Thesis 2020

DESIGN FOR THE PRODUCTION OF VINYL CHLORIDE (1 TON / DAY)
Submitted by
Renu Sabitha N (2016303540)
Santhosh M (2016303542)
In partial fulfilment for the award of the degree
Of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
Guided by ,
S M Mubashera
Teaching fellow
ALAGAPPA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI – 600025
i
S No CONTENTS PAGE NO
ii
1 OBJECTIVE 6
2 INTRODUCTION 6
3 PROPERTIES 8
3.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 8
3.2 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES 9
3.3 OTHER PROPERTIES 11
4 MANUFACTURING PROCESS 12
5 PROCESS DESCRIPTION 12
5.1 FROM ACETYLENE 12
5.2 FROM ETHYLENE 13
5.3 FROM ETHANE 14
6 SELECTED METHODOLOGY 15
iii
6.1 JUSTIFICATION 16
6.1.1 ADVANTAGES 16
6.1.2 DISADVANTAGES 17
6.1.3 DESCRIPTION OF SELECTED 17

PROCESS
7 APPLICATION 18
8 PLANT LOCATION 19
9 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM 21
10 UTILITY FLOWSHEET 22
11 PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION 23
12 MATERIAL BALANCE 24
13 ENERGY BALANCE 35
14 SUMMARY 48
iv
15 ZERO DISCHARGE SYSTEM 50
15.1. DISPOSAL CONSIDERATION 51
16 RECYCLE SYSTEM 51
17 COST OF RAW MATERIALS AND 51

PRODUCT
18 MECHANICAL DESIGN 52
18.1. STORAGE TANK 53
18.2. OXYCHLORINATION REACTOR 58
18.3. HEAT EXCHANGER 62
18.4. DISTILLATION COLUMN 68
19 PUMPS & COMPRESSORS 74
20 HAZOP ANALYSIS 80
21 FAILURE MODE EVENT ANALYSIS 86
v
22 FAULT TREE ANALYSIS 90
23 COST ANALYSIS 96
24 REFERENCE 101
vi
1. OBJECTIVE
This proposed work is aimed at development of plant layout and to perform the calculations in
design of unit operation equipments for the production of vinyl chloride.
2. INTRODUCTION
Vinyl chloride (CH2CHCl) by virtue of the wide range of application for its polymer in both flexible
and rigid forms, is one of the largest dollar-volume commodity chemicals in the United States and is
an important item of international commerce. Vinyl chloride (also known as chloroethylene
or chloroethene) is a colourless gas at normal temperature and pressure, but is typically handled as
the liquid (bp-13.4oC). However, no human contact with the liquid is permissible. Vinyl chloride is
an OSHA-regulated material. Vinyl chloride is among the top twenty largest petrochemicals in
world production.
Vinyl chloride has a mild, sweet odour, which may become noticeable at 3000 parts vinyl
chloride per million parts (ppm) of air. It is highly toxic, flammable and carcinogenic. It can be
formed in the environment when soil organisms break down chlorinated solvents. In the past, Vinyl
chloride was used as a coolant, as a propellant, in some spray cans, and in some cosmetics.
However, since the mid-1970s, vinyl chloride mostly has been used in the manufacture of polyvinyl
chloride (PVC).
HISTORY
Growth in vinyl chloride production is directly related to demand for its polymers and, on an
energy-equivalent basis, rigid polyvinylchloride(PVC) is one of the most energy efficient
construction materials available. Initial development of vinyl chloride industry in the 1930s
stemmed from the discovery that, with plasticizers, PVC can be readily processed and converted
into a rubbery product.
However, it was not until after World War II that vinyl chloride production grew rapidly as a result
of the increased volume of PVC products for the consumer market.
Justus von Liebig at the University of the Giessen, Germany, won the distinction of being
the first person to synthesize vinyl chloride when, in the 1830s, he reacted the so-called oil of the
7
Dutch chemists, dichloroethane with alcoholic potash to make vinyl chloride. Liebig’s student,
Victor Regnault, confirmed his discovery and was allowed to publish it as sole author in 1835. In
1872, E.
Baumann observed that white flakes precipitated from vinyl chloride upon prolonged exposure to
sunlight in a sealed tube. This material was further investigated in the early 1900s by Ivan
Ostromislensky, who named it Kauprenchlorid (cauprene chloride), and gave it the empirical
formula (C2H3Cl)16. However, vinyl chloride was of little commercial interest until Waldo Semon’s
work with plasticized PVC for the B. F. Goodrich Company beginning in 1926. Some years earlier,
Fritz Klatte had developed the first practical route to vinyl chloride while looking to find uses for
acetylene for Chemische Fabrik Griesheim-Elektron. This process, in which hydrogen chloride,
HCl, is added to acetylene over a mercuric chloride catalyst, was patented in 1912. By 1926,
Griesheim-Elektron had concluded that the patent held no commercial value and allowed it to lapse.
Klatte’s process eventually formed the basis of the vinyl chloride industry for many years from its
beginnings in the 1930s, but it was ultimately supplanted by a balanced process from ethylene and
chlorine in which vinyl chloride is made by pyrolysis of 1,2-dichloroethane (ethylene dichloride
(EDC)).
New paths to vinyl chloride directly from ethylene have been researched but suffer from
problems of control and operation. Worldwide around 94% of vinyl chloride is produced from
ethylene and the remainder from acetylene.
Capacities range from 30,000 – 4,80,000 tonnes per year.
8
3. PROPERTIES
3.1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Structure
H Cl
C=C
H H
Table 3.1
IUPAC Name Chloroethene

Common names vinyl chloride monomer,
chloroethylene,
monochlororoethene,
monochloro-ethylene,
chloroethylene
Molecular formula C2 H3 Cl
Molecular weight (g / mol) 62.4985
Normal boiling point (1 atm) ,K 259.25
Melting point (1 atm),K 119.36
Critical temperature , K 429.7
Critical pressure , bar 56
Critical volume , cm3/mol 169
Liquid density , kg / m3 (⁰C) 969(-14)
∆Hvap at normal boiling point , kJ / mol 20.641
Explosion limit in air , vol%
─ Lower limit 13.6
─ Upper limit 33
Autoignition temperature , K 745
9
3.2. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
a) POLYMERIZATION
The most important reaction of vinyl chloride is its polymerization and copolymerization
in the presence of a radical-generating initiator.
H Cl H Cl
n C=C [ C C ]n
H H H H
Vinyl chloride polyvinyl chloride
b) SUBSTITUTION AT THE CARBON- CHLORIDE BOND
Vinyl chloride is generally considered inert to a nucleophilic replacement compared to

other alkyl halides. However chlorine atom can be exchanged under nucleophilic condition in the
presence of palladium and certain other metal substituted forms can be obtained by
heterocyclization of vinyl chloride with hydrogen sulphide in the presence of acetylenic reagent.
c) OXIDATION
Gas phase oxidation of vinyl chloride yields 74% formyl chloride and 25% CO at high
oxygen to chlorine ratio. Complete oxidation of vinyl chloride with oxygen in the gas phase can be
achieved using cobalt chromite catalyst. Oxidation of vinyl chloride with ozone in either liquid
or gas phase gives formic acid and formyl chloride.
CH2 = CHCl + O2 C=O + CO
Vinyl chloride Cl
Formyl chloride
10
H
CH2 = CHCl + O3 C=O + HCOOH
Vinyl chloride ozone Cl formic acid
Formyl chloride
d) ADDITION
Chlorine adds to vinyl chloride to form 1,1,2 -trichloroethane. Vinyl chloride reacts with
ammonium chloride and oxygen in the vapor phase at 325oC over a cupric chloride catalyst to make
1,1,2- trichloroethane and ammonia.
H H
CH2 = CHCl Cl2 Cl ─ C ─ C─ H
Cl Cl
1,1,2-trichloroethane
H H
CH2 = CHCl + NH4Cl O2 Cl ─ C─ C ─ H + NH3
Cl Cl
1,1,2-trichloroethane
e) PYROLYSIS
Vinyl chloride is more stable than saturated chloroalkanes to thermal pyrolysis which is
why nearly all vinyl chloride made commercially comes from thermal dehydrochlorination of
ethylene dichloride.
11
3.3. OTHER PROPERTIES
a) FLAMMABILITY:
OSHA lists vinyl chloride as a Class 1A flammable liquid with a National Fire Protection
Association Flammability rating of 4.
b) INSTABILITY:
Vinyl chloride readily undergoes violent chemical changes at elevated temperatures and
pressures.
c) REACTIVITY:
Vinyl chloride is not reactive under normal temperatures and pressures.
d) SOLUBILITY:
Vinyl chloride has relatively low solubility. It forms an azeotrope with water. It is
soluble in almost all organic solvents.
4. MANUFACTURING PROCESS
4.1. From acetylene and hydrogen chloride
4.2. From ethylene chlorination – oxychlorination
4.3. From ethane
5. PROCESS DESCRIPTION
5.1. FROM ACETYLENE AND HYDROGEN CHLORIDE
The catalyzed reaction between acetylene and hydrogen chloride can be carried out in liquid or
vapour phase, but the latter is more commonly used. Purified acetylene and hydrogen chloride, in
slight excess are mixed prior to being fed into a fixed bed multi tube reactor containing 2-10 wt %
of mercuric chloride absorbed onto a carrier such as activated carbon.
12
The reaction is highly exothermic and the heat generated is removed by an external coolant. Contact
time is up to 1 second and pressure is maintained at 1-3 bar. The exit gases are cooled before being
compressed. Unreacted acetylene and hydrogen chloride are removed in the gaseous phase by
fractionation. The remaining liquid is distilled in second column and vinyl chloride is collected
overhead. Heavy products from the base of the column are stripped to remove any residual vinyl
chloride and acetylene prior to incineration. Heat treatment are used to recover mercury from the
spent catalyst.
Reaction: C 2 H 2 + HCl→ C H 2=CHCl
Fig. 5.1
5.2. FROM ETHYLENE BY CHLORINATION-OXYCHLORINATION
The development of a commercial oxychlorination process to ethylene dichloride utilizing only

cheaper ethylene revolutionized the manufacture of vinyl chloride. In this integrated balanced
process, vinyl chloride is made by the thermal cracking of ethylene dichloride which is produced by
the chlorination or oxychlorination of ethylene. Hydrogen chloride produced by the cracking
process, in the presence of oxygen, is utilized by the oxychlorination reaction to produce more
EDC. More than 90% of present day capacity is based on ethylene; most plants use the ethylene-
EDC-oxy-EDC-vinyl chloride integrated balanced process because of its economic superiority over
other routes.
13
Fig 5.2
5.3. FROM ETHANE
The ready availability of ethane has resulted in much research to find alternative routes to vinyl
chloride which by pass ethylene. Lummus has introduced a chlorination-oxychlorination-
dehydrochlorination process-the Transcat process-in which ethane is converted to vinyl chloride in a
molten salt reactor with yields of 80%. With the development of new catalysts the ethane route
could become the process of future.
14
Fig 5.3
6. SELECTED METHODOLOGY
After ethylene become plentiful in the early 1950s , commercial processes were developed to
produce vinyl chloride from ethylene and chlorine. These processes include the chlorination of
ethylene in the liquid or vapour phase, the cracking of the ethylene dichloride formed to vinyl
chloride and hydrogen chloride, and finally the oxychlorination of ethylene where the hydrogen
chloride produced is combined with ethylene and oxygen to yield ethylene dichloride and water
provided the so-called balanced process for the production of vinyl chloride from ethylene and
chlorine, with no net consumption or production of HCl.
Direct chlorination CH2=CH2 + Cl2 → ClCH2CH2Cl
EDC pyrolysis 2 ClCH2CH2Cl → 2 CH2=CHCl + 2 HCl
Oxychlorination CH2=CH2 + 2 HCl + 1/2 O2 → ClCH2CH2Cl + H2O
Overall reaction 2 CH2=CH2 + Cl2 + 1/2 O2 → 2 CH2=CHCl + H2O
15
6.1. JUSTIFICATION
The process of “Production of vinyl chloride from ethylene chlorination- oxychlorination” is

selected.
Table 6.1
Method of Selectivity of Nature of Commercial Cost of raw Yield

production product catalyst importance material %
%
From acetylene 98 Mercuric Less important Highly 90
chloride is expensive
more volatile
and leads to
problems
From ethane 95 Non catalytic Least important Less 80

expensive
From ethylene 98.8 Ferric 94% of world’s Less 95
chloride has vinyl chloride expensive
high production is and available
selectivity from ethylene in plenty
6.1.1 ADVANTAGES:
 Ethylene can be converted to vinyl chloride in single stage, i.e., without isolating the
intermediate ethylene dichloride.
 This process is a balanced process, i.e., all intermediates and byproducts are recycled in a
way that ensures a tight closure of the material balance to only vinyl chloride monomer as the
final product starting from ethylene, chlorine and oxygen.
 Major current vinyl chloride production plants uses this method to produce environmentally
friendly, safe, and economically profitable VCM.
16
6.1.2 DISADVANTAGES:
 This method requires a high temperature and a large excess of ethylene to minimize soot
formation.
 Substantial production of chlorinated by-products, many of which have no direct
commercial utility.
 Stainless steel tubes are required because of the corrosive HCl produced by the reaction
6.1.3 DESCRIPTION OF THE SELECTED PROCESS:

The direct chlorination of ethylene consists of reaction between ethylene and chlorine to
give ethylene dichloride (EDC).
C2H4 + Cl2 → C2H4Cl2 ∆H0298 = -218 kJ/mol
The catalyst is of Lewis acid type, in most cases FeCl 3, in concentrations of 0.1 to 0.5 wt %.
Secondary reactions take place. The most important by-product is the 1,1,2-trichloroethane as
described by:
C2H4 + 2Cl2 → C2H3Cl3 + HCl
Slight excess of chlorine is preferred in order to ensure complete ethylene conversion. The
direct chlorination of ethylene may be conducted following two techniques:
1.Low temperature chlorination (LTC)
2.High temperature chlorination (HTC)
In LTC, the reactor operates at temperatures between 50 – 70 0 C below the mixture boiling
point. LTC is advantageous for achieving higher selectivity, over 99%. The disadvantage is
that rejecting the heat of reaction to the environment at low temperature is highly inefficient. In
HTC, the reaction is conducted at the boiling point of EDC at 1.5 to 5 bar and 90 – 150 0 C. In
this manner, the heat of reaction which is 7 times the heat of EDC vapourization, can be used
advantageously for purification.
The oxychlorination step is described by the following reaction:
C2H4 + 2HCl + 1/2 O2 → C2H4Cl2 + H2O ∆H0298 = -295 kJ/mol
17
The catalyst widely used is based on copper (Ⅱ) chloride impregnated on alumina. The highly
exothermal reaction is carried at temperatures around 200 0 C and pressures of 1.5-5 bar. The
amount of impurities formed during oxychlorination is much more compared to direct
chlorination. The key impurities are: 1,1,2-trichloroethane, chloral, trichloroethane,1,1-and 1,2-
dichloroethylenes, ethyl chloride and chloromethanes. In particular, chloral needs to be removed
immediately after reaction by washing because of its tendency to polymerization. The formation
of trichloroethylene is undesired because its removal by distillation is very difficult. The
formation of trichloroethylene is due to the acetylene entrained with the HCl byproduct from
cracking. This can be solved by selective catalytic hydrogenation of acetylene in the HCl
recycle stream.
PYROLYSIS
The endothermic reaction takes place at temperatures between 480- 550 0 C and
pressures from 3 to 30 bar. At high temperature, the EDC decomposes into VCM and HCl by
complex reaction mechanism. The reaction device consists of a long tubular coil placed in a
furnace. The first part, hosted in the convection zone, preheats the reactant up to the temperature
where the pyrolysis reaction rate becomes significant. The second part, the reaction zone, is
placed in the radiation chamber. The tube diameter is selected so as to give a superficial gas
velocity between 10 – 20 m/s. The coil length should ensure a space time of 5 to 30 s.
After pyrolysis the mixture is submitted to rapid cooling by quench. This operation
prevents further decomposition of VCM, but also removes the coke and other high molecular
impurities. The exit gas temperature from quench can be such that it preserves a good driving
force for the heat exchanger used for energy recovery by steam generation.
The distillation column separating HCl operates at 10-12 bar. The separation of VCM
takes place in the distillation column at low pressures, usually 4 - 6 bar, for which normal or
slightly refrigerated cooling water can be used.
18
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
Fig 6.1.3
7. APPLICATIONS
 The main outlet for vinyl chloride, amounting to 95% of demand, is in the manufacture of
polyvinylchloride, one of the major industrial polymers in the world.
 These resins are used in the automotive, building, electrical, packaging and toy industry.
 Other small uses, accounting for less than 3% of total demand, are for the production of
chlorinated solvents such as tri-chloromethane.
 Future growth of vinyl chloride will depend on the demand for PVC resins; it is forecast to
increase by about 1% per Europe and Japan, with higher rates in South East Asia.
19
8. PLANT LOCATION
GLOBAL MANUFACTURERS:
Plant with capacities greater than 300,000 tonnes per year.
Table 8.1
S. No. Company Location Country
1 LVM Tessenderlo Belgium
2 ATOCHEM Lavara France
3 ICI Wilhelmshaven Germany
4 Vista Chemical Westlake US
5 Kanegafuchi Takasajo Japan
6 B F Goodrich La Porte US
7 Occidental Chemical Deer park US
8 Dow Chemical Fort Saskatchewan Canada
9 Formosa Plastics Kaohsiung Taiwan
10 ROVIN Botlek Netherlands
MANUFACTURERS IN INDIA
Table 8.2
S.NO COMPANY LOCATION
1 Reliance Industries Ltd. Dahej, Hazira
2 Finolex Industries Ltd. Ratnagiri
3 Chemplast Sanmar Ltd. Mettur
4 Sud Chemie India Pvt. Ltd. Kochi, Vadodara
5 Shriram Axiall Pvt. Ltd. Gurgaon
6 Anupam Chemicals Mumbai
7 Diksha Plastic Kolhapur
8 AGC Chemicals Delhi
9 VAV Life Sciences Pvt. Ltd. Mumbai
20
9. PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
Fig 9.1
21
10.UTILITY FLOW SHEET
Fig 10.1
22
11.PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION
23
MATERIAL BALANCE
24
12. MATERIAL BALANCE
Product
Production capacity of Vinyl Chloride Monomer = 1 ton/day
Purity =99.3%
1 ton/day of vinyl chloride monomer with 99.3% = 41.375 kg/hr of vinyl chloride monomer (pure)
=0.663 kmol/hr of vinyl chloride
Distillation Column 3
Assuming % recovery of Vinyl Chloride monomer=98%
Molar flow rate of vinyl chloride in feed =0.663/0.98
=0.676 kmol/hr of vinyl chloride
Mass flow rate of vinyl chloride monomer in feed =42.28 kg/hr
Distillation column 2
Assuming % recovery of vinyl chloride monomer =98%
Molar flow rate of vinyl chloride monomer in feed= 0.676/0.98
= 0.69 kmol/hr 0f vinyl chloride
Mass flow rate of vinyl chloride monomer in feed = 43.125 kg/hr
Molar flow rate of hydrochloric acid from distillate = 0.676 kmol/hr
Furnace
2ClCH2CH2Cl →2CH2=CHCl + 2HCl
2 moles of ethylene dichloride produced = 2 moles of vinyl chloride reacted
0.69 kmoles of vinyl chloride produced =0.69 kmoles of ethylene dichloride reacted
Conversion =55%
Molar flow rate of ethylene dichloride required= 0.69/0.55
= 1.2545 kmoles/hr
Mass flow rate of ethylene dichloride=124.135 kg/hr
Hydrochloric acid produced = 0.69kmol/hr
25
Oxychlorination reactor
C2H4 + 0.5 O2 + 2HCl →ClCH2CH2Cl + H2O
Hydrochloric acid recycled to reactor from distillation column2 =0.6762 kmol/hr
Ethylene required = 0.3381 kmol/hr
Oxygen required = 0.16905 kmol/hr
Conversion=95%
Ethylene dichloride formed= 0.332 kmol/hr
Water formed =0.332 kmol/hr
Reacted ethylene=0.332 kmol/hr
HCl reacted =0.64239 kmol/hr
Oxygen reacted = 0.1606 kmol/hr
Scrubber
Assuming 100% recovery,
Mass flow rate of ethylene dichloride = 32.85 kg/hr
Distillation column 1
Assuming % recovery of distillation column = 98%
Ethylene dichloride in residue= 1.2545 kmol/hr
Ethylene dichloride in feed = 1.2545/0.98
=1.28 kmol/hr
Wash tower
Assuming % recovery =98%
Ethylene dichloride in feed =1.28/0.98
=1.3062 kmol/hr
Mass flow rate of ethylene dichloride in feed= 129.24 kg/hr
26
Direct chlorination reactor
Ethylene dichloride outlet from reactor= EDC entering wash tower – EDC from scrubber
=1.306-0.332
=0.974 kmol/hr
C2H4 + Cl2 → ClCH2CH2Cl
Ethylene reacted = 0.974 kmol/hr
Chlorine reacted= 0.974 kmol/hr
Conversion =99.9%
Ethylene required=chlorine required = 0.9751 kmol/hr
Mass flow rate of ethylene = 27.35 kg/hr
12.1.EQUIPMENT BALANCE
12.1.1.DIRECT CHLORINATION REACTOR
Figure 12.1.1
Materials Mass in Moles in Mass out Moles out

kg/hr kmol/hr kg/hr kmol/hr
Ethylene 27.35 0.9751 0.02805 0.0011
Chlorine 69.14 o.9751 0.07091 0.0011
EDC 96.34 0.974

Total 96.49 96.44
Table 12.1.1: Direct chlorination reactor

27
12.1.2.OXYCHLORINATION REACTOR
Figure 12.1.2

Kg/hr Kmol/hr Kg/hr Kmol/hr
Ethylene 9.48 0.3381 0.171 0.0061
Oxygen 5.4096 0.1691 0.272 0.0035
HCl 24.68 0.676 1.234 0.03381
EDC - - 32.85 0.332
Water - - 5.976 0.332
Total 39.57 40.5
Table 12.1.2: Oxychlorination reactor
12.1.3.SCRUBBER
Figure 12.1.3
28
Assuming recovery to be 100%
Materials Mass in Moles in top bottom

Kg/hr Kmol/hr Mass Moles Mass Moles
ethylene 0.171 0.0061 0.171 0.0061
oxygen 0.272 0.0035 0.272 0.0035
HCl 1.234 0.03381 1.234 0.0331
EDC 32.85 0.332 32.85 0.332
Water 5.976 0.332 5.976 0.332
Table 12.1.3 : scrubber
12.1.4.WASH TOWER
Figure 12.1.4
Materials Mass in Moles in top Bottom

Kg/hr Kmol/hr Mass Moles Mass Moles
Ethylene 0.20196 0.0072 0.20196 0.0072
Oxygen 0.272 0.0085 0.00544 0.0035 0.2666 0.00833
EDC 129.24 1.306 126.66 1.28 2.58 0.03
Water 5.976 0.332 0.11952 0.0066 5.856 0.325
Cl2 0.078 0.0011 0.078 0.0011
Table 12.1.4 :wash tower
29
12.1.5.DISTILLATION COLUMN 1
Figure 12.1.5
Materials feed top bottom
Mass Moles Mass Moles Mass Moles

Kg/hr Kmol/hr Kg/hr Kmol/hr Kg/hr Kmol/hr
ethylene 0.20196 0.0072 0.198 0.0069 0.004 0.00014
oxygen 0.00544 0.0035 0.0053 0.00017 0.0001 0.0000031
EDC 126.66 1.28 2.53 0.0256 124.135 1.254
Water 0.11952 0.0066 0.0024 0.00013 0.1171 0.0065
Cl2 0.078 0.0011 0.0011 0.000015 0.00002 0
Table 12.1.5: Distillation column 1
12.1.6.FURNACE
Figure 12.1.6
30
Kg/hr Kmol/hr Kg/hr Kmol/hr
EDC 124.135 1.254 55.81 0.69
VCM 43.125 0.564
HCl 25.185 0.69
Total 124.135 124.12
Table 12.1.6: furnace
Figure 12.1.7
Materials feed top Bottom

EDC 55.81 0.69 1.1163 0.0112 54.697 0.5527
VCM 43.125 0.564 0.8625 0.014 42.26 0.6762
HCl 25.185 0.69 24.6813 0.68 0.5027 0.01377
Table 12.1.7: distillation column 2
31
Figure 12.1.8
Materials feed top bottom

EDC 54.697 0.5527 1.094 0.011 53.6 0.542
VCM 42.26 0.6762 41.42 0.663 0.845 0.0135
HCl 0.5027 0.01377 0.01 0.00027 0.49 0.013
Table 12.1.8: distillation column 3
12.2. MASS BALANCE SHEET
32
Fig 12.2
33
ENERGY BALANCE
34
13. ENERGY BALANCE
Assumption
Specific heat capacity and latent heat are constant throughout all streams.
No heat loss in streams and equipment.
Table 13
Components Specific heat capacity (J/mol K)
Ethylene 67.4
Oxygen 29.39
EDC 129.4
Water 75.4
Cl2 65.8
HCl 30.49
VCM 89.45
13.1.DIRECT CHLORINATION REACTOR
Ethylene (6243.565kJ/h) Ethylene (7.0433 kJ/h)

REACTOR Chlorine (6.8761kJ/h)
Chlorine (6095.355kJ/h) EDC (11973.3821kJ/h)
Figure 13.1
Reaction temperature in reactor is 120oC at pressure 15 psig
Reference temperature = 298 K
C2H4 + Cl2 → ClCH2CH2Cl
Heat of reaction at 298K ,

∆Hr@298K = -218000 J/mol
∆Hr@393K =∑(393 ∫298mCpdT)reactants+∆Hr@298K+∑(298 ∫393mCpdT)products
∑(393 ∫298mCpdT)reactants= -12657.8 J/mol

∑(298 ∫393mCpdT)products= 12293 J/mol
∆Hr@393K = -218364.8 J/mol
Enthalpy in = 12342620.78 J/hr

Enthalpy out=11987305.58 J/hr
35
The net heat removed Q ,
Ein - ∆Hr*N = Q+ Eout
Q = 12342620.78 - (-213167717.8) - 11987305.58
= 213523033 J/hr
Coolant (water) required to remove the heat produced,
Q = mCp∆T
213523.033=m*4.184*(90-30)
m = 850.55 kg/hr
Components Enthalpy in (J/hr) Enthalpy out (J/hr)

Ethylene 6243565.34 7043.3
Chlorine 6095355.44 6876.1
Ethylene dichloride - 11973382.1
Total 12342620.78 119873050.58
Table 13.1: reactor energy balance
13.2.OXYCHLORINATION REACTOR
C2H4 (115.1192kJ/h)
C2H4 (6380.623kJ/h) Oxygen (28.802kJ/h)
HCl (5771.1472kJ/h) REACTOR HCl (288.642kJ/h)
Oxygen (1391.557kJ/h) EDC (12029.024kJ/h)
Water (7009.184 kJ/h)
Figure 13.2
Reaction temperature = 3050C

Pressure =58 psig
C2H4 + 0.5 O2 + 2HCl →ClCH2CH2Cl + H2O
Heat of reaction,
∆Hr@298K = -239000 J/mol
∆Hr@578K = -∑(578 ∫298mCpdT)reactants+∆Hr@298K+∑(298 ∫578mCpdT)products
= -234291.8 J/mol
Enthalpy in = 13071284.1 J/hr

Enthalpy out=19511918.13 J/hr
Ein - ∆Hr*N = Q + Eout
36
13071284.1 – (-234291.8*707.41) = Q + 19511918.13
The net heat removed, Q = 160471.2 kJ/hr
Coolant required to remove Q,
160471.2 = m*4.184*(90-30)
Mass flow rate of water circulated=639.23 kg/hr

Ethylene 6380623.2 115119.2
Oxygen 1391557.72 28802.2
HCl 5771147.2 288642.732
EDC - 12029024
Water - 7009184
Total 13071284.1 19511918.13
Table 13.2: Enthalpy table of reactor
13.3.COOLER
C2H4(115.1192kJ/h) C 2H4 (73.594kJ/h)

Oxygen (28.802kJ/h) Oxygen (18.412835kJ/h)
HCl (288.642kJ/h) COOLER HCl (184.525kJ/h)
EDC (1202.024kJ/h) EDC (7689.983kJ/h)
Water (7009.184kJ/h) Water (4480.8712kJ/h)
Figure 13.3
The product at 305oC from oxychlorination reactor is cooled to 204oC

Enthalpy in=19511918.13 J/hr
Enthalpy out= 12473690.5 J/hr
The net heat removed using coolant ,Q= -7038227.611 J/hr
Coolant enters at 30oC and leaves at 900C
Coolant required , m =28.036 kg/hr

Ethylene 115119.2 73594.06
Oxygen 28802.2 18412.835
HCl 288642.732 184525.175
EDC 12029024 7689983.2
Water 70009184 4480871.2
Total 19511918.13 12473690.5
Table 13.3: Enthalpy table of cooler
37
13.4.SCRUBBER
C2H4(73.594kJ/h) C 2H4 (73.594kJ/h)

Oxygen (18.412835kJ/h) Oxygen (18.412835kJ/h)
HCl (184.525kJ/h)
EDC (7689.9832kJ/h) SCRUBBER EDC (7689.9832kJ/h)
HCl (184.525kJ/h)
Figure 13.4
Operating temperature = 204oC

Components Enthalpy in Enthalpy out Enthalpy out
(J/hr) (J/hr) (J/hr)
Top Bottom
Ethylene 73594.06 73594.06 -
Oxygen 18412.835 18412.835 -
HCl 184525.175 - 184525.15
EDC 7689983.2 7689983.2 -
Water 4480871.2 4480871.2 -
Total 12473690.5 12289164.85 184525.15
Table 13.4: enthalpy of scrubber
13.5.MIXING POINT
Enthalpy in = mCp∆T
12289165 + 11987305.58 = 169803.92( T- 293)
Temperature of the stream entering wash tower= 440K
13.6.COOLER
Enthalpy of inlet = 24281960.56
Outlet temperature = 323 K
Enthalpy outlet = 4870917.98 J/hr
Heat removed ,Q = 19411042.59 J/hr
Coolant used ,m = Q/Cp(90-30)
=77.322 kg/hr
38
Components Enthalpy in (J/hr) Enthalpy in (J/hr) Enthalpy out
(from reactor) (from scrubber) (J/hr)
Ethylene 7043.3 73594.06 12132
Oxygen - 18412.835 6245.375
EDC 119873382.1 7689983.2 4224910
Water - 4480871.2 625820
Chlorine 6876.1 - 1809.5
Total 24281960.56 4870917.98
Table 13.6:enthalpy of cooler
13.7.WASH TOWER
C2H4 (12.132kJ/h) C 2H4 (12.132kJ/h)

Oxygen (6.245kJ/h) WASH Oxygen (2.572kJ/h)
EDC (4224.910kJ/h) TOWER EDC (4140.8kJ/h)
Chlorine (1.8095kJ/h) Chlorine (1.8095kJ/h)
Oxygen (6.1205kJ/h)
EDC (97.050kJ/h)
Water (612.625kJ/h)
Figure 13.7
Components Enthalpy in (J/hr) Enthalpy out (J/hr) Enthalpy out (J/hr)

Top Bottom
Ethylene 12132 12132 -
Oxygen 6245 2572 6120.5
EDC 4224910 4140800 97050
Water 625820 1244.1 612625
Chlorine 1809.5 1809.5 -
Total 4870917.98 4167383.6 715795.5
Table 13.7: enthalpy of wash tower
39
13.8.DISTILLATION COLUMN 1
C2H4 (6.976kJ/h)
Oxygen (0.074kJ/h)
EDC (49.689kJ/h)
Water (0.147kJ/h)
C2H4 (1.2132kJ/h) Chlorine (0.014kJ/h)
Oxygen (2.572kJ/h)
EDC (4140.8kJ/h)
Water (1.2441kJ/h)
Chlorine (1809.5kJ/h)
C 2H4 (0.80206kJ/h)
Oxygen (0.00774 kJ/h)
EDC (13792.746 kJ/h)
Water (41.6585kJ/h)
Figure 13.8
Feed inlet temperature = 323 K

Distillate temperature = 313 K
Residue temperature = 383 K
Compounds Hvap kJ / mol
Ethylene 13.6
Oxygen 3.41
EDC 35.1
Water 42.34
Cl2 10.2
Table 13.8: table of heat of vapourisation
Reflux ratio ,R =3
No. of theoretical trays = 17
Distillate, D=32.9745 mol/hr
R=L/D
L=98.9235 mol/hr
V=L+D=131.897 mol/hr
Heat load for condenser,
Qc = ∑ni*Hivap
= 28.24*13.6+0.062*1.02+0.664*3.41+0.532*42.34+102.4*35.1
40
= 4003.726 kJ /hr
Amount of coolant required,
Qc = mcCp∆T
mc =15.95 kg/hr
enthalpy of feed + QB =enthalpy of distillate + enthalpy of residue + Qc

Components Enthalpy of feed Enthalpy of Enthalpy of
(kJ/hr) distillate (kJ/hr) residue (kJ/hr)
Ethylene 1.2132 6.976 0.80206
Oxygen 2.572 0.074 0.00774
EDC 4140.8 49.689 13792.746
Water 1.2441 0.147 41.6585
Chlorine 1809.5 0.014 -
Total 4167.383 56.9 13835.2143
Table 13.8: enthalpy of distillation column 1
Heat duty in reboiler, QB = 13728.4573

= m* Hvap
Steam used = 13728.4573/2260
= 6.075 kg/hr
13.9.FURNACE
EDC (42410.85kJ/h)
FURNACE VCM (23963.655kJ/h)
EDC (77077.110kJ/h) HCl (9993.0975kJ/h)
Figure 13.9
Reaction temperature = 500 0 C

Heat of reaction @ 298K = 71000 J/ṃol
∆Hr@723K = 66506.5 J/mol
∆Hr*N = 129288636 J/hr
Heat supplied ,
Ein-∆Hr*N= Q+ Eout
Enthalpy of inlet = 77077110 J/hr
Enthalpy of outlet = 76367602.5 J/hr

41
Heat supplied,
Q= 126188.121 kJ/hr
Components Enthalpy in (J/hr ) Enthalpy out (J/hr)

EDC 77077110 42410850
VCM - 23963655
HCl - 9993097.5
Total 77077110 76367602.5
Table 13.9: enthalpy of furnace
13.10.QUENCH COLUMN
QUENCH COLUMN EDC (4017.87kJ/h)

EDC (42410.85kJ/h) VCM (2270.241kJ/h)
VCM (23963.655 kJ/h) HCl (946.7145kJ/h)
HCl (9993.0975kJ/h)
Figure 13.10
Column operating temperature = 343K
Heat removed ,Q= 69132777J/hr

The coolant water enters at 300C and leaves at 80 0C
69132777 = m*4.184*(353-303)
Amount Coolant used in quench column, m = 275 kg/hr of water
Components Enthalpy in (J/hr) Enthalpy out (J/hr )

EDC 42410850 4017870
VCM 23963655 2270241
HCl 9993097.5 946714.5
Total 76367602.5 7234825.5
Table 13.10: enthalpy of quench column
EDC (94.2032kJ/h)
42
VCM(81.3995kj/h)
HCl (1347.658kJ/h)
EDC (4017.87kJ/h)
VCM (2270.241kJ/h)
HCl (946.7145kJ/h)
EDC (2145.58kJ/h)
VCM (1814.5827kJ/h)
HCl (12.595kJ/h)
Figure 13.11
Components Temperature (K)

Feed 293
Distillate 313
Residue 278
Table 13.11: component temperature
Reflux ratio,R = 1.5

No. of theoretical trays = 42 trays
R = L/D
Distillate ,D = 0.7012 kmol/hr
L =R*D
V= L+D
= 1.753 kmol/hr
= 1753 mol/hr
Qc = ∑ni*Hivap
= 34.5*20.641+1690.26*16.2+28.25*35.1
= 29085.9 kJ/hr
Coolant required,
Qc = mcCp∆T
43
Water enters at 298K and leaves at 318K
29085.9 = mc*4.184* 288
mc = 463.446 kg/hr

(kJ/h) distillate (kJ/h) residue (kJ/h)
EDC 4017.87 94.2032 2145.5814
VCM 2270.241 81.3995 1814.5827
HCl 946.7145 1347.658 12.5954
Total 7234.8255 1523.2605 3972.7595
Table 13.11: enthalpy table of distillation column 2

Heat duty in reboiler, QB = 27347.0945 kJ/hr
= m* Hvap
Steam used = 27347.0945/2260
= 12.1 kg/hr
EDC (12.8106kJ/h)
VCM (533.748kJ/h)
HCl (0.074kJ/h)
EDC (357.5969kJ/h)
VCM (302.43045kJ/h)
HCl (2.0992kJ/h)
HCl (17.83665kJ/h)
EDC (3156.066kJ/h)
VCM (54.3408kJ/h)
Fig 13.12
Components Temperature (0C)

Feed 20
44
Distillate 16
Residue 70
Table 13.12: temperature table
Reflux ratio,R =1.2

No. of theoretical trays = 20 trays
Distillate, D =0.674 kmol/hr
L = 0.8089 kmol/hr
Vapour, V = L+D
= 1.4829 kmol/hr
= 1482.9 mol/hr
Qc = ∑ni*Hivap
= 1458.095*20.641+0.6028*16.2+0.0163*35.1
= 30106.876 kJ/hr

(kJ/h) distillate (kJ/h) residue (kJ/h)
VCM 357.5969 12.8106 3156.066
EDC 302.43045 533.748 54.3408
HCl 2.0992 0.074 17.83665
Total 662.126 546.706 3238.109
Table 13.12: enthalpy table of distillation column 3

QB = 33229.565 kJ/hr
Mass flow rate of steam used = 33229.565/2260 = 14.7 kg/hr
13.13. Energy balance sheet
45
Fig 13.13
14.SUMMARY
46
Equipment Mass inlet Mass outlet Energy Energy outlet
kg/hr Kg/hr inlet kJ/hr
kJ/hr
Direct chlorination 96.49 96.44 12342.620 213523.033

reactor
Oxychlorination 39.6 40.5 13071.284 19511.918

reactor
Cooler 40.5 40.5 19511.918 1247.369
Scrubber 40.497 40.497 1247.369 12289.165
Cooler 39.26 39.26 24281.960 4870.917
Wash tower 136.187 135.76 4870.917 4870.917
Distillation column 126.988 126.99 4167.383 Top :57.066

1 Bottom: 156.233
Furnace 124.135 124.12 77077.110 73976.595
Quench column 124.12 124.12 73976.595 7008.309
Distillation column 124.12 124.12 73976.595 Top :

2 1515.407
Bottom:3972.759
Distillation column 97.4622 97.45 662.126 Top :546.706
3 Bottom:3238.109
Table 14
47
15.ZERO DISCHARGE SYSTEM
The by-products formed in the process are found in waste streams arising from EDC
Purification and Pyrolysis, as well as the Direct Chlorination, Caustic Scrubber, and the
Oxychlorination Reactors. These waste streams come in two forms, liquid and vapor.
The vapor wastes contain more contaminants than the liquid wastes and this is due to the fact
of the high temperatures with which the reactors are run. A treatment method that incorporated
incineration, absorption, and scrubbing technologies was selected.
INCINERATION:
The first step in this treatment method is to send all the liquid and vapor wastes to the
incinerator, where they are all combusted at a temperature of 1127⁰ C. The organic compounds in
the waste streams contain chlorine attached to them. “These elements create complications by
adding extra products of combustion”. By inspection it was found that carbon dioxide (CO 2), water
(H2O), hydrochloric acid (HCl), chlorine gas(Cl2), nitrous oxides (NOx), and chloro oxides (ClOx)
would be formed.
A thermodynamic analysis was then performed on all the combustion reactions to determine
what actual products would form and be present at equilibrium. From here it was determined that
the ClOx would actually be more prevalent than the Cl2 and HCl.
Although this is true, the ClOx will not be present after incineration. This is simply because the
ClOx is very unstable.
Chloro oxides actually dissociate and donate chlorine and oxygen anions. These chlorine and
oxygen anions then attach to hydrogen to form the aforementioned HCl and H2O. Therefore, as a
result of the incineration process, CO2,H2O, HCl, Cl2, and NOx are formed.
ABSORPTION:
These products are then sent to an absorption column. This column uses water as a solvent
and removes HCl and H2O from the stream and can be recycled or sold.
SCRUBBING:
From here the remaining products are sent to another absorption column, this one using
NaOH as the solvent. Here the NaOH removes the Cl2 and forms a solution of sodium chloride and
sodium hypochlorite, which is sold to an industrial bleach production company. The CO2 is then
sent to where it will be sequestered.
D
C
FURNACE
ADSORPTION SCRUBBING
Fig 15.1
48
15.1.DISPOSAL CONSIDERATION
Reuse or reprocess if possible. Dispose in accordance with all applicable Federal, State/Provincial
and local laws and regulations. Subject to disposal regulations: U.S. EPA 40 CFR 262. Hazardous
Waste Number(s): D001. U043. Waste characterization and compliance with applicable laws and
regulations are the responsibility of the waste generator.
RCRA - Commercial grade Vinyl Chloride, if discarded or spilled, would be a listed hazardous
waste under 40 CFR 261.33, specifically U043 - Vinyl Chloride CAS 75-01-4. In addition, Vinyl
Chloride, if discarded or spilled, as well as other wastes generated during use of Vinyl Chloride or
containing Vinyl Chloride may exhibit one or more hazardous waste characteristics under 40 CFR
261.24, including D001 - ignitable and D043 – toxic.
16.RECYCLE STREAM
Hydrochloric acid produced from pyrolysis is recovered from distillation column to oxychlorination
reactor. It helps in complete usage of chlorine input. vinyl chloride monomer yield is improved and
minimising the formation of HCl waste by processing and recycling it. It is also environmentally
friendly to recycle the HCl stream. since HCl has volatile market ,produced HCl is recycled to
increase the vinyl chloride yield and hence this is one of the reason why direct- oxychlorination
method is preferred.
17.COST OF RAW MATERIAL AND PRODUCT
Raw material and Cost($/ton)

product
Ethylene 456
Oxygen 810
Chlorine 175
Vinyl chloride monomer 732.7
Table 25
The average price of VCM in India is expected to increase at a CAGR of 2.2% from $658.0/tonnes
in 2017 to $732.7/tonnes in 2022.
The worldwide market for Oxygen is expected to grow at a CAGR of roughly 3.9% over the next
five years, will reach 48800 million US$ in 2023, from 38800 million US$ in 2017, according to a
new GIR (Global ) study.
Ethylene prices posted US$1,418 per ton in 2014, US$1,098 in 2015, US$1,093 in 2016, US$1,196 in
2017 and US$1,250 last year. In January this year, the price fell below US$1,000 to US$934. After
recovering to US$1,141 in February and US$1,012 in March, it went down to US$996 in April and May,
respectively. On June 7, it marked US$810.
49
MECHANICAL DESIGN
50
18.MECHANICAL DESIGN
18.1. STORAGE VESSEL
Tank dimensions
Diameter (m) 12
Height (m) 8
Density of liquid(kg/m3) 969
Superimposed load(N/m2) 1250
Table 18.1
Material of construction – carbon steel SA516 70
Density(kg/m3) 7850
Permissible stress(N/mm2) 335
Modulus of elasticity(N/mm2) 2*105
Joint efficiency 0.85
Corrosion allowance(mm) 3
Table 18.1.1
18.1.1. SHELL DESIGN
Bottom pressure ,p= ρ * (H-0.3) * 9.807*10-6
= 969* (8-0.3)* 9.807*10-6
=0.0732 N/mm2
Thickness of the shell at the bottom, t=( (p *D)/2*f*J ) + c
=(0.0732*12000/2*335*0.85)+3
=4.542 m
Since the tank diameter is less than 15 m ,the minimum bottom thickness is taken as 5 mm
Assume 8 plates to be used with a gap of 2 mm between the adjacent plates
Total circumference = π*12 - 8*2*10-3
= 37.68 m
Length of each plate = 37.68/8
= 4.7 m
The size of the plate selected from IS 1730 is 4500(l) x 1800(w)
Assume plate thickness to be 4 mm( including corrosion allowance)
Pressure, p = 1*2*335*0.85 / 12000
= 0.0475 N/mm2
51
Height of tank from bottom ,H = (0.0475/ 969*9.807*10-6)+0.3
=5.29 m
Balance height =8-5.29
= 2.71 m is filled with plate of thickness 5mm
Plates of thickness 5 mm should be used at the bottom which would cover the height of
2*1.8= 3.6 m
Assume plate of thickness 3.5mm (including corrosion allowance)
P=0.02375 N/mm2
H=2.8 m
Therefore 1 plate of 4 mm thickness and 1 plate of 3.8 mm thickness should be used.
18.1.2. TANK BOTTOM
The diameter of the bottom tank extends beyond the shell by 50 mm
Diameter of the bottom, Db =12+2*5*10-3+ 2*50*10-3
=12.11 m
Thickness of plate to be used at the bottom
Annular plate = 5 mm
Sketch plate = 6 mm
Minimum width of annular plate=50+300+5+50
=405 mm
Circumference of the bottom = π* Db
=38.045 m
18.1.3. SELF SUPPORTING CONICAL ROOF
Assume thickness of a plate for a roof plates to be 4 mm
Weight per unit area = 7850*4*10-3
= 31.4 kg/m2
Force acting due to load =31.4*9.807
= 307.94 N/m2
Total load= superimposed load +load due to weight
= 1250+307.94
=1557.94 N/m2
52
p =1557.94*10-6 N/mm2
sinϴ =(D/t)*√(p/0.204*E)
= (12000/6)*√(1557.94*10-6/0.204*2*105)
= 0.3908
tanϴ =0.425
slope is greater than permissible stress
assume thickness to be 10 mm
tanϴ =0.497 (greater than permissible stress)
assume thickness to be 20 mm
tanϴ =0.62
the slope is not within the acceptable limit
recommended to use self-supporting roof
therefore column supported roof of thickness 4 mm is used.
18.1.4. NOZZLE
Nozzle diameter at head = 200 mm
Nozzle diameter at shell = 300 mm
nozzle (in the head)
t = p D / (2fJ – p) = (0.44*200)/(2*137*0.85)-0.44) = 0.37 mm

n i
for sake of rigidity, nozzle thickness is taken as 4 mm which is standard size.
Maximum nozzle distance = 2*d = 2*200 = 400 mm

Maximum vertical distance for compensation provided outside vessel = 2.5* t = 2.5*4=10 mm
h
Area for compensation required A = d t = 200*4= 800 mm

n h
2
Area available for compensation is as follows:
 Portion on head having excess thickness

A = d (t – t ’ – c) = 200*(4) = 800 mm
s s s
2
ts - actual thickness of head
t ’- theoretical thickness of head

s
 Portion of nozzle external to vessel

A = 2*2.5* t (t – t ’ – c) = 2*2.5*5(4-0.37) = 93.25 mm
o s s s
2
53
 Portion of nozzle inside the head is zero
Therefore, area available for compensation = 93.25+800=893.25 mm 2
No reinforcement required since A <= A + A s o
Stream in nozzle (in the shell at top)
t = p D / (2fJ – p) = (0.44*300)/(2*137*0.85)-0.44) = 0.567 mm

n i

Maximum vertical distance for compensation provided outside vessel = 2.5* t = 2.5*3.8 h
= 9.5 mm
Area for compensation required A = d t = 300*3.8 = 1140 mm

n h
2
 Portion on shell having excess thickness

A = d (t – t ’ – c) = 300*(3.8) = 1140 mm
s s s
2

A = 2*2.5* t (t – t ’ – c) = 2*2.5*3.8(3-0.567) = 46.227 mm
o s s s
2

Therefore, area available for compensation = 1186.23mm 2
No reinforcement required since A <= A + A s o
Stream out nozzle (in the shell at bottom)

t = p D / (2fJ – p) = (0.44*300)/(2*137*0.85)-0.44) = 0.567 mm
n i
Maximum nozzle distance = 2*d = 2*300 = 600mm

Maximum vertical distance for compensation provided outside vessel = 2.5* t = 2.5*5 h
= 10 mm
Area for compensation required A = d t = 300*5 = 1500mm

n h
2

A = d (t – t ’ – c) = 300*(5-4.52) = 144mm
s s s
2

A = 2*2.5* t (t – t ’ – c) = 2*2.5*5(3-0.567) = 60.825 mm
o s s s
2
54
Therefore, area available for compensation = 204.825mm 2
Extra area to be given as compensation = 1500-205.05 = 1295.2 mm

2
Extra area is provided by attaching a ring

As 2*300= 600 mm, outside diameter is taken as 600 mm
Inside diameter = 300+5*2 = 310 mm
Area of compensation = (500-310)*5= 950 mm 2
18.2. OXYCHLORINATION REACTOR

Type: fixed bed reactor
Rate of the reaction is given by,
-r = k1*k2*p2HCl*pC2H2 / 1+ k1* p2HCl(1+k2* pC2H2 / k3*pO2)
ln k1 = -7.27+19300/R*T
ln k2 = 24.87+21400/R*T
ln k3 = 12.8+6200/R*T
P*V = n*R*T
P = C*R*T
r = k1*k2*C2HCl*(R*T)2*CC2H2*R*T / 1+ k1* C2HCl*(R*T)2*(1+k2* CC2H2 / k3*CO2)
R= 8.2057 m2*atm/mol*K
T=578 K
k1 = 0.04073
k2 = 694*106
k3 = 98.006*103
Ci = molar flow rate/average volumetric flow rate
Volumetric flow rate = mass flow rate/density
Average volumetric flow rate=∑(mole fraction*volumetric flow rate)
Components Flow rate(kg/hr) Density(kg/m3) Mole fractions
Ethylene 9.48 1.18 0.2396

Oxygen 5.4096 1.429 0.1367
HCl 24.68 1.639 0.6237
Table 18.2
55
Average volumetric flow rate = 11.83 m3/hr
CHCl =0.0571kmol/ m3
CC2H2 =0.0286 kmol/ m3
CO2 =0.0143 kmol/ m3
On substituting all the values,
-r = 6.646*10-3
Weight of the catalyst,
W/FAo =0∫Xa(dxa/-r)
FAo =0.3381 kmol/hr
Conversion, xa=0.95
W/FAo =0∫0.95(dxa/-r)
W= FAo*0.95/ -r
= 48.33 kg
Volume of bed,
The catalyst bed used is copper(II) chloride
Bulk density of the catalyst bed = 3390 kg/m3
Volume of catalyst ,Vcat = 48.33/3390
= 0.0148 m3
Bed porosity = 0.35
Hence , volume of bed, Vbed = Vcat/(1-ξ)
= 0.022 m3
Volume of reactor = Vbed + Vfeed
= 0.022 + 11.83
= 11.852 m3/hr
Residence time = 0.05 hr
Volume of reactor = 11.852*0.05
=0.5926 m3
0.5926= height of reactor(H) * π * D2 /4
= H*0.785*(H/3)2
Height of reactor = 1.89 m
56
Reactor pressure = 58 psi
= 4*105 N/m2
Diameter = 0.63 m
Material – stainless steel( shell and nozzle)
Allowable stress at 305oC = 137*106 N/m2
Design pressure = 1.1*operating pressure
= 4.4*105 N/m2
p = 0.44 N/mm2
Shell thickness , t= p*D/(2*f*j) -p
= 4.4*105*0.63/(2*137*106*0.85)-4.4*105
=4 mm
18.2.1 HEAD THICKNESS

Type: flanged and shallow dished head
th = p*Rc*W/2*f*j
Crown radius = 1200 mm
Knuckle radius = 72 mm
W = 0.25*(3+(√Rc/Rl))
W = 0.25*(3+(√1200/72))
= 1.771
th = 4.4*105*1200*1.771/2*137*106*0.85
= 4.041 mm
Thickness is taken as 5 mm
18.2.2.FLANGE THICKNESS
Nominal diameter of flange = 800 mm
Inside diameter of flange = 802 mm
Outside diameter of flange =900 mm
Outside diameter of stainless steel using ring = 835 mm
Bolt circle diameter = 860 mm
Nominal diameter = 16 mm
Gasket factor, m =2
57
Thickness of flange =30 mm
Minimum design seating stress,Ya = 11.2 N/mm2
bo = 0.25*(835-800)
= 8.75 mm
G = 835+800/2
= 817.5 mm
b =2.5*√ bo
=7.4 mm
Wm1 = π*b*G*Ya
= 212856 N
Wm2 = π*2*b*G*m*p + π/4*G2*p
= 265000 N
Wm = 265000 N
tf = G*√(p/k*f)
k = 1/(0.3+(1.5* Wm*hG/H*G))
H = π/4*G2*p
= 230950 N
B = 835+12+2*16
=880 mm
hG = B-G/2
= 31.25 mm
k = 2.73
tf = 817.5*√(0.44/2.73*137)
= 28 mm
This matches with that of 30mm given in the data.
18.2.3.NOZZLE
Nozzle diameter at head = 200 mm
Nozzle diameter at shell = 300 mm
nozzle (in the head)
t = p D / (2fJ – p) = (0.44*200)/(2*137*0.85)-0.44) = 0.37mm

n i
58
for sake of rigidity, nozzle thickness is taken as 4mm which is standard size.

Maximum vertical distance for compensation provided outside vessel = 2.5* t = 2.5*5= h
12.5 mm
Area for compensation required A = d t = 200*5= 1000mm n h

2
 Portion on head having excess thickness

A = d (t – t ’ – c) = 200*(0.959) = 191.8 mm
s s s
2
ts - actual thickness of head
t ’- theoretical thickness of head

s

A = 2*2.5* t (t – t ’ – c) = 2*2.5*5(4-0.37) = 93.25 mm
o s s s
2

Therefore, area available for compensation = 93.25+191.8=285.05mm 2
Extra area to be given as compensation = 1000-285.05 = 714.95 mm 2

Stream in nozzle (in the shell)
t = p D / (2fJ – p) = (0.44*300)/(2*137*0.85)-0.44) = 0.567 mm

n i
Maximum nozzle distance = 2*d = 2*300 = 600mm

Maximum vertical distance for compensation provided outside vessel = 2.5* t = 2.5*4 h
= 10 mm
Area for compensation required A = d t = 300*4 = 1200mm n h

2

A = d (t – t ’ – c) = 300*(4-1.49) =753 mm
s s s
2

A = 2*2.5* t (t – t ’ – c) = 2*2.5*1.49(3-0.567) = 18.12 mm
o s s s
2
59


Therefore, area available for compensation = 753+18.12= mm 2
Extra area to be given as compensation =1200-771.125 = 428.75 mm 2

As 2*300= 600mm, outside diameter is taken as 600 mm
Area of compensation = (600-306)*3 = 882 mm 2
Stream out nozzle (in the shell)

As diameter of this nozzle is same as the previous nozzle, the same calculations are applicable.
18.3.HEAT EXCHANGER
Material Of Construction :
1. Shell side :
Shell and Head : carbon steel (IS-2062)
Flanges : Carbon steel IS 2002 grade I
Gasket : flat-metal jacketed asbestos filled
Nozzle : carbon steel (IS-2062)
2. Tube side :
Tube: stainless steel (SS 304)
Flanges: stainless steel (SS 304)
Gasket: Steel jacketed asbestos
Nozzle: carbon steel (IS-2062)
18.3.1.SHELL AND HEAD DESIGN
DATA
PARAMETER VALUE UNIT
Operating pressure 0.103 N/mm 2
Design pressure 0.113 N/mm 2
MOC density 7850 Kg/m 3
MOC permissible 95 N/mm 2
stress
Joint efficiency 0.85 -
No of pass 2 -
Total no of tubes 24 -
Proportionality factor 0.85 -
Pitch of tube (square) 19.05 mm
60
Table 18.3.1
 Shell diameter
D = √ (4*A/π)
i
A= n S / ß =2*24*19.05 / 0.7 =17419.3 mm

T
2 2 2
D = √ (4* 17419.3/3.14) = 178.05 mm

i
Shell inside diameter is taken as 150 mm

 Shell thickness
t = p D / (2fJ – p)
s i
p-Design Pressure
f-Permissible stress
J-Joint efficiency
t = ( 0.113*150)/((2*.85*95)-0.113) = 0.126 mm
s
considering rigidity of vessel thickness of vessel is taken as 5 mm with corrosion allowance
 Head design
Tori spherical dished head is used .
R = 0.06*Rc
1
Rc = shell inner diameter = 150 mm

R1 = 0.06* 150 = 9 mm
W= 0.25*(3+(R /R ) = 0.25*(3+(150/9) ) = 1.771
c 1
0.5 0.5
t = p R w / 2 f j = ( 0.113*150*1.77/2*95*0.85) = 0.1858 mm
h c
2
For safety head thickness is taken as 5 mm

No corrosion allowance is allotted
 Baffle design
Baffle cut = 25%

Baffle length = 0.75*150 = 112.5 mm
Baffles used are transverse type
Spacing = 150/5 =30 mm
 Tie rod design

Number of tie rods = 6
Diameter of the tie rod = 10 mm
61
18.3.2.FLANGE DESIGN (FEMALE)
DATA
Shell inside diameter 150 mm
Shell outside diameter 160 mm
Gasket inside diameter 168 mm
Gasket outside diameter 222 mm
Gasket factor 3.75 -
Seating stress of gasket 53.4 N/mm 2
Permissible stress of flange 95 N/mm 2
Table 18.3.2
N = (222-168)/2 = 54 mm
G = (222+168)/2 = 195 mm
b = N/2 = 27
o
b=2.5*√ b = 12.99 mm
o
W = π b G Y = 3.14*12.99*195*53.4 = 424731.7 N
m1 a
W = π 2b G m p + (π/4) G p
m2
2
= 3.14*2*12.99*195*3.75*0.113 + (3.14/4) 195 0.113 = 44751.48 N 2
W ≥ W
m1 m2
No of bolts = G(in cm)/2.54 = 195/2.54 = 7.67

Bolts are always in multiple of 4, so no of bolts is taken as 8
Area of bolts = W /f = 424731.7/95 = 4470.86 mm
m
2
Are per bolt = 4470.86/8 = 558.9 mm 2
Bolt diameter = √(4A/n π) = √ (4*558.9/3.14) = 26.68 mm

B = G + N + 2*bolt diameter = 195+12+2*26.68 = 275.4 mm
Pitch of bolts = 4*26.68 = 106.72 mm
Outside diameter of flange = B+2*bolt diameter = 275.4+2*26.68= 343.8 mm
H = (π/4) G p = (3.14/4) 195 0.113 = 1074.21 N
2 2
h = B-G / 2 = 275.4-195/2 = 40.18

g
k = 1/ ( 0.3 + ( 1.5 W h / H*G)

m g
= 1/ ( 0.3 + ( 1.5*424731.7* 40.18 / 195*1074.2) = 0.008

Thickness of flange = t = G √ p/k*f = 195* √ (0.113/0.008*95) = 74.4 mm
f
62
18.3.3.NOZZLE DESIGN
DATA
Steam in nozzle inside diameter 30 mm
Steam out nozzle inside diameter 30 mm
Vent nozzle inside diameter 20 mm

Permissible stress 95 N/mm 2
Table 18.3.3
Steam in nozzle (in the shell)
t = p D / (2fJ – p) = (0.113*30)/(2*95*0.85)-0.113) = 0.042 mm

n i

Maximum vertical distance for compensation provided outside vessel = 2.5* t = 2.5*5 =
h
12.50 mm
Area for compensation required A = d t = 30*5 = 150 mm

n h
2

A = d (t – t ’ – c) = 30*(5-0.126) = 146.22 mm
s s s
2

A = 2*2.5* t (t – t ’ – c) = 2*2.5*5(4-0.042) = 98.95 mm
o s s s
2

A ≤ A + A
s o
150 ≤ 146.22 + 98.95

is no excess area of reinforcement is required.
Steam out nozzle (in the shell)
As the steam out nozzle has the same nozzle diameter as the steam in nozzle, the previous
calculations and results are applicable here.
Vent nozzle (in the shell)
t = p D / (2fJ – p) = (0.113*20)/(2*95*0.85)-0.113) = 0.013 mm

n i
63
Maximum nozzle distance = 2*20 = 2*20 = 60 mm

Maximum vertical distance for compensation provided outside vessel = 2.5* 5 = 12.5 mm

n h
2

A = d (t – t ’ – c) = 20*(5-0.126) = 97.48 mm
s s s
2

A = 2*2.5* t (t – t ’ – c) = 2*2.5*5(3-0.013) = 74.675 mm
o s s s
2

A ≤ A + A
s o
100 ≤ 97.48 + 74.675

There is no excess area of reinforcement is required.
18.3.4.TUBE SIDE DESIGN
DATA

Operating pressure 0.101325 N/mm 2
MOC density 7850 Kg/m3
MOC permissible 100.6 N/mm 2
stress
No of pass 2 -
Total no of tubes 24 -
Table 18.3.4
Tube thickness
t = p D / (2fJ – p)
s i
t = ( 0.11*12.7)/((2*.85*100.6)-0.11) = 0.008 mm

s
Tube thickness of 3 mm is acceptable

Tube sheet thickness
t = F*G √ (.25*p)/f
= 1.25*170*√ (.25*0.11/100.6) = 3.513 mm
Channel and channel cover

64
Channel Thickness = G √ (K*p)/f
K= 0.3 ( for ring gasket)
t = 170√ (0.3*0.11)/100.6 = 3.0789 mm
18.3.5.FLANGE DESIGN
DATA
Shell inside diameter 150 mm
Shell outside diameter 160 mm
Gasket inside diameter 160 mm
Gasket outside diameter 180 mm
Gasket factor 5.5 -
Seating stress of gasket 126.6 N/mm 2
Permissible stress of flange 100.6 N/mm 2
Table 18.3.5
N = (180-160)/2 = 10 mm
G = (180+160)/2 = 170 mm
b = N/2 = 5
o
b= b , b= 5 mm
o
W = π b G Y = 3.14*5*170*126.6 = 337895.4 N
m1 a
W = π 2b G m p + (π/4) G p
m2
2
= 3.14*2*5*170*0.11 + (3.14/4) *170 *0.11 = 4024.24 N

2
W ≥ W
m1 m2
No of bolts = G(in cm)/2.54 = 170/2.54 = 6

Bolts are always in multiple of 4, so no of bolts is taken as 8
Area of bolts = W /f = 337895.4/100.6 = 3358.8 mm
m
2
Are per bolt = 3358.8/8 = 419.58 mm 2
Bolt diameter = √(4A/n π) = √ (4*419.58/3.14) = 23.12 mm

B = G + N + 2*bolt diameter = 170+5+2*23.12 = 226.25 mm
Pitch of bolts = 4*23.12 = 92.48 mm
Outside diameter of flange = B+2*bolt diameter = 226.25+2*23.12= 272.49 mm
H = (π/4) G p = (3.14/4) *170 *0.11 = 794.75 N
2 2
h = B-G / 2 = 226.25-170/2 = 28.15

g
k = 1/ ( 0.3 + ( 1.5 W h / H*G)

m g
= 1/ ( 0.3 + ( 1.5*337895.4 * 28.15 / 170*794.75) = 0.009
65
Thickness of flange = t = G √ p/k*f = 515* √ (0.11/0.009*100.6) = 57.9mm
f
18.4.DISTILLATION COLUMN:
Diameter = 760 mm
Working pressure = 5 bar = 0.5 N/mm2
Design pressure = 0.55 N/mm2
Temperature = 293 K
Material of construction = Carbon steel
Permissible stress = 95 N/mm2
Insulation thickness = 120 mm
Density of Insulation = 80 kg/m3
Corrosion allowance = 3 mm
Permissible stress for bolt = 140 kg/m3
Density of carbon steel = 7850 kg/m3
Insulation thickness = 100 mm
Density of Insulation = 120 kg/m3
No. of trays = 20
Tray spacing = 300 mm
Weight of head = 2500 kg
Weight of liquid and tray = 80 kg/m2
Weight of attachments = 140 kg/m
Wind pressure = 1300 N/m2
18.4.1.HEAD THICKNESS
ts = PD2 + C
2fJ-P
= 0.55 x 760 + 3
.
2x95x1 – 0.55
ts = 5.2 mm
D0 = Di + 2t
D0 = 770 mm
Head,
Elliptical heads are used
th = PDiV
66
2fJ
V = 2 + K2
6
k = major axis = 2 = 2
minor axis 1
V=1
th = 0.55 x 760 x 1 + C
2 x 95 x 1
= 2.2 + 3
th = 5.2 mm
18.4.2.DESIGN OF GASKET AND BOLTS
Nominal diameter of flange = 800 mm
Inside diameter of flange = 826 mm
Outside diameter of flange = 915 mm
Outside diameter of carbon steel lining ring = 828 mm
Bolt circle diameter = 870 mm
Thickness of flange = 85 mm
No. of bolts = 32
Nominal diameter = 20 mm(M 20)
Gasket factor, m = 3.75
Seating stress, Ya= 53.4 N/mm2
bo = 0.5*((828-800)/2)
= 7 mm
b = 2.5* √bo
= 6.61 mm
The minimum bolt load for atmospheric conditions is
Wm1 = π*b*G*Ya
= 3.14*6.61*814*53.4
= 902645 N
The bolt load for operating conditions,
Wm2 = π*2*b*G*m*p + 3.14/4 * G2*p
= 355950 N
67
The number of bolts = G/2.54
= 32 bolts
Area of bolt = bolt load / permissible stress
= 902645 / 140
= 6447.5 mm2
Area per bolt = 6447.5 / 32
= 201.48 mm2
Let us consider M18 bolt with nominal diameter 18 mm
Ab = o.51* 182.09 = 214.5 mm2, just matching
Consider M20 bolt with nominal diameter of 20 mm
Ab = 0.51* 202.09 * = 267.13 mm2 which is 33% higher area than required bolt area
Hence, 32 bolts with nominal diameter of 20mm are adequate
Total bolt area = 8548.16 mm2
Ab = 2* 3.14* Ya * G * N / f
= 2* 3.14* 53.4 * 814* 20 / 140
= 39016 mm2
The bolt area provided is more than the above value bolt size and no of bolts are thus
adequate
Pitch of bolts = 4*20
= 80 mm
Bolt pitch circle diameter
B = 80* 32/3.14
= 814.87 mm
B = outside diameter of gasket + 2* bolt diameter +b12
= 828 + 2*20+12
= 880 mm
This matches with the bolt circle diameter given in data .
The outside diameter of flange = B+ 2* bolt diameter
= 870+ 2*20
= 910 mm
68
18.4.3.FLANGE THICKNESS
tf = G*(√(p/k*f)) + c
k = 1/(0.3+(1.5*Wm*hG)/H*G)
Wm = 902645 N
hG = (880-816)/2
= 33
H = 3.14/4 * G2 * p
= 286220 N
G = 814 mm
k = 3.27
tf = 814*√(0.58/3.27*95)
= 37 mm
This matches with the flange thickness of 35mm given in data.
Let H b the height of the tower
Stresses at a distance H from the top
Axial stresses due to pressure
fap = p*D / 4*(ts – c)
= 0.55 *760 / 4*(6.2-3)
= 47.5 N/mm2
18.4.4.STRESSES DUE TO LOAD
 compressive stress due to weight of the shell on height H
fdx= weight of the shell / cross section of shell
= (π/4 * (Do2 – Di2)*H* ρshell) / π/4 * (Do2 – Di2)
= H* ρshell
= 7850 *9.807*10-6*H
= 0.077 * H N/mm2
 compressive stress due to the weight of insulation
fd ins = (π* Dins*tins*H* ρins )/ ( π* Dm*(ts -c))
= 770+ 2*100
= 970 mm
Dm = (760+770)/2
69
= 765 mm
fd ins = 970*100*H*120*10-6*9.807 / 765*2.2
= 0.0678 * H N/mm2
 compressive stress due t liquid tray etc.,.
The weight in terms of height = (H/0.3)* π/4*0.762*80
= 121 *H
fd liq = (121*H) / (π*Dm*(ts – c))

= 0.023*H N/mm2
IV. compressive stress due to attachments
fd = (2500+140*H)*9.807 / π*765*2.2
= 4.637 + 0.26*H N/mm2
The total compressive load is
fdH = 0.077*H + 0.0678*H + 0.023*H + 4.637 +0.26*H
= 4.637 + 0.4278*H N/mm2
V. stress due to wind load
fWH = 1.4*1300*H2 / π *765*2.2
= 0.3442 H2 N/mm2
0.3442*H2 - 4.637 -0.4278*H + 47.5 = 95
0.3442*H2 – 0.4278*H – 52.137 =0
H = 13m
Hence, the height of the tower is 13m.
18.4.5.NOZZLE DESIGN
DATA
Steam in nozzle inside diameter 75 mm
Steam out nozzle inside diameter 75 mm

Permissible stress 100.6 N/mm 2
Table 18.4.5
70
Stream in nozzle (in the shell)
t = p D / (2fJ – p) = (0.44*75)/(2*100.6*0.85)-0.44) = 0.092 mm

n i

Maximum vertical distance for compensation provided outside vessel = 2.5* t = 20mm h

n h
2

A = d (t – t ’ – c) = 75*(8-5.42) = 193.5 mm
s s s
2

A = 2*2.5* t (t – t ’ – c) = 2*2.5*8(3-0.092) = 116.32 mm
o s s s
2

Therefore, area available for compensation = 309.82 mm 2
Extra area to be given as compensation = 560-309.82 = 250.18 mm 2

Stream out nozzle (in the shell)
As the stream out nozzle has the same nozzle diameter as the stream in nozzle, the previous
calculations and results are applicable here.
19.PUMPS & COMPRESSORS

19.1. PUMPS
A pump is generally used to induce flow or raise the pressure of a liquid. pumps can be classified
into three major groups according to the method they use to move the fluid: direct lift, displacement,
gravity pumps. centrifugal pumps comes under dynamic pumps.
Principle behind the working of centrifugal pump involves imparting energy(mechanical to pressure
energy) to the liquid by means of a centrifugal force developed by the rotation of an impeller that
has several blades or vanes.
71
19.1.1.Pumping terminology
NPSH – Net positive suction head – total head at pump suction branch over and above the vapour
pressure of the liquid being pumped.
NPSHr – NPSH required – is a function of the pump design and is the lowest value of NPSH at
which the pump can be guaranteed to operate without significant cavitation. There is no absolute
criterion for determining what this minimum allowable NPSH should be, but pump manufacturers
normally select an arbitrary drop in total dynamic head (differential head) of 3% as the normal value
for determining NPSHr.
NPSHa — NPSH available – is a function of the system in which the pump operates and is equal to
the absolute pressure head on the liquid surface plus the static liquid level above the pump
centreline (negative for a suction lift) minus the absolute liquid vapour pressure head at pumping
temperature minus the suction friction head losses.
Cavitation – Process in which small bubbles are formed and implode violently; occurs when
NPSHa < NPSHr.
Head – A measure of pressure, expressed in metres for centrifugal pumps. Indicates the height of a
column of water being moved by the pump (without friction losses).
Prime – Charge of liquid required to begin pumping action when liquid source is lower than pump.
Held in pump by a foot valve on the intake line or by a valve or chamber within the pump.
Self/Dry Priming – Pumps that draw liquid up from below pump inlet (suction lift), as opposed to
pumps requiring flooded suction.
Static Discharge Head – Maximum vertical distance (in metres) from pump to point of discharge
with no flow.
Strainer – A device installed in the inlet of a pump to prevent foreign particles from damaging the
internal parts.
Sump – A well or pit in which liquids collect below floor level; sometimes refers to an oil or water
reservoir.
Viscosity – The “thickness” of a liquid or its ability to flow. Most liquids decrease in viscosity and
flow more easily as they get warmer.
Pump Installation Information
Static Head – The hydraulic pressure at a point in a fluid when the liquid is at rest.
Friction Head – The loss in pressure or energy due to frictional losses in flow.
Discharge Head – The outlet pressure of a pump in operation.
Total Head – The total pressure difference between the inlet and outlet of a pump in operation.
72
Suction Head – The inlet pressure of a pump when above atmospheric pressure.
Suction Lift – The inlet pressure of a pump when below atmospheric pressure.
19.1.2.Calculation of NPSHa of EDC pumping pump
NPSHa = ha + hst – hf - hvp
Where
ha -surface pressure head
hst -static head
hf -head losses in the pump suction piping
hvp – vapour pressure of the liquid being pumped
head = pressure (psi) *2.31 / specific gravity
Pressure in closed vessel(DC reactor) = 15 psia

Head =15*2.31/ 1.253 = 27.65ft
Atmospheric pressure at installation =14.696
head at atmospheric pressure = 14.696 * 2.31/ 1.253 =27.1 ft
ha = 27.1+27.65 = 54.75ft
Vapour pressure = 7.714 psia
hvp = 7.714*2.31/1.253 = 14.4 ft
Specific gravity = 1.253
Static head (hst) is taken as 5 ft from sea level
Volumetric flow rate =10 m3 / hr
Pipe length=100 ft
Pipe diameter = 100 mm
From friction chart ,
Using the above data ,friction head loss (hf)is found to be 0.37 ft
NPSHa = ha + hst – hf - hvp
= 54.75 + 5 – 0.37 – 14.4
NPSHa = 44 ft
73
19.1.3.Common problems in centrifugal pumps
Cavitation is a serious operational‐type problem that arises from the low pressure in the pump
suction side.
Erosion caused by the presence of solid particles in the pumped fluid is one of the major sources of
surface damage to the impeller and casing materials. In pumping systems, the term “surge” refers to
pressure variation resulting from sudden (or fast) changes in fluid velocity. The rotating stall
phenomenon is very common in centrifugal and axial‐flow compressors and may also occur in
pumps when the flow rate is much lower than the normal capacity.
Pump vibration is one of the serious problems that can result in complete failure of one or more of
the pump components. The severity of mechanical vibrations can be determined by making standard
vibration measurements.
19.2.COMPRESSORS
A compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume.
19.2.1.Types
Fig 19.2.1
74
19.2.2.Terminology
Pressure - The existing gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure measured from absolute zero.
Aftercooler - Device that dissipates heat caused by compression after compression is complete.
This allows for effective removal of moisture from the compressed air or gas.
Air Receiver - Tank into which compressed air is delivered and stored. Proper tank size depends on
mode of operation. Tank should be sized as recommended by manufacturer. Consult your local
Gardner-Denver distributor for assistance.
Atmospheric Pressure - Pressure at a specific altitude. At sea level, atmospheric pressure is 14.7
PSI.
Brake Horsepower - The total power input required to compress and deliver a given quantity of air,
including losses due to slip and friction as well as mechanical losses.
Compression - The reduction of a specified volume within a specified cylinder, resulting in an

increase in pressure.
Compression Efficiency - Ratio of the theoretical to the actual work required to compress air.
Takes into account slip leakage and frictional losses.
Compression Ratio - The ratio of the Absolute Discharge Pressure to the Absolute Inlet Pressure.
Compressor - A machine designed for compressing air or gas from an initial pressure to a higher
discharge pressure.
Design Pressure - Maximum continuous operating pressure as designed by the manufacturer. Also
referred to as Maximum Working Pressure.
Design Speed - Maximum continuous operating speed Design Speed - Maximum continuous
operating speed of the compressor as designed by the manufacturer.
Discharge Pressure - Total pressure at the discharge flange of the compressor.
Discharge Temperature - The temperature at the discharge flange of the compressor.
Free Air - Air at atmospheric conditions. Be careful with this term because altitude, barometric
pressure and temperature will vary. This term may not mean air at identical conditions.
Inlet Pressure - Total pressure at the inlet flange of the compressor or inlet filter.
Inlet Temperature - Temperature at the inlet flange of the compressor or inlet filter.
Load Factor - The ratio of the average actual compressor output to the maximum rated output of
the compressor for a defined period of time.
Moisture Separator - A device designed to collect and remove moisture from the air during the
cooling process.
75
Speed - Of a compressor is the number of revolutions per minute of the compressor shaft.
Unloaded Horsepower - The power that is consumed to overcome the frictional losses when
operating in an unloaded condition.
Volumetric Efficiency - The ratio of the actual quantity of air delivered to the displacement of the
compressor.
19.2.3.The most common problems can be remedied as follows:
No power — If the compressor lacks electrical power, check the power button and activate the reset
switch if needed. Breakers should also be checked.
Lack of oil — Users sometimes forget to check or change the fluids, and the consequences are often
grievous. If your compressor is failing to work properly, it could simply be from a nearly empty oil
tank.
20.HAZOP ANALYSIS
The purpose of HAZOP studies is to reduce the possibility of work related injuries. Due to the
processing and handling of hazardous materials, the vinyl chloride plant has many inherent dangers.
The first step of the HAZOP study is to subdivide the plant into sections and plan the sequence. The
whole process is divided into small sessions. Each session will have one or two major equipment
such as flask, column, reactor or heat exchanger. The plant will be divided from upstream to
downstream.
Secondly, all the deviations were studied to find out all he causes as well as the consequences.
Knowing the causes and consequences, additional safety equipment might be added to the plant.
All the actions that should be done to improve safety and to guide others in case the
problem happens were also suggested.
Table 20.1. hazop analysis table for equipments
Item Intention Parameter Deviation Cause Consequence Safe guard Action

Reactor Designed Inlet No Leakin Release of toxic Sensor, Check the
for direct Flowrate g or chemicals (ethylene and alarm; conditions of the
chlorinati blockin chlorine) to flow inlet pipes
on g in the environment, the pipes controll immediately. Shut
reaction. inlet might explode at the er down the system
pipes blocking point. after 15 min if
there's no flow.
More Increas Increase pressure; Flow Adjust flow
e in mixer does not function controlle control. In case
flowrat properly; might lead to r allows failure of the
e of the explosion; release of the valve, shut down
streams toxic chemicals to maximu the system.
environment m
capacity
of 95%,
pressure
76
control
Less Blocki Release of toxic Alarm at 50% of
Alarm,
ng or chemicals (ethylene and flow normal flow;
controller
leaking chlorine) to Flow controller
in the environment, the pipes shut down the
pipes might explode at the system if the flow
blocking point. goes to 15%
Reverse Block No achievement of
Alarm, Immediately shut
ing in products, pushing the flow down the system.
controller
outlet feedback, possible Check the pipes
strea release chemicals to and equipment.
m, environment.
failur
e in
contr
ols
Item Intenti Parame Deviatio Cause Consequen Safe guard Acti

on ter n ce on
Reactor Pressure Higher Increase in Explosion; Pressure Adjust the
inlet Release of and level controller; check
flowrate; chemicals control. the conditions of
decrease in to the system.
outlet environme
flowrate nt.
(outlet
blocking)
Higher Too much Products' Temperatu Temperature
Tempera heat composition re controller. Might
ture
transferred changes. controller; consider
into the Possible Alarm composition
reactor; explosion. when controller. Check
bad Destroy the temperatur the system and
insulated reactor. e goes equipments. Shut
walls; not Possible over down if can not
enough leaking of 200oC. find the reason
cooling chemicals to and temperature
water environment is unstable.
Lower Heat is not Changing Compositi Adjust the
provided in on controller, add
for the compositio controller; heat to the
reactor n of the Alarm reactor. Shut
products. when down if
temperatur temperature
e goes keeps
under decreasing.
70oC
Caustic Remove Pressure Higher High inlet Failed Alarm, Don't run at high
77
Scrubber aqueous flowrate. function. Flow inlet flowrate.
waste, Blocking Don’t have controller, Check the
includin of outlet expected Pressure equipment
g water streams. results. Controller periodically.
and HCl Possible Shut down the
leaking and system when
explosion. pressure goes too
high.
Flow More High inlet Failed Alarm Don't run at high
flowrate. function. , Flow inlet flowrate.
Blocking Don’t have contro Check the
of outlet expected ller. equipment
streams. results. periodically.
Possible Shut down the
leaking and system when
explosion. pressure goes too
high.
No Blocking or Release of Alarm Checking the
Leaking; chemicals to when equipment
Running out surrounding. there's an periodically.
of feed. Pressure increase of Check back the
build up at toxic feed. Shut down
blocking chemicals after 30 minute
region in vented of no flow.
gas or
waste
liquid.
Alarm
when
there's no
flow.
Reverse Blocking No Alarm, flow Immediately shut
controller
in outlet achieveme down the system.
stream, nt of Check the pipes
failure in products, and equipment .
controls pushing
the feed
back,
possible
release
chemicals
to
environme
nt.
Item Intentio Parame Deviatio Cause Consequen Safe guard Acti

n ter n ce on
Reactor Designed Inlet No Leaking or Release of Sensor, Check the
for Flowrat blocking in toxic alarm; flow conditions of the
78
oxychlorina e the inlet chemicals controller inlet pipes
tion pipes (HCl, EDC, immediately.
reaction etc.) to Shut down the
environment system after 15
, the pipes min if there's no
might flow.
explode at
the blocking
point.
More Increase in Increase Flow Adjust flow
flowrate of pressure; controller control. In case
the streams mixer allows the failure of the
malfunction maximum valve, shut
properly; capacity of down the
might lead 95%, system.
to pressure
explosion; control
release of
toxic
chemicals to
environment
Less Blocking Release of Alarm, flow Alarm at 50% of
controller
or leaking toxic normal flow;
in the pipes chemicals Flow controller
(ethylene shut down the
and system if the
chlorine) to flow goes to 15%
environment
, the pipes
might
explode at
the blocking
point.
Reverse Blocking No Alarm, flow Immediately shut
controller
in outlet achieveme down the system.
stream, nt of Check the pipes
failure in products, and equipments.
controls pushing
the feed
back,
possible
release
chemicals
to environ-
ment
Pressure Higher Increase in Explosion; Pressure Adjust the
inlet Release of and level controller; check
flowrate; chemicals control. the conditions of
decrease in to the system.
79
outlet environme
flowrate nt.
(outlet
blocking)
Temperat Higher Too much Products' Temperature Temperature
ure
heat composition sensor; controller. Might
transferred changes. Alarm when consider
into the Possible temperature composition
reactor; explosion. goes over controller. Check
bad Destroy the 200oF. the system and
insulated reactor. equipments. Shut
walls Possible down if can not
leaking of find the reason
chemicals to and temperature
environment is unstable.
Lower Heat is not Changing Compositi Adjust the
provided in on controller, add
for the compositi controller; heat to the
reactor on of the Alarm reactor. Shut
products. when down if
temperatur temperature
e goes keeps
under decreasing.
70oC
Item Intention Paramet Deviatio Cause Consequenc Safe guard Action

er n e
Heat Tempera
Exchang ture Higher Decrease Too much Sensor, Check the
Exch e heat in cooling heat is temperat temperature
anger between water added to ure and periodically,
hot flowrate, the streams, flow increase
streams Increase cannot get control. cooling water
and cold in CW's desired flowrate if
streams. temperatu temperature necessary
re . Might
lead to
burning.
Lower Too much Might Sensor, Decrease
cooling freeze temperat flowrate of
water. some of ure and cooling
low flow water.
boiling control. Check
point functions of
chemicals; the
therefore equipments.
block the
pipes,
cause
leaking
80
and
breaking.
Item Intention Paramet Deviation Cause Consequence Safe guard Action

er
Colu Separate Flow Overfilled Outlet Column Flow Lower select
mn EDC stream malfunction. controller switch. Shut
from does not Leaking: , alarm down if the
byproduct drain, EDC and when outlet stream
s. too toxic output does not drain.
much organic flow rate Check pipe
liquid compounds. goes conditions for
coming Harmful to under blocking
back to people. 70% set
column, point
Reflux Decreased Changing Cannot get Flow Check with the
Ratio controller
in outlet expected controller to see
condition separation. if there's
s. Failure anything wrong.
of valve
system.
Vapor More More heat Foaming Composit Balance the
Flow
added to Entrainment ion and heat duty of
reboiler. Weeping/Du flow condenser and
mping; controller reboiler.
Flooding. .
Reduce
efficiency.
Reboiler Tempera Too high Too Build up Temperatur Reduce heat to
ture
much pressure e design level.
input inside the controller. Shut down if
energy reboiler. the reboiler is
Might lead not working
to explosion. properly. Might
Release of use dual-
chemical to reboiler option
environment. to keep the
system
working.
Compre Compres Pressure Higher Flowra Can lead to Pressure Decrease the
ssor
s the te is explosion. control inlet flowrate. In
liquid increas Release of on the case
and ed, chemicals to column, malfunctioning
vapor temper environment flow of the
stream ature . control equipment, shut
increas down the
ed. system.
Compre Tempera Higher Energy Pressure Temperat Keep the
ssor ture
input build up, ure temperature of
81
changes, lead to control. the compressor
temperat explosion at proper
ure of and temperature.
feed consequence
increases s.
.
EDC Crack the Tempera Higher Too Cannot get Flow Check the
Crac ture
EDC. much desired controlle flowrate; change
king Yields fuel products; r, alarm set point if
Furn vinyl supplied pressure when necessary, check
ace chloride to the build up, fuel flow pipes/
and HCl furnace, lead to rate is equipment
inlet explosion, 20% function. Shut
flowrate releases of more down if
decrease chemicals. than set temperature is
s point too high.
Lower Not Effect the Flow Check valves,
enough conversion controlle set point, pipes,
heat of product r. alarm increase fuel
provided; when flow or
inlet fuel flow decrease inlet
flowrate rate is flow
is too 20%
high lower
than set
point
Tank Store and Level Overfilled Too much Build up Level Check pipes,
recycle flow in, pressure, controller, valves'
hydrogen blocking lead to alarm conditions.
chloride in outlet explosion, when tank Decrease the
pipe, release is filled up inlet flowrate.
valve toxic to 95%
malfunctio chemical capacity
ning
21.FMEA ANALYSIS
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) is a systematic, proactive method for evaluating a
process to identify where and how it might fail and to assess the relative impact of different failures,
82
in order to identify the parts of the process that are most in need of change. It is a bottom- up
approach.
21.1.HEAT EXCHANGER
FAILURE CAUSES INDICATION FREQUENC EFFECTS ACTION

MODE Y
Tube failure Corrosion Odours at the frequent Causes fire Replacing
from fluids cooling tower of tubes
Relief valve Mechanical Hydrocarbons to rare Serious Periodic
fails failure atmosphere environmental inspection
open ,external hazard
impact
Relief valve Mechanical none uncommon critical Periodic
fails close failure inspection
Drain valve Mechanical Hydrocarbons to rare serious Proper
fails open failure atmosphere maintenance
Drain valve Mechanical none Efficiency Proper
fails closed failure decreases checking
Corrosion Incorrect Odours at the uncommon critical replacement
tube side process cooling tower
composition
Table 21.1.
21.2.REACTOR
FAILURE MODE EFFECTS CAUSES RPN CONTROL

MEASURES
Pump failure Loss of cooling No power supply 120 Redundant power
water supply supply
Valves failure Fugitive Dust, wear of 54 Periodic
emissions seat seals maintenance
Pipeline rupture fire Overpressure 40 Detectors
monitoring
Pressure Fugitive vibration 12 Regular
measurement fails emissions inspection
Thermocouple fails explosion Calibration drifts 18 Individual
calibration
required
Table 21.2.
21.3.DISTILLATION COLUMN
83
FAILURE FAILURE FAILURE CONSEQUENCE PROBABILITY ACTION
MODE CAUSE EFFECT VALUE
Pump Malfunction Poor product 1(Good) High Standby
failure quality pump
Tower base Excessive Flooding 5(Satisfied) High Reliable
liquid rising level
monitoring
Pressure Improper Materials 5(Satisfied) High Proper
relief valve design release due maintenance
to leak
Reboilers Increase in Fire 7(Bad) Moderate Periodic
column inspection
pressure,
corrosion
Table 21.3.
21.4.FURNACE
COMPONE FAILU FAILUR FAILURE EXISTING S O D RPN ADDITIO
NTS RE E CAUSE CONTROL NAL
MODE EFFECT CONTRO
L
Blunder Fail to Explosio Corrosion Reliable 9 2 3 54 Periodic
Valves operate n supplier maintenan
ce
Conveyor Friction Fire Improper Belt sway 7 4 1 28 Lubricatio

feeder belt maintenance switch n of
rotating
parts
Cold blast High Rupture Failure of Flow regulator 8 2 2 32 Interlocke
blower pressure of stoves valves d system
flow and
burners
Blast Pipeline CO Over Gas detectors 1 3 2 60 Provide

furnace gas rupture poisoning pressure 0 detectors
injection and with
crack alarming
system
84
Hot blast Stove Fire and Excess Thermocouple 1 4 3 120 Periodic
blower shell explosion heating 0 maintenan
rupture ce and
and monitoring
crack
Tapping Oxygen Fire Ageing and Reliable 9 4 4 144 Periodicall

hose hoses corrosion supplier y replace
cut and the hose
bruises
Gas leaning Filter Improper Heating Monitoring 5 3 3 45 Periodic

bags gas system inspection
cleaning
Table 21.4.
85
22.FAULT TREE ANALYSIS
Fault tree analysis (FTA) is a top-down, deductive failure analysis in which an undesired state of a
system is analysed using Boolean logic to combine a series of lower-level events.
22.1.REACTOR
Fig 22.1.
86
22.2.HEAT EXCHANGER
Fig 22.2.
87
22.3.FURNACE
Fig 22.3.
22.4.DISTILLATION COLUMN
Fig 22.4.
88
Fig 22.4.1.
Fig 22.4.2.
89
Fig 22.4.3.
22.5.PUMPS
90
23.COST ANALYSIS OF VINYL CHLORIDE PLANT
23.1.TOTAL EQUIPMENT COST
Equipment ₹ $
DC vector 3504465 45895.49
Oxy vector 3515634 46041.76
Cooler 1 4796244 62813.00
Scrubber 620000 8119.70
Cooler 2 4796244 62813.00
Wash tower 5887363 77102.61
Furnace 24749815 324130.75
Quench column 6321730 82791.21
Storage tank 6 607425 7955.01
Pump 6 7447275 97531.67
Compressor 3 900000 11786.66
EDC column 19025167 249159.10
HCl column 15468606 202581.35
VC column 17155737 224676.51
Total equipment cost 114795705 1503397.84
Table 23.1.
23.2.TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT
A large sum of money must be supplied to purchase and install the equipment.
Capital investment estimation is necessary to estimate necessary investment
for the vinyl chloride plant. The total capital consists of fixed-capital
investment and working capital.
23.2.1. TOTAL DIRECT PLANT COST

Total equipment cost variables Description Cost (₹)
Equipment Installation 47 % of TEC 53953981.35
Incineration unit 0.06 % of TEC 6887742.3
Instrumentation and control 18 % of TEC 206632226.9
Piping 5 % of TEC 57397851.5
Electrical 11 % of TEC 12627527.55
Building cost 20 % of TEC 25255055
Yard improvement 10 % of TEC 14479570.5
Service facilities 55 % of TEC 63167437.75
Table 23.2.1.
Land requirement = 50 acres
Land cost = 95500 per acre
= ₹4762500
Total direct plant cost(DPC) = ₹256,165,093
91
23.2.2.INDIRECT COST(IC)
Variables Description Cost(₹)
Engineering and Supervision 32 % of TEC 36734625
Construction and Expenses 41 % of TEC 47066239
Contractor’s fee 21 % of TEC 24107098
Contingency 42 % of TEC 48214196
Table 23.2.2.
Total indirect cost = ₹156,122,158
23.3. WORKING CAPITALS(WC)
= 86 % of TEC
= ₹98,724,306
23.4. FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT (FCI)
= DPC + IC
= ₹412287251
Total capital investment(TCI) = DPC + IC + WC
= ₹511011557
23.5.OPERATING LABOUR COST
Employee No. Salary/Year Total(₹)
Plant Chairman 1 12,50,000 12,50,000
Plant Manager 1 9,50,000 9,50,000
Unit Managers 5 8,00,000 40,00,000
Operational Engineers 25 7,50,000 1,87,50,000
Maintenance Engineers 2 3,00,000 6,00,000
Operators 30 5,00,000 1,50,00,000
Supervision 5 5,50,000 27,50,000
Financial Manager 1 8,40,000 8,40,000
Production Manager 1 8,60,000 8,60,000
Sales Manager 1 8,40,000 8,40,000
Budget Analysts 2 7,20,000 14,40,000
Financial Analysts 1 7,60,000 7,60,000
Auditor 2 4,20,000 8,40,000
Total 48,880,000
Table 23.5
Raw material Cost(₹)/kg kg/day Cost(₹)/da
y
Ethylene 60 883.92 53035.2
Oxygen 15 129.6 1944
Chlorine 20 1659.36 33187.2
Total 88166.4
Table 23.5.1
92
No. of working days = 300
Cost/year = ₹26,449,920
23.6.DIRECT PRODUCT COST(DPC)
Raw materials 26449920
Operating labour cost 25 % of raw material cost 48880000
Utilities cost 6612480
Maintenance & Repair 2 % of FCI 8245745
Operating supplies 15 % of Maintenance & repair 1236862
Total 91425007
Table 23.6.
23.7.FIX CHARGES(FC)
Lab charges 15 % of operational cost 7332000
Local Taxes 1 % of FCI 4122872
Insurance 0.8 % of FCI 3298298
Total 14753170
Table 23.7.
23.8.OVERHEAD COST(OC)
=40 % of [Operating labour cost + Maintenance & repair + Operating supplies]
= ₹23345042
23.9.MANUFACTURING COST (MC)
= DPC + FC + OC
= ₹129523299
23.10.GENERAL EXPENSES(GE)
Administration cost 15 % of operation labour cost 7332000
Distribution and selling cost 0.1 % of DPC 91425
Total 7423425
Table 23.10.
23.11.TOTAL PRODUCT COST
= MC + GE
= ₹136,946,644
23.12.NET PROFIT
Selling price of Vinyl Chloride = ₹800
93
Total production = 300,000 kg/year
Total selling price = ₹240,000,000

23.13.GROSS INCOME
= Total S.P – Total product cost
= ₹103,053,356
Tax = 40 % of gross income
= ₹41221342
23.15.NET PROFIT
= Gross Income – Tax
= ₹61832014
23.16.RATE OF RETURN
= Net profit X 100
TCI
= (61832014 x 100) / 511011557

= 12.1 %
23.17.PAYBACK PERIOD
= TCI / Net profit
= 511011557 / 61832014
= 8.26 years
94
Summary of Annual Costs along with the Total Product Cost
Working Capital (₹) 98724306
Fix Capital Investment (₹)
412287251
Total Capital Investment (₹) 51101155
7
Manufacturing Cost description
₹ / yr
Direct Product Cost
1 Raw Materials 26449920
2 Operating Labor 48880000
3 Utilities 25 % of raw material cost
Hot Utility 6612480
Cold Utility
4 Maintenance and Repair 15 % of Maintenance & repair 8245745
5 Operating Supplies 2 % of FCI 1236862
Sub Total 91425007
Fix Charges description
1 Capital Cost or 15 % of operational cost 7332000
Depreciation
2 Local Taxes 1 % of FCI 4122872
3 Insurance 0.8 % of FCI 3298298
Sub Total 14753170
Overhead Costs 40 % of [Operating labour cost + 23345042
Maintenance & repair + Operating supplies]
Manufacturing Cost DPC + FC + OC 129523299
General Expenses description

1 Administration Costs 15 % of operation labour cost 7332000
2 Distribution and Selling 0.1 % of DPC 91425
Costs
Sub Total 7423425
Total Product Cost ( C MC + GE 136946644

)
Gross Income description
1 Selling Price of Vinyl 300,000 kg/year 240000000

Chloride
Gross Income (G) Total S.P – Total product cost 103053356
Net Profit (P) Gross Income – Tax 61832014
Table 23.18.
95
26.REFERENCES
1. Gel’Perin, E.I., Bakshi, Y.M., Avetisov, A.K. and Geil’Bshtein, A.I., 1983 Kinetic Model of the
oxidative chlorination of ethane to vinyl chloride III. Kinetica I Kataliz 24, 633 to 638
2. Wells, G. Margaret, Handbook of Petrochemicals and Processes.
3. Encyclopaedia of Chemical Engineering ,Vol.25.
4. McPherson R.W.,Starks, C.M., and Fryar, G.J.,1979, Vinyl chloride Monomer. Hydrocarbon
Process. 75,75-88, March 1979
5. Wong, E.W., Ambler, C.P., Baker, W.J., Parks, J.C., Producing high purity VCM product,
Hydrocarbon Processing, 129-134, August 1992.
6. Saeki, Y., Emura, T., Technical progresses for PVC production, Prog. Polym. Sci., 2055-2131,
2002.
7. Clegg, I.M., Hardman, R., Vinyl chloride production process, US Pat 5728905, 1998.
8. Benyahia, F. (2005). VCM Process Design. Chemical Engineering Education J,39:62-67.
9. Pro /Ⅱ Casebook, 1992. Vinyl Chloride Monomer plant, Simulation Sciences Inc.
10. “Vinyl Chloride Polymers”, Encyclopaedia of Polymer Science And Engineering, 1989 ed.
11.Bhatt , B L Vora ,S.M., “Stoichiometry”, 4th edition, tata McGraw-Hill(2004)
12. “ VINYL CHLORIDE PRODUCTION”, Capstone design project, spring 2003,chemical
engineering – university of Oklahoma
13. The NIST WebBook
14. “Perrys chemical engineering handbook”
15. V V Mahajani, S S Umarji, “ Joshi’s process equipment design”, 5th edition
16. Wells, G Margaret , “handbook of petrochemicals and process”
17. Clegg I M, hardman R, vinyl chloride production process US patent 5728905,1998
18. Pro/II case book ,1992. “ vinyl chloride monomer plant”,simulation sciences inc.
19. Benyahia .F (2005) “VCM process design”, chemical engineering education J, 39:62-67
20. McPherson R.W.,Starks, C.M., and Fryar, G.J.,1979,Vinyl chloridemonomer.Hydrocarbon
process.75,75-88,March 1979
21. International journal of scientific & engineering research, volume 8, issue 3, march 2017, risk
assessment of blast furnace.
22. Risk analysis of a distillation unit, Taylor J.R.; Hansen, O; April 18,2020.
23. modelling of an industrial plant for vinyl chloride production, GIVANNI ROSSANESE, pg no
51-62
96
97
PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION
DIRECT CHLORINATION REACTOR
F T F
C C C
S50
S38
FT T T F
RC
T C
V-100 T
F
T S7
S11 S5
R-100
11
S51
S2
S45
98
OXY CHLORINATION REACTOR
T F
F
C C
C
S52
F
T S46
T T
C T
S T
T
4 C S10
T S
F V- 6
T 101 RC F 3
T T
T
S
R-200 S6 E10
3 4
S8
S53 S64
S9 S16
S3
7
PC
PC
PT
99
EDC PURIFICATION SECTION
EDC CRACKING SECTION
100
VCM PURIFICATION SECTION
101
Table A1. Stream Definitions for P&ID figures
Stream Description Stream Description
HCl Feed to Oxy
S1 Ethylene S37 Reactor
S2 Chlorine S38 NaCl Solution
S3 Ethylene S39 Purified Water
S4 Oxygen S40 Vapor Waste
S5 DC Reactor Effluent S41 EDC Recycle
S6 Oxy Reactor Effluent S42 Incinerator Flue gas
S7 DC Product S43 Water
S8 Oxy Caustic Wash Effluent S44 CO2 + Cl2 + Nox
S9 Oxy Caustic Wash Effluent S45 Water & HCl
S10 Oxy Product S46 Caustic Solution
S11 Vent S47 Vapor Emissions
S12 Water S48 NaCl Solution
S13 Water Wash Vent S49 Furnace Feed Purge
S14 Water Decant S50 Cooling Water
S15 EDC Purification Feed S51 Cooling Water Return
S16 Light Ends S52 Cooling Water
S17 EDC minus light ends S53 Cooling Water Return
S18 Purified EDC S54 Caustic Solution
S19 Heavy Ends S55 NaCl Solution
S20 Purified EDC (vapor) S56 Caustic Solution
S21 Cracking Furnace Feed S57 NaCl Solution
S22 Furnace Effluent S58 Cooling Water
S23 Furnace Effluent Quech S59 Cooling Water Return
102
S24 Quench Bottoms S60 Steam
S25 Quench Product S61 Condensate
S26 Overhead Quench Product S62 Furnace Fuel
S27 Quench Bottoms S63 Cooling Water
S28 Quench Purge S64 Cooling Water Return
S29 Quench Recycle S65 Cooling Water
S30 VCM Purification Feed S66 Cooling Water Return
VCM Purification Feed
S31 (vapor) S67 Steam
VCM Purification Feed
S32 (liquid) S68 Condensate
S33 HCl Recycle S69 Steam
S34 VCM minus HCl S70 Condensate
S35 VCM Prdouct S71 Incinerator Fuel
S36 EDC Recycle
Table A2. Equipment Definitions for P&ID figures
Tag
Number Equipment
R-100 Direct Chlorination Reactor
R-200 Oxychlorination Reactor

F-100 EDC Cracking Furnace
V-100 DC Caustic Scrubber
V-101 Oxy Caustic Scrubber

V-102 Oxy Flash
V-103 Furnace Feed Flash
V-104 Furnace Quench Flash 1
V-105 Furnace Quench Flash 2
V-106 HCl Column Feed Flash

V-107 Vent Flash
V-108 HCl Absorber
V-109 Caustic Absorber
V-110 HCl Storage Tank
V-111 Carbon Adsorption Column
103
V-112 Water Wash
T-100 Lights Column
T-101 Heavies Column
T-102 HCl Column
T-103 VCM Column

I-100 Waste Incinerator
E-100 Furnace Preheater
E-101 Furnace Effluent Cooler 1
E-102 Furnace Effluent Cooler 2

Oxy Reactor Effluent Cooler
E-104
104

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DESIGN FOR THE PRODUCTION OF VINYL CHLORIDE (1 TON / DAY)

Renu Sabitha N (2016303540)

In partial fulfilment for the award of the degree

ALAGAPPA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI – 600025

3.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 8

3.2 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES 9

3.3 OTHER PROPERTIES 11

5.1 FROM ACETYLENE 12

5.2 FROM ETHYLENE 13

5.3 FROM ETHANE 14

6.1.3 DESCRIPTION OF SELECTED 17

9 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM 21

11 PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION 23

15.1. DISPOSAL CONSIDERATION 51

17 COST OF RAW MATERIALS AND 51

18.1. STORAGE TANK 53

18.2. OXYCHLORINATION REACTOR 58

18.3. HEAT EXCHANGER 62

18.4. DISTILLATION COLUMN 68

19 PUMPS & COMPRESSORS 74

21 FAILURE MODE EVENT ANALYSIS 86

Capacities range from 30,000 – 4,80,000 tonnes per year.

3.1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

IUPAC Name Chloroethene

Vinyl chloride polyvinyl chloride

b) SUBSTITUTION AT THE CARBON- CHLORIDE BOND

Vinyl chloride is generally considered inert to a nucleophilic replacement compared to

CH2 = CHCl + O2 C=O + CO

CH2 = CHCl + O3 C=O + HCOOH

Vinyl chloride ozone Cl formic acid

CH2 = CHCl Cl2 Cl ─ C ─ C─ H

CH2 = CHCl + NH4Cl O2 Cl ─ C─ C ─ H + NH3

Vinyl chloride is not reactive under normal temperatures and pressures.

4.1. From acetylene and hydrogen chloride

4.2. From ethylene chlorination – oxychlorination

4.3. From ethane

5.1. FROM ACETYLENE AND HYDROGEN CHLORIDE

Reaction: C 2 H 2 + HCl→ C H 2=CHCl

5.2. FROM ETHYLENE BY CHLORINATION-OXYCHLORINATION

The development of a commercial oxychlorination process to ethylene dichloride utilizing only

5.3. FROM ETHANE

Direct chlorination CH2=CH2 + Cl2 → ClCH2CH2Cl

EDC pyrolysis 2 ClCH2CH2Cl → 2 CH2=CHCl + 2 HCl

Oxychlorination CH2=CH2 + 2 HCl + 1/2 O2 → ClCH2CH2Cl + H2O

Overall reaction 2 CH2=CH2 + Cl2 + 1/2 O2 → 2 CH2=CHCl + H2O

The process of “Production of vinyl chloride from ethylene chlorination- oxychlorination” is

Method of Selectivity of Nature of Commercial Cost of raw Yield

From ethane 95 Non catalytic Least important Less 80

6.1.3 DESCRIPTION OF THE SELECTED PROCESS:

C2H4 + Cl2 → C2H4Cl2 ∆H0298 = -218 kJ/mol

C2H4 + 2Cl2 → C2H3Cl3 + HCl

1.Low temperature chlorination (LTC)

2.High temperature chlorination (HTC)

The oxychlorination step is described by the following reaction:

C2H4 + 2HCl + 1/2 O2 → C2H4Cl2 + H2O ∆H0298 = -295 kJ/mol

7 Occidental Chemical Deer park US

8 Dow Chemical Fort Saskatchewan Canada

9 Formosa Plastics Kaohsiung Taiwan

10 ROVIN Botlek Netherlands

1 Reliance Industries Ltd. Dahej, Hazira

2 Finolex Industries Ltd. Ratnagiri

3 Chemplast Sanmar Ltd. Mettur