Nadezhda Konstantinovna Krupskaya

Nadezhda Konstantinovna Krupskaya[1] (Russian: Наде́жда Константи́новна

Кру́пская, IPA: [nɐˈdʲeʐdə kənstɐnˈtʲinəvnə ˈkrupskəjə]; 26 February [O.S. 14
February] 1869 – 27 February 1939)[2] was a Russian Bolshevik and the wife of
Vladimir Lenin.

Krupskaya was born into a noble family that had descended into poverty, and she
developed strong views about improving the lot of the poor. At one Marxist
discussion group, she met Lenin who was soon exiled to Siberia, where she was
allowed to join him, on condition that they married. This could suggest a marriage of
convenience, though they remained loyal. Following the 1917 Revolution, Krupskaya
was at the forefront of the political scene. From 1922–1925, she was aligned with
Stalin, Zinoviev and Kamenev against Trotsky's Left Opposition, though she later fell
out with Stalin. She was deputy education commissar from 1929 to 1939, with strong
influence over the Soviet educational system, including the development of Soviet
librarianship.

Contents
1 Early life
2 Married life
3 Political career
3.1 Views
3.2 Alleged role in the Georgian Affair and tension with Stalin
4 Soviet education and libraries
4.1 Soviet education
Early life
Nadezhda Krupskaya was born to an upper-class but impoverished family. Her father,
Konstantin Ignat'evich Krupski (1838–1883), was a Russian military officer and a
nobleman of the Russian Empire who had been orphaned in 1847 at the age of nine.
He was educated and given a commission as an infantry officer in the Russian Army.
[3] Just before leaving for his assignment in Poland, he married Krupskaya's mother.
After six years of service, Krupski lost favour with his supervisors and was charged
with "un-Russian activities." He may have been suspected of being involved with
revolutionaries. Following this time he worked in factories or wherever he could find
work. Just before his death, he was recommissioned as an officer.[4]

Krupskaya's mother, Elizaveta Vasilyevna Tistrova (1843-1915), was the daughter of

landless Russian nobles. Elizaveta's parents died when she was young and she was
enrolled in the Bestuzhev Courses, the highest formal education available to women
in Russia at the time. After earning her degree, Elizaveta worked as a governess for
noble families until she married Krupski.[5]

Nadezhda Krupskaya in 1876

Having parents who were well educated and of aristocratic descent, combined with
first-hand experience of lower-class working conditions, probably led to the formation
of many of Krupskaya's ideological beliefs. "From her very childhood Krupskaya was
inspired with the spirit of protest against the ugly life around her."[6]
One of Krupskaya's friends from gymnasium, Ariadne Tyrkova, described her as "a
tall, quiet girl, who did not flirt with the boys, moved and thought with deliberation,
and had already formed strong convictions . . . She was one of those who are forever
committed, once they have been possessed by their thoughts and feelings . . ."[7] She
briefly attended two different secondary schools before finding the perfect fit with
Prince A. A. Obolensky's Female Gymnasium, "a distinguished private girls'
secondary school in Petersburg." This education was probably more liberal than most
other gymnasiums since it was noted that some of the staff were former
revolutionaries.[8]

After her father's death, Krupskaya and her mother gave lessons as a source of
income. Krupskaya had expressed an interest in entering the education field from a
young age.[9] She was particularly drawn to Leo Tolstoy's theories on education,
which were fluid instead of structured. They focused on the personal development of
each individual student and centred on the importance of the teacher–student
relationship.[10]

This led Krupskaya to study many of Tolstoy's works, including his theories of
reformation. These were peaceful, law-abiding ideas, which focused on people
abstaining from unneeded luxuries and being self-dependent instead of hiring
someone else to tend their house, etc. Tolstoy made a lasting impression on
Krupskaya; it was said that she had "a special contempt for stylish clothes and
comfort."[11] She was always modest in dress, as were her furnishings in her home
and office.

As a devoted, lifelong student, Krupskaya began to participate in several discussion

circles. These groups were formed to study and discuss particular topics for the
benefit of everyone involved. It was later, in one of these circles, that Krupskaya was
first introduced to the theories of Marx. This piqued her interest as a potential way of
making life better for her people[12] and she began an in-depth study of Marxist
philosophy. This was difficult since books on the subject had been banned by the
Russian government, meaning that revolutionaries collected them and kept them in
underground libraries.

Married life

Nadezhda Krupskaya in the 1890s

Krupskaya first met Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (later known as Vladimir Lenin) in
1894[13] at a similar discussion group. She was impressed by his speeches but not his
personality, at least not at first. It is hard to know very much of the courtship between
Lenin and Krupskaya as neither party spoke often of personal matters.[14]

In October 1896, several months after Lenin was arrested, Krupskaya was also
arrested. After some time, Lenin was sentenced to exile in Siberia. They had very
little communication while in prison but before leaving for Siberia, Lenin wrote a
"secret note" to Krupskaya that was delivered by her mother. It suggested that she
could be permitted to join him in Siberia if she told people she was his fiancée. At that
time, Krupskaya was still awaiting sentencing in Siberia. In 1898,[13] Krupskaya was
permitted to accompany Lenin but only if they were married as soon as she arrived.
[15]

In her memoirs, Krupskaya notes "with him even such a job as translation was a
labour of love".[16] Her relationship with Lenin was more professional than marital,
but she remained loyal, never once considering divorce.[citation needed]

It is believed Krupskaya suffered from Graves' disease,[17] an illness affecting the

thyroid gland in the neck which causes the eyes to bulge and the neck to tighten. It
can also disrupt the menstrual cycle, which may explain why Lenin and Krupskaya
never had children.[3]

Upon his release, Lenin went off to Europe and settled in Munich. Upon her release
Krupskaya joined him (1901). After she had arrived the couple moved to London.

Political career

Nadezhda Krupskaya, Vladimir Lenin, Lenin's cat, and an American journalist in the
Kremlin, 1920
Krupskaya's political life was active: she was anything but a mere functionary of the
Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party from 1903.

Leon Trotsky, who was working closely with Lenin and Krupskaya from 1902–1903,
writes in his autobiography ("My Life", 1930) of the central importance of Krupskaya
in the day-to-day work of the RSDLP[clarification needed] and its newspaper, Iskra.
"The secretary of the editorial board [of Iskra] was [Lenin's] wife [...] She was at the
very center of all the organization work; she received comrades when they arrived,
instructed them when they left, established connections, supplied secret addresses,
wrote letters, and coded and decoded correspondence. In her room there was always a
smell of burned paper from the secret letters she heated over the fire to read..."[18]

Krupskaya became secretary of the Central Committee in 1905; she returned to Russia
the same year, but left again after the failed revolution of 1905 and worked as a
teacher in France for a couple of years.

After the October Revolution in 1917, she was appointed deputy to Anatoliy
Lunacharskiy, the People's Commissar for Education, where she took charge of
Vneshkol'nyi Otdel the Adult Education Division. She became chair of the education
committee in 1920 and was the deputy education commissar (government minister)
from 1929 to 1939.

Krupskaya was instrumental in the foundation of Komsomol and the Pioneer

movement as well as the Soviet educational system itself, including the censorship
within it. She was also fundamental in the development of Soviet librarian-ship.

Krupskaya became a member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of

the Soviet Union in 1924, a member of its control commission in 1927, a member of
the Supreme Soviet in 1931 and an honorary citizen in 1931.

Krupskaya and Lenin, 1922

Views
After the death of Vladimir Lenin in January 1924, Krupskaya grew closer to the
political positions of Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev in the great debates
between the Leon Trotsky led Left Opposition, the Stalin led dominant position in the
Party, and the Nikolai Bukharin led Right Opposition. From 1922–1925, Zinoviev and
Kamenev were in a triumvirate alliance with Stalin's Centre, against Trotsky's Left
Opposition. In 1925, Krupskaya attacked Leon Trotsky in a polemic reply to Trotsky's
tract Lessons of October. In it, she stated that "Marxist analysis was never Comrade
Trotsky's strong point."[19]

In relation to the debate around Socialism in one country versus Permanent

Revolution, she asserted that Trotsky "under-estimates the role played by the
peasantry." Furthermore, she held that Trotsky had misinterpreted the revolutionary
situation in post-World War I Germany. During both the Party Conference and Party
Congress in 1925, she supported Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev against Joseph
Stalin, as the troika of recent years broke up.[19] In 1926, Krupskaya, Zinoviev and
Kamenev went into an alliance with Trotsky's Left Opposition, to form the United
Opposition, against Stalin. Krupskaya was allegedly quoted by Trotsky's son Leon
Sedov in his book The Red Book: On the Moscow Trial as saying "Lenin was only
saved from prison by his death".[20] With state pressure growing to expel the United
Opposition, Krupskaya eventually voted for the expulsion of Trotsky, Zinoviev and
Kamenev from the Communist Party in December 1927, a position demanded by the
Right Opposition and Stalin's Centre.[19]

In 1936, she defended restrictions on abortion passed by the Soviet government in that
year, arguing that they were part of a consistent policy pursued since 1920 to do away
with the reasons to have an abortion.[21]

Krupskaya wrote a memoir of her life with Lenin, translated in 1930 as Memories of
Lenin and in 1970 as Reminiscences of Lenin.[22] The book gives the most detailed
account of Lenin's life before his coming to power and ends in 1919. However, the
text was edited by other hands after Krupskaya finished it and so may not be entirely
reliable.

Alleged role in the Georgian Affair and tension with Stalin

In 1922, a conflict emerged among Bolshevik leadership over the status of Georgia
and under what terms it would form political union with the RSFSR. This conflict
came to be known as the Georgian Affair, and took on a personal as well as a political
dimension among high-ranking members of the Bolshevik party, including Stalin,
Trotsky, and Lenin.

In his 2014 book Stalin: Paradoxes of Power, historian Stephen Kotkin claims that
three letters and one Pravda article supposedly dictated by Lenin, as well as a report
delivered to Lenin relating to the Georgian Affair, were partly or wholly fabricated by
Krupskaya with the aim of weakening Stalin's standing within the Party. Kotkin
claims this may have resulted from a falling-out between Krupskaya and Stalin.[23]

Soviet education and libraries

Before the revolution, Krupskaya worked for five years as an instructor for a factory
owner who offered evening classes for his employees. Legally, reading, writing and
arithmetic were taught. Illegally, classes with a revolutionary influence were taught
for those students who might be ready for them. Krupskaya and other instructors were
relieved of duty when nearly 30,000 factory workers in the area went on strike for
better wages.[24] Even after the revolution her emphasis was on "the problems of
youth organization and education."[25] In order to become educated they needed
better access to books and materials.[26]

Pre-revolutionary Russian libraries had a tendency to exclude particular members.

Some were exclusively for higher classes and some were only for employees of a
particular company's "Trade Unions". In addition they also had narrow, orthodox
literature. It was hard to find any books with new ideas, which is exactly why the
underground libraries began. Another problem was the low level of literacy of the
masses. Vyborg Library, designed by Alvar Aalto was renamed the Nadezhda
Krupskaya Municipal Library after the Soviet annexation of Vyborg.

Soviet education
Further information: Education in the Soviet Union
The revolution did not cause an overnight improvement in the libraries. In fact, for a
while there were even more problems. The Trade Unions still refused to allow general
public use, funds for purchasing books and materials were in short supply and books
that were already a part of the libraries were falling apart. In addition there was a low
interest in the library career field due to low income and the libraries were sorely in
need of re-organization.

Nadezhda Krupskaya in 1931

Krupskaya directed a census of the libraries in order to address these issues.[27] She
encouraged libraries to collaborate and to open their doors to the general public. She
encouraged librarians to use common speech when speaking with patrons. Knowing
the workers needs was encouraged; what kind of books should be stocked, the
subjects readers were interested in, and organizing the material in a fashion to better
serve the readers. Committees were held to improve card catalogs.

Krupskaya stated at a library conference: "We have a laughable number of libraries,

and their book stocks are even more inadequate. Their quality is terrible, the majority
of the population does not know how to use them and does not even know what a
library is."[28]

She also sought better professional schools for librarians. Formal training was scarce
in pre-revolutionary Russia for librarians and it only truly began in the 20th century.
Krupskaya, therefore, advocated the creation of library "seminaries" where practicing
librarians would instruct aspiring librarians in the skills of their profession, similar to
those in the West. The pedagogical characteristics were however those of the Soviet
revolutionary period. Librarians were trained to determine what materials were
suitable to patrons and whether or not they had the ability to appreciate what the
resource had to offer.[29]

Krupskaya also desired that librarians possess greater verbal and writing skills so that
they could more clearly explain why certain reading materials were better than others
to their patrons. She believed that explaining resource choices to patrons was a
courtesy and an opportunity for more education in socialist political values, not
something that was required of the librarian. They were to become facilitators of the
revolution and, later, those who helped preserve the values of the resulting socialist
state.[29]

Krupskaya was a committed Marxist for whom each element of public education was
a step toward improving the life of her people, granting all individuals access to the
tools of education and libraries, needed to forge a more fulfilling life. The fulfillment
was education and the tools were education and library systems.[30]