and a fixed contact by means of the seesaw contact piece which is
coupled to the push lever like a seesaw and this invention performs the contact (on) of both of the
contacts by rocking of the push lever around a supporting shaft so that the bottom end of the push
lever pushes immediately downward a right side piece of the seesaw contact piece to keep a state
that the movable contact presses strongly and surely to the fixed contact, thereby dissolving
occurrence of contact failure of the contacts and, simultaneously, producing a cleaning effect by
friction of both of the contacts which come into contact with each other by flexure of the right side
piece with pushing force to realize high-sophistication of switch and solve the aforementioned
problems.

According to this invention, there is provided a microswitch comprising a push lever as an actuator, a
seesaw contact piece to a right side piece of which a movable contact is attached, a fixed contact
which switches on or off by coming into contact with said movable contact or separating from said
movable contact and a terminal, and a fixed contact piece supporting a corner part of the seesaw
contact piece and a terminal and so on, outer peripheries thereof being enclosed with an insulating
case, in which the above-described push lever is attached pivotally to the case by a supporting shaft,
to a front end of which a projection is formed projecting outside the case by elastic force of a spring
provided between its rear end and the case, and a lower end of which is equipped with a steel ball so
as to freely roll, the seesaw contact piece comprises a left side piece and a right side piece which are
formed substantially in the v-shape centered with respect to a corner part, the right side piece being
provided with the movable contact, the corner part of said seesaw contact piece is supported to
contact by support of an upper end of the fixed contact piece as a fulcrum so as to freely rock from
right to left, and the seesaw contact piece and the fixed contact piece are made conductive and,
simultaneously, the movable contact on the right side piece of the seesaw contact piece is provided
opposite separately the fixed contact, and the steel ball of the above-described push lever is in
contact with the left side piece of the seesaw contact piece, wherein at a free position where
external force is not loaded to the projection of the push lever, the push lever rocks around the
supporting shaft by the elastic force of the spring to project the projection outside the case and,
simultaneously, the steel ball presses the left side piece of said seesaw contact piece to rock upward
the right side piece of said seesaw contact piece with the corner part being as a fulcrum to locate the
movable contact at a position separately from the fixed contact (switch off), said projection falls
downward when the external force is loaded thereto, and the push lever rocks around the
supporting shaft while compressing the spring, the steel ball rolls from the left side piece to the right
side piece through the corner part while pressing the seesaw contact piece, thereby making the right
side piece of the seesaw contact piece rock downward around the corner part to contact the
movable contact with the fixed contact (switch on), and when the external force is released from the
projection the push lever rocks to be restored to the original state by the restoring elastic force of
the spring and, simultaneously, the seesaw contact piece rocks to be restored to the original state by
rolling to return the steel ball, thereby separating the movable contact from the fixed contact (switch
off) to prepare for the original free position.

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COMMON MICRO SWITCH APPLICATIONS
Microswitches have two main areas of application:

Firstly they are used when a low operating force with a clearly-defined action is needed. Secondly
they are used when long-term reliability is needed. This is a result of the internal mechanism and the
independence of the closing force on the switch contacts from the operating force. Switch reliability
is largely a question of the contact force: a force which is reliably adequate, but never excessive,
encourages long life. Common applications of micro switches include the door interlock on a
microwave oven, levelling and safety switches in elevators, vending machines, arcade buttons, and to
detect paper jams or other faults in photocopiers. Micro switches are commonly used in tamper
switches on gate valves on fire sprinkler systems and other water pipe systems, where it is necessary
to know if a valve has been opened or shut.

Micro switches are very widely used; among their applications are appliances, machinery, industrial
controls, vehicles, convertible tops and many other places for control of electrical circuits. They are
usually rated to carry current in control circuits only, although some switches can be directly used to
control small motors, solenoids, lamps, or other devices. Special low-force versions can sense coins in
vending machines, or with a vane attached, air flow. Micro switches may be directly operated by a
mechanism, or may be packaged as part of a pressure, flow, or temperature switch, operated by a
sensing mechanism such as a Bourdon tube. In these latter applications, the repeatability of the
actuator position when switching happens is essential for longterm accuracy. A motor driven cam
(usually relatively slow-speed) and one or more micro switches form a timer mechanism. The snap-
switch mechanism can be enclosed in a metal housing including actuating levers, plungers or rollers,
forming a limit switch useful for control of machine tools or electrically-driven machinery.

A microswitch is provided with a push lever having a ball at a lower end so as to roll freely. A seesaw
contact piece has one side piece to which a movable contact is attached and an opposite side piece
to which the ball of the push lever is in constant contact when external force is not applied to the
push lever. A fixed contact switches on by coming into contact with the movable contact and
switches off by separating from the movable contact. A fixed contact piece is configured to support a
comer part of the seesaw contact piece.

Summary, there are a lot of practical uses for a micro switches. You can use it to measure or sense
anything that moves. We have a lot of different sensing options for this switch that depend on the
actuator used. There are six standard actuator options: sail/paddle, leaf, styrene float, whisker/wire,
roller or the basic plunger micro switch. The actuators can be triggered by air current, weight,
physical contact or passing motion.

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PLUNGER SWITCHES

The Plunger switch is a basic micro switch. The electric plunger style switch operates with little
physical force. When the plunger/actuator is pressed it either opens or closes the circuit turning on
or off the device it is powered to. Each plunger switch contains a spring and a set of contacts that
convert mechanical energy applied to an actuator into an electrical output. Excellent electrical
characteristics with a snap action mechanism despite small design. This switch is ideal for small space
applications where accuracy and reliability is expected.

The snap action plunger switch can be mounted using the 4 hole side mount, or L bracket. Our
standard option is SPDT and SPST, NO or NC options available for custom applications. Ampere
ratings up to 12A@125V and 6A@ 250V. Base series designed for operating temperatures up to 150
F.

COMMON APPLICATIONS

 Aerospace

 HVAC

With the ability to add different arm types to the actuator makes these switches versatile in many
applications.

Senasys also supplies two other micro switch options, the D4 series miniature
microswitches and sensitive light force micro switch. The D4 series have a smaller footprint and are
highly reliable. Our sensitive light force micro switch is designed to meet high sensitivity control
applications where low force and small travel differential are allowed.

FLOAT SWITCH

Page | 24
MICRO SNAP ACTION SWITCH
Float switches provide an economic solution to monitoring the most common liquid level
applications in tanks and other vessels. The JMP float switch is a snap action microswitch designed
with a Stainless Steel leaf and a Styrene Float. Give us your float design or use one of our standard
actuators. Approximate actuator length 3″, actuator can be cut or bent by you to meet your needs.
Base series designed for operating temperatures up to 150° F.

LEAF SWITCH

The leaf switch typically is used as a sensor for a positioning gauge or in an air flow application. Give
us your leaf design or use one of our standard leafs, approximate actuator length is 3″.

Multiple mounting options include; standard four hole with no mounting bracket, spring clip, and L
bracket. Ampere ratings up to 12A@125V and 6A@ 250V. Base series designed for operating
temperatures up to 150°F.

COMMON APPLICATIONS

Leaf switches can be used to detect jammed paper in photo copy machines, or identify a blockage on
a production line causing the conveyor belt to stop.

The leaf switch can also be activated by the closing of an automatic garage door. As the door touches
the leaf, it triggers the switch to shut off the motor and stop the motion. The leaf has a wider and
larger surface area for contact compared to the whisker. It can be modified in it’s shape and it holds
its shape in multiple use.

SAIL SWITCH

The sail switch is a stable, low cost solution for sensing air flow and pressure.The sail or paddle is
mounted to the snap acting switch, actuating the plunger when air pressure is sensed. The sail
switch is typically mounted in a return air flow duct where the sail will be in the direct path of an
unobstructed air stream.

The Sail Switch has multiple mounting options available; spring clip, 4 hole side mount or L bracket.
Base series designed for operating temperatures up to 150° F.

Page | 25
COMMON APPLICATIONS

 Air Duct Flow Sensor

 Booster Fans

WHISKER SWITCH

A JMP Whisker Switch is a sub miniature SPDT micro switch which includes an attached wire
actuator, which may be formed to your specification. Our standard whisker switch is available with a
3″ wire actuator with multiple mounting options available.

COMMON APPLICATIONS

Whisker switches are commonly used as a locating switch on an assembly line or conveyor. If an item
is out of place and moves the whisker, the plunger is activated and the micro switch sends an alarm
to the operator. Another common application allows vending machines to function, the wire actuates
the micro switch by the insertion of money and pressing of buttons to dispense the appropriate item
into the drawer.

The Switch Is On…And On…And On…

With more technology, more electronics and more machines than ever before, MICRO SWITCT
technology still plays an important role in our lives today. You probably didn’t realize you most
likely actuate a micro switch component dozens of times a day. Does any of this sound familiar?

Fearing you’ll oversleep and be late for your business trip, the “beep,
beep, beep” sound made by the backup alarm on garbage truck outside
triggers the start of this busy day. That backup alarm is only the first of
many micro switch product applications you’ll encounter today. Most you
will take for granted.

Page | 26
 The cool night air feels good, but your feet appreciate the warmth of the
micro switch component-controlled baseboard heater as you step onto
the chilly tile floor. After a hot shower, courtesy of a micro switch product
in the water heater, it’s time to shave so you flick on your electric razor
that also uses a micro switch component. You pad down to the kitchen
where you pop a frozen sausage breakfast patty in the microwave oven
where it becomes a hearty meal. You are not the least bit worried about
radiation because you are guarded by micro switch interlocks.

You open the refrigerator and gaze inside. You can easily find your bottled water because micro
switch technology turns on the light when you open the door. You close the door with one hand
while tossing a bottle of mineral water into your briefcase with the other. You probably have never
given a thought about all the dozens of micro switch components it took to fill, cap and package all
those little bottles! It’s still morning, and those little switches have already helped make your day
more productive and more comfortable.

You load the dishwasher and hit the micro switch “Start” button. You don't worry that it will
overflow because micro switch components monitor the water level via a float mechanism.
Whoops! You almost forgot, you promised your wife that you would do a load of the kids’ soccer
uniforms, so you dash downstairs and start filling the washing machine. A whole army of micro
switch components are at work here—behind the scenes in the on/off controls, controlling the
wash/rinse/spin cycles and managing the dryer’s call for heat.

You have just a few minutes to read the sports page of the newspaper that landed on your stoop
bright and early. Micro switch technology in the high speed printing presses allow newspapers to
be printed at lightning speed.

Page | 27
 You hop into your car and watch as the micro switch components in the
garage door opener make your home secure. As you head for the airport,
you watch some children getting onto their school bus, but are probably
unaware of that micro switch technology help make it a safer ride.

Micro switch controls trigger the automatic gate to let you into the airport parking lot, and soon
your baggage is entrusted to yet another series of micro switch components in the baggage
handling equipment. Whew! You finally have a few minutes to relax before your flight. You spy a
vending machine with granola bars, figuring that later on, you'd like a mid-flight snack. You drop
your coins into the machine, and a worm gear activated by a micro switch device moves your
snack forward, allowing it to drop into the pick-up slot.

As you wait to board, you see the fuel truck pulling alongside your plane, but probably don't give
much thought to explosion-proof micro switch technology at work behind the scenes to keep the
planes, fuel, passengers, and baggage moving on schedule. Without explosion-proof capability,
potential arcing could cause sparks that could ignite fumes from the jet fuel.

Your flight has been called, and you don't care that it is raining. You don't have to traverse the
tarmac to board the plane. Micro switch technology makes it possible for those jet-bridges to dock
tightly against the aircraft for easy boarding. As the plane rises into the sky, you hear the clunk of
the landing gear as it locks into position. Thanks again to one of the dozens of micro switch
components on every commercial aircraft.

You look out your window where you see the patterns in the
farm fields. These distinct circles of green are created by micro
switch controls installed in the center pivot irrigation systems.

Page | 28
It was a lovely flight and you have landed. You ride the escalator controlled by micro switch
technology and board the shuttle to the rental car facility, where another set of micro switch
components open the automatic gate and you're en route to your customer’s office.

The first micro switch components you encounter are hidden from sight in the
elevator car. You get a smooth ride to the 50th floor. After a successful
presentation, your client wants to make some extra copies of your proposal.
micro switch components in the copier allow it to sense the presence or
absence of paper in the tray.

After a long day of meetings, your hotel is a welcome sight, especially the blast
of cool air you feel as you step into your room. The climate control system is
very efficient, thanks to the micro switch components at work in the HVAC
system.

You remember that bottle of mineral water, grab some ice from
the icemaker and head down to the spa for some relaxation,
never giving a thought to micro switch components making both
machines work. You wonder if your children back home will
remember to mow the lawn and trim the hedges after their
soccer game. Mowers and trimmers have micro switch
components in the on/off switches and interlocks. You'll treat
them to a fishing trip this weekend, but you'll likely never give a
thought to micro switch technology in the foot control of the
trolling motor.

You sit down to a nice meal, enjoying your crisp salad and steak.
Your thoughts are certainly not on the micro switch components that
helped provide the gas and refrigeration used to prepare them, nor
the industrial dishwasher that will clean up after you are finished.

As you drift off to sleep in preparation for another busy day, you reflect for a moment on how
smoothly things have gone this day, despite having traveled halfway across the country. But you
will never know how different things would be if not for micro switch technology, quietly at
work all around you every day, wherever you are.

Page | 29
PROXIMITY SENSORS

A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any physical
contact. A proximity sensor often emits an electromagnetic field or a beam of electromagnetic
radiation (infrared, for instance), and looks for changes in the field or return signal. The object being
sensed is often referred to as the proximity sensor's target. Different proximity sensor targets
demand different sensors. For example, a capacitive proximity sensor or photoelectric sensor might
be suitable for a plastic target; an inductive proximity sensor always requires a metal target.

Proximity sensors can have a high reliability and long functional life because of the absence of
mechanical parts and lack of physical contact between the sensor and the sensed object.

Proximity sensors are also used in machine vibration monitoring to measure the variation in distance
between a shaft and its support bearing. This is common in large steam turbines, compressors, and
motors that use sleeve-type bearings.

International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 60947-5-2 defines the technical details of proximity
sensors.

A proximity sensor adjusted to a very short range is often used as a touch switch.

Page | 30
Use With Smartphones And Tablet Computers
Proximity sensors are commonly used on mobile devices. When the target is within nominal range,
the device lock screen user interface will appear, thus emerging from what is known as sleep mode.
Once the device has awoken from sleep mode, if the proximity sensor's target is still for an extended
period of time, the sensor will then ignore it, and the device will eventually revert into sleep mode.
For example, during a telephone call, proximity sensors play a role in detecting (and skipping)
accidental touchscreen taps when mobiles are held to the ear.

Proximity sensors can be used to recognise air gestures and hover-manipulations. An array of
proximity sensing elements can replace vision-camera or depth camera based solutions for the hand
gesture detection.

Types Of Sensors

 Capacitive

 Capacitive displacement sensor

 Doppler effect (sensor based on doppler effect)

 Inductive

 Magnetic, including magnetic proximity fuse

 Optical

o Photoelectric

o Photocell (reflective)

o Laser rangefinder

o Passive (such as charge-coupled devices)

o Passive thermal infrared

 Radar

 Reflection of ionizing radiation

 Sonar (typically active or passive)

 Ultrasonic sensor

 Fiber optics sensor

 Hall effect sensor

Page | 31
Applications
 Parking sensors, systems mounted on car bumpers that sense distance to nearby cars for
parking

 Ground proximity warning system for aviation safety

 Vibration measurements of rotating shafts in machinery[citation needed]

 Top dead centre (TDC)/camshaft sensor in reciprocating engines.

 Sheet break sensing in paper machine.

 Anti-aircraft warfare

 Roller coasters

 Conveyor systems

 Beverage and food can making lines

 Mobile devices

o Touch screens that come in close proximity to the face[1]

o Attenuating radio power in close proximity to the body, in order to reduce radiation
exposure[2]

 Automatic faucets

Infrared Proximity Sensor Optical Proximity Sensor In A Samsung Smartphone

Proximity sensors detect the presence or absence of objects using electromagnetic fields, light, and
sound. There are many types, each suited to specific applications and environments.

Page | 32
Inductive sensors
These non-contact proximity sensors detect ferrous targets, ideally mild steel thicker than one
millimeter. They consist of four major components: a ferrite core with coils, an oscillator, a Schmitt
trigger, and an output amplifier. The oscillator creates a symmetrical, oscillating magnetic field that
radiates from the ferrite core and coil array at the sensing face. When a ferrous target enters this
magnetic field, small independent electrical currents called eddy currents are induced on the metal’s
surface. This changes the reluctance (natural frequency) of the magnetic circuit, which in turn
reduces the oscillation amplitude. As more metal enters the sensing field the oscillation amplitude
shrinks, and eventually collapses. (This is the “Eddy Current Killed Oscillator” or ECKO principle.) The
Schmitt trigger responds to these amplitude changes, and adjusts sensor output. When the target
finally moves from the sensor’s range, the circuit begins to oscillate again, and the Schmitt trigger
returns the sensor to its previous output.

If the sensor has a normally open configuration, its output is an on signal when the target enters the
sensing zone. With normally closed, its output is an off signal with the target present. Output is then
read by an external control unit (e.g. PLC, motion controller, smart drive) that converts the sensor on
and off states into useable information. Inductive sensors are typically rated by frequency, or on/off
cycles per second. Their speeds range from 10 to 20 Hz in ac, or 500 Hz to 5 kHz in dc. Because of
magnetic field limitations, inductive sensors have a relatively narrow sensing range — from fractions
of millimeters to 60 mm on average — though longer-range specialty products are available.

To accommodate close ranges in the tight confines of industrial machinery, geometric and mounting
styles available include shielded (flush), unshielded (non-flush), tubular, and rectangular “flat-pack”.
Tubular sensors, by far the most popular, are available with diameters from 3 to 40 mm.

But what inductive sensors lack in range, they make up in environment adaptability and metal-
sensing versatility. With no moving parts to wear, proper setup guarantees long life. Special designs
with IP ratings of 67 and higher are capable of withstanding the buildup of contaminants such as
cutting fluids, grease, and non-metallic dust, both in the air and on the sensor itself. It should be
noted that metallic contaminants (e.g. filings from cutting applications) sometimes affect the
sensor’s performance. Inductive sensor housing is typically nickel-plated brass, stainless steel, or PBT
plastic.

Page | 33
Capacitive sensors
Capacitive proximity sensors can detect both metallic and non-metallic targets in powder, granulate,
liquid, and solid form. This, along with their ability to sense through nonferrous materials, makes
them ideal for sight glass monitoring, tank liquid level detection, and hopper powder level
recognition.

In capacitive sensors, the two conduction plates (at different potentials) are housed in the sensing
head and positioned to operate like an open capacitor. Air acts as an insulator; at rest there is little
capacitance between the two plates. Like inductive sensors, these plates are linked to an oscillator, a
Schmitt trigger, and an output amplifier. As a target enters the sensing zone the capacitance of the
two plates increases, causing oscillator amplitude change, in turn changing the Schmitt trigger state,
and creating an output signal. Note the difference between the inductive and capacitive sensors:
inductive sensors oscillate until the target is present and capacitive sensors oscillate when the target
is present.

Because capacitive sensing involves charging plates, it is somewhat slower than inductive sensing ...
ranging from 10 to 50 Hz, with a sensing scope from 3 to 60 mm. Many housing styles are available;
common diameters range from 12 to 60 mm in shielded and unshielded mounting versions. Housing
(usually metal or PBT plastic) is rugged to allow mounting very close to the monitored process. If the
sensor has normally-open and normally-closed options, it is said to have a complimentary output.
Due to their ability to detect most types of materials, capacitive sensors must be kept away from
non-target materials to avoid false triggering. For this reason, if the intended target contains a
ferrous material, an inductive sensor is a more reliable option.

Page | 34
Photoelectric sensors
Photoelectric sensors are so versatile that they solve the bulk of problems put to industrial sensing.
Because photoelectric technology has so rapidly advanced, they now commonly detect targets less
than 1 mm in diameter, or from 60 m away. Classified by the method in which light is emitted and
delivered to the receiver, many photoelectric configurations are available. However, all photoelectric
sensors consist of a few of basic components: each has an emitter light source (Light Emitting Diode,
laser diode), a photodiode or phototransistor receiver to detect emitted light, and supporting
electronics designed to amplify the receiver signal. The emitter, sometimes called the sender,
transmits a beam of either visible or infrared light to the detecting receiver.

All photoelectric sensors operate under similar principles. Identifying their output is thus made easy;
darkon and light-on classifications refer to light reception and sensor output activity. If output is
produced when no light is received, the sensor is dark-on. Output from light received, and it’s light-
on. Either way, deciding on light-on or dark-on prior to purchasing is required unless the sensor is
user adjustable. (In that case, output style can be specified during installation by flipping a switch or
wiring the sensor accordingly.)

Through-beam

The most reliable photoelectric sensing is with through-beam sensors. Separated from the receiver
by a separate housing, the emitter provides a constant beam of light; detection occurs when an
object passing between the two breaks the beam. Despite its reliability, through-beam is the least
popular photoelectric setup. The purchase, installation, and alignment

of the emitter and receiver in two opposing locations, which may be quite a distance apart, are costly
and laborious. With newly developed designs, through-beam photoelectric se

nsors typically offer the longest sensing distance of photoelectric sensors — 25 m and over is now
commonplace. New laser diode emitter models can transmit a well-collimated beam 60 m for
increased accuracy and detection. At these distances, some through-beam laser sensors are capable
of detecting an object the size of a fly; at close range, that becomes 0.01 mm. But while these laser
sensors increase precision, response speed is the same as with non-laser sensors — typically around
500 Hz.

Page | 35
One ability unique to through beam photoelectric sensors is effective sensing in the presence of thick
airborne contaminants. If pollutants build up directly on the emitter or receiver, there is a higher
probability of false triggering. However, some manufacturers now incorporate alarm outputs into the
sensor’s circuitry that monitor the amount of light hitting the receiver. If detected light decreases to
a specified level without a target in place, the sensor sends a warning by means of a built in LED or
output wire.

Through-beam photoelectric sensors have commercial and industrial applications. At home, for
example, they detect obstructions in the path of garage doors; the sensors have saved many a bicycle
and car from being smashed. Objects on industrial conveyors, on the other hand, can be detected
anywhere between the emitter and receiver, as long as there are gaps between the monitored
objects, and sensor light does not “burn through” them. (Burn through might happen with thin or
lightly colored objects that allow emitted light to pass through to the receiver.)

Page | 36
Retro-reflective
Retro-reflective sensors have the next longest photoelectric sensing distance, with some units
capable of monitoring ranges up to 10 m. Operating similar to through-beam sensors without
reaching the same sensing distances, output occurs when a constant beam is broken. But instead of
separate housings for emitter and receiver, both are located in the same housing, facing the same
direction. The emitter produces a laser, infrared, or visible light beam and projects it towards a
specially designed reflector, which then deflects the beam back to the receiver. Detection occurs
when the light path is broken or otherwise disturbed.

One reason for using a retro-reflective sensor over a through-beam sensor is for the convenience of
one wiring location; the opposing side only requires reflector mounting. This results in big cost
savings in both parts and time. However, very shiny or reflective objects like mirrors, cans, and
plastic-wrapped juice boxes create a challenge for retro-reflective photoelectric sensors. These
targets sometimes reflect enough light to trick the receiver into thinking the beam was not
interrupted, causing erroneous outputs.

Some manufacturers have addressed this problem with polarization filtering, which allows detection
of light only from specially designed reflectors ... and not erroneous target reflections.

Diffuse

As in retro-reflective sensors, diffuse sensor emitters and receivers are located in the same housing.
But the target acts as the reflector, so that detection is of light reflected off the dist urbance object.
The emitter sends out a beam of light (most often a pulsed infrared, visible red, or laser) that diffuses
in all directions, filling a detection area. The target then enters the area and deflects part of the beam
back to the receiver. Detection occurs and output is turned on or off (depending upon whether the
sensor is light-on or dark-on) when sufficient light falls on the receiver.

Diffuse sensors can be found on public washroom sinks, where they control automatic faucets. Hands
placed under the spray head act as reflector, triggering (in this case) the opening of a water valve.
Because the target is the reflector, diffuse photoelectric sensors are often at the mercy of target
material and surface properties; a non-reflective target such as matte-black paper will have a
significantly decreased sensing range as compared to a bright white target. But what seems a
drawback ‘on the surface’ can actually be useful.

Because diffuse sensors are somewhat color dependent, certain versions are suitable for
distinguishing dark and light targets in applications that require sorting or quality control by contrast.
With only the sensor itself to mount, diffuse sensor installation is usually simpler than with through-
beam and retro-reflective types. Sensing distance deviation and false triggers caused by reflective
backgrounds led to the development of diffuse sensors that focus; they “see” targets and ignore
background.

There are two ways in which this is achieved; the first and most common is through fixed-field
technology. The emitter sends out a beam of light, just like a standard diffuse photoelectric sensor,
but for two receivers. One is focused on the desired sensing sweet spot, and the other on the long-
range background. A comparator then determines whether the long-range receiver is detecting light
of higher intensity than what is being picking up the focused receiver. If so, the output stays off. Only
when focused receiver light intensity is higher will an output be produced.

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The second focusing method takes it a step further, employing an array of receivers with an
adjustable sensing distance. The device uses a potentiometer to electrically adjust the sensing range.
Such sensors operate best at their preset sweet spot. Allowing for small part recognition, they also
provide higher tolerances in target area cutoff specifications and improved color sensing capabilities.
However, target surface qualities, such as glossiness, can produce varied results. In addition, highly
reflective objects outside the sensing area tend to send enough light back to the receivers for an
output, especially when the receivers are electrically adjusted.

To combat these limitations, some sensor manufacturers developed a technology known as true
background suppression by triangulation.

A true background suppression sensor emits a beam of light exactly like a standard, fixed-field diffuse
sensor. But instead of detecting light intensity, background suppression units rely completely on the
angle at which the beam returns to the sensor.

To accomplish this, background suppression sensors use two (or more) fixed receivers accompanied
by a focusing lens. The angle of received light is mechanically adjusted, allowing for a steep cutoff
between target and background ... sometimes as small as 0.1 mm. This is a more stable method
when reflective backgrounds are present, or when target color variations are an issue; reflectivity
and color affect the intensity of reflected light, but not the angles of refraction used by triangulation-
based background suppression photoelectric sensors.

Ultrasonic sensors
Ultrasonic proximity sensors are used in many automated production processes. They employ sound
waves to detect objects, so color and transparency do not affect them (though extreme textures
might). This makes them ideal for a variety of applications, including the long range detection of clear
glass and plastic, distance measurement, continuous fluid and granulate level control, and paper,
sheet metal, and wood stacking.

The most common configurations are the same as in photoelectric sensing: through beam, retro-
reflective, and diffuse versions. Ultrasonic diffuse proximity sensors employ a sonic transducer, which
emits a series of sonic pulses, then listens for their return from the reflecting target. Once the
reflected signal is received, the sensor signals an output to a control device.

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Sensing ranges extend to 2.5 m. Sensitivity, defined as the time window for listen cycles versus send
or chirp cycles, may be adjusted via a teach-in button or potentiometer. While standard diffuse
ultrasonic sensors give a simple present/absent output, some produce analog signals, indicating
distance with a 4 to 20 mA or 0 to 10 Vdc variable output. This output can easily be converted into
useable distance information.

Ultrasonic retro-reflective sensors also detect objects within a specified sensing distance, but by
measuring propagation time. The sensor emits a series of sonic pulses that bounce off fixed,
opposing reflectors (any flat hard surface — a piece of machinery, a board). The sound waves must
return to the sensor within a user-adjusted time interval; if they don’t, it is assumed an object is
obstructing the sensing path and the sensor signals an output accordingly. Because the sensor listens
for changes in propagation time as opposed to mere returned signals, it is ideal for the detection of
sound-absorbent and deflecting materials such as cotton, foam, cloth, and foam rubber.

Similar to through-beam photoelectric sensors, ultrasonic through beam sensors have the emitter
and receiver in separate housings. When an object disrupts the sonic beam, the receiver triggers an
output. These sensors are ideal for applications that require the detection of a continuous object,
such as a web of clear plastic. If the clear plastic breaks, the output of the sensor will trigger the
attached PLC or load.

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Pressure Meters

 Gauge – Reference to atmospheric pressure.

 Sealed – Referenced to a sealed chamber closed with atmospheric pressure (approximately

1bar).

 Absolute – The reference is a vacuum (0bar or no pressure).

 Differential – Where the sensor has two ports for the measurement of two different
pressures.

All pressure measurements are made with respect to a reference pressure and are expressed in
those main terms.

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Pressure Sensors

What is a Pressure Sensor?

Typically, a pressure sensor (sometimes called pressure transducer or pressure transmitter) is used to
measure the pressure of fluids (gases or liquids). Pressure is an expression of the force required to
stop a fluid from expanding and is usually stated in terms of force per unit area. A pressure sensor
generates an electrical signal relating to the pressure imposed. Such a signal is normally digital or
analogue, although optical, visual and auditory signals are also common.

Pressure Sensor Design

Industrial pressure sensors also referred to as pressure transducers, pressure transmitters, pressure
indicators and pressure switches, normally have a diaphragm type design that uses strain gauges,
which are either bonded to or diffused into it, with the strain gauges acting as resistive
elements. Under the pressure-induced strain, the resistive values change. In capacitive technology,
the pressure diaphragm is a single plate of a capacitor that changes its value under pressure-induced
displacement.

Pressure sensing using diaphragm technology measures the difference in pressure of the two sides of
the diaphragm. Depending on the relevant pressure, the terms ‘Absolute’ is used when the reference
is vacuum; ‘Gauge’ (also known as ‘gage’) is used where the reference is atmospheric pressure; and
‘Differential’ is used where the sensor has two ports for the measurement of two different pressures.

Pressure sensors are used in a wide variety of applications for control and monitoring
purposes. Pressure sensors can also be used to indirectly measure other variables such as fluid flow,
speed, water level and altitude.

Pressure sensors vary considerably in their design, technology used, performance, application and
cost. Worldwide, there are hundreds of different technologies used in pressure sensor designs and
thousands of different suppliers of pressure sensors.

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Certain types of pressure sensor are designed to measure dynamically and are able to capture very
high speed changes in pressure. Example applications here are in the measurement of combustion
pressures in engine cylinders or gas turbines. These sensors are normally manufactured using
piezoelectric materials such as quartz.

Some pressure sensors operate using a binary method. In this design, when pressure is applied to a
pressure sensor, the sensor completes or breaks an electrical circuit. These types of sensors are also
referred to as pressure switches.

Gauge (G)

Gauge pressure sensors measure the input pressure (of your media) with reference to ambient
atmospheric pressure (vented to atmosphere). Gauge is used to measure pressure relative to
ambient conditions, such as with car tyre pressure. As the sensors are open to the atmosphere, they
are susceptible to humidity. Care must be taken that units are installed in dry areas (otherwise
internal circuitry can fail).

Sealed (S)

Measures the input pressure (of your media) with reference to a sealed chamber closed with
atmospheric pressure (approximately 1bar). This protects the internal circuitry of the sensor from
humidity. This range is normally restricted to minimum 7bar and above. Outside installations or
where the equipment may be washed are good application examples. Our industrial pressure
sensors are ideal.

Absolute (A)

Absolute pressure sensors measure the input pressure (of your media) with reference to a vacuum
chamber at 0bar (evacuated and hermetically sealed). Specified where absolute pressure
measurements are required, eg barometric pressures, or where equipment needs to have all the air
removed.

Differential (D)

Here the reference pressure is neither ambient nor internal to the sensor. The sensor is supplied with
two ports – high and low inputs – and will measure the difference between the two. Generally used
for filter measurement applications. See our range of differential pressure sensors.

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PRESSURE APPLICATION EXAMPLES
For Gauges :

Car Tyre
Water Level Measurement
Chamber Pressure
Hydraulic Applications

For Sealed :

For use in Aggressive Media

Industrial Applications
Washdown Environments
Food and Beverag

For Absolute :

Barometric
Weather Stations and Meteorological Applications

For Differential :

Filter and Pump Monitoring

Air Conditioner
HVAC Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning
Clean Room Monitoring

There are different types of pressure gauge available, common types available are:

 Diaphragm

 Bellow

 Bourdon tube

Page | 43
Diaphragm pressure sensing element:

The diaphragm is an elastic membrane that elongates when pressure is applied to it. The diaphragm
is a single sheet which elongate, Joining two diaphragm to form a capsule.

Two capsules joining to form a stacked diaphragm.

Adding more capsules to the diaphragm increases the sensitivity of the gauge. When pressure is
applied to the diaphragm, it flexes. The movement is transmitted by a link that connects to the
pointer. The pointer moves to indicate the amount of pressure applied to the diaphragm. The
diaphragm stays at the original position until a pressure is applied to it.

Bellow sensing element:

The below is another type of stacked diaphragm. The stacked diaphragm is made of several sheets,
while the bellow is made of single sheet.

The applied pressure makes the bellows expand. The expansion causes the bellows to get longer.
When pressure is removed, the bellows get shorter.

The movement of the bellows will be transmitted by a link connected to a pointer. The pointer
indicates the pressure applied to the bellows.

Page | 44
The Bourdon tube:

The bourdon tube is the ‘C’ shaped tube shown in the above figure. When a pressure is applied to the
tube, the tube stretches outwards. The tube end is attached to a pointer using a link. The link-gear
system makes the pointer moves along the scale. The circular motion of the pinion gear drives the
position of the pointer to indicate the amount of pressure applied to the Bourdon tube.

Some Pressure Gauge Examples of Pakkens Company

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Barometers
A barometer is a scientific instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure, also called barometric
pressure. These digital barometers are all displaying slightly different readings! The atmosphere is
the layers of air wrapped around the Earth. That air has a weight and presses against everything it
touches as gravity pulls it to Earth. Barometers measure this pressure.

A barometer is a scientific instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure, also called barometric
pressure. The atmosphere is the layers of air wrapped around the Earth. That air has a weight and
presses against everything it touches as gravity pulls it to Earth. Barometers measure this pressure.

Atmospheric pressure is an indicator of weather. Changes in the atmosphere, including changes in air
pressure, affect the weather. Meteorologists use barometers to predict short-term changes in the
weather.

A rapid drop in atmospheric pressure means that a low-pressure system is arriving. Low pressure
means that there isn’t enough force, or pressure, to push clouds or storms away. Low-pressure
systems are associated with cloudy, rainy, or windy weather. A rapid increase in atmospheric
pressure pushes that cloudy and rainy weather out, clearing the skies and bringing in cool, dry air.

A barometer measures atmospheric pressure in units of measurement called atmospheres or bars.

An atmosphere (atm) is a unit of measurement equal to the average air pressure at sea level at
a temperature of 15 degrees Celsius (59 degrees Fahrenheit).

The number of atmospheres drops as altitude increases because the density of air is lower and exerts
less pressure. As altitude decreases, the density of air increases, as does the number of atmospheres.
Barometers have to be adjusted for changes in altitude in order to make accurate atmospheric
pressure readings.

Types of Barometers
Mercury Barometer

The mercury barometer is the oldest type of barometer, invented by the Italian physicist Evangelista
Torricelli in 1643. Torricelli conducted his first barometric experiments using a tube of water. Water
is relatively light in weight, so a very tall tube with a large amount of water had to be used in order
to compensate for the heavier weight of atmospheric pressure.

Torricelli’s water barometer was more than 10 meters (35 feet) in height, which rose above the roof
of his home! This odd device caused suspicion among Torricelli’s neighbors, who thought he was
involved in witchcraft. In order to keep his experiments more secretive, Torricelli deduced that he
could create a much smaller barometer using mercury, a silvery liquid that weighs 14 times as much
as water.

Page | 46
A mercury barometer has a glass tube that is closed at the top and open at the bottom. At the
bottom of the tube is a pool of mercury. The mercury sits in a circular, shallow dish surrounding the
tube. The mercury in the tube will adjust itself to match the atmospheric pressure above the dish. As
the pressure increases, it forces the mercury up the tube. The tube is marked with a series of
measurements that track the number of atmospheres or bars. Observers can tell what the air
pressure is by looking at where the mercury stops in the barometer.

Aneroid Barometer
In 1844, the French scientist Lucien Vidi invented the aneroid barometer. An aneroid barometer has
a sealed metal chamber that expands and contracts, depending on the atmospheric pressure around
it. Mechanical tools measure how much the chamber expands or contracts. These measurements
are aligned with atmospheres or bars.

The aneroid barometer has a circular display that indicates the present number of atmospheres,
much like a clock. One hand moves clockwise or counterclockwise to point to the current number of
atmospheres. The terms stormy, rain, change, fair, and dry are often written above the numbers on
the dial face to make it easier for people to interpret the weather. Aneroid barometers slowly
replaced mercury barometers because they were easier to use, cheaper to buy, and easier
to transport since they had no liquid that could spill.

Some aneroid barometers use a mechanical tool to track the changes in atmospheric pressure over a
period of time. These aneroid barometers are called barographs. Barographs are barometers
connected to needles that make marks on a roll of adjacent graph paper. The barograph records the
number of atmospheres on the vertical axis and units of time on the horizontal.

Page | 47
 A barograph’s tracking tool will rotate, usually once every day, week, or month. The spikes in the
graph show when air pressure was high or low, and how long those pressure systems lasted. A severe
storm, for instance, would appear as a deep, wide dip on a barograph.

Digital Barometers

Today’s digital barometers measure and display complex atmospheric data more accurately and
quickly than ever before. Many digital barometers display both current barometric readings
and previous 1-, 3-, 6-, and 12-hour readings in a bar chart format, much like a barograph. They also
account for other atmospheric readings such as wind and humidity to make accurate weather
forecasts. This data is archived and stored on the barometer and can also be downloaded onto a
computer for further analysis. Digital barometers are used by meteorologists and other scientists
who want up-to-date atmospheric readings when conducting experiments in the lab or out in the
field.

The digital barometer is now an important tool in many of today’s smartphones. This type of digital
barometer uses atmospheric pressure data to make accurate elevation readings. These readings help
the smartphone’s GPS receiver pinpoint a location more accurately, greatly improving navigation.

Developers and researchers are also using the smartphone’s crowdsourcing capabilities to make
more accurate weather forecasts. Apps like PressureNet automatically collect barometric
measurements from each of its users, creating a vast network of atmospheric data. This data
network makes it easier and faster to map out storms as they develop, especially in areas with
few weather stations.

Page | 48
Diaphragm pressure gauges are products for measuring the amount of pressure by converting the
value of the mechanical connection point and the diaphragm measurement pressure into an
electrical signal. Due to their diaphragm, they are used in many areas such as waste water, sewage,
dense liquids and liquids with particulates, air pressure systems containing solid particles and similar
substances. Smart tip pressure gauge. The installations are quite necessary and are meant for
maintenance. Smart tip pressure gauges. They have superior performance and high precision. They
also have automatic ambient temperature compensation with continuous self-checking. They have
flexible sensor inputs. Digital signal outputs are available and many other features related to these
features are meticulously allocated by our company. Differential pressure transmitter are products
designed to measure and control differential pressures of gases and liquids. The differential pressure
sensor operates at high temperatures, such as 125 degrees, with effective performance and stability.
It is used in many predatory liquids where the wet parts should be made of stainless steel. Difference
Pressure transmitter is used in filter contamination, pump tests, level measurement of pressure
tanks, contamination of lines, leakage testing of lines and many other areas. Air Differential pressure
transmitters are used between two points and are products configured to measure the difference. It
is used in ventilation sectors, filter contamination, surgical environment and many other sectors.

Working Principle of a Pressure Transducer

Pressure transducers have a sensing element of constant area and respond to force applied to this
area by fluid pressure. The force applied will deflect the diaphragm inside the pressure transducer.
The deflection of the internal diaphragm is measured and converted into an electrical output. This
allows the pressure to be monitored by microprocessors, programmable controllers and computers
along with similar electronic instruments.

Most Pressure transducers are designed to produce linear output with applied pressure.

Temperature variations cause a change of the size and shape of the measuring capacitor of the
membranecapacitor manometer (MCM) [1], which leads to a change of the constant of the
instrument. The change of this constant was determined experimentally as a function of the change
of temperature by comparing the readings of the MCM and McLeod gauge in the 20-30~
temperature interval. The temperature of the McLeod gauges was taken to be equal to the ambient
temperature, and the temperature of the casing of the MCM was varied by means of a thermostat.
Before measurement the MCM was held at a constant temperature for 2 h.

Page | 49
The readings of the manometers were compared at a pressure of 13.3 Pa, when the pumping action
of the mercury vapors in the McLeod gauges was small. The mercury vapors were frozen by means of
a trap cooled with liquid nitrogen. The content of the MCM was calculated on the basis of the
relation

√𝑇2/𝑇1𝑃
𝐾=
U2

Here c~ is the random error of the measurement; i is the number of the measurement. Then

∑𝑛𝑖 𝑃𝑖 𝑈𝑖 2
𝐾𝑡 =
∑𝑛𝑖 𝑈𝑖 4

Operating Principle of Bourdon Type Manometer

Such manometers have a connecting rod to the end of the copper tube that enters into a pressurized
flowing copper tube from the pressure line and a threaded mechanism in front of the rod. With
increasing pressure, the copper tube pulls the rod to which it is connected while trying to open it,
which drives the gear mechanism to rotate the gear behind the pointer and thus the pointer to
rotate.

Working Principle of Strain Gage Type Manometer

Basically, strain-gages consist of bonding a thin wire or strip to a flexible layer with a very strong
adhesive. Due to the effect of the pressure on it, it will cause stretching of the conductive strip as
well as stretching of the layer. During this elongation, the length of the wire will increase and the
cross section will decrease. As it is known, the resistance of the conductor will change depending on
the applied pressure force as the cross section of the conductors decreases. Depending on this
resistance change, the amount of force applied can be determined.

Load Cell Working Principle of Pressure Sensors

Load cell is a pressure sensor which is mostly used in the construction of electronic scales. The
working principle is similar to the strain-gage working principle. In Figure , the load cell, whose
internal structure is given, has 4 strain-gages at A, B, C, D points. The resistances of these four
straingages vary depending on the pressure and we can determine the amount of pressure
proportional to this change. Load cells are also available for measuring from one point or two points.

Page | 50
Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors

One of the ways of converting pressure into electric current is to use piezoelectric material.In
piezoelectric sensors, crystalline substances such as quartz, rochelle salt, barium and tourmaline are
used. These elements produce small value electrical voltage and current according to the amount of
pressure. The value of this electric current is directly proportional to the value of the pressure. Since
piezoelectric elements react quickly to pressure, they are widely used to measure sudden pressure
changes. Figure shows the deformation of the piezoelectric material according to the pressure.
When a piezoelectric disk is deformed, it generates a voltage. Piezo event from mechanical energy to
voltage generation; The production of mechanical vibration from voltage is also called the inverse
piezo event. This principle is used as a pressure measuring sensor. Some ceramics such as barium
titanate, lead zirconate titanate and potassium sodium niobate are also capable of forming a
piezoelectric event.

Pressure Measurement Applications

Figure shows examples of basic pressure measurement sensors used in engine test measurements.
Engine oil pressure, coolant pressure, fuel pressure, cylinder discharge (cold test) with gage pressure
sensors; manifold vacuum with vacuum pressure sensor; Liquid flow with differential pressure
sensor, dry air flow; Where the data acquisition system with absolute pressure sensor only accepts
bipolar inputs, the pressure can be measured where gage pressure sensor or vacuum sensor is used.

Page | 51
Pressure measurements in pressure generating devices (power generating machines, turbines, etc.
power consuming machines compressor, pump), pneumatic or hydraulic mechanical elements,
biomadical applications (such as blood pressure), pressure losses in pipes and tunnels, atmospheric
conditions (weather forecast, height) , indirect measurements of flow rates, pressure vessels and
similar applications. With piezoelectric pressure sensors, dynamic pressure measurements from
0.001 psi to 100 psi such as internal pressure, impact, ballistic measurements, explosion, internal
combustion engines, shock and explosion waves, high intensity sound and other acoustic and
hydraulic processes can be performed. The diaphragms of piezoelectric pressure sensors measure
the responses of high frequency and non-resonant pulse and burst waves with high accuracy. The
operating temperatures of these sensors range from approx. -240 ° C to 300 ° C. Thanks to its robust
and rigid construction, it can withstand shock shocks and vibrations whose intensity reaches tens of
thousands of times the gravitational acceleration. Typical application areas of dynamic pressure
sensors are internal combustion engines, flow-induced noise, ballistic measurements, cavitation
measurements, compressors, pulses, pump and valve dynamic behavior, hydraulic and pneumatic
applications, water hammer, turbulence, wind tunnels, gas and steam turbines.

Page | 52
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