Chemistry

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 Chemistry: A Science for the 21st Century
• Health and Medicine
• Sanitation systems
• Surgery with anesthesia
• Vaccines and antibiotics
• Gene therapy

•Energy and the Environment

• Fossil fuels
• Solar energy
• Nuclear energy

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 Chemistry: A Science for the 21st Century
• Materials and Technology
• Polymers, ceramics, liquid crystals
• Room-temperature superconductors?
• Molecular computing?

• Food and Agriculture

• Genetically modified crops
• “Natural” pesticides
• Specialized fertilizers

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The Study of Chemistry
Macroscopic Microscopic

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The scientific method is a systematic
approach to research.

A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for a

set of observations.

tested modified

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A law is a concise statement of a relationship
between phenomena that is always the same
under the same conditions.
Force = mass x acceleration

A theory is a unifying principle that explains

a body of facts and/or those laws that are
based on them.

Atomic Theory

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Chemistry is the study of matter and the
changes it undergoes.

Matter is anything that occupies space and

has mass.
A substance is a form of matter that has a
definite composition and distinct properties.

liquid nitrogen gold ingots silicon crystals

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A mixture is a combination of two or more substances
in which the substances retain their distinct identities.

1. Homogenous mixture – composition of the

mixture is the same throughout

soft drink, milk, solder

2. Heterogeneous mixture – composition is not

uniform throughout

cement,
iron filings in sand
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Physical means can be used to separate a mixture
into its pure components.

magnet

distillation

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An element is a substance that cannot be
separated into simpler substances by chemical
means.
• 114 elements have been identified
• 82 elements occur naturally on Earth
gold, aluminum, lead, oxygen, carbon, sulfur

• 32 elements have been created by scientists

technetium, americium, seaborgium

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Replace with Table 1.1 from 7e page 6

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A compound is a substance composed of atoms
of two or more elements chemically united in fixed
proportions.

Compounds can only be separated into their

pure components (elements) by chemical
means.

lithium fluoride quartz dry ice – carbon dioxide

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Classification of Matter
Replace with Table 1.5 from 7e page 7

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A Comparison: The Three States of Matter

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The Three States of Matter: Effect of a Hot
Poker on a Block of Ice

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 Types of Changes

A physical change does not alter the composition or

identity of a substance.
sugar dissolving
ice melting
in water
A chemical change alters the composition or
identity of the substance(s) involved.

hydrogen burns in
air to form water

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 Extensive and Intensive Properties
An extensive property of a material depends upon
how much matter is being considered.
• mass
• length
• volume
An intensive property of a material does not
depend upon how much matter is being
considered.
• density
• temperature
• color
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Matter - anything that occupies space and has mass

mass – measure of the quantity of matter

SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg)
1 kg = 1000 g = 1 x 103 g

weight – force that gravity exerts on an object

weight = c x mass A 1 kg bar will weigh

on earth, c = 1.0 1 kg on earth
on moon, c ~ 0.1 0.1 kg on moon

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Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808)
1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles
called atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the
same size, mass and chemical properties. The atoms of
one element are different from the atoms of all other
elements.
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one
element. In any compound, the ratio of the numbers of
atoms of any two of the elements present is either an
integer or a simple fraction.
4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation,
combination, or rearrangement of atoms; it does not
result in their creation or destruction.
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 Dalton’s Atomic Theory

Law of Multiple Proportions

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16 X + 8Y 8 X2Y

Law of Conservation of Mass

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Cathode Ray Tube

J.J. Thomson, measured mass/charge of e-

(1906 Nobel Prize in Physics) 23
Cathode Ray Tube

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 Millikan’s Experiment

Measured mass of e-
(1923 Nobel Prize in Physics)

e- charge = -1.60 x 10-19 C

Thomson’s charge/mass of e- = -1.76 x 108 C/g
e- mass = 9.10 x 10-28 g
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Types of Radioactivity

(uranium compound)

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Thomson’s Model

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 Rutherford and the Nuclear Atom
• Ernest Rutherford directed Hans Geiger and
Ernst Marsden’s experiment in 1910.
– - particle scattering from thin Au foils
– Gave us the basic picture of the atom’s structure.

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 Rutherford’s Experiment
(1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry)

a particle velocity ~ 1.4 x 107 m/s

(~5% speed of light)

1. atoms positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus

2. proton (p) has opposite (+) charge of electron (-)
3. mass of p is 1840 x mass of e- (1.67 x 10-24 g)
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 Rutherford and the Nuclear Atom
• In 1912 Rutherford decoded the -particle scattering
information.
– Explanation involved a nuclear atom with electrons
surrounding the nucleus .

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 Rutherford and the Nuclear Atom
Rutherford’s major conclusions from the -particle
scattering experiment
1. The atom is mostly empty space.
2. It contains a very small, dense center called the nucleus.
3. Nearly all of the atom’s mass is in the nucleus.
4. The nuclear diameter is 1/10,000 to 1/100,000 times
less than atom’s radius.

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 Rutherford and the Nuclear Atom
• Because the atom’s mass is contained in such
a small volume:
– The nuclear density is ~1015g/mL.
– This is equivalent to ~3.72 x 109 tons/in3.
– Density inside the nucleus is almost the same as a
neutron star’s density.

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 Rutherford’s Model of
the Atom

atomic radius ~ 100 pm = 1 x 10-10 m

nuclear radius ~ 5 x 10-3 pm = 5 x 10-15 m

“If the atom is the Houston

Astrodome, then the nucleus is a
marble on the 50-yard line.” 33
 Chadwick’s Experiment (1932)
(1935 Noble Prize in Physics)

H atoms: 1 p; He atoms: 2 p
mass He/mass H should = 2
measured mass He/mass H = 4

a + 9Be 1
n + 12C + energy
neutron (n) is neutral (charge = 0)
n mass ~ p mass = 1.67 x 10-24 g
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mass p ≈ mass n ≈ 1840 x mass e-

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 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different
numbers of neutrons in their nuclei

Mass Number A
ZX
Element Symbol
Atomic Number

1 2 3
1H 1H (D) 1H (T)
235 238
92 U 92 U 36
The Isotopes of Hydrogen

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A molecule is an aggregate of two or more atoms in a
definite arrangement held together by chemical forces.

H2 H2O NH3 CH4

A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms:

H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO

diatomic elements

A polyatomic molecule contains more than two atoms:

O3, H2O, NH3, CH4
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An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net
positive or negative charge.
cation – ion with a positive charge
If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons
it becomes a cation.

11 protons 11 protons
Na 11 electrons Na +
10 electrons

anion – ion with a negative charge

If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons
it becomes an anion.
17 protons 17 protons
Cl 17 electrons Cl-
18 electrons
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A monatomic ion contains only one atom:
Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-, Al3+, N3-

A polyatomic ion contains more than one atom:

OH-, CN-, NH4+, NO3-

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 2.1

Give the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in each of

the following species:

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d) carbon-14
 2.1
Strategy Recall that the superscript denotes the mass number
(A) and the subscript denotes the atomic number (Z).

Mass number is always greater than atomic number. (The only

exception is H, where the mass number is equal to the atomic
number.)

In a case where no subscript is shown, as in parts (c) and (d), the

atomic number can be deduced from the element symbol or name.

To determine the number of electrons, remember that because

atoms are electrically neutral, the number of electrons is equal to
the number of protons.
 2.1
Solution
(a) The atomic number is 11, so there are 11 protons.
The mass number is 20, so the number of neutrons is
20 − 11 = 9. The number of electrons is the same as the
number of protons; that is, 11.

(b) The atomic number is the same as that in (a), or 11.

The mass number is 22, so the number of neutrons is
22 − 11 = 11. The number of electrons is 11. Note that the
species in (a) and (b) are chemically similar isotopes of
sodium.
 2.1

(c) The atomic number of O (oxygen) is 8, so there are

8 protons. The mass number is 17, so there are 17 − 8 = 9
neutrons. There are 8 electrons.

(d) Carbon-14 can also be represented as 14C. The atomic

number of carbon is 6, so there are 14 − 6 = 8 neutrons.
The number of electrons is 6.