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Article history: Although accumulating research suggests that acute physical exercise ameliorates cognitive function in
Received 3 April 2009 adults, little is known about the effects of acute exercise on cognition during development. We assessed
Received in revised form simple reaction and choice response times in 7- and 10-year-old boys (n ¼ 36 per age group). Half of the
21 September 2009
children completed 30 min of aerobic exercise, whilst the other half watched television. Each child was
Accepted 29 September 2009
tested immediately prior to and immediately following the intervention. Compared to the control group,
Available online 14 October 2009
the children in the exercise condition showed a significant improvement on both tasks, with a better
outcome for the choice compared to the simple task. These findings indicate that physical exercise also
Keywords:
Physical exercise has an impact on cognitive functioning in children.
Cognition Crown Copyright Ó 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Development
Reaction time
Accumulating research with human adults suggests that a single prolonged but sub-maximal physical exercise leading to dehydra-
session of physical exercise ameliorates different aspects of cogni- tion is associated with a reduction in cognitive performance. For
tive function immediately after the end of the exercise period, example, a 2 h run on a treadmill at 65% of VO2max results in
regardless of fitness level (Brisswalter, Collardeau, & Arcelin, 2002; a significant disruption of short-term memory, psycho-motor
Etnier et al., 1997; Tomporowski, 2003). However, until recently the abilities, and visual discrimination (Cian et al., 2001). Finally,
relationship between acute physical exercise and cognitive function physical exercise of moderate intensity and duration appears to
was not so obvious because the literature on the topic seemed to ameliorate brain function. In fact, several studies found that
provide somewhat contradictory findings. Indeed, whilst a certain immediately after an exercise session of sub-maximal intensity (i.e.,
number of studies indicated that short periods of physical exercise heart rate of about 110–130 beats per minute) and a duration of
improved cognitive functioning in adults (Hancock & McNaughton, 20–40 min, there is an improvement in sensori-motor and cogni-
1986) others either did not find any benefits (Bard & Fleury, 1978; tive performance (Clarkson-Smith & Hartley, 1989; Hogervorst,
Cote, Salmela, & Papthanasopoloulu, 1992; Fleury, Bard, Jobin, & Riedel, Jeukendrup, & Jolles, 1996). Although much of the evidence
Carriere, 1981) or even reported deterioration of cognitive function suggests that the relationship between acute physical activity and
(Cian, Barraud, Melin, & Raphel, 2001; Isaacs & Pohlman, 1991; cognitive performance has an inverted U function, it is important to
Wrisberg & Herbert, 1976). interpret these finding with some caution given that the paradigms
It has now been more clearly demonstrated that the effect of of the studies cited above differ along several important domains,
physical exercise on cognitive performance depends both on the such as the type of aerobic exercise, the cognitive functions
intensity and the duration of the exercise (Etnier et al., 1997; assessed, the age groups tested, as well as the physical and health
Kamijo, Nishihira, Higashiura, & Kuroiwa, 2007; Tomporowski, condition of the participants.
2003). First, intense but brief exercise does not appear to have Much of the literature that reports beneficial effects of exercise
much of an effect on brain function (Hancock & McNaughton, 1986; use reaction time tasks (Etnier et al., 1997; Tomporowski, 2003).
Tsorbatzoudis, Barkoukis, Danis, & Gouios, 1998). For example, no Reaction time is the response time from the appearance of a stimulus
change in perception, sensory integration, or visual discrimination to the motor response and it is believed to reflect stimulus identi-
is noted immediately after voluntary physical exhaustion (i.e., fication, response selection, and response programming. It is also
approximately 10 min of cycling or running at about 150% of considered as a general indicator of functional integrity of the
VO2max) (Bard & Fleury, 1978; Fleury et al., 1981). In contrast, central nervous system (Wang, 2008). The typical explanation for
the facilitating effect of acute exercise on reaction time is an increase
in physiological arousal induced by the exercise (Brisswalter et al.,
* Corresponding author. 2002; Gutin, 1973; Kamijo et al., 2004; McMorris & Graydon, 1997).
E-mail address: dave.ellemberg@umontreal.ca (D. Ellemberg). However, the even greater facilitating effects of exercise on choice
1469-0292/$ – see front matter Crown Copyright Ó 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2009.09.006
D. Ellemberg, M. St-Louis-Deschênes / Psychology of Sport and Exercise 11 (2010) 122–126 123
asked to press a key each time a circle appeared on the screen and Fig. 2 presents the data for the choice response time task for the
a different key for any other form. Therefore, of the 12 stimuli, four experimental and the control groups. The ANOVA for the choice
were targets and the rest were distracters. Each of the 12 stimuli response time task revealed significant interactions of time of
was presented 20 times for a total of 216 presentations. This task test condition F(1,68) ¼ 45.63, p < .001, and of time of test age
lasted about 10 min. The two dependent variables that are analysed F(1,68) ¼ 12.26, p < .001. Main effects of age F(1,68) ¼ 601.05,
are response time for correctly identified targets and response p < .001, condition F(1,68) ¼ 38.80, p < .001, and time of test
accuracy (i.e., hits/total number of targets). F(1,68) ¼ 179.93, p < .001 were also revealed. There were no
To familiarise the children with the tasks and to obtain a base- significant interactions of age condition nor of age condition
line measure of performance, each child completed the simple and time of test (all ps > .10). The analysis of the interaction between
choice tasks before the experimental procedure (watching televi- time of test (before versus after intervention) and condition (tele-
sion versus watching television whilst cycling). The children were vision only versus exercise and television) indicates that for both
then retested a second time after the intervention. In all groups and age groups, the children in the exercise condition were significantly
for both the baseline and post-intervention measures, the simple faster on the choice response time tasks than the children in the
reaction time task always preceded the choice response time task. control group. Again, these results suggest that the activity
These measures were obtained in a quiet testing room whilst the benefited both age groups equally.
children were comfortably seated in a regular chair. The children Fig. 3 presents the accuracy data for the choice response time
responded by pressing a key with the index of their dominant hand. task for both the experimental and the control groups. The results
of the ANOVA revealed that there were no significant interactions
Statistical analyses or main effects (all ps > .10). Therefore, the cardiovascular activity
The simple and choice reaction time data were analysed sepa- did not improve performance accuracy for the younger or the older
rately by means of a 3-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with children.
a between-subjects factors of age (7-year-olds versus 10-year-olds),
a between-subjects factor of condition (control condition versus Discussion
experimental condition), and a within subject factor of time of test
(baseline test versus post-intervention test). Significant interac- We investigated the effects of an acute bout of physical activity
tions were further analysed with Tukey post-hoc tests. on cognitive functioning during development. The results indicate
that a single and short session of aerobic activity of moderate
intensity significantly improves response time for the simple and
Results
choice tasks.
Although factors like physical fitness or academic achievement
Fig. 1 presents the data for the simple reaction time task for the
were not measured, they are unlikely to explain the differences
experimental and the control groups. The ordinate shows the mean
reported between the children who were active and those who were
response time in milliseconds. The ANOVA for the simple reaction
inactive. To participate in the study all children had to meet the same
time task revealed a significant interaction of time of test
inclusion criteria (viz., age appropriate level of academic achieve-
condition F(1,68) ¼ 10.26, p < .002. Main effects of age F(1,68)
ment, no academic difficulties or learning disabilities, and no
¼ 172.61, p < .001, condition F(1,68) ¼ 5.49 p < .02, and time of test
neurological or other medical conditions). Further, the children were
F(1,68) ¼ 41.75, p < .001 were also revealed. There were no
randomly assigned to be part of either one of the two conditions. The
significant interactions of age condition, age time of test, nor of
statistical analyses indicate that the baseline measure of the two
age condition time of test (all ps > .10). The analysis of the
groups did not significantly differ. It is also unlikely that the control
interaction between time of test (before versus after intervention)
condition (i.e., watching television) had a negative influence on the
and condition (television only versus exercise and television)
results by inducing fatigue or decreasing vigilance and attention.
indicates that for both age groups, the children in the exercise
First, the children in the exercise group also watched television, as
condition were significantly faster on the simple reaction time tasks
did the children in the control group. Further, and most notably,
than the children in the control group. Together, these results
the children who only watched television also showed a slight
suggest that the activity benefited both age groups equally.
800 Basline
Baseline *
600 *
700 Post-test
Post-test
500
600 *
*
ms (± 1 SE)
400 500
ms (±1 SE)
400
300
300
200
200
100 100
0 0
Control Exercise Control Exercise Control Exercise Control Exercise
condition condition condition condition condition condition condition condition
7 year olds 10 year olds 7 year olds 10 year olds
Fig. 1. Mean time, in milliseconds, for the simple reaction time task. The dark bars Fig. 2. Mean time, in milliseconds, for the choice response time task. The dark bars
present the data for the baseline measure and the light bars present the data for the present the data for the baseline measure and the light bars present the data for the
post-test.*P < 0.05 post-test. *P < 0.05
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