AC Circuit Analysis

AC Circuit Analysis
Module: SE1EA5 Systems and Circuits
Lecturer: James Grimbleby y

URL: http://www.personal.rdg.ac.uk/~stsgrimb/
email: jj.b.grimbleby
g y reading.ac.uk
g
Number of Lectures: 10
Recommended text book:

David Irwin and Mark Nelms
Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis (8th edition)
John Wiley and Sons (2005)
ISBN: 0-471-66158-9
James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 1

AC Circuit Analysis
Recommended text book:

David Irwin and Mark Nelms
Basic Engineering Circuit
Analysis (8th edition)
Paperback 816 pages
J h Wil
John Wiley and dS
Sons (2005)
ISBN: 0-471-66158-9
Price: £36

AC Circuit Analysis Syllabus
This course of lectures will extend dc circuit analysis to deal
with ac circuits
The topics that will be covered include:

AC voltages and currents
Complex representation of sinusoids
Phasors
Complex impedances of inductors and capacitors
Driving-point impedance
Frequency response of circuits – Bode plots
Power in ac circuits
E
Energy storage
t in
i capacitors
it andd iinductors
d t
Three-phase power

AC Circuit Analysis Prerequities
You should be familiar with the following topics:

SE1EA5: Electronic Circuits
Ohm’s Law
Series and pparallel resistances
Voltage and current sources
Circuit analysis
y usingg Kirchhoff’s Laws
Thévenin and Norton's theorems
The Superposition Theorem
SE1EC5: Engineering Mathematics

Complex numbers

AC Circuit Analysis
Lecture 1
AC Voltages and Currents
Reactive Components

AC Waveforms
Sine waveform
(sinusoid)
Square waveform
Sawtooth waveform
Audio waveform

Frequency
The number of cycles
y per
p second of an ac waveform is known
as the frequency f, and is expressed in Hertz (Hz)
Voltage or
Current 6 cycles
y → f = 6 Hz
Time
0 1s

Frequency
Examples:
p
Electrocardiogram: 1 Hz
Mains power: 50 Hz
Aircraft power: 400 Hz
Audio frequencies: 20 Hz to 20 kHz
AM radio broadcasting: 0.5 MHz – 1.5 MHz
FM radio
di broadcasting:
b d ti 80 MH
MHz – 110 MH
MHz
g 500 MHz – 800 MHz
Television broadcasting:
Mobile telephones: 1.8 GHz

Period
The period T of an ac waveform is the time taken for a
complete cycle:
1
period =
frequency
Voltage or
Current T = 0.167 s
Time
0 1s

Why Linear?
We shall consider the steady-state
steady state response of linear ac
circuits to sinusoidal inputs
Linear circuits contain linear components such as resistors,

capacitors
p and inductors
A linear component has the property that doubling the voltage

across it doubles the current through it
Most circuits for processing signals are linear
Analysis of non-linear circuits is difficult and normally requires

the use of a computer.

Why Steady
Steady-State?
State?
Steady-state
y means that the input
p waveform has been
present long enough for any transients to die away
Output V
Vin V
Time
t
Vin=0 for t≤0

Why Sinusoidal?
A linear circuit will not change the waveform or frequency of a

sinusoidal input (the amplitude and phase may be altered)
Power is generated as a sinusoid by rotating electrical

machinery
Sinusoidal
Si id l carrier
i waves are modulated
d l d to transmit
i
information (radio broadcasts)
Any periodic waveform can be considered to be the sum of a

fundamental pure sinusoid plus harmonics (Fourier Analysis)

Fourier Analysis
A square waveform can be considered to consist of a
f d
fundamental
t l sinusoid
i id ttogether
th with
ith odd
dd h
harmonic
i sinusoids
i id
Square wave Sum
Fundamental
3dh
3rd harmonic
i
5th harmonic

Representation of Sinusoids
A sinusoidal voltage
g waveform v(t) ( ) of amplitude
p v0, and of
frequency f :
v (t ) = v 0 sin 2πft = v 0 sin ωt
or: v (t ) = v 0 cos 2πft = v 0 cos ωt
where ω=2πf is known as the angular frequency

v T = 1/ f
v0
t

Representation of Sinusoids
The sinusoid can have a phase term φ:
v (t ) = v 0 sin(ωt + φ )
A phase shift φ is equivalent to a time shift -φ/ω
φ/ω
φ
τ=
v ω
v 0 sin(ωt + φ )
t
v 0 sin(ωt )
The phase is positive so the red trace leads the green trace
Resistors
Ceramic tube
coated with
Conductive film
Metal end
i cap
v
Fil
Film: carbon
b R i t
Resistance R
metal v = Ri
t l oxide
metal id
(Ohm’s Law)

Resistors

Resistors
v
i
Ohm’s Law: v = Ri
R
Suppose that: i, v
v (t ) = v 0 sin(ωt ) i v
Then:
v (t ) t
i (t ) =
R
v0
= sin(ωt )
R
Current in phase with voltage

Capacitors
i
Insulating
dielectric
v
Conducting
electrodes
Di l t i
Dielectrics: air
i C
Capacitance
it C
polymer dv
ceramici q = Cv i =C
dt
Al203 (electrolytic)

Capacitors

Capacitors
v
i dv
d
i =C
C dt
Suppose that: i, v
v (t ) = v 0 sin(ωt ) i (t ) v (t )
Then:
d
i (t ) = C v 0 sin(ωt ) t
dt
= ωCv 0 cos(ωt )
⎛ π⎞
= ωCv 0 sin⎜ ωt + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
Current leads voltage by π/2 (90°)

Capacitors
Does a capacitor have a “resistance”?
v, i
v (t ) = v 0 sin(ωt ) i (t ) = ωCv 0 cos(ωt )
t
t1 t2
v (t1) v 0 v (t 2 ) 0
= =∞ = =0
i (t1) 0 i (t 2 ) i 0
Thus “resistance” varies between ±∞: not a useful concept

p
Capacitors
The reactance XC of a capacitor is defined:
v0
XC =
i0
where v0 is the amplitude
p of the voltage
g across the capacitor
p
and i0 is the amplitude of the current flowing through it
Thus:
v0 1 1
XC = = =
ωCv
C 0 ωC 2πfC
The reactance of a capacitor is inversely proportional to its

value and to frequency

Inductors
Magnetisable
core
Copper
i wire
v
C
Core: air
i I d t
Inductance L
ferrite
di
i
iron v =L
silicon steel dt

Inductors

Inductors
v
i di
v =L
L dt
Suppose that: i, v
v (t ) = v 0 sin(ωt )
v ((tt ) i ((tt )
Then:
1
i (t ) = ∫ v 0 sin(ωt ) t
L
− v0
= cos(ωt )
ωL
v0 ⎛ π⎞
= sin⎜ ωt − ⎟ Current lags voltage by π/2 (90°)
ωL ⎝ 2⎠

Inductors
The reactance XC of an inductor is defined:
v0
XC =
i0
where v0 is the amplitude of the voltage across the inductor
and i0 is the amplitude of the current flowing through it
Thus:
v0
Xc = = ωL = 2πfL
v 0 / ωL
The reactance of an inductor

ind ctor is directl
directly proportional to its
value and to frequency

Resistance and Reactance
v0
X= f →0 f →∞
i0
Resistance R R R R
1 open short
Capacitance C circuit circuit
ωC
short open
Inductance L ωL
circuit
i it circuit
i it

AC Circuit Analysis
L t
Lecture 2
AC Analysis using Differential Equations
Complex Numbers
Complex Exponential Voltages and Currents

AC Circuit Analysis
The ac response
p of a circuit is determined by
y a differential
equation:
R i (t ) v in (t ) = Ri (t ) + v c (t )
dv c (t )
v in (t ) C v c (t ) i (t ) = C
dt
dv c (t )
v in (t ) = RC + v c (t )
dt
dv c (t ) v c (t ) v in
i (t )
+ =
dt RC RC

AC Circuit Analysis
Now suppose that the input voltage vin is a sinusoid of angular
frequency ω
The output
Th t t voltage
lt vc will
ill b
be a sinusoid
i id off th
the same ffreqeuncy,
but with different amplitude and phase:
v in (t ) = v 0 cos(ωt )
v c (t ) = v1 cos(ωt + φ )
Expanding the expression for vc:
v c (t ) = v1 cos ωt cos φ − v1 sin ωt sin φ = A cos ωt + B sin ωt

dv c (t )
= − Aω sin ωt + Bω cos ωt
dt
AC Circuit Analysis
The differential equation becomes:
A B v0
− Aω sin ωt + Bω cos ωt + cos ωt + sin ωt = cos ωt
RC RC RC
Comparing
p g the coefficients of sinωt and cosωt on both sides of
the equation:
− AωRC + B = 0
BωRC + A = v 0
Solving these simultaneous linear equations in A and B:
v0 ωRCv 0
A= B=
1 + ω 2R 2C 2 1 + ω 2R 2C 2
AC Circuit Analysis
v0 ωRCv 0
A = v1 cos φ = B = −v1 sin φ =
1 + ω 2R 2C 2 1 + ω 2R 2C 2
Thus:
1
v1 = v 0 tan φ = −ωRC
1 + ω 2R 2C 2
At an angular frequency ω=1/RC:
v0 π
v1 = φ=−
2 4
v0 ⎛ π⎞
v c (t ) = cos⎜ ωt − ⎟
2 ⎝ 4⎠
The output
p voltage
g lags
g the input
p voltage y π/4 ((45°))
g by
AC Circuit Analysis
1.0
e gain v1/v0
0.7071
Voltage
V
0.0
0 0
0.01/RC 0.1/RC 1/RC 10/RC 100/RC
Angular
g frequency
q y ω ((rad/s))
Complex Numbers:
Rectangular Form
Complex numbers can be represented in rectangular, polar or
exponential form
Rectangular form:
z = x + jy
where
h x is h reall part, y is
i the i the
h iimaginary
i part (x and
d y are
both real numbers), and
j 2 = −1 j = −1
Complex numbers are often the solutions of real problems,

for example
p q quadratic equations
q
Complex Numbers:
Argand Diagram
Imaginary part
z = x + jy
Imaginary
axis
y
Real part
p
O x
Real axis

Complex Numbers: Polar Form
Polar form:
z = r∠θ
where r is the magnitude, and θ is the angle measured from
th reall axis:
the i
z
IImaginary
i
axis r
θ
Real axis
O
Complex Numbers:
Exponential Form
Exponential form:
z = re jθ
Euler’s identity:
e jθ = cos θ + j sin
i θ
1
sin θ
θ
O
cos θ
The polar and exponential forms are therefore equivalent

Complex Numbers: Conversion
z
r
y
θ
O x
Rectangular to polar: r = z = x2 + y 2
y
θ = ∠z tan θ =
x
P l tto R
Polar Rectangular:
t l x = r cos θ
y = r sin θ

Complex Numbers: Inversion
If the complex
p number is in rectangular
g form:
1
z=
x + jy
x − jy
=
( x + jy )( x − jy )
x − jy
=
x2 + y 2
If the
th complex
l number
b isi in
i polar
l or exponential
ti l fform:
11 − jφ
z= = e
Ae jφ A

When usingg the inverse tangent
g to obtain θ from x and y it is
necessary to resolve the ambiguity of π:
y z = x + jy
x− x+
y+ θ y+
y
tan θ = x
x
x− x+
y− y−
w = − x − jy

When usingg the inverse tangent
g to obtain θ from x and y it is
necessary to resolve the ambiguity of π
1. Calculate θ using inverse tangent:

−1 y
θ = tan
x
This should give a value in the range: -π/2
/ ≤ θ ≤ +π/2
/
(-90º ≤ θ ≤ +90º)
2. If the real part x is negative then add π (180º) :

−1 y
θ = π + tan
x

π
C
Convert
t z=2∠ to
t rectangular
t l form
f
3
⎛π ⎞ 1
Real part: x = 2 cos⎜ ⎟ = 2 × = 1
⎝3⎠ 2
⎛π ⎞ 3
Imaginary part: y = 2 sin⎜ ⎟ = 2 × = 3
⎝3⎠ 2
Thus: z = 1+ j 3

2
z = 1+ j 3
1 732
1.732
Imaginary r =2
axis
1
π
θ= (60o )
3
R l axis
Real i
O 1 2

1
C
Convert
t z= to
t polar
l or exponential
ti l fform:
1+ j
12 + 02
1
Magnitude: r =z= =
12 + 12 2
Angle: θ = ∠z = ∠1 − ∠(1 + j )
−1⎛ 0 ⎞ −1⎛ 1⎞
π π
= ttan ⎜ ⎟ − ttan ⎜ ⎟ = 0 − = −
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 1⎠ 4 4
π
1 π 1 −j
Thus: z= ∠− or z= e 4
2 4 2
0.5 Real axis

O π
θ = − ( 45o )
4
Imaginary
axis
0.5 1 1− j
z= =
1+ j 2

Complex Exponential Voltages
We shall be using complex exponential voltages and currents
to analyse ac circuits:
v (t ) = Ve jωt
This is
Thi i a mathematical
th ti l trick
t i k for
f obtaining
bt i i the
th ac response
without explicitly solving the differential equations
It works because differentiating a complex exponential leaves

it unchanged
unchanged, apart from a multiplying factor:
d
Ve jωt = jωVe jωt
dt

Suppose that
S th t a complex
l exponential
ti l voltage
lt iis applied
li d
across a resistor:
V jωt
v (t ) = Ve v (t )
i (t ) =
i (t ) R
V jωt
R = e
R
The current through the resistor is also a complex

exponential

Suppose that
S th t a complex
l exponential
ti l voltage
lt iis applied
li d
across a capacitor:
dv (t )
i (t ) = C
v (t ) = Ve jωt dt
i (t ) d
= C Ve jωt
dt
C
= jωCVe jωt
The current through the capacitor is also a complex

exponential

Suppose that
S th t a complex
l exponential
ti l voltage
lt iis applied
li d
across an inductor:
1
i (t ) = ∫ v (t )dt
v (t ) = Ve jωt L
1
i (t ) = ∫ Ve jωt dt
L
L
1
= Ve jωt
jωL
jω
The current through the inductor is also a complex

exponential

A complex exponential input to a linear ac circuits results in all

voltages and currents being complex exponentials
Of course real voltages are not complex
The real voltages and currents in the circuit are simply the real
parts of the complex exponentials
Complex exponential: v c (t ) = e jωt ( = cos ωt + j sin ωt )
Real voltage: v r (t ) = cos ωt

AC Circuit Analysis
L t
Lecture 3
Phasors
Impedances
Gain and Phase Shift
Frequency Response

Phasors
If the input voltage to a circuit is a complex exponential:
v cin (t ) = v 0e jωt
then all other voltages and currents are also complex
exponentials:
v c1(t ) = v1e j (ωt +φ1) = v1e jφ1e jωt = V1e jωt

i c 2 (t ) = i 2e j (ωt +φ2 ) = i 2e jφ2 e jωt = I2e jωt
where V1 and I2 are time-independent voltage and current

phasors: jφ1
V1 = v1e
I2 = i 2e jφ2

Phasors
The complex exponential voltages and currents can now be
expressed:
v c1(t ) = V1e jωt
i c 2 (t ) = I2e jωt
Phasors are independent

Ph i d d t off time,
ti but
b t in
i generall are functions
f ti
of jω and should be written:
V1( jω ) I2 ( jω )
However, when there is no risk of ambiguity the dependency

will be not be shown explicitly
Note that upper-case letters are used for phasor symbols

Impedance
The impedance Z of a circuit or component is defined to be the
ratio of the voltage and current phasors:
V
Z=
I
For a resistor:
v c (t ) = Ve jωt v c (t ) = Ri c (t )
i c (t ) = Ie jωt Ve jωt = RIe jωt
R V = RI
So that: V
ZR = = R
I
Impedance
F a capacitor:
For it
dv c (t )
i c (t ) = C
v c (t ) = Ve jωt dt
i c (t ) = Ie jωt jωt d
Ie = C Ve jωt
dt
C
Ie jωt = jωCVe jωt
I = jωCV
So that:
V 1
ZC = =
I jωC

Impedance
F an inductor:
For i d t
di c (t )
v c (t ) = L
v c (t ) = Ve jωt dt
i c (t ) = Ie jωt jωt d jωt
Ve = L Ie
dt
L
Ve jωt = jωLIe jωt
V = jωLI
So that:
V
ZL = = jωL
I

Impedance
V
Z= f →0 f →∞
I
Resistance R R R R
1
Capacitance C Z →∞ Z →0
jωC
Inductance L jωL Z →0 Z →∞

Impedance
All the normal circuit theoryy rules apply
pp y to circuits containing
g
impedances
For example impedances in series:

Z = Z1 + Z2 + Z3 + Z 4
and impedances in parallel:

1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
Z Z1 Z2 Z3 Z 4
Other relevant
rele ant circuit
circ it theor
theory rrules
les are
are: Kirchhoff’s la
laws,
s
Thévenin and Norton's theorems, Superposition

Impedance
Potential divider:
Vin
I=
Z1 Z1 + Z2
I
Vout = IZ2
Vin Z2
Vin Vout =
Z2 Z1 + Z2
Vout Z2
=
Vin Z1 + Z2

AC Circuit Analysis
Suppose
pp that a circuit has an input
p x(t)
( ) and an output
p y(y(t),
)
where x and y can be voltages or currents
The corresponding phasors are X(jω) and Y(jω)
The real input voltage x(t) is a sinusoid of amplitude x0:
x (t ) = x0 cos(ωt ) = re( x0e jωt ) = re( Xe jωt )
and the real output voltage y(t) is the real part of the complex
exponential output:
y (t ) = y 0 cos(ωt + φ ) = re( y 0e jφ e jωt ) = re(Ye jωt )

AC Circuit Analysis
Thus:
y 0e jφ Y
=
x0 X
The voltage gain g is the ratio of the output amplitude to the

input amplitude:
y0 Y
g= =
x0 X
and the phase shift is:

⎛Y ⎞
φ = ∠⎜ ⎟
⎝X⎠

AC Circuit Analysis
Using the potential divider formula:
R Vc ZC
=
Vin ZC + ZR
Vin Vc 1/ jωC
C =
1/ jωC + R
1
=
1 + jωCR

AC Circuit Analysis
R
Vin Vc Vc 1
C =
Vin 1 + jωCR
Vc 1
Voltage gain: g= =
Vin 1 + ω 2C 2R 2
⎛ Vc ⎞
Phase shift: φ = ∠⎜ ⎟ = tan −1 0 − tan −1 ωCR
⎝ Vin
i ⎠
= − tan −1 ωCR

Frequency Response (RC = 1)
1.0
0.7071
ain
age Ga
Volta
0.0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Angular Frequency (rad/s)
0.1 1 10 100
0
shift
π
− ( −45°)
Phase
4
P
π
− ( −90°)
2
Frequency Response
1
g= φ = − tan −1 ωCR
1 + ω 2C 2R 2
ω→0 g →1 φ → 0 ( 0°)
1 1 π
ω= g= φ = − ( −45°)
CR 2 4
π
ω→∞ g →0 φ → − ( −90°)
2
This is a low-pass
p response
p
Frequency Response
ω→0 ω→∞
VC → Vin VC → 0

AC Circuit Analysis
C
ZR
VR = Vin
ZR + ZC
Vin R VR
R
= Vin
R + 1/ jωC
jωCR
VR = Vin
1 + jωCR
VR jωCR
=
Vin
i 1 + jωCR

AC Circuit Analysis
C
VR jωCR
Vin R VR =
Vin 1 + jωCR
VR ωCR
V lt
Voltage gain:
i g= =
Vin 1 + ω 2C 2R 2
⎛ VR ⎞
Phase shift : φ = ∠⎜ ⎟ = tan −1 ∞ − tan −1 ωCR
⎝ Vin ⎠
π
= − tan −1 ωCR
2
1.0
0.7071
ain
age ga
Volta
0.0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
π
(90°)
2
ase shift
π
( 45°)
4
Pha
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Frequency Response
ωCR π
g= φ = − tan −1 ωCR
1 + ω 2C 2R 2 2
π
ω→0 g →0 φ → (90°)
2
1 1 π
ω= g= φ = ( 45°)
CR 2 4
ω→∞ g →1 φ → 0 ( 0°)
This is a high-pass
g p response
p
Frequency Response
ω→0 ω→∞
VR → 0 VR → Vin

AC Circuit Analysis
L t
Lecture 4
Driving-Point Impedance

Impedance
The impedance Z of a circuit or component is defined to be the
ratio of the voltage and current phasors:
I ( jω )
V ( jω )
V ( jω ) AC Circuit Z ( jω ) =
I ( jω )
Impedance Z is analogous to resistance in dc circuits and its

units are ohms
When Z applies to a 2-terminal circuit (rather than simple

component) it is known as the driving-point impedance

Impedance
Z can be written in rectangular form:
Z ( jω ) = R( jω ) + jX ( jω )
where R is the resistance and X is the reactance
Thus: Z = R2 + X 2
−1 X
∠Z = tan
R
and:
R = Z cos ∠Z
X = Z sin ∠Z

Symbolic and Numeric Forms
Symbolic Form R
Z=
1 + jωCR
Substitute component
values
Numeric Form 80
Z=
1 + jω × 8 × 10 −3
Substitute frequency
value
Value at a given frequency Z = 24 + j 40

Example 1
Determine the driving-point
gp impedance
p of the circuit at a
frequency of 40 kHz:
Z = ZR + ZC
1
=R+ C = 200nF
jωC
1
= 25 + R = 25Ω
3 −9
j 2π × 40 × 10 × 200 × 10
1
= 25 +
j 0.05027
= 25 − j19.89 Ω

Example 1
Z = 25 − j19.89 Ω
Z = 25 2 + 19.89 2 C = 200nF
= 31.93 Ω
R = 25Ω
−1 − 19.89
∠Z = tan
∠Z
25
= −0.6720 ( −38.5°)

Example 1
What will be the voltage
g across the circuit when a current of
5 A, 40 kHz flows through it?
V = IZ
= 5 × (25 − j19.89)
= 125 − j 99.45 V
In polar form:
f
V = IZ
= (5 × 31.93 )∠ − 0.6720 ( −38.5°)
= 159.7V ∠ − 0.6720 ( −38.5°)

Example 2
Determine the driving-point
gp impedance
p of the circuit at a
frequency of 20 Hz:
1 1 1
= +
Z ZR ZC
1
= + jωC R = 80Ω C = 100μF
μ
R
1
Z=
1/ R + jωC
R
=
1 + jωCR

Example 2
R
Z=
1 + jωCR
C = 100μF
80
=
1 + j 2π × 20 × 100 × 10 −6 × 80
80 R = 80Ω
=
1 + j1.005
80(1 − j1.005 )
12 + 1.005 2
= 39.79 − j 40.00 Ω

Example 2
Z = 39.79 − j 40.00 Ω
Z = 39.79 2 + 40.00 2
= 56.42 Ω R = 80Ω C = 100μF
−1⎧ − 40.00 ⎫
∠Z = tan ⎨
∠Z ⎬
⎩ 39.79 ⎭
= −0.7880 ( −45.2o )

Example 2
What current
c rrent will
ill flo
flow if an ac voltage
oltage of 24 V
V, 20 H
Hz is applied
to the circuit?
V V
I= I=
Z Z
24 24
= =
39.79 − j 40.00 56.42∠ − 0.7880
24(39.79 + j 40.00) = 0.4254 A ∠0.7880 ( 45.2°)
=
39.79 2 + 40.00 2 = 0.3 + j 0.3016 A
= 0.3 + j 0.3016 A
= 0.4254A ∠0.7880 ( 45.2°)

Phasor Diagrams
Where voltages
g or currents are summed the result can be
represented by a phasor diagram: V = V1 + V2 + V3
Imaginary part
V2
O Real
V1 part
V
V3

Example 2
24
IR = = 0 .3 A IC = j 2π × 20 × 100 × 10 −6 × 24 = j 0.3016 A
80
0.3A
part
nary p
0.2A
Imagin
IC
I = IR + IC
0 1A
0.1A
I
IR Reall
R
O part
0.1A 0.2A 0.3A
Example 3
Determine the driving-point impedance of the circuit at a
frequency of 50 Hz:
Z = ZR + ZL + ZC R
1 24 Ω
= R + jωL +
jωC
L
−3 1 36 mH
= 24 + j 2π × 50 × 36 × 10 +
j 2π × 50 × 120 × 10 −6
= 24 + j11.31 − j 26.53 Ω C
120 μF
= 24 − j15.22 Ω

Example 3
Z = 24 − j15.22 Ω
Z = 24 2 − 15.222 R
= 28.42 Ω 24 Ω
L
−1⎧ − 15.22 ⎫ 36 mH
∠Z = tan ⎨ ⎬
⎩ 24 ⎭
= −0.5652 ( −32.4°) C
120 μF
Z = 28.42Ω ∠ − 0.5652 ( −32.4°)

Example 3
What voltage will be generated across the circuit if an ac
current of 10 A, 50 Hz flows though it?
V = ZI
= 10 A × (24 − j15.22) Ω
= 240 − j152.2 V
In polar form:
V = ZI
= (10 × 28.42)∠ − 0.5652 ( −32.4°)
= 284.2 V ∠ − 0.5652 ( −32.4°)

Example 3
V = VR + VL + VC
200V
IImaginary
i
part
VL
VR Real
200V 400V partt
V
VC
-200V

Example 4
Determine the driving-point impedance of the circuit at a
f
frequency off 400 H
Hz:
1 1 1
= +
Z ZR + ZL ZC
1 R
= + jωC
R + jωL 2Ω
C
1
Z= 200 μF
1/(R + jωL ) + jωC L
R + jωL 1 mH
=
1 + jωC(R + jωL )
R + jωL
=
1 + jωCR − ω 2LC
Example 4
R + jωL
Z=
2 + j 2π × 400 × 10 −3
1 + j 2π × 400 × 200 × 10 −6 × 2 − (2π × 400 )2 × 10 −3 × 200 × 10 −6
2 + j 2.513
=
1 + j1.005 − 1.263
2 + j 2.513
=
− 0.2633 + j1.005
(2 + j 2.513 ) × ( −0.2633 − j1.005 )
=
0.2633 2 + j1.005 2
= 1.852 − j 2.474
Example 4
Z = 1.852 − j 2.474
Z = 1.8522 + 2.474 2
R
= 3.091 2Ω
C
200 μF
F
−1 2.474 L
∠Z = tan
1.852 1 mH
= −0.9282 ( −53.2°)
Z = 3.091 Ω ∠ − 0.9282 ( −53.2°)

Example 4
What current will flow if an ac voltage of 120 V, 400 Hz is
applied to the circuit?
V V
I= I=
Z Z
120 120
= =
1.852 − j 2.474 3.091 ∠ − 0.9282
120 × (1.852 + j 2.474 ) = 38.82 A ∠0.9282
=
1.8522 + 2.474 2 = 23.26 + j 31.08
222.4 + j 297.0
=
9.556
= 23.26 + j 31.08
= 38.82A ∠0.9282 ((53.2°)
Example 4
Imaginary part
I = IRL + IC
50A
120 IC
IRL =
ZRL
= 23.27 − j 29.23 I
120 Real
ea
IC = O part
ZC 50A
= j 60.32 IRL

Admittance
The admittance Y of a circuit or component is defined to be
the ratio of the current and voltage phasors:
I ( jω )
I ( jω ) 1
V ( jω ) AC Circuit Y ( jω ) = =
V ( jω ) Z ( jω )
Admittance Y is analogous to conductance in dc circuits and

its unit is Siemens
Y ( jω ) = G( jω ) + jB( jω )
where G is the conductance and B is the susceptance

Admittance
I
Y= f →0 f →∞
V
1 1 1
Resistance R
R R R
Capacitance C jωC Y →0 Y →∞
1
Inductance L j L
jω Y →∞ Y →0

Admittance
All the normal circuit

circ it theory
theor rules
r les apply
appl to circuits
circ its containing
admittances
For example admittances in series:

1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
Y Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4
and admittances in parallel:
Y = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + Y4
Other relevant
Oth l t circuit
i it theory
th rules
l are: Ki
Kirchhoff’s
hh ff’ llaws,
Thévenin and Norton's theorems, Superposition

Example 5
Determine the dri

driving-point
ing point admittance of the circ
circuit
it at a
frequency of 400 Hz:
1 R
Y = YC +
1/ YR + 1/ YL 2Ω
C
1 200 μ
μF
= jωC + L
R + jωL
1 mH

Example 5
Determine the driving-point admittance of the circuit at a
f
frequency off 400 H
Hz:
−3
−6 j 2π × 400 × 10 ×2
Y = j 2π × 400 × 200 × 10 +
2 + j 2π × 400 × 10 −3
1
= j 0.5027 +
2 + j 2.513
2 − j 2.513 R
= j 0.5027 +
22 + 2.513 2 2Ω
C
2 − j 2.513
= j 0.5027 + 200 μF
10.32 L
= j 0.5027 + 0.1939 − j 0.2436 1 mH
= 0.1939 + j 0.2590 S
AC Circuit Analysis
L t
Lecture 5
Resonant Circuits

Resonant Circuits
Passive resonant circuits must contain a resistor, capacitor

and an inductor
The behaviour of resonant circuits changes rapidly around a

particular frequency (the resonance frequency)
Resonant circuits
R i i can b be characterised
h i db by two parameters:
the resonance frequency and the Q-factor
There are two basic resonant circuit configurations: series and

parallel

Resonant Circuits
dθ dω gθ
θ =ω =−
dt dt L
θ,ω ω
θ

Resonant Circuits
iL
di L vC dvC iL
C L = =−
vC dt L dt C
i, v
vC
iL

Parallel Resonant Circuit
R L
C
1 1 1 1 jωLR
= + + Z=
Z ZR ZC ZL jωL − ω 2LCR + R
1 1 jωL
= + jωC + =
R jωL jωL / R − ω 2LC + 1
jωL − ω 2LCR + R =
jωL
=
jωLR 1 + jωL / R − ω 2LC
Impedance is a
maximum
R = 5 kΩ C = 1μF L = 1H (
(resonant
t
frequency)
when:
h
1
jωL ω=
Z= LC
1+
1 + jωL / R − ω 2LC 1
jω =
= 10 −6
1 + jω × 2 × 10 − 4 − ω 2 × 10 −6
= 103

ω→0 ω→∞
Z →0 Z →0

jωL
Z=
R L 1 + jωL / R − ω 2LC
C
jωL
ω→0 Z→ = j0
1
1 jωL
R
Resonant
t frequency:
f ω= Z= =R
LC jωL / R
jωL −j
ω→∞ Z→ = = − j0
2
− ω LC ωC

π
5kΩ (90°)
2
∠Z
∠Z
Z
Z
π
− ( −90°)
0.0
0 0 2
100 1000 10000
Angular frequency (rad/s)
Quality Factor
The standard form for the denominator of a second-order
system is:
1 + jω / ω0Q − ω 2 / ω02
Compare this with the impedance Z:

jωL
Z=
1 + jωL / R − ω 2LC
So that:
1 R
ω0 = Q=
LC ω0L
where Q is the quality-factor and ω0 is the resonant frequency

Quality Factor
R = 5 kΩ C = 1μF L = 1H
1 1
ω0 = = = 103
LC 10 −6
R 5000
Q= = =5
ω0L 1× 10 3

Quality Factor
Z max
Z max ω0
Δω =
2 Q
00
0.0
ω0
Quality Factor
π
2kΩ (90°)
2
∠Z Q=2
∠Z
Z
π
− ( −90°)
0.0
0 0 2
100 1000 10000
Quality Factor
π
10kΩ (90°)
2
∠Z
Q=10
∠Z
Z
Z
π
− ( −90°)
0.0
0 0 2
100 1000 10000
IR IC IL
1V R = 5 kΩ C = 1μF L = 1H
1 1
Resonance occurs in IR = = = 2 × 10 − 4
R 5000
parallel resonant circuits
1
because the currents in IC = = jωC = jω × 10 −6
p
the capacitor and 1/ jωC
inductor cancel out 1 −j −j
IL = = =
jωL ωL ω
At resonance:
ω = 103 :
1mA
IR = 2 × 10 − 4 A IC
Imaginary
part
IC = jω × 10 −6 Real
O IR I part
= j10 −3 A 1mA
−j IL
IL =
ω -1mA
= − j10 −3 A
Below resonance: IC
IR Reall
R
ω = 0.5 × 103 : O part
Imaginary I 1mA
IR = 2 × 10 − 4 A part
IC = jω × 10 −6
−3 -1mA
= j 0.5 × 10 A
−j IL
IL =
ω
= − j 2 × 10 −3 A -2mA

2mA
Above resonance:
3 IC
ω = 2.0 × 10 :
IR = 2 × 10 − 4 A 1mA
IC = jω × 10 −6 IImaginary
i
= j 2.0 × 10 −3 A part I
−j Real
IL = part
ω O IR 1mA
IL
= − j 0.5 × 10 −3 A

Series Resonant Circuit
Z = ZR + ZC + ZL
1 R
=R+ + jωL
jωC
jωCR + 1− ω 2LC L
=
jωC
1+
= C
jωC

Z=
jωC
jω
R
1 −j
ω→0 Z→ = = − j∞
jωC ωC L
1 jωCR
ω= Z= =R
LC jωC
C
− ω 2LC
ω→∞ Z→ = jωL = j∞
jωC

Z= R = 200 Ω
jωC
1 + jω × 200 × 10 −6 − ω 2 × 10 −6
=
jω × 10 −6 L = 1H
1 + jω × 2 × 10 − 4 − ω 2 × 10 −6
=
jω × 10 −6 C = 1μF

π
1kΩ (90°)
2
∠Z
Z
Z
0
200Ω
∠Z π
− ( −90°)
0Ω 2
100 1000 10000
The standard form for the denominator of a second-order
second order
system is:
1 + jω / ω0Q − ω 2 / ω02
Compare
p this with the admittance Y ((= 1/Z)):
jωC
Y=
So that:
1 1
ω0 = Q=
LC ω0CR
where Q is the quality-factor

quality factor and ω0 is the resonant frequency
1
ω0 =
LC
1
= R = 200 Ω
1× 10 −6 × 1
= 103 rad/s
L = 1H
1
Q=
ω0CR
C = 1μF
1 F
1
=
103 × 1× 10 −6 × 200
=5

Resonance occurs in
series resonant circuits
because the voltages VR R = 200 Ω
p
across the capacitor and
1A
inductor cancel out
VL L = 1H
VR = 1× R = 200
1 − j − j10 6
VC = = = VC C = 1μF
jωC ωC ω
VL = 1× jωL = jω

At resonance:
ω = 103 :
1kV
VR = 200 V
VL
Imaginary
− j10 6 part Real
VC =
ω O VR part
3 1kV
= − j10 V
VC
VL = jω
-1kV
= j103 V

Crystal Resonator

Crystal Resonator

Crystal Resonator
Equivalent circuit:
f0 = 8.0 MHz
R=3 3.4
4Ω
L1 = 0.086 mH
R
C1 = 4.6
4 6 pF
C0 = 42 pF
L C0
1 1
ω0 = Q=
LC ω0CR
C1
= 5.03 × 107 = 1270

AC Circuit Analysis
L t
Lecture 6
Frequency Response Function
Frequency-Response
First-Order Circuits

Frequency-Response
Input X Y Output
Frequency-response function: Y ( jω )
H ( jω ) =
X ( jω )
Y ( jω )
Voltage gain g: g= = H ( jω )
X ( jω )
⎛ Y ( jω ) ⎞
Phase shift φ: φ = ∠⎜ ⎟ = ∠H ( jω )
⎝ X ( jω ) ⎠

Frequency-Response
The order of a frequency-response function is the highest
power of jω in the denominator:
1
Fi t order:
First d H ( jω ) =
1 + jω / ω 0
1
Second order: H ( jω ) =
1 + 2 jω / ω0 + ( jω / ω0 )2
1
Third order: H ( jω ) =
1 + jω / ω0 + ( jω / ω0 )2 + ( jω / ω0 )3
The order is normally equal to (and cannot exceed) the

number of reactive components

Example 1
R
Vc ZC
=
Vin ZC + ZR
1/ jωC Vin C Vc
=
1/ jωC + R
1
H ( jω ) =
1 + jωCR
1 1
= where : ω0 =
1 + jω / ω0 RC

Example 1
R
1
H ( jω ) =
1 + jω / ω0
Vin C Vc
1 − jω / ω0
=
1 + ω 2 / ω02
1
Gain: g = H ( jω ) =
1 + ω 2 / ω02
Ph
Phase shift:
hift φ = ∠H ( jω ) tan φ = −ω / ω0

Example 1
ω→0 ω→∞
g →1 g →0

Decibel
The decibel is a measure of the ratio of two p
powers P1, P2 :
P1
dB = 10 log10
P2
It can also be used to measure the ratio of two voltages V1, V2:
V12 / R V12
dB = 10 log10 = 10 log10
V22 / R V22
V1
dB = 20 log
l 10
V2

Decibel
Power ratio Decibels
1000000 60 dB
100 20 dB
10 10 dB
4 6 dB
2 3 dB
1 0 dB
1/2 -3 dB
1/4 -6 dB
0 01
0.01 -20
20 dB
0.000001 -60 dB

Decibel
Voltage ratio Decibels
1000 60 dB
10 20 dB
√10 = 3.162 10 dB
2 6 dB
√2 = 1.414 3 dB
1 0 dB
1/√2 = 0
0.7071
7071 -3 dB
1/2 = 0.5 -6 dB
01
0.1 -20
20 dB
0.001 -60 dB

Example 1
Circuit is a first-order low-pass
p filter:
1
g=
φ = tan −1− ω / ω0
1 + ω / ω02
2
ω << ω0 g ≈ 1 (0dB) φ ≈ 0 ( 0°)
1 π
ω = ω0 g= ( −3dB) φ = − ( −45°)
2 4
ω0 π
ω >> ω0 g≈ ( −6dB / oct ) φ ≈ − ( −90°)
ω 2

Example 1
R = 1kΩ
1
ω0 =
RC
1 C=1μF
=
103 × 10 −6
= 103
1
1 + ω 2 / 10 6
Phase shift: φ = ∠H ( jω ) tan φ = −ω / 103

Bode Plot
Gain(dB) Phase(rad)
0 dB 0
-3 dB
-10 dB
g
φ
π
-20 dB −
4
-30
30 dB -6
6 dB / octave
π
-40 dB −
2
10 100 1000 10000 100000
Frequency (rad/s)
Example 2
L
VR ZR
=
Vin ZR + ZL
Vin R VR
R
=
R + jωL
1
H ( jω ) =
1 + jωL / R
1 R
= where : ω0 =
1 + jω / ω0 L

Example 2
ω→0 ω→∞
g →1 g →0

Example 3
C
Vc ZR
=
Vin ZR + ZC
Vin R Vc
R
=
1/ jωC + R
jωCR
H ( jω ) =
1 + jωCR
jω / ω0 1
= where : ω0 =
1 + jω / ω0 RC

Example 3
jω / ω0 C
H ( jω ) =
1 + jω / ω0
1
= Vin R VR
1 − jω0 / ω
1 + jω0 / ω
=
1 + ω02 / ω 2
1
G i
1 + ω02 / ω 2
Phase shift: φ = ∠H ( jω ) tan φ = ω0 / ω

Example 3
ω→0 ω→∞
g →0 g →1

Example 4
R
VL ZL
=
Vin ZL + ZR
Vin L VL
jωL
=
jωL + R
jωL / R
H ( jω ) =
1 + jωL / R
jω / ω0 R
= where : ω0 =
1 + jω / ω0 L

Example 4
ω→0 ω→∞
g →0 g →1
Example 4
Circuit is a first
first-order
order high-pass
high pass filter:
1
g=
φ = tan −1 ω0 / ω
1 + ω02 / ω 2
ω π
ω << ω0 g≈ (6dB / oct ) φ ≈ (90°)
ω0 2
1 π
ω = ω0 g= ( −3dB) φ = ( 45°)
2 4
ω >> ω0 g ≈ 1 (0dB) φ ≈ 0 ( 0° )

Bode Plot
Gain(dB) Phase(rad)
π
0 dB
-3 dB 2
-10 dB
g
π
-20 dB 4
φ
-30
30 dB
6 dB / octave
-40 dB 0
10 100 1000 10000 100000
Frequency (rad/s)
Example 5
Using
g the p
potential divider formula:
R1
Vc R2 + 1/ jωC
=
Vin R2 + 1/ jωC + R1 R2
Vin
i Voutt
jωCR2 + 1
=
jωCR2 + 1 + jωCR1 C
1 + jωCR2
H ( jω ) =
1 + jωC (R1 + R2 )
1 + jω / ω2 1 1
= where : ω1 = ω2 =
1 + jω / ω1 C(R1 + R2 ) CR2

Example 5
R1
1 + jω / ω2
H ( jω ) =
1 + jω / ω1 R2
Vin Vout
C
1 + ω 2 / ω22
g = H ( jω ) =
1 + ω 2 / ω12

Example 5
ω→0 ω→∞
R1
R2
R2
g →1 g→
R1 + R2

Example 5
Assuming that ω1 << ω2 :
1 + ω 2 / ω22
g=
1 + ω 2 / ω12
ω << ω1 g ≈ 1 (0dB)
ω1 << ω << ω2 ω1
g≈ ( −6dB / oct )
ω
ω1 R2
ω >> ω 2 g≈ =
ω2 R2 + R1

Example 5
1 + jω / ω2
H ( jω ) =
1 + jω / ω1
R1 = 900 Ω
1
ω1 =
C(R1 + R2 )
1 R2 = 100 Ω
=
10 −6 (900 + 100 )
3
C = 1μF
= 10 rad/s
1 1
ω2 = =
CR2 10 −6 × 100
= 10 4 rad/s

Bode Plot
Gain(dB) Phase(rad)
0 dB 0
-10 dB g
φ
-20 dB
-30
30 dB
π
-40 dB −
2
10 100 1000 10000 100000
Frequency (rad/s)
AC Circuit Analysis
L t
Lecture 7
Second-Order Circuits

Example 1
R R
Vin C C Vc
This circuit must be simplified before the frequency response

f
function
i can b be d
determined
i d
A Thévenin
Thé i equivalent
i l t circuit
i it iis created
t d off th
the components
t tto
the left of the red line

Example 1
Thévenin equivalent circuit:
R Z
Vin C V
1/ jjω
ωC 1 1 1 + jjω
ωCR
V = Vin = + jωC =
1/ jωC + R Z R R
Vin R
= Z=
1 + jωCR 1 + jωCR

Example 1
R
1 + jω
jωCR R
Vin
C VC
1 + jωCR
Vin 1/ jωC
VC = ×
1 + jωCR 1/ jωC + R + R
1 + jωCR
Vin 1
= ×
1 + jωCR 1 + jωCR + jωCR
1 + jω
jωCR
Example 1
Frequency-response function:
Vin 1
VC = ×
1 + jωCR 1 + jωCR + jωC CR
1 + jωCR
Vin
i
=
(1 + jωCR ) × (1 + jωCR ) + jωCR
1
H ( jω ) =
1 + 3 jωCR − ω 2C 2R 2
R = 1 kΩ, C = 1μF:
μ
1
H ( jω ) =
1 + jω × 3 × 10 −3 − ω 2 × 10 −6
Example 1
ω→0 ω→∞
g →1 g →0

Bode Plot
Gain(dB) Phase(rad)
0 dB 0
-10 dB g
-20 dB φ
-30 dB
-40 dB −π
10 100 1000 10000 100000
Frequency (rad/s)
Example 2
R C
Vin C R VR
This
s circuit
c cu must
us be ssimplified
p ed be before
o e the
e frequency
eque cy response
espo se
function can be determined
A Thévenin equivalent circuit is created of the components to

the left of the red line
Example 2
R
1 + jω
jωCR C
Vin
R VR
1 + jωCR
Vin R
VR = ×
1 + jωCR R + 1/ jωC + R
1 + jωCR
Vin jωCR
= ×
1 + jωCR jωCR + 1 + jωCR
1 + jω
jωCR
Example 2
Frequency-response function:
Vin jωCR
VR = ×
1 + jωCR 1 + jωCR + jωCR
1 + jωCR
Vin jωCR
=
(1 + jωCR ) × (1 + jωCR ) + jωCR
jωCR
H ( jω ) =
1 + 3 jωCR − ω 2C 2R 2
R = 1 kΩ, C = 1μF:
jω × 10 −3
H ( jω ) =
1 + jω × 3 × 10 −3 − ω 2 × 10 −6
1+
Example 2
ω→0 ω→∞
g →0 g →0

Bode Plot
Gain(dB) Phase(rad)
π
0 dB
2
-10 dB g
-20 dB φ
-30
30 dB
π
-40 dB −
10 100 1000 10000 100000 2
Frequency (rad/s)
Example 3
L R
VC 1/ jωC
=
Vin 1/ jωC + jωL + R
Vin C Vc
1
H ( jω ) =
1
=
1 + jω /(ω0Q ) − ω 2 / ω02
1 1 1 L
where : ω0 = and : Q = =
LC ω0CR R C

Example 3
ω→0 ω→∞
g →1 g →0

Example 3
Circuit is a second-order low-pass
p filter:
1
H( jω) = g = H ( jω )
1+ jω /(ω0Q) − ω2 / ω02
ω << ω0 H ( jω ) ≈ 1 g = 1 (0dB)
ω = ω0 H ( jω ) = − jQ g =Q
− ω02 ω02
ω >> ω0 H ( jω ) ≈ g≈ ( −12dB / octt )
2 2
ω ω

Example 3
L = 400 mH R = 200 Ω
Vin C = 2.5 μF VC
1 1 1
ω0 = = = = 103
LC 400 × 10 −3 × 2.5 × 10 −6 10 −6
1 L 1 400 × 10 −3 1
Q= = = 1.6 × 105 = 2
R C 200 2.5 × 10 −6 200

Bode Plot
Gain(dB)
20 dB
Q=2 Q = 10
0 dB
1
Q=
2
-20 dB
-12
12 dB / octave
-40 dB
10 100 1000 10000 100000
Frequency (rad/s)
Bode Plot
Phase(rad)
0 Q = 10
Q=2
1
Q=
π 2
−
2
−π
10 100 1000 10000 100000
Frequency (rad/s)
Example 4
Using
g the p
potential divider formula:
C R
VL jωL
=
Vin 1/ jωC + jωL + R
Vin L VL
2
− ω LC
H ( jω ) =
− ω 2 / ω02
=
1 + jω /(ω0Q ) − ω 2 / ω02
1 1 1 L
LC ω0CR R C

Example 4
ω→0 ω→∞
g →0 g →1

Example 4
Circuit is a second-order high-pass
g p filter:
2 2
−ω / ω0
H( jω) = g = H ( jω )
2 2
1+ jω /(ω0Q) − ω / ω0
− ω2 ω2
ω << ω0 H ( jω ) ≈ g≈ (12dB / oct )
ω02 ω02
ω = ω0 H ( jω ) = jQ g =Q
ω >> ω0 H ( jω ) ≈ 1 g = 1 (0dB)

Bode Plot
Gain(dB)
20 dB
Q=2 Q = 10
0 dB
1
Q=
2
-20 dB
12 dB / octave
-40 dB
10 100 1000 10000 100000
Frequency (rad/s)
Bode Plot
Phase(rad)
π Q = 10
Q=2
1
Q=
π 2
2
0
10 100 1000 10000 100000
Frequency (rad/s)
Example 5
C L
VR R
=
Vin 1/ jωC + jωL + R Vin R VR
jωCR
H ( jω ) =
jω /(ω0Q )
=
1 + jω /(ω0Q ) − ω 2 / ω02
1 1 1 L
LC ω0CR R C

Example 5
ω→0 ω→∞
g →0 g →0

Example 5
Circuit is a second-order band-pass filter:
jω /((ω0Q)
H( jω) = g = H ( jω )
1+ jω /(ω0Q) − ω2 / ω02
jω ω
ω << ω0 H ( jω ) ≈ g≈ (6dB / oct )
ω0Q ω0Q
ω = ω0 H ( jω ) = 1 g = 1 (0dB)
ω >> ω0 − jω0 ω0
H ( jω ) ≈ g≈ ( −6dB / octt )
ωQ ωQ

Bode Plot
Gain(dB)
0 dB
Q = 10
Q=2
1
Q=
2
-20 dB
-40 dB
10 100 1000 10000 100000
Frequency (rad/s)
Bode Plot
Phase(rad)
π
Q = 10
2
Q=2
1
Q=
2
0
π
−
2
10 100 1000 10000 100000
Frequency (rad/s)
Example 6
Using the potential divider formula: R
VC 1/ jωC + jωL
= L
Vin 1/ jωC + jωL + R Vin Vc
1 − ω 2LC
H ( jω ) = C
2
1 + jωCR − ω LC
1 − ω 2LC
=
1 + jω /(ω0Q ) − ω 2 / ω02
1 1 1 L
LC ω0CR R C

Example 6
ω→0 ω→∞
g →1 g →1

Example 6
Circuit is a second-order band-stop filter:
1 − ω 2 / ω02
H ( jω ) = g = H ( jω )
1 + jω /(ω0Q ) − ω 2 / ω02
ω << ω0 H ( jω ) ≈ 1 g ≈ 1 (0 dB)
ω = ω0 H ( jω ) = 0 g = 0 ( −∞ dB)
ω >> ω0 H ( jω ) ≈ 1 g ≈ 1 (0dB)

Bode Plot
Gain(dB)
0 dB
Q=2 Q = 10
1
Q=
-20 dB 2
-40 dB
10 100 1000 10000 100000
Frequency (rad/s)
Bode Plot
Phase(rad)
π
1
2 Q=
2
Q = 10
Q=2
π
−
2
10 100 1000 10000 100000
Frequency (rad/s)
AC Circuit Analysis
L t
Lecture 8
Power in AC Circuits

Power in AC Circuits
To calculate the power in a circuit we shall need to make
use of some trigonometric identities:
cos(( A + B ) = cos A cos B − sin

i A sin
i B
cos( A − B ) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
Adding:
cos( A + B ) + cos( A − B ) = 2 cos A cos B

1
cos A cos B = {cos( A + B ) + cos( A − B )}
2
so that:
1 1 1
cos A = {cos 2 A + cos 0} = + cos 2 A
2
2 2 2

rms Voltages and Currents
The average power in a resistor is given by:
1T
P = ∫ v (t )i (t ) dt i (t )
T0
1 T v 2 (t ) v (t ) R
= ∫ dt
T0 R
1 1T 2
= ∫ v (t )dt
RT 0
2
Vrms 1T 2
= where
h : Vrms = ∫ v (t )dt
R T0

The root-mean-square voltage Vrms determines the power
dissipated in a circuit:
2
Vrms
P=
R
There
e e is
s a ssimilar
a eexpression
p ess o for
o tthe
e po
power
e ddissipated
ss pated when
e
a current Irms flows through a circuit:
2
P = RIrms
These expressions apply to any waveform

The rms value of a sinusoid of amplitude
p (p
(peak)) value v0:
1T 2
Vrms = ∫ v (t ) dt
T0
1T 2 2
= v
∫ 0 cos (ωt ) dt
T0
T
21 1 1
= v 0 ∫ + cos( 2ωt ) dt
T0 2 2
Averages to zero over
v 02 v 0
= = a complete
l t cycle:
l
2 2 T = 2π/ω

The UK mains power was until recently supplied at 240 V rms
and that in Europe 220 V rms
On 1 January 1995 the nominal voltage across Europe was

harmonised at 230 V rms.
s corresponds
This co espo ds to a
an a
amplitude
p tude oof:
v 0 = 2 × Vrms
= 2 × 230
= 325 V

A mains power (230 V rms) electric fire has a resistance of
52 Ω:
2
Vrms 230 2
P= = = 1.017 kW
R 52
An audio amplifier which drives a 4 Ω loudspeaker at up to

pp y a sinusoidal output
150 W must supply p voltage:
g
2
Vrms = P.R = 150 × 4 = 600
Vrms = 24.5 V
This corresponds to a sinusoid of peak value 34.6 V

Square wave of amplitude ±v0:
v0
-v0
T/2
T
1T 2 1T /2 2 1 T 2
Vrms = ∫ v ( t ) dt = ∫ v 0 dt + ∫ ( −v 0 dt
)
T0 T 0 T T /2
1 T
= v 02 ∫ dt = v 02 = v 0
T0

Crest Factor
The ratio between the peak voltage and the rms voltage is
k
known as the
th crestt factor:
f t
Vppeak
cf =
Vrms
For a sinusoid the crest factor is √2; for a square wave the
crest factor is 1
For audio signals the crest factor depends on the source but
is commonly 2 or higher
150 W off audio

di iinto
t 4 Ω loudspeakers
l d k would
ld th
therefore
f require
i
peak voltages of 50 V or greater

Power in a Reactive Load
Capacitors and inductors store energy, but do not dissipate
power
IR IC
100 V rms
50 Hz R C
25Ω 200μF
100
IR = =4A
25
100
IC = = 100 × 2π × 50 × 200 × 10 −6 A = 6.28 A
ZC
100 2
P= = 400 W
25
Instantaneous Power
For sinusoidal voltages and currents:
i (t )
v (t ) = v 0 cos(ωt )
i (t ) = i 0 cos(ωt + φ ) v (t ) Z
Instantaneous power:
p(t ) = v (t ) × i (t )
= v 0 cos(ωt ) i 0 cos(ωt + φ )
= v 0i 0 cos(ωt ) cos(ωt + φ )
1
= v 0i 0 {cos( 2ωt + φ ) + cos φ}
2

Average Power
Average power:
1T
P = ∫ p(t ) dt
T0
1T
= ∫ v 0 cos(ωt ) i 0 cos(ωt + φ ) dt
T0
1 1T 1 1T
= v 0i 0 ∫ cos( 2ωt + φ ) dt + v 0i 0 ∫ cos φ dt
2 T0 2 T0
If T >> 1/ω: 1 1T
P = v 0i 0 ∫ cos φ dt
2 T0
1
= v 0i 0 cos φ
2
Average Power
1
P = v 0i 0 cos φ
2 i (t )
1 v 02 v (t ) Z
= cos φ
2 Z
1 2
= i 0 Z cos φ
2

Average Power
Average power: 1
P = v 0i 0 cos φ
2
For a resistor:
1 1 v 02 1 2
φ=0 → P = v 0i0 = = Ri 0
2 2R 2
For
o a capac
capacitor:
to
π
φ= → P =0
2
For an inductor:
π
φ=− → P =0
2

Power expressed in terms of rms voltages and currents:
1
P = v 0i 0 cos φ
2
1
= Vrms 2 Irms 2 cos φ
2
= Vrms Irms cos φ ( W )
2
Vrms
P= cos φ
Z
2
P = Irms Z cos φ

Example 1
Determine the average power dissipated in the circuit:
230 V rms R = 80 Ω
50 Hz
C = 20 μF
F
1
Z =R+
jωC
1
= 80 +
j 2π × 50 × 20 × 10 −6
= 80 − j 159.2 Ω
= 178.1
178 1 ∠ − 1.105 ( 63 3o ) Ω
1 105 (-63.3
Example 1
230 V rms R = 80 Ω
50 H
Hz
C = 20 μF
2
Vrms
P= cos φ
Z
230 2
= cos− 1.105
178.1
= 133.4 W

Example 2
Determine the average power dissipated in the circuit:
R
2Ω
80 V rms
400 Hz C
200 μF L
1 mH
The driving-point impedance of this circuit at 400 Hz

(calculated previously) is:
Z = 3.091 Ω ∠ − 0.9282

Example 2
Z = 3.091 Ω ∠ − 0.9282
R
2Ω
80 V rms
400 Hz C
2 200 μF
Vrms L
P= cos φ
Z 1 mH
80 2
= cos− 0.9283
3.091
= 1241 W

Example 2
Determine the average power dissipated in the circuit
Since no power is dissipated in the capacitor we only need

to calculate the power in the inductor
inductor-resistor
resistor leg
80 V rms
ZLR = R + jωL 400 Hz R
2Ω
= 2 + j 2π × 400 × 10 −3 C
= 2 + j 2.513 200 μF L
= 3.212 ∠0.8986 1 mH

Example 2
ZLR = 3.212 ∠0.8986
R
2Ω
2 80 V rms
Vrms 400 Hz C
P= cos φ 200 μF
F
Z L
1 mH
80 2
= cos 0.8986
3.212
= 1241 W

AC Circuit Analysis
L t
Lecture 9
Power Factor
Th
Three-Phase
Ph El
Electric
ti P Power

True and Apparent Power
The apparent power Pa in a circuit is:
Pa = Vrms Irms
Apparent power is measured in VA
The true power P dissipated in a circuit is:
P = Vrms Irms cos φ
True power is measured in W

Power Factor
The p
power factor is the ratio of the true p
power to the apparent
pp
power:
P Vrms Irms cos φ

pf = = = cos φ
Pa Vrms Irms
where ø is the phase difference between voltage and current

current.
It does not matter whether ø is phase of the current with

respect to the voltage, or voltage with respect to the current,
since:
cos φ = cos− φ

Example 1
Determine the power factor, apparent power and true power
power dissipated
di i t d ini the
th circuit:
i it
Z = 4 + j15.08 Ω
= 15.60 Ω ∠1.312 (75 1o )
1 312 (75.1
R = 4Ω
80Vrms, 400 Hz
pf = cos 1.312 = .2559 L = 6 mH
2
Vrms
Pa = Vrms Irms = = 410.3 VA
Z
P = pf × Pa = 105.0 W

Power Factor Correction
Most industrial loads have a poor (pf << 1) power factor
Examples are induction motors and inductor-ballast

inductor ballast lighting
Power factor can be corrected by connecting a reactance in

parallel with the load
This reduces the apparent power and the rms current

without affecting
g the load
This is obviouslyy desirable because it reduces the current

rating of the power wiring and supply

Power factor is normally corrected by connecting a reactive
element ZC in parallel with the load ZL :
IS IC
Supply current: IS IL
L d current:
Load t IL VS
ZL ZC
Correction current: IC
Auunity
yooverall
e a popower
e factor
ac o will be ob
obtained
a ed pprovided
o ded that
a VS
and IS are in phase:
IS
= G∠0 = G + j 0 (real)
VS

IS IL IC
= + = G + j0 IS IC
VS VS VS
1 1 IL
+ = G + j0
ZL ZC VS
ZL ZC
⎡1⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢Z ⎥ = −⎢ ⎥
⎣ L ⎦ imag ⎣ ZC ⎦ imag
If IL leads VS then an inductor is used for correction
If IL lags VS then a capacitor is used for correction

Correction of a lagging power factor load with a capacitor:
IS = IL + IC
IC
Current IS
(imaginary Current
part) (real part)
IL
Note that the magnitude of the supply current IS is less than

that of the load IL
Example 2
Choose a suitable power factor correction component for the
circuit:
R = 4Ω
80Vrms, 400 Hz
L = 6 mH
ZL = 4 + j15.08 Ω
1 4 − j15.08
= = 0.01643 − j 0.06195
2
ZL 4 + 15.08 2
1
Thus: = + j 0.06195
ZC

Example 2
R = 4Ω
80Vrms, 400 Hz C = 2.465 μF
L = 6 mH
1
= + j 0.06195 = jωC
ZC
0.06195
C= = 2.465 μF
2π × 400
Example 2
80
IL =
ZL
= 80(0.01643 − j 0.06195 ) IS IL IC
= 1.314 − j 4.956
80 R = 4Ω
IC = 80Vrms C=
Zc
400 Hz 2.465 μF
F
= 80 × j 0.06195 L = 6 mH
= j 4.956
IS = IL + IC
= 1.314 − j 4.956 + j 4.956
= 1.314

Example 2
5A
IS = IL + IC
Imaginary
part IC
IS Real
5A part
IL
-5A

Example 3
An electric motor operating
p g from the 50 Hz mains supply
pp y has
a lagging current with a power factor of .80
The rated motor current is 6 A at 230 V so that the magnitude

of 1/ZL is:
1 IL 6
= = = 0.02609
ZL VS 230
and the phase of 1/ZL is:
⎧1⎫
∠⎨ ⎬ = cos −1 0.8 = ±0.6435
⎩ ZL ⎭
Since the current lags
g the voltage
g the negative
g p
phase is used
Example 3
1
= 0.02609 ∠ − 0.6435 = 0.02087 − j 0.01565
ZL
1
= + j 0.01565 = jωC
C
ZC
0.01565
C= = 49.82 μF
2π × 50
Before correction: After correction:
Pa = 230 × 6 = 1380 P = Pa = 1104

P = pf × Pa = 0.8 × 1380 P 1104
IS = = = 4 .8
= 1104 VS 230

Example 3
5A
IS = IL + IC
Imaginary
g y
part IC
IS 5A
Real
part
p
IL
-5A

Three-Phase
Three Phase Electric Power
Most ac power transmission systems use a three-phase
system
t
Three-phase
Three phase is also used to power large motors and other
heavy industrial loads
Three-phase consists of three sinusoids with phases 2π/3

(120º)) apart
(120
This allows more power to be transmitted down a given

number of conductors than single phase
A three-phase transmission system consists of conductors for

the three p
phases and sometimes a conductor for neutral
Three-Phase
Three-phase Three-phase
generator load

Three-Phase
Phase-to-neutral
Phase to ne tral voltage
oltage v0
Phase-to-phase voltage vp
π
v0 (60o )
3
vp v0
π
v p = 2v 0 sin
3 2π
3 v0 (120o )
= 2v 0 3
2
= v0 3

Three-Phase
UK domestic supply
pp y uses three -phase
p with a p
phase-to-
neutral voltage v0 of 230 V rms (325 V peak)
This corresponds to a phase-to-phase voltage vp of 400 V

rms (563 V peak)
Each property is supplied with one phase and neutral
If the phases are correctly balanced (similar load to neutral on

each)h) then
th the
th overallll neutral
t l currentt iis zero
The UK electricity
electricit distrib
distribution
tion net
network
ork operates at 275 kV rms
and 400 kV rms

AC Circuit Analysis
L t
Lecture 10
Energy Storage

Energy Storage
Reactive components (capacitors and inductors) do not
dissipate power when an ac voltage or current is applied
Power is dissipated only in resistors
Instead reactive components store energy
During an ac cycle reactive components alternately store

energy
gy and then release it
Over a complete ac cycle

y there is no net change
g in energy
gy
stored, and therefore no power dissipation

Energy Storage
The voltage across a capacitor is increased from zero to V
producing a stored energy E:
T
v(t) E = ∫ v (t ) i (t )dt
0
v
T
i
V dv
= ∫ v (t ) C dt
0 dt
C
V
= C ∫ v dv
d dv
i =C
t 0 dt
T
1
E = CV 2
2

Energy Storage
Example: calculate the energy storage in an electronic flash

capacitor of 1000 μF charged to 400 V
1
E = CV 2
2
1
= × 1000 × 10 −6 × 400 2
2
= 80 J

Energy Storage
The current in an inductor is increase from zero to I
producing a stored energy E:
T
i(t) E = ∫ v (t ) i (t )dt
0 v
I
i
T di
= ∫L i (t ) dt L
0 dt
I di
= L ∫ i di v =L
t dt
T
0
1 2
E = LI
2
Energy Storage
Example: calculate the energy storage in a 2 mH inductor

carrying a current of 10 A
1 2
E = Li
2
1
= × 2 × 10 −3 × 10 2
2
= 0 .1 J

AC Circuit Analysis
© J. B. Grimbleby 18 February 2009

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AC Circuit Analysis

Module: SE1EA5 Systems and Circuits

Lecturer: James Grimbleby y

Recommended text book:

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 1

Recommended text book:

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 2

The topics that will be covered include:

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 3

You should be familiar with the following topics:

SE1EC5: Engineering Mathematics

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 4

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 5

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 6

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 7

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 8

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 9

Linear circuits contain linear components such as resistors,

A linear component has the property that doubling the voltage

Most circuits for processing signals are linear

Analysis of non-linear circuits is difficult and normally requires

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 10

Vin=0 for t≤0

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 11

A linear circuit will not change the waveform or frequency of a

Power is generated as a sinusoid by rotating electrical

Any periodic waveform can be considered to be the sum of a

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 12

Square wave Sum

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 13

where ω=2πf is known as the angular frequency

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 14

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 16

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 17

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 18

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 20

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 21

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 22

Thus “resistance” varies between ±∞: not a useful concept

The reactance of a capacitor is inversely proportional to its

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 24

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 26

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 27

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 28

The reactance of an inductor

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 29

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 30

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 32

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 33

Expanding the expression for vc:

v c (t ) = v1 cos ωt cos φ − v1 sin ωt sin φ = A cos ωt + B sin ωt

Solving these simultaneous linear equations in A and B:

Complex numbers are often the solutions of real problems,

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 39

The polar and exponential forms are therefore equivalent

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 42

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 43

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 44

1. Calculate θ using inverse tangent:

2. If the real part x is negative then add π (180º) :

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 45

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 46

James Grimbleby School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 47

0.5 Real axis