Smt NAGARATHNAMMA COLLEGE OF NURSING

ASSIGNMENT

IN

NURSING EDUCATION

ON

ATTITUDE SCALE, SUMMATED SCALE, DIFFENTIAL

SCALE, SOCIOMETRY, CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE

SUBMITTED TO,

Mrs. CELINE ALEXANDER

LECTURER
HOD OF OBSTETRIC AND
GYNAECOLOGICAL NURSING
SUBMITTED BY,

Mrs. ELAIYARASI.S
I year. M.sc Nursing

SUBMITTED ON: 20-02-10

INDEX

Sl.No CONTENT Page No

1. INTRODUCTION 1-1

2. DEFINITION OF SCALE 1-1

3. ATTITUDE OF SCALE 1-4

4. SUMMATED SCALE 5-7

5. DIFFRENTIAL SCALE 7-9

6. SOCIOMETRY 9-11

7. CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE 11-13

8. CONCLUSION 13-13

9. BIBLIOGRAPHY 13-14
 ATTITUDE SCALE, SUMMATED SCALE, DIFFRENTIAL SCALE,
SOCIOMETRY, CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE

INTRODUCTION

The realization of educational goals and objectives in the educative

process, is based on the accuracy of the judgements and inferences made by
decision makers at every stage. To arrive at a good decision the test,
measurements and evaluation are being used in all educational situations.

In social research, scaling techniques are used to measure the attitude and
behavior. One can make judgement about some characteristic of an individual
and place him on a scale which is measuring for that characteristic.

DEFINITION OF SCALE

A scale is a continuum from highest to lowest points and has intermediate

points in between those two extremes. The scale points are related that the first
point indicates a higher position than the second, the second point is higher than
the third and so on.

ATTITUDE SCALE

Attitude scales are used for measuring the social attitude. Questionnaire is
prepared, by the items in the questionnaire are the attitude of an individual
towards a matter thing, and object or system and score will be allotted for each
item.

Evaluates ask the individual to express his response towards an object or

system, on the basis of his response, he is designed a score which indicates the
position.

Some relevant and indirect statements will also be used to reveal the
attitude.

The scale also specifies the crucial shades of opinions.

TYPES

1. Point Scale
2. Differential scale (LL Thurstone Scale)
3. Summated (Likert) Scale
4. Cumulative Scale or Bogardus social distance scale
5. Scalogram (Guttman) method
6. The Q-sort Scaling Technique
7. Semantic Differential/ Attitude Scale

POINT SCALE

It has two methods

Method-1

 Select the words which will give this opinion.

 The respondent is to cross out every word i.e. more annoying than
pleasing to him.
 The attitude of a respondent is known by calculating the numbers of
words crossed or not crossed. The words selected should be suggestive of
an attitude and the opposite words should also be given at the same time.
 One point is given to each agreement or disagreement which ever is to be
chosen

Difficulties in this method

 The words may not be dichotomous in nature.

 The neutral or confused opinions cannot be represented.
 Adequate number of words expressing the same attitude may not be
found

Method-2

Two sets of words indicating both favourable and unfavourable opinions

are given. The unfavourable items may be crossed and favourable items may be
left unscored.

2. Differential Scale [LL Thurstons Scale]

These scales are used to measure the social phenomenon.

The scale values of a statements is computed as the ‘mean’ or ‘median’ position
to which it is assigned by the judges.

3. Summated (Likert) Scale

To measure the social attitude Likert type scale is used. It uses only the
definitely favourable and unfavourable statements.

4. Cumulative Scale

In a cumulative scale, a respondent is given a number of questions, to

express agreement or disagreement over an issue. The items are arranged in
such away that a respondent who responds favourably to item number 2 also
replies favourably to item number 1. Therefore the individuals who answer
favourably have higher total score than those who answer unfavourably. The
score of an individual is computed by counting the number of items he answers
favourably. His scores indicates for him a particular position on the scale.

The purpose of social distance scale is to measure the attitude towards a

particular racial group or groups.

Social distance can also be calculated mathematically. In this, weights are

attached to different categories of relationships.

5. Scalogram (Guttman) Method

It is based on “reproducibility criterion” i.e. it is possible to reproduce

the responses of the respondent about each item from the score item. Scalogram
analysis is a simple method of testing the scalability of the statement. The views
of judges are not necessary in this scale. Guttaman model is deterministic in
nature. Guttaman has developed another technique. According to this, the
respondent not only gives his view (agreement or disagreement) but he also
mentions the intensity(degree) which is classified into five categories. For each
respondent, we thus get two scores (content score and intensity score) which
can be plotted against each other on a graph. The result often gives U shaped
curve.

6. The Q-sort Scaling Technique

The method is widely applied in the study of personality. The data

yielded by Q sort can be summarized into a single score, to yield a scale on
adjustment. The individual can make a study of changes in his own images or in
his ideal person. The adjustments score of the control group can be compared
with the therapists ratings of the success of therapy and the extent of agreement
can be known.

7. Semantic Differential / Attitude Scale

It was developed by Osgood, Suciand Tannenbaum. Its main objective is

to various meaning of certain concepts. The semantic differential makes the
measurement and comparison of various objects or concepts possible. A
respondent’s total score is the measure of his attitude. In a semantical
differential there is only one issue to evaluate.

SUMMATED SCALE

Lickert scaling developed in 1932 is used to determine the relative intensity of

different items (statements)

To measure the social attitude Likert type scale is used.

It uses only the definitely favourable and unfavourable statements.

It excludes intermediate opinions.

It consists of a series of statements to which the respondent is to react.

The respondent indicates the degree of agreement or disagreement.

Each responses is given a numerical score and the total score of a respondent is
found out by summing up his different scores for different purposes.

This total score indicates his position on the continuum

Likert scale uses several degree of agreement or disagreement, eg: strongly

approve, aprove, undecided, disapprove, strongly disapprove

These five points will constitute the scale. “Strongly approve” is given
the highest score (5 or +2) and “Strongly disapprove” is given the least score (1
or -2) other points will have the scores according by (i.e. 5,4,3,2,1 or +2,+1,0,-
1,-2)

THE METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION OF A LIKERT TYPE SCALE

The researcher gathers a large number of statements which clearly indicates

favourable or unfavourable attitude towards the issues in question.
  The questionnaire consisting of the above five points with respect to a
statement are administered to the respondents who indicates their
responses.
 The responses will imply various scores. The scores are consistently
arranged either from the highest to the lowest, or from the lowest to the
highest.
 By adding up the different scores of an individual, his total score is
calculated (i.e. summation of different scores for different statements).
 The researcher should identify the items, which have a high
discriminatory power. The responses are interpreted to determine which
of the statements discriminate very clearly between high scores and low
scores on the total scale. It has to be ensured that the questionnaire is
consistent. To achieve this, the items with low discriminatory power or
those having no significant correlation with the total score are eliminated.

ADVANTAGES

a. The method of construction of Likert type scale is less cumbersome.

b. It supplies more precise and definite response towards an issues. The
intermediate vague points are absent in this scale.
c. The Likert scale permits the revelation of several (five) degrees of
agreement or disagreement, it is more informative and reliable.
d. In a Likert type scale, any item or statement empirically consistent with
the statement may be and has also a method of checking internal
consistency.

DEFECTS OR DISADVANTAGES

a. The judgement on the basis of total score, which is estimated by

calculating the mean or median, is not scientific. The total score values
may be the same in many cases, but the attitude may be different towards
an issues.
b. The scores on the Likert type scale may be helpful for making an
ordering of the people, but such an ordering will not have any scientific
and objective basis.
c. There is no objective basis for expressing different degrees of agreement
or disagreement. However, despite some limitations, it remains an
important ordinal scale.
DIFFERENTIAL SCALE

Thurstone scale developed in the 1920, in USA, generates groups of

indicators of a given variable that can be empirically used.

These scales are used to measure the social phenomenon.

The researcher will collect varied number of statements related to attitudes.

Judges will determine the positions on the scale.

The position is determined by the method of equal appearing intervals.

Judges will work independently to classify these statements into 11

groups.

1st group- Unfavourable statements to the specified issues (score-11)

2nd group- The nextufavourable statements and so on.

11rd group- Favourable statements (score-1)

6th group- The point at which the attitude is neutral.

The scale value of a statement is computed as the ‘mean’ or ‘median’

position to which if is assigned by the judges.

STEPS

The procedures involves five steps:

1. Composing a large number of statements by the researcher concerning the

attitude, to be measured. The statements should cover favourable
unfavourable and neutral items. Each statement should express only one
unambiguous idea and be in a form that permits it to be enclosed or rejected.
Each statement is written on a separate piece of paper.

2. Ranking items by a number of judges to order them on a continuum. The

least favourable item is given score 1 and most favourable itemis given score 4
or 5 and so on. This is called giving a scale value to statements into a number of
categories, according to how favourable or unfavourable the items are to the
attitude being investigated. Each judge ranks each item on a scale usually in
eleven categories. Thus one item might be ranked in the 3 rd category by one
judge and in eleventh category by another judge. These items are then combined
into master set of eleven categories.

3. Computing the average scale value (median) for each item. This is done by
regrouping the slips by item. Suppose,a given item had slips in sets of 2,6,8,11.
All the slips for this item are collected and put aside. Each item, thus, hass a set
of slips whose number corresponds to the number of judges For each item
median value is calculated.

4. Selecting the scientific scale items (statements) and computing cumulative

percentage values.

5. Testing the relevance of the items (statements) by the researchers and

reduccing their number. Each statement is identified through its scale value.

Once all the judges have completed this task, the researcher examines the
scores assigned to each item by all the judges to determine which items on
which the judges disagreed would be rejected as ambiguous. In the variable,
respondent who score 7 to 8 might be regarded as more agreed than one who
scores 5 or less.

ADVANTAGES

1. The method of construction of Thurstone type scale is less cumbersome.

2. It supplies more precise and definite response towards an issue. The
intermediate vague points are absent in this scale.

DISADVANTAGE

1. The time and energy required to have 10-15 judges scoring the item is
drore.
2. It is also not easy to get judges with the required professional skill and
experience on the given variable.
3. Thurstone scale is based on only two alternative response i.e. acceptance
or rejection, thus it is not more informative and reliable.
4. In Thurstone scale only the strictly related items are included thus it
doesnot have a broader area of reference and it is not suitable for
checking internal consistency.
 SOCIOMETRY

INTRODUCTION

Sociometry means measurement in social research. It is the only one

particular technique in emperical sociological research. This was started by a
medical doctor turned sociologist, Jacobe. L. Moreno in 1934.

Sociometric techniques ' are useful in evaluating the personal social

adjustments of a pupil. Sociometry is concerned with how an individual is seen
and accepted by his peers. Sociometric techniques have been are constantly
being used by students. When they elect their Monitor, choose sides for a game,
select the best student of the year, they are employing sociometry.

LEANING AND NATURE

Sociometry deals with social relations among groups and individuals.
1. it is a "method of discovering, describing and evaluating social
status, structure and development through measuring the extent of
acceptance or rejection between individuals in groups".
2. According to Helen Jennings "Sociometry is a means of presenting
simply and graphically the entire structure of relations existing at a given
time among members of a given group.
3. Sociometry is fundamentally concerned with the social interactions
among social groups. The sociometric method can provide useful
information about the position of an individual in relation to other groups
and sub groups.
DEFINITION :
According to William J.Goode states that 'sociometric techniques is a
simple methods of ranking individuals on a continuum of 'acceptability' or
outgoingness' on the part of group members'.
vi) The actual design of the sociogram depend as much on artistic
talent as on rational rules, so that 2 sociograms from the same
data may give quite different impressions.
USING SOCIOMETRIC DATA
Teacher can use these data
1. a) for organizing class room groups
b) To improve the social climate in the classroom
c) To improve the social structure of the group
d) To help those who have isolated become more acceptable to their
peers.
2. To study the effects of certain experience on a group structure
3. To study the relationship between a group structure and such
factors as sex, religion, colour, age
4. To study the stability of a group structure

ADVANTAGES OF SOCIOMETRY:
1. Sociograms show the relationships from the group member's point of
view.
2. Choices are uninfluenced by the teacher or experimenter.
3. Sociograms can show sub-groupings in the class
4. Sociograms easy to collect either in writing or verbally

LIMITATIONS OF SOCIOMETRIC DATA

i) The data are only as valid as the rapport that exists between
the student and teacher and the students willingness to be honest
ii) The data only reveal relationships. They do not establish
casual relationships.
iii) The Relationship are not necessarily stable, since social
situations change rapidly.
iv) For groups of more than above 15, sociograms become
impossibly complex.
i) Intermediate relationships are not indicated

SOCIO METRIC MEASUREMENT

 Sociometry is based on the principle of "Sociometric test". In this test
every member of a group, who could be made his friend, leader and colleague
so in, selection and rejection are based on some specific criteria. Here firstly it
is necessary to ascertain the fundamental ^criteria around which group activity
takes place.
Secondly it is also necessary to test the pattern of attraction and repulsion
interms of criteria.
The type of interaction depends on the nature and function of the group.
The interaction and behaviour of the member can be known by conducting on
observation by the researcher.
Eg: if we want to know the relationship among 10 teachers in an university
department, we may attempt a sociometric measurement which can reveal the
degree of attraction and rejection among the teaching staff. The procedure is as
follows.
-every teacher may now be asked to select 3 colleagues in order to preferences,
Eg: 1,2,3 the first preference being 1.second 2 and third 3. all the 10 teachers
will have to make the choice, 3 candidates by each teacher, when the choices
are finalized the
data can be arranged either in the forms of a matrix table or in the forms of
sociogram which itself can be prepared from matrix table. In the below table,
the various numbers in various cell indicate the preferences. There are various
type of relationship among the 10 teachers in the university department. These
relationships are called mutual relationship, triangular or a quardrangular
relationship, clique, star and so on.
There are 10 choosers, so the table will be a box table as shown below.
SOCIO MATRIX choices
ABCDEFGHIJA21B321C312D123ChoosersE2311F132G123H123I321J23I--42--21--
PreferencesII-23-1311-III3--1-1312Total327314632-

MUTUAL CHOICE
Two persons reveal preferences for each other as in the case of A and B
and C and D. The order of preference may be either the same or different.
TRIANGULAR RELATIONSHIP
When persons are not connected directly but indirectly via a media.
Eg: A, B, and C, 'c' has chosen A and A has B. In this way B and C are mutually
connected through a triangle.

QUADRANGULAR RELATIONSHIP
A relationship between two persons through 4 different links.
CLIQUE
Three or more persons have mutual relationship with one another. This
relationship is direct.
STAR RELATIONSHIPS
Concerned person is chosen by most of the people. They are so popular
that they can be the leader of the group. Here 'c' is the 'choice star' as he gets the
maximum number of choice (7),
The person who is not chosen by any one is known as totally isolated is 'J'
such a person does not have any significant place in society and can create
problem for society as well as for himself.
 The same data and relations, as shown by the group could be presented in
the form of sociogram.

Key Teacher
1. First preference
2. Second preference
3. Third preference

As the sociogram reveals, chooses the highest number of choices (7)

and out of these 4 are first preference choices and 3 are second preference
choices and 3 are second preference choices, C is both qualitatively and
quantitatively most popular teacher.
ADVANTAGES OF MATRIX
1. Relationship between every single pair is specifically recorded.
2. Joint relationship between pairs can also be recorded
3. Matrixes may be combined and compared.
The two main instruments required for administering sociometric tests are
questionnaires and interviews.
CONSTRUCTION OF SOCIOMETRIC SCALE
The main principles includes.
1. It is necessary to preciselyjknown what is to be measured. It is essential to
identify and analyze the traits, the conditions or characteristics which we
want to measure before the scale construction.
2. The criteria for rating or measurement should be properly defined and
carefully selected.
1. The scale must be reliable.
2. The scale must be valid
3. The scale should be simple and precise.
3. The scale must contain proper instructions for use, must be easily
understood, easily administered and should be objectives for as possible.
4. The scale should be quantitatively formulated and expressed so that data
can be used for statistical analysis
5. The scale should be applied on trial basis several times before actual use
under varying conditions. It should be reformulated and standardized.
ADVANTAGES OF SOCIOMETRY :
- It is simple and easy to understand
- sociogram presents the basic outline of interpersonal
relations among the members of a group.
- The scores based on sociometricjlata-are fairly stable and useful.
- It is appropriate as a device for studying the areas having inter
disciplinary interests.
- There is minimum use of resources and has special relevance in
under
developed countries.
LIMITATIONS
- Sociometric study cannot be applied or cannot adequately explain the
phenomena.
- Explanatory power is poor as iMs^not able to explain the inter
personal relationship which could exist.
- It has tendency to minimize the importance.x>f other kinds groups beyond
the
fields of education and institutional Groups.
TECHERMADE SOCIOMETRIC TECHNIQUES (Sociometric Device)
Sociometric Devices are type of peer ratings most commonly used in
educational settings to determine how members of a group perceive one
another.

A. Peer appraisal "(Guess who" technique)

B. Nominating procedures (Sociogram)
C. Social Distance scales.
A. Peer appraisal methods:
A peer appraisal can be very good supplement in the evaluation
programme. In evaluating characteristics such as popularity, Leadership
ability, concern for others, follow. Students are often better judges than
teachers.

CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE

Fires and gosnell define a crifical incident as “one that makes a

significant difference in the outcome of an activity. It may be the positive
factores that contribute to words the cussess of the behaviour as of may be the
negative factors that interfere with the completion of the assignment

ADVANTAGES

1. The critical incident technique is effective for formative evaluation. If

enables the learnes and the teacher to asses the liasners behaviour in
relation to their impart on the outcome of an action.
2. It can also be used in summative evaluaion, provided several critical
incidents are used to judge the students mastery of behaviour under
considration.
3. It can be used as data gathering nucharnisla
CRITICAL INCIDENT ROCORD

To evalute performance, the evaluator records specific critical incidents of

effective and inefffective behavour, two sides or aspects of a performaance
record i.e., effective and ineffective performance. The incident presents only the
facts of the performance. Eg. Anticipated needs of the clients.

-Highective behaviour (positive behaviour):

Contributing to patient care services.

1. Completion of an assingment as achieving of an objective

2. Maintance of quality is nursing care of patients.

-Ineffectve behaviour (Negative behaviour)

Which interface with good nursing cases of or leads to poor nuring care.

Critical incidents are out standing happenings, which indicate the presence or
obaence of the quality or characteristies or behaviour pattern to be analysed.

‘An analysis of incidents helps in breaking down broad statenects of objectives

into specifice comonents needed for evaluation/

The discription of incident should be explained indetail, what a student

did or said that made a teacher to believe did or said that made a teacher to
belive the really understood sonecthing or faciled to understand if,

CRITERIA FOR USING CRITICAL INCIDENTS.

1. Observes has to observe actival behaviour and must be reported.

2. All the relivant factors in the incident must be given.
3. Definite judgement about the behaviour i.e. considered to be crifical.

HOW TO RECORD THE CRITICAL INCIDENTS.

1. Total period of obsevation has to be written on the zone.

2. Number of incidents, effective and ineffective behaviour has to be
recorded.
3. Space for signature of evaluator and the person who is being evaluated
should be perioded.
CONCLUSION:

In social research, scaling techniques use are used to neacure the attitue
and behaviour one can make judgement about some charcteristic of an
individual and place him on a scale which is nursing for that characteristic.

Evaluation has become a part and parcle of every system of education to

determine the achievement of goals by the students in a give period.

BIBLOGRAPHY

1. KP NEERAJA “ TEXTBOOK ON NURSING EDUCATION”

Pg.403-405, 429-439, FIRST EDITION, JAYAPEE BROTHERS

MEDICAL PUBLISHERS, NEW DELHI.

2. SANKARNARAYANAN “ LEARNING AND TEACHINGMETHODS”

Pg. 213-217, 1st EDITION, BRAINFILL POBLICATIONS CALICAL.

3. BTBASAVANTHAPPA “NURSING EDUCATION” Pg.413-1ST

EDITION. JAYPEE PUBLICATIONS. NEW DELHI.

4. J.C. AGGARWAL, ESSENTIAL OF EXAMINATION SYSTEMS,

“EVALUATION TEST & MEASUREMENT”, VIKAS PUBLISHING
HOUSE PVT LTD, DELHI, 1997 PG.242-245.