Solutions

Solutions
• Components
– Solute
• a substance that is dissolved in a solution
• Present in lesser amount
– Solvent
• a substance that dissolves a solute
• present in greater amount than the solute.

• Solubility
– is a measure of the amount of a solute that will
dissolve in a solvent at a specific temperature
 Types of Solutions
• Saturated
– A solution that contains the maximum amount of a solute
in a given solvent, at a specific temperature
• Unsaturated
– Before saturation point is reached
– Contains less solute than it has the capacity to dissolve
• Supersaturated
– Contains more solute than is present in the saturated
solution
– Crystallization – The process in which dissolved solute
comes out of solution and forms crystals
Types of Solutions
 What is the solubility of
Solubility Curve
potassium nitrate at 20°C?

At what temperature is
the solubility of potassium
nitrate 20 g/25 g water?

Is a solution of 50 g of
potassium nitrate in 100 g
of water a saturated,
unsaturated or
supersaturated at 50°C?
 Factors Affecting Solubility
• Nature of Solute and Solvent
– “like dissolves like”
– Two substances with intermolecular forces of similar type and
magnitude are likely to be soluble in each other
• e.g carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) and benzene (C6H6) are nonpolar liquids.
• Temperature
– For solids in liquids: Solubility is directly proportional to the
temperature
– For gas in liquids: Solubility is inversely proportional to the
temperature
• Pressure
– Henry’s Law
– the solubility of a gas in a liquid is proportional to the pressure of the
gas over the solution
c∝𝑃
𝑐 = 𝑘𝑃
 Examples
• Nature
– Predict whether each of the following solvents is miscible
or immiscible with water:
• (a) methanol, CH3OH (b) toluene, C7H8
– Predict whether each of the following solid compounds is
soluble or insoluble in water:
• (a) Glucose (C6H12O6) (b) naphthalene (C10H8)
• Pressure
– The solubility of nitrogen gas at 25°C and 1 atm is 6.8 x 10-4
mol/L. What is the concentration of nitrogen dissolved in
water under atmospheric conditions? The partial pressure
of nitrogen gas in the atmosphere is 0.78 atm.
 Concentration Units
• Percent by Mass (weight percent)

• Molarity

• Molality
 Concentration Units
• Parts per hundred (or percent)
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
= 𝑥102
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

• Parts per million (ppm)

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
= 𝑥106
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

• Parts per billion (ppb)

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
= 𝑥109
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

• Parts per trillion (ppt)

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
= 𝑥1012
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 Sample Problems
• Calculate the molality of a 35.4 percent (by mass)
aqueous solution of phosphoric acid (H3PO4).
• How to prepare 1 molal (1 m) sodium sulfate aqeous
solution
• What is the molality of a sulfuric acid solution
containing 24.4 g sulfuric acid in 198 g of water
• Express the concentration of a 0.396 m glucose
(C6H12O6) aqeous solution in molarity (density of
solution = 1.16 g/mL)
• Calculate the molality of a 5.86 M ethanol (C2H5OH)
aqueous solution whose density is 0.927 g/ml
 Dilution of Solutions
• Dilution consists of adding more solvent to a solution so that
the concentration of the solute becomes lower. The total
number of solutes in the solution remains the same after
dilution, but the volume of the solution becomes greater,
resulting in a lower concentration.
• For dilution:

M1V1 = M2V2

More concentrated solution Dilute solution

 Sample Problems
1.) Concentrated hydrochloric acid is available
commercially as a 12 M solution. What is the
molarity of an HCl solution prepared by diluting
50.0 mL of concentrated acid with distilled
water to give a total volume of 2.50 L?
2.) Battery acid is 18 M sulfuric acid. What
volume of battery acid must be diluted with
distilled water to prepare 1.00 L of 0.50 M
H2SO4?
 Electrolytes vs Non-Electrolytes
• Electrolytes
– Substances that exist as ions in solution. Ionic
compounds are typically strong electrolytes. Strong
acids, strong bases and salts are strong electrolytes.
– Can conduct electricity
– NaCl(s)  Na+ (aq) + Cl-(aq)
• Non-electrolytes
– Nonelectrolyte do not dissociate at all in solution and
therefore do not produce any ions
– Cannot conduct electricity
Electrolytes vs Non-Electrolytes
 Colligative Properties
• Collective properties
• Properties of solutions depend on the number
of solute particles in solution and not on the
nature of the solute particles.
1.) Vapor Pressure Lowering
2.) Boiling Point Elevation
3.) Freezing Point Depression
4.) Osmotic Pressure
 Vapor Pressure Lowering of
Non-electrolyte solutions
• If a solute is nonvolatile (that is, it does not have a
measurable vapor pressure ), the vapor pressure of its
solution is always less than that of the pure solvent.
• Raoult’s law:
– the vapor pressure of a solvent over a solution, P1, is given by the
vapor pressure of the pure solvent, P°1, times the mole fraction of the
solvent in the solution, X1

Where 𝑃1 = Pressure of the solution

𝑃1° = pressure of the pure solvent
𝑋1 = mole fraction of the solvent
𝑋2 = mole fraction of the solute
∆𝑃 = Vapor pressure lowering
 Boiling Point Elevation of
Non-electrolyte solutions
• nonvolatile solute lowers the boiling point of
the solution
• Vapor Pressure of solvent is lowered
• Higher Boiling point
∆𝑇𝑏 = 𝑇𝑏 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝑇𝑏 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

∆𝑇𝑏 = 𝐾𝑏 𝑚
Where 𝐾𝑏 is in °C/m
(𝐾𝑏 is solvent dependent)
m is molal concentration
 Freezing Point Depression of
Non-electrolyte solutions
• A non-volatile solute lowers the freezing point
of a solvent

∆𝑇𝑓 = 𝑇𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 𝑇𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

∆𝑇𝑓 = 𝐾𝑓 𝑚
Where 𝐾𝑓 is in °C/m
(𝐾𝑓 is solvent dependent)
m is molal concentration
 Osmotic Pressure
• Osmosis – The net movement of solvent molecules
through a semipermeable membrane from a pure
solvent or from a dilute solution to a more
concentrated solution
• The osmotic pressure (𝝅) of a solution is the
pressure required to stop osmosis

𝜋 = Osmotic Pressure in atm

M = concentration in Molarity
T = Temperature in Kelvin
R = constant (0.08206 L-atm/K -mol)
Osmotic Pressure
 Sample Problems
• Calculate the vapor pressure of a solution made by
dissolving 82.4 g of urea (molar mass = 60.06 g/mol) in
212 mL of water at 35°C. What is the vapor pressure
lowering? (VP of water at 35°C = 42.18 mmHg)
• Calculate the boiling point and freezing point of a
solution containing 478 g of ethylene glycol,
CH2(OH)CH2(OH), in 3202 g of water.
• A 202-mL benzene solution containing 2.47 g of an
organic polymer has an osmotic pressure of 8.63
mmHg at 21°C. Calculate the molar mass of the
polymer.
 Colligative Properties of
Electrolyte Solutions
• i = the number of particles per formula unit.
= van’t Hoff factor

𝑃1 = 𝑥1 𝑃1°
• Vapor Pressure Lowering
∆𝑃 = 𝑃1° − 𝑃1 = 𝒊𝑥2 𝑃1°

• Boiling Point Elevation ∆𝑇𝑏 = 𝑇𝑏 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝑇𝑏 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝒊𝐾𝑏 𝑚

• Freezing Point Depression ∆𝑇𝑓 = 𝑇𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 𝑇𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝒊𝐾𝑓 𝑚

• Osmotic Pressure 𝜋 = 𝒊𝑀𝑅𝑇

 Sample Problem
• The freezing-point depression of a 0.100 m
MgSO4 solution is 0.225°C. Calculate the van’t
Hoff factor of MgSO4 at this concentration.
 Types of Reactions in Aqueous
Solutions
• Precipitation Reactions
• Acid-Base Reactions
• Redox Reactions
 Precipitation Reactions
• Results in the formation
of an insoluble product,
or precipitate.
– A precipitate is an
insoluble solid that
separates from the
solution.
• Precipitation reactions
usually involve ionic
compounds.
Solubility Rules
 Practice
Classify the following ionic compounds as
soluble or insoluble:
(a) lead sulfate (PbSO4)
(b) barium carbonate (BaCO3)
(c) lithium phosphate (Li3PO4)
(d) FeS
(e) Ca(OH)2
(f) Co(NO3)3
 Net Ionic Equations
Steps for writing net ionic equations:

1. Write a balanced molecular equation for the reaction, using the correct
formulas for the reactant and product ionic compounds. Refer to Table
4.2 to decide which of the products is insoluble and therefore will
appear as a precipitate.

𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂3 )2 (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐾𝐼 𝑎𝑞 → 𝑃𝑏𝐼2 (𝑠) + 2𝐾𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞)

2. Write the ionic equation for the reaction. The compound that does not
appear as the precipitate should be shown as free ions.

𝑃𝑏 2+(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑁𝑂3−(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐾 +(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐼 −(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑃𝑏𝐼2 (𝑠) + 2𝐾 +(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑁𝑂3−(𝑎𝑞)

 Net Ionic Equations
Steps for writing net ionic equations:

3. Identify and cancel the spectator ions on both sides of the equation.
Write the net ionic equation for the reaction.

𝑃𝑏 2+(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑁𝑂3−(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐾 +(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐼 −(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑃𝑏𝐼2 (𝑠) + 2𝐾 +(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑁𝑂3−(𝑎𝑞)

4. Check that the charges and number of atoms balance in the net ionic
equation

𝑃𝑏2+(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐼 −(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑃𝑏𝐼2 (𝑠)

 Practice Exercise
(a) Predict the precipitate produced by mixing an
Al(NO3)3 solution with a NaOH solution.
(b) Write the net ionic equation for the reaction
in letter (a)
 Acid-Base Reaction
• Titration
– used to determine the
concentration of an identified
substance
– Titrant – solution of a known
concentration
– Analyte – solution of unknown
concentration
 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
• Electron-transfer reactions
• Oxidation reaction refers to the half-reaction
that involves loss of electrons
• Reducing Agent – Element that is oxidized
– Increase in oxidation number
• Reduction reaction is a half-reaction that
involves gain of electrons
– Oxidizing Agent – Element that is reduced
– Decrease in oxidation number
 Oxidation Number / Oxidation State
• signifies the number of charges the atom would have in a molecule (or an
ionic compound) if electrons were transferred completely

We use the following rules to assign oxidation numbers:

1. In free elements (that is, in the uncombined state), each atom has an
oxidation number of zero. Thus, each atom in H2, Br2, Na, Be, K, O2, and
P4 has the same oxidation number: zero.
2. For monoatomic ions, the oxidation number is equal to the charge on
the ion.
3. Certain elements have the same oxidation number in most compounds
a.) Group 1A Elements have an oxidation number of +1, while Group 2A have +2
b.) Oxygen usually is -2
- but in hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and peroxide ion (𝑂22− ), it is -1.
c.) Hydrogen is usually +1
- except when it is bonded to metals in binary compounds. In these cases
(for example, LiH, NaH, CaH2), its oxidation number is -1.
4. Oxidation numbers sum to zero (compound) or to the charge
(polyatomic ion)
 Balancing Redox Reactions
1. Assign the oxidation numbers and determine
which element is oxidized and which is
reduced
2. Split the equation into two half equations
3. Balance the half reactions
4. Combine the two balanced half equations so
as to cancel electrons
5. Check if everything balances - atoms and
charges
 Practice
• Balance the following redox reactions:
• 𝐶𝑢2+ + 𝑀𝑔 → 𝐶𝑢 + 𝑀𝑔2+
• Chlorine gas oxidizes iron(II) ions to iron(III)
ions. In the process, the chlorine is reduced to
chloride ions.
 Stoichiometry of Solutions

1. Titration reveals that 11.6 mL of 3.0 M sulfuric acid are required to

neutralize the sodium hydroxide in 25.00 mL of NaOH solution.
What is the molarity of the NaOH solution?
2. How many grams of solid BaSO4 will form when Na2SO4 reacts
with 25 mL of 0.50 M Ba(NO3)2?